191ATC302T FUNDAMENTALS OF IC ENGINES

UNIT 1 Construction and operation

 Internal Combustion Engines

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 Nomenclature of an I.C engine

In any engine, during its working, cycle of operation take place again
and again.

In an I.C engine, the cycle consists of four operations. They occur one
after other in the order given below:
• Suction
• Compression
• Ignition and expansion
• Exhaust
In order to perform the four operations, a piston moves within the
cylinder up and down, or to and fro depending on the type of engine.
TDC: Top dead centre  Top most position of the piston in the cylinder of
vertical engines.

BDC: Bottom dead centre  Bottom most position of the piston in the
cylinder of vertical engines.
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IDC: Inner dead centre  Inner most position of the piston in the cylinder
of horizontal engines.
ODC: Outer dead centre  Outer most position of the piston in the
cylinder of horizontal engines.
Stroke: The distance (L) between two dead centres. The piston completes
one stroke in ½ revolution of the crank shaft (180o).
Bore : Diameter of the cylinder (D).
Clearance volume: The space above the piston when the piston is at TDC.
Cylinder volume: The volume above the piston when the piston is at BDC.
Stroke volume: Also called swept volume. The volume displaced by the
piston during a stroke is called swept volume.

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Square engine: D = L
Under square engine: D < L  Low speed engines. Large industrial engines
and tractor engines are under square engines.
Over square engine: D > L  High speed engines. This is the most common
engine design.
Cubic capacity: The cubic capacity of an engine or engine displacement or
engine size is the product of stroke volume in one cylinder and the number
of cylinders in the engine.
Compression ratio: The ratio of cylinder volume to the clearance volume is
called compression ratio.

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 Internal Combustion Engines

Steady Non-steady

Premixed-charge
Gas Turbine
Fuel and air are mixed before/during compression
Uses compressor and turbine,
Usually ignited with spark after compression
not piston-cylinder

Two-stroke
Turboshaft One complete thermodynamic cycle
All shaft work to drive propeller, per revolution of engine
generator, rotor (helicopter)

Four-stroke
Turbofan
One complete thermodynamic cycle
Part shaft, part jet -
per two revolutions of engine
"ducted propeller"

Non-premixed charge
Turbojet
Only air is compressed,
All jet except for work needed to
fuel is injected into cylinder after compression
drive compressor

Two-stroke
Ramjet
One complete thermodynamic cycle
No compressor or turbine
per revolution of engine
Use high Mach no. ram effect for compression

Four-stroke
Rocket
One complete thermodynamic cycle
Carries both fuel and oxidant
per two revolutions of engine
Jet power only, no shaft work

Solid fuel
Fuel and oxidant are premixed
and put inside combustion chamber

Liquid fuel
Fuel and oxidant are initially separated
7 and pumped into combustion chamber
Classification of I.C engines
Based on working cycle
• Two stroke engines
• Four stroke engines
Based on method of ignition
• Compression ignition engines (C.I engines)
• Spark ignition engines (S.I engines)
Based on Fuel used
• Light fuel oil engines (Petrol engines)
• Diesel engines
• Gas engines

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Based on applications
• Stationary engines
• Portable engines
• Automobile engines
• Marine engines
• Aero engines
Based on arrangement of the cylinder
• Horizontal engines
• Vertical engines
• Radial engines
• V-type engines

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Based on speed of the engine
•Slow speed engines
•Medium speed engines
•High speed engines
Based on number of cylinders
•Single cylinder engines
•Multi-cylinder engines
Based on method of cooling
•Water cooled engines
•Air cooled engines

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Components of I.C engines
• Cylinder block
• Cylinder head
• Piston assembly
• Connecting rod
• Crank shaft
• Crank case
• Valves and Valve operating mechanism
• Fuel supply system
• Ignition system
• Lubrication system
• Cooling system
• Inlet and Exhaust system
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• Cylinder : The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the pistons
reciprocate back and forth.
•The cylinder block is the main structure for the various components. The
cylinder head is mounted on the cylinder block. The cylinder head and
cylinder block are provided with water jackets in the case of water cooled
engines or with cooling fins in the case of air cooled engines.
• The cylinder head is held tight to the cylinder block by number of bolts
and studs.
• The bottom portion of the cylinder block is called crank case.
• The piston reciprocates inside the cylinder and the motion of the piston
is transmitted to the crank shaft by connecting rod and crank assembly.
• Piston rings: Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves around the
piston and form a sliding surface against the cylinder walls.
•Inlet
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and exhaust valves are provided for suction of charge and removal
of exhaust gases.
• Fuel is supplied to the engine from the fuel tank for combustion through
fuel filter, fuel pump and fuel injector in case of C.I engines and
carburetor in case of S.I engines.
• Lubricating system supplies lubricating oil to the various parts of the
engine where there is relative motion. This reduces friction between the
parts and thereby increases engine life.
• Cooling system abstracts excess heat from various engine parts which are
heated due to combustion. This prevents the failure of the components due
to overheating and increases the engine life. The coolant may be either
liquid or air.
• Inlet manifold is provided on suction side which allows the charge
entering the cylinder during suction process.
• Exhaust manifold is provided on exhaust side which allows the exhaust
ga1s3es letting to atmosphere during exhaust process.
• Combustion chamber: The end of the cylinder between the head and
the piston face where combustion occurs.
The size of combustion chamber continuously changes from
–
minimum volume when the piston is at TDC to a maximum volume
when the piston at BDC.
• Crankshaft : Rotating shaft through which engine work output is
supplied to external systems.
– The crankshaft is connected to the engine block with the
main bearings.
– It is rotated by the reciprocating pistons through the
connecting rods connected to the crankshaft, offset from
the axis of rotation. This offset is sometimes called crank
throw or crank radius.
• Connecting rod : Rod connecting the piston with the rotating
crankshaft, usually made of steel or alloy forging in most engines but
may be aluminum in some small engines.
• Spark plug : Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI
engine by creating high voltage discharge across an electrode gap.
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 • Camshaft : Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper
time in the engine cycle, either directly or through mechanical or
hydraulic linkage (push rods, rocker arms, tappets).
• Push rods : The mechanical linkage between the camshaft and
valves on overhead valve engines with the camshaft in the
crankcase.
• Carburetor : A device which meters the proper amount of fuel into
the air flow by means of pressure differential.
– For many decades it was the basic fuel metering system on all
automobile (and other) engines.
• Flywheel : Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to
the crank shaft of the engine.
– The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish
large angular momentum that keeps the engine rotating
between power strokes and smooths out engine operation.
• Fuel injector : A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the
incoming air (SI engines )or into the cylinder (CI engines).

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• Fuel pump : Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply fuel
from the fuel tank (reservoir) to the engine.
• Glow plug : Small electrical resistance heater mounted inside the
combustion chamber of many CI engines, used to preheat the
chamber enough so that combustion will occur when first starting a
cold engine.
– The glow plug is turn off after the engine is started.
• Starter : Several methods are used to start IC engines. Most are
started by use of an electric motor (starter) geared to the engine
flywheel. Energy is supplied from an electric battery.
• Governor: When the speed decreases due to increase in load, the
supply valve is opened by the mechanism operated by the governor and
therefore speeds up again to the original speed. If the speed increases due
to a decrease in load the governor mechanism closes the supply valve
sufficiently to slow the engine to its original speed. Thus the function of a
governor is to control the fluctuations of engine sped due to changes of
load.

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 Internal Combustion Engines

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 Internal Combustion Engines – 4 Stroke - Petrol

Advantages:
• dedicated lubrication system makes to
engine more wear resistant
• better efficiency than 2-stroke engine
• no oil in the fuel – less pollution

Drawbacks:
• complicated construction
• should work in horizontal position due to
lubrication

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 Internal Combustion Engines – 4S Diesel

Advantages:
• self ignition (without electrical spark plug)
• better efficiency
• reliability
• higher durability
• supplied with worse fuels

Drawbacks:
• more NOx production
• more expensive production
• more weight
• louder
• lower revolutions
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 Internal Combustion Engines – 2 Stroke - Petrol
Advantages:
• lack of valves, which simplifies construction and
lowers weight
• fire once every revolution, which gives a
significant power boost
• can work in any orientation
• good power to weight ratio

Drawbacks:
• lack of a dedicated lubrication system makes
the engine to wear faster.
• necessity of oil addition into the fuel
• low efficiency
• produce a lot of pollution

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 Comparison of Four stroke and Two stroke engines
Sl.No Aspect Four stroke Two stroke
1 Completion of In four strokes of the piston In two strokes of the piston or in
cycle or in two revolution of the one revolution of the crank
crankshaft. shaft.
2 Flywheel Heavier flywheel is required. Lighter flywheel is needed.
required
3 Power produced One power stroke for two One power stroke in one
revolution. revolution. Double the power as
that developed by four stroke
engine (theoretically).
4 Cooling and Because of one power stroke in Because of one power stroke in
lubrication two revolution, lesser cooling one revolution greater cooling and
requirements and lubrication requirements. lubrication requirements. Great
Lesser rate of wear and tear. rate of wear and tear.
5 Valve mechanism Contains valves and Contains ports. No valves. Less
maintenance required. maintenance problems.
6 Initial cost Because of heavy weight and Because of light weight and
complication of valve simplicity due to absence of
mechanism, initial cost is high. valves, initial cost is less.
7 Volumetric More due to more time of Less due to lesser time of
efficiency induction. induction.
8 Thermal Higher Lower
efficiency
9 Part load Higher Lower
efficiency
10 Applications Used where efficiency is Used where low cost,
important. In cars, buses, compactness and light weight is
trucks, industrial engines, required. In scooters, ships,
power generators, etc. motor cycles, etc.

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 Comparison of S.I and C.I engines

Sl. No Aspect S.I engines C.I engines

1 Fuel used Petrol Diesel
2 Air-Fuel ratio 10 : 1 to 20 : 1 18 : 1 to 100 : 1
3 Compression 7 to 11 12 to 24
ratio
4 Combustion Spark ignition Compression ignition
5 Fuel supply By carburetor – cheap. By injector – expensive.
6 Cycle of Otto cycle Diesel cycle for slow speed
operation engines.
Dual cycle for high speed
engines.
7 Power developed Less More
8 Control of power Quantity governing Quality governing
9 Running cost Higher Lower
10 Applications Used where low cost, Used where efficiency is
compactness and light important. In cars, buses,
weight is required. In trucks, industrial engines, power
scooters, ships, motor generators, etc.
cycles, air crafts, etc.

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Applications of I.C engines
The I.C engines are generally used for
• Road vehicles (Scooter, motor cycle, buses, etc)
• Air craft
• Locomotives
• Civil engineering equipment (bull-dozer, scraper, power
shovels, etc)
• Pumping sets
• Cinemas
• Hospitals
• Several industrial applications

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 Internal Combustion Engines – Multi-cylinder

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 Internal Combustion Engines – Multi-cylinder

Cylinder layouts

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 Internal Combustion Engines – Multi-cylinder

Cylinder layouts inline

flat

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 Internal Combustion Engines – Multi-cylinder

inline flat
„boxer”

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 Internal Combustion Engines – Multi-cylinder
14 cylinder Diesel engine (80 MW)

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 Internal Combustion Engines – Multi-cylinder
Cylinder layouts
radial

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 Internal Combustion Engines

Valve operation

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Theoretical Valve Timing Diagram of Four stroke engine

• The inlet valve opens at TDC and suction takes place from TDC to BDC.
• At BDC the inlet valve closes and the compression takes place from BDC
to TDC.
• At TDC the fuel is fired and the expansion takes place from TDC to BDC.
• At the end of expansion (BDC) the exhaust valve opens and exhaust takes
place from BDC to TDC.
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Valve Timing Diagram of Four stroke petrol engine

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• In actual practice it is difficult to open and close the valve
instantaneously.

• The inlet valve is opened 10o to 30o in advance of the TDC position to
enable the fresh charge to enter the cylinder and to help the burnt gases
at the same time, to escape to the atmosphere.

• The suction of the mixture continues upto 30o to 40o or even 60o after
BDC position.

• The inlet valve closes and the compression of the entrapped mixture
starts.

• The spark plug produces a spark 30o to 40o before the TDC position, thus
fuel gets more time to burn.

• The pressure becomes maximum nearly 10o past the TDC position. The
exhaust valve opens 30o to 60o before BDC position and the exhaust gases
are driven out of the cylinder by piston during its upward movement.

•T
33he exhaust valve closes when piston is nearly 10o past TDC position.
Valve Timing Diagram of Four stroke diesel engine

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• The inlet valve opens 10o to 25o in advance of TDC position and closes 25o
to 50o after the BDC position.

• Exhaust valve opens 30o to 50o in advance of BDC position and closes 10o
to 15o after the TDC position.

• The fuel injection takes place 5o to 10o before TDC position and continues
upto 15o to 25o near TDC position.

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Port Timing Diagram of Two stroke engine

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• The expansion of the charge after ignition starts as the piston moves
from TDC towards BDC.

• First the exhaust port opens before the piston reaches BDC and the
burnt gases start leaving the cylinder.
• After a small fraction of the crank revolution, the transfer port also
opens and the fresh charge enters into the engine cylinder.
• This is done as the fresh incoming charge helps in pushing out the burnt
gases. Now the piston reaches the BDC and then starts moving upwards.
• As the piston moves little beyond BDC, first the transfer port closes
and then exhaust port also closes. This is done to suck fresh charge
through the transfer port and to exhaust the burnt gases through the
exhaust port simultaneously.
• Now the charge is compressed with both the ports closed and then
ignited with the help of spark plug (petrol engine) or injector (diesel
engine) before the end of the compression stroke. This is done as the
charge requires some time to ignite.
• By the time the piston reaches TDC, the burnt gases push the piston
do37wnwards with full force and expansion of the burnt gases takes place.
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