Wear 256 (2004) 415–432

On the tribological behaviour of mechanical seal

face materials in dry line contact
Part I. Mechanical carbon
G.A. Jones∗
Aeronautical and Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Salford, Newton Building, Salford M5 4WT, UK
Received 4 September 2002; received in revised form 2 July 2003; accepted 2 July 2003

Abstract
Mechanical face seal performance is critically dependant on the tribology of the seal face materials. In this research the tribology of the
premier seal face materials under dry running contact has been examined. It is shown that the PV (pressure × velocity) capability, of these
premier face materials, is dependant on the development of a carbon graphite contact film. Experimentation has shown that these contact films
breakdown via a seizure mechanism. The breakdown of the contact film is shown to result in a transition from a very low wear rate regime to a
severe wear rate regime. Analysis of the results and the performance profiles produced has allowed the mechanisms of contact film formation
and the functionality of the film in solid contact to be identified. A contact model is proposed that describes the low friction characteristic
of mechanical carbon by combining the theories of Lancaster and Savage. The model is finally related to the mechanical seal face design.
© 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Tribology; Seals; Carbon; Graphite; Friction; Wear

1. Introduction During the period 1920–1980 a significant amount of

Mechanical carbon refers to a series of complex polycrys-
talline materials. Within this series of materials there are
grades that possess the mechanical properties and tribolog-
ical characteristics that have resulted in their wide use as
face materials in mechanical seals.
The present leading seal face combination is a high duty
mechanical carbon running against a reaction bonded or al-
pha sintered silicon carbide. The mechanical seal designer
when selecting a mechanical carbon grade as a seal face ma-
terial is primarily concerned in obtaining the best friction
and wear behaviour. However, the selection process is very
much an empirical process, depending on the data from seal
tests in the laboratory and information derived from field ap-
plications. It is accepted that under dry running conditions
the tribological performance of the leading seal face mate-
rials is due, predominantly, to the low frictional character
of the mechanical carbon. However, the defining material
characteristics, which determine this friction and wear be-
haviour, is extremely complex and the topic is still the sub-
ject of detailed research.
∗ Current address: Tribo-Tech Consultancy, Gledco Engineered Materi-
als Ltd, Bankfield Terrace, Leeds, LS4 2JR. Tel.: +44-113-2751144;
fax: +44-113-2304724.
E-mail address: gordon@gajones.fsbusiness.co.uk (G.A. Jones).
work was carried out on the friction and wear of carbon
and graphite and a strong body of knowledge was gener-
ated that developed an understanding of specific influential
mechanisms. Subsequent work has built on this knowledge
and understanding, though many aspects still remain imper-
fectly understood. From the available body of work three
main conclusions can be drawn that describes the basic fun-
damentals governing the friction and wear of carbon and
graphite:
1. The friction and wear of carbon and graphite is extremely
sensitive to the environmental conditions within the con-
tact zone.
2. The formation of stable surface films of wear debris, fol-
lowing structural breakdown of the carbon or graphite
surface, significantly influences the friction and wear be-
haviour developed.
3. The wear of carbon and graphite can be by means of
several processes but it is invariably driven and dictated
by (1) and (2) above.
The purpose of this research was to add to the currently
available body of work by: (1) contributing to the develop-
ment of a greater understanding of the tribo-dynamics of the
carbon graphite surface films and film forming process, (2)
developing an integrated theory and model that combines

0043-1648/$ – see front matter © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0043-1648(03)00539-8
416 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432
Nomenclature
a semi-width for a cylinder on a plane
A constant
F total friction force
M molecular weight of the bombarding gas
P gas partial pressure
Q activation energy of evaporation of a vapour
from the surface
R universal gas constant
T absolute gas temperature

T frictional heat generated
Ts surface temperature
W load
Greek symbols
µc friction coefficient of contact film
µt total friction coefficient
µv friction coefficient of vapour monolayer
the three conclusions listed and (3) relating the developed
theory and model to mechanical face seal tribo-performance.
The experimental rationale adopted simulates the tribol-
ogy of the sealing interface without the difficulty of complex
design interactions of a mechanical face seal arrangement.
In actual operation seal faces are not parallel, they deviate
in terms of their macro-geometry in both the radial and tan-
gential directions. The tangential deviation produces a cir-
cumferential waviness contact profile at the sealing interface
and the contact at the peaks of the waves can, to a first ap-
proximation, be likened to a line contact geometry. Accept-
ing this analogy, a pad on cylinder geometry was used. This
presented line contact and permitted the tribo-dynamics of
the contact film and film forming process to be evaluated.
Several commercial mechanical carbons of varying degrees
of graphitic order in contact with alpha sintered and/or reac-
tion bonded silicon carbide were examined. Two experimen-
tal methods were adopted, one examined the PV capabilities
of the mating combinations and the other measured the sta-
bility of performance under constant operating conditions.
2. Experiment
An Amsler friction and wear testing machine in the pad
on cylinder configuration was used, Fig. 1. The pads were
manufactured from alpha sintered silicon carbide and reac-
tion bonded silicon carbide and the rotating cylinders were
manufactured from various commercial grades of mechan-
ical carbon. Table 1 provides some nominal mechanical
and physical property data on the materials used. The me-
chanical carbon grades selected were derived from different
formulations to provided subtle variations in thermal and
elastic properties. Samples of material from batches from
which the subject materials were taken were examined
metallographically to confirm material quality.
In order to get a complete picture of the tribological be-
haviour of these materials under dry running conditions three
experiments were carried out.
2.1. Experiment 1—determination of pressure × velocity
(PV) capability
The PV limit was used in this experiment to evaluate the
tolerance of the various seal face material combinations to
varying degrees of solid contact. A high PV limit demon-
strates an ability to operate under conditions of high applied
loads and surface velocities and, in the case of lubricated
contact, to cope with periods of fluid film starvation. The
surface presentation and the surface texture parameters used
here were selected in order to permit subsequent analysis by
modelling the contact condition to that of a plane on a reg-
ular undulating surface. This contact arrangement was also
selected so that the development and breakdown of the car-
bon graphite contact film could be seen and monitored and
the impact of film dynamics on the PV limit could be eval-
uated. Table 2 details the material combinations examined.
The experimental procedure followed was that the me-
chanical carbon cylinders were rotated at a constant surface
velocity of 0.5 m/s. The load was increased in increments
up to the point of contact instability.
The details of the procedure are that the mating surfaces
of the cylinder and the pad were prepared to give the fol-
lowing surface parameters:
Ra (␮m) Rq (␮m) Sm (␮m)
Cylinder 1.3–1.5 1.7–1.9 54–56
Pad <0.08 0.05–0.1 >500
Prior to the test run the pad and cylinder components
were ultrasonically cleaned in acetone and dried in an oven
at 80 ◦ C. A thin wire thermocouple was bonded to the sta-
tionary pad approximately 0.25 mm from the mating face
using an Araldite adhesive which was left for 24 h to ob-
tain maximum strength. The thermocouple had an accuracy
of ±0.1 ◦ C. The pad and cylinder were carefully located on
the apparatus and the pad was held so that it accurately pre-
sented its contacting surface parallel to the longitudinal axis
of the cylinder. The rotational speed was set at zero and the
machine was switched on. The rotational speed was rapidly
ramped up to the rpm that gave a surface velocity of 0.5 m/s
then the first experimental load was applied. This start up
procedure took on average 15 s. After completing the start
up, the load was increased in increments, decided by the
performance of the combination. At each stage, the friction
and temperature were allowed to stabilise for 30 min and
then a period of stable operation of around 2.4 × 104 cycles
was permitted before an incremental load adjustment was
made. This stepwise increase in load continued until sta-
ble operation could not be sustained. The friction coefficient
 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432 417

Fig. 1. (a) Amsler friction and wear testing machine; (b) test specimen arrangement showing pad and cylinder geometry and the jig for holding the test
pads such that line contact is presented.

was measured continuously through the dynamic frictional
torque generated (error ±0.05 N m). The wear rate was mea-
sured by the decrease in distance, over time, between the
test head of the apparatus and a reference point, using slip
gauges and feeler gauges. The frictional heat generated was
measured through the thermocouple bonded to the sidewall
of the pad. Relative humidity in the laboratory in the vicinity
of the experiment was monitored and this was consistently
around 55% RH.
Two test runs per material combination were carried out.
Each test run provided information on PV performance. Each
material combination provided a PV profile including a PV
418 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432

Table 1
Mechanical and physical property details of the mechanical carbon and the silicon carbide materials, used in this worka
Material grade Material description Mechanical and physical properties

Density Hardness Elastic modulus Specific heat Thermal conductivity

(kg/m3 ) (GPa) (J/kg K) (W/m K)
Mechanical carbon
Grade 001 Carbon + resin impregnation 1850 95 Shore A 22.76 856 10.37
Grade 002 Carbon/graphite + resin impregnation 1850 85 Shore A 22.07 782 13.83
Grade 003 Graphite + resin impregnation 2100 85 Shore A 18.70 703 78.00
Grade 004 Carbon/graphite + resin impregnation 1830 105 Shore A 24.14 820 13.83
Grade 005 Carbon + resin impregnation 1825 85 Shore A 17.50 820 13.00
Grade 006 Carbon/graphite + resin impregnation 1870 95 Shore A 20.69 798 13.14
Grade 007 Carbon/graphite + resin impregnation 1820 100 Shore A 17.24 850 6.60
Silicon carbide
Grade 013 Alpha sintered silicon carbide, >98.5% 3140 3500 Hv 400.00 670 87.00
Grade 014 Reaction bonded silicon carbide 3100 2500 Hv 360.00 696 76.00
a Metallographic analysis: percent resin and percent porosity by volume across the range of mechanical carbon materials was estimated to be between

6 and 10 and <3%, respectively. Mean grain size of the alpha sintered silicon carbide was 7.00 ␮m and the percent porosity by volume was estimated
to be <3%. Mean grain size of the reaction bonded silicon carbide was 9.00 ␮m, the percent free silicon and percent porosity by volume was estimated
to be 10 and <3%, respectively.

limit above which stable conditions could not be sustained. potential for the transition from stable to unstable operating
Also, information was obtained on friction coefficient, wear conditions being cyclic and time dependent.
rate, frictional heat generated and the role of carbon graphite The experiment was prepared and set up as per experi-
contact films on the performance profile generated. ment 1. A constant PV value was set. The surface speed was
maintained at 0.5 m/s and the load was adjusted to give a PV
2.2. Experiment 2—performance under constant value of approximately 50% of the measured PV limit for
conditions the material combination under examination. The duration
of the experiment was timed to give a total sliding distance
In support of the information generated from the PV of 25 km (2 × 105 cycles). Two test runs per material were
testing the stability of performance under constant contact carried out. The experiment provided further information on
conditions was examined. The purpose was to evaluate the friction coefficient, frictional heat generated, wear rate and
contact film dynamics and stability under constant operat-
Table 2 ing conditions. The friction coefficient, frictional heat gen-
Material combinations examined in this work erated and the wear rate were measured in the same way as
Mechanical Silicon carbide counterface described above, with the same degree of accuracy. In ad-
carbon dition the wear rate was further assessed by measuring the
Experiment 1 Grade 001 Grade 013 (polished; Ra = 0.05 ␮m) weight change before and after the test run, to five decimal
Grade 002 places and to an accuracy of ±0.01 mg.
Grade 003
Grade 004
Table 2 details the material combinations examined in this
Grade 005 experiment.
Grade 006
Grade 007 2.3. Experiment 3—the influence of SiC surface texture
Grade 001 Grade 014 (polished; Ra = 0.05 ␮m)
Grade 002 In this experiment the influence of surface texture of the
Grade 003 silicon carbide counterface on the contact film dynamics
Grade 004
and its consequent influence on the tribological perfor-
Experiment 2 Grade 001 Grade 013 (polished; Ra = 0.05 ␮m) mance was evaluated. Experiment 1 was repeated, using
Grade 002
various mechanical carbon alpha sintered silicon carbide
Grade 003
Grade 004 combinations, Table 2. The starting surface texture of the
Grade 005 silicon carbide was produced to a coarser finish. This was
Grade 006 done by increasing the amplitude parameters, Ra and Rq
Grade 007 and reducing the spatial parameter Sm . The mechanical car-
Experiment 3 Grade 001 Grade 013 (coarse; Ra = 0.15 ␮m) bon cylinders were left in the ‘as-machined’ condition. The
Grade 002 surface texture on the alpha sintered silicon carbide pads
Grade 003 were produced by controlled lapping and polishing to give
Grade 004
the following parameters:
 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432 419

examined in the three experiments both bearing surfaces

Ra (␮m) Rq (␮m) Sm (␮m) exhibited evidence of contact film formation.
The pad on cylinder configuration allowed the formation
Cylinder (as turned) ∼1.3–1.5 ∼1.7–1.9 ∼54–56 of a carbon graphite contact film on the mechanical carbon
Pad ∼0.15–0.18 ∼0.2–0.3 ∼50 cylinder itself to be observed during test. From experiment
At least two test runs per material combination were car- 1 the point of contact instability was indicated by the disin-
ried out. Each material combination provided a PV profile tegration of this film. Visual examination and surface rough-
and information on the effect of the starting surface texture ness measurements of the contact surface of the cylinder,
of the alpha sintered silicon carbide on the tribo-dynamics after test, indicated the formation of a very random coarse
of the carbon graphite contact film produced. Also, infor- surface in which relatively large tracts of material had been
mation was obtained on friction coefficient, wear rate, and removed by ploughing, tearing or cutting. The edges of the
frictional heat generated. cylinder, which constituted the edges of the contact area,
also became heavily chipped. Examination of the surface
of the pads also revealed the presence of a contact film,
3. Results which after test was, also, in a fragmented and fractured
condition.
3.1. Bearing surfaces Repeat runs, terminated at the point of contact film failure,
identified blistering of the film as the key failure mechanism.
The surface conditions of the mating materials before and The photomicrographs in Fig. 2 show the surfaces exhibiting
after each test run are described in Table 3. In all the cases blistering of the contact film.

Table 3
Details of the wear surfaces before and after each test run in experiments 1 and 3
Mechanical Ra (␮m)
carbon grade
Rotating mechanical Stationary SiC pad Stationary SiC pad
carbon cylinder (grade 013) (grade 014)
Before After Before After Before After

Experiment 1
Test #1 Grade 001 1.39 1.92 0.06 0.83 – –
Test #2 Repeat 1.35 1.56 0.06 0.46 – –
Test #3 Grade 002 1.28 1.13 0.06 0.57 – –
Test #4 Repeat 1.37 2.02 0.06 0.49 – –
Test #5 Grade 003 1.58 1.78 0.08 0.38 – –
Test #6 Repeat 1.27 1.62 0.07 0.43 – –
Test #7 Grade 004 1.60 1.76 0.06 0.26 – –
Test #8 Repeat 1.29 1.89 0.04 0.46 – –
Test #9 Grade 005 1.32 1.95 0.06 0.32 – –
Test #10 Repeat 1.31 1.89 0.08 0.47 – –
Test #11 Grade 006 1.64 1.66 0.05 0.29 – –
Test #12 Repeat 1.54 1.73 0.06 0.31 – –
Test #13 Grade 007 1.42 1.68 0.05 0.36 – –
Test #14 Repeat 1.49 1.78 0.05 0.12 – –
Test #15 Grade 001 1.45 1.78 – – 0.07 0.47
Test #16 Repeat 1.28 1.68 – – 0.06 0.76
Test #17 Grade 002 1.63 2.78 – – 0.07 0.45
Test #18 Repeat 1.55 2.67 – – 0.06 0.56
Test #19 Grade 003 1.56 1.46 – – 0.06 0.63
Test #20 Repeat 1.37 1.75 – – 0.05 0.74
Test #21 Grade 004 1.47 1.86 – – 0.06 0.29
Test #22 Repeat 1.71 1.56 – – 0.06 0.68
Experiment 3
Test #30 Grade 001 1.36 2.03 0.15 0.57
Test #31 Repeat 1.34 1.96 0.15 0.28
Test #32 Grade 002 1.37 1.65 0.14 0.66
Test #33 Repeat 1.45 1.86 0.15 0.57
Test #34 Grade 003 1.72 1.97 0.14 0.44
Test #35 Repeat 1.39 1.89 0.18 0.50
Test #36 Grade 004 1.71 1.47 0.18 0.36
Test #37 Repeat 1.23 1.99 0.13 0.58
420 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432

Fig. 2. Photomicrographs of carbon graphite contact film failure: (a) and (b) the blistering of the contact film on the mechanical carbon material; (c) and
(d) the blistering of the contact film formed on the silicon carbide counterface.
 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432 421

Fig. 2. (Continued ).

3.2. Experiment 1—determination of the

pressure × velocity (PV) capability Table 4
PV limits for the various material combinations examined in experiments
1 and 3
The PV was calculated by relating the contact area to
Mechanical PV limit of silicon
the normal load supported and the surface velocity of the
carbon cylinder carbide pad (MPa m/s)
mechanical carbon cylinder. The contact area, for a cylinder
Grade 013 Grade 014
on a plane, was calculated from the Hertzian equation for
semi-width, a, such that the contact area = 2al, where l is the Experiment 1
length of the cylinder, and the contact pressure was derived Test #1 Grade 001 62.04 –
Test #2 Repeat 44.39 –
by dividing the normal load by the calculated contact area. Test #3 Grade 002 76.07 –
Any warping of the contact area resulting from tangential Test #4 Repeat 78.94 –
traction’s was neglected. Fig. 3 illustrates the form of the PV Test #5 Grade 003 67.95 –
profiles produced and Table 4 details the PV limits recorded Test #6 Repeat 65.28 –
for the material combinations examined. In all cases the Test #7 Grade 004 77.41 –
Test #8 Repeat 82.73 –
PV limit was shown to be the value at which the frictional Test #9 Grade 005 57.74 –
character of contact and the wear mechanism transformed to Test #10 Repeat 36.29 –
a more severe regime. This transformation was accompanied Test #11 Grade 006 59.09 –
by gross failure of the contact film. Test #12 Repeat 57.33 –
The results produced show the broad range of tribo- Test #13 Grade 007 62.52 –
Test #14 Repeat 57.47 –
performance possible from these seal face materials. The
results show that the mechanical carbon grade 004 can offer Test #15 Grade 001 – 59.36
Test #16 Repeat – 59.36
a PV capability that is twice that of grade 005 and pro-
Test #17 Grade 002 – 65.38
gressively better, on average, than that given by the other Test #18 Repeat – 50.64
intermediate grades. These results clearly demonstrate that, Test #19 Grade 003 – 61.56
under dry running conditions, the PV capability is critically Test #20 Repeat – 57.84
dependant on the stability of the contact film formed. Also, Test #21 Grade 004 – 72.82
Test #22 Repeat – 67.73
the importance of the counterface in supporting the stabil-
ity of the contact film was shown. The PV performance of Experiment 3
mechanical carbon in contact with alpha sintered silicon Test #30 Grade 001 57.96 –
Test #31 Repeat 57.96 –
carbide was shown to be appreciably better than when in Test #32 Grade 002 57.44 –
contact with reaction bonded silicon carbide. The results Test #33 Repeat 64.22 –
show that the PV capability was significantly reduced and Test #34 Grade 003 55.06 –
the difference in PV performance from one mechanical car- Test #35 Repeat 55.06 –
bon grade to another was less. However, the ranking order Test #36 Grade 004 54.36 –
Test #37 Repeat 59.55 –
was shown to remain essentially the same.
422 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432

4.5

3.5
Frictional Torque (N.m)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
PV Value (MPa.m/s)

Fig. 3. PV profile range for the mechanical carbon grades in contact with alpha sintered silicon carbide and reaction bonded silicon carbide, in grey. The
combinations examined typically produced profiles that fell within the boundaries shown.

The friction coefficient was calculated from the measured
frictional torque to an accuracy of ±0.01. Fig. 4 shows the
form of the friction coefficient/PV profiles produced. In all
cases the friction coefficient reduced with increasing PV and
this was common and consistent across the range of com-
binations examined. A typical profile was characterised by
the two transition points. The first transition was qualitative
and signified full coverage of the contact surfaces with a
contact film. The second transition was a classic transition
from mild to severe wear. The friction coefficients recorded
for those mechanical carbon grades in contact with reaction
bonded silicon carbide were consistently lower, for the same
contact conditions, than those recorded for contacts with al-
pha sintered silicon carbide, Fig. 4.

1.6

1.4

1.2
Friction Coefficient

1
First Transition: Full coverage
of the contact surfaces with a
0.8 contact film.

Second Transition: Contact film

0.6 failure.

0.4

0.2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PV Value (MPa.m/s)

Fig. 4. Friction coefficient profile range for the mechanical carbon grades in contact with alpha sintered silicon carbide and reaction bonded silicon
carbide, in grey. The combinations examined typically produced profiles that fell within the boundaries shown.
 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432 423

The maximum temperature at which contact film disinte-
gration took place for each material combination was exam-
ined. The results obtained demonstrated that the temperature
at film failure is approximately the same for all mechani-
cal carbon grades examined in contact with either polished
alpha sintered silicon carbide or polished reaction bonded
silicon carbide. The temperatures recorded were predomi-
nantly within 10 ◦ C of a mean temperature of 73 ◦ C. These
trends demonstrate that contact film disintegration is very
closely linked to the interface temperature.

Fig. 5. Photomicrographs showing details of contact film development. Photomicrographs (a) and (b) show the structure of the film developed on the
mechanical carbon; (c)–(e) show the structure of the film developed on the silicon carbide counterface; (f) and (g) compliment the patch build up hypothesis.
424 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432

Fig. 5. (Continued ).
 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432
Due to the nature of the experiment the wear rate was
difficult to measure and quantifiable data was not collected.
The experimental observations of the wear process, how-
ever, are detailed. In all cases wear was not detected until
the second transition point. At this point the wear rate trans-
formed from an apparent zero wear rate to approximately
15 mm/h and this was roughly the same for all combinations
examined. Microscopic examination of the contact surfaces
before the second transition revealed that wear debris was
in fact generated and entered into the process of contact
film formation. In the cases examined a significant amount
of the wear particles produced remained within the contact
zone and only a relatively few were expelled in the form
of loose wear debris. Those particles that remained in the
contact zone were comminuted by repeated deformation and
fracture. When the particles had been fragmented to some
critical size, they became agglomerated at suitable sites on
the wear surfaces, due to adhesion forces resulting from the
relative surface energies of the contact materials, to form
the stable contact films observed. The photomicrographs in
Fig. 5 show the stages in the development of this film on
both surfaces.
Further microscopic examination of the contact surfaces
revealed that during sliding there are two competing pro-
cesses taking place. Selected repeat runs were interrupted at
low PV values and examination of the contact surfaces re-
vealed the presence of film disruption, areas of film regen-
eration and the presence of minor blistering of the contact
film. This identifies a balance between the breakdown of the
film or layers of film, which cause wear, and agglomeration,
or pseudo sintering, between the particles within the film or
layers of film, which lead to consolidation. The second tran-
sition is the point at which the balance between these two
competing processes is lost in favour of film breakdown. The
photomicrographs in Fig. 6 show the general contact surface
condition and the minor blisters on both contact surfaces.
3.3. Experiment 2—performance under constant
conditions
Fig. 7 shows the form of the profile produced for the fric-
tion coefficient (±0.01) as a function of distance travelled.
Table 5 details the maximum, minimum and mean friction
coefficients and the typical temperatures generated on the
stationary pad at 0.25 mm from the contact surface. Also
included in the table is the overall wear of the mechanical
carbon cylinder.
These results show a consistency of operation. In all the
cases examined the contact film built up over a short ‘run-
ning in’ period at the start of the test run. After this period
the test continued uninterrupted and without change in the
operating mode. There was no evidence of periodic film dis-
integration and re-establishment on a major scale, as alluded
to by other workers. There was evidence, however, of the
balance between film/layer breakdown and agglomeration,
as mentioned in experiment 1.
425
The wear rate was again difficult to measure because of
the low rate of loose particle generation but a wear rate cal-
culation was made from the change in weight projected over
the duration of the test run. The wear rate results produced
were scattered across two orders of magnitude with no dis-
cernable correlation. It is proposed here that the steady state
wear rate of mechanical carbon is a function of the dynam-
ics of the contact film disintegration regeneration process
and the consequent rate of loose particle expulsion from the
contact zone. This is a complex relationship, which is the
subject of further work by this author.
3.4. Experiment 3—the influence of SiC surface texture
Increasing the surface roughness parameter Ra and reduc-
ing the spatial parameter Sm of the starting surface texture
of the alpha sintered silicon carbide resulted in an approxi-
mate 30–40% reduction in the PV limit compared with that
obtained in experiment 1 for polished alpha sintered silicon
carbide. Also, the frictional heat developed at the PV limit
was reduced by 10–30%. There was again evidence of con-
tact film formation and there was evidence of the film/layer
breakdown and consolidation process. The PV limit was
indicated by gross failure of the contact film, which took
place at a relatively common temperature and temperature
rise (
T ∼ 57 ◦ C). The change in surface texture had little
effect on the friction coefficient. The wear rate was again
very difficult to measure.
3.5. Examination of the contact films formed
SEM, TEM and optical microscopy of selected contact
films, taken from both contact surfaces, showed that they
were made up from fine debris. This debris was shown to fill
the surface irregularities on both the mechanical carbon and
the counterface and become consolidated into larger parti-
cles and structures by an agglomeration/pseudo-sintering
process.
Optical microscopy and SEM, Figs. 2, 5 and 6, showed
that adjacent layers overlap each other in a manner similar
to the tiles on a roof. TEM, Fig. 5, showed that the layers
were made up of grains of around 1.0 ␮m in diameter and
these were, in turn, made up of subgrains of about 0.1 ␮m in
diameter. These observations suggest that the build up of the
contact film, on both surfaces, occurs in patches. These are
developed from the breakdown of the randomly orientated
polycrystalline grains of the mechanical carbon, to a size
of approximately 1.0 ␮m in diameter. These patches form
separately, grow, impinge and overlap until they produce a
continuous film. The thickness of the film is determined to
a very large extent by the surface irregularities on both the
contacting surfaces. In this work film thickness was shown
to be in a range of 1–5 ␮m.
Microprobe analysis of grades 001, 002, and 003, and
their associate contact films, from contact with alpha sintered
silicon carbide, detected, in all cases, a significant amount of
O2 in the contact film compared to that in the base material.
426 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432

Fig. 6. Photomicrographs of the minor blisters that generate on the contact surfaces during stable operation. Photomicrographs (a) and (b) show those
formed on the mechanical carbon; (c)–(e) show those formed on the silicon carbide surface.
 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432 427

Fig. 6. (Continued ).

Table 5
Details from experiment 2a
Test number Mechanical Normal Friction coefficient Typical
T (◦ C) Wear rate (m3 /m)
carbon grade load (N)
Maximum Minimum Mean

23 Grade 001 294.30 0.321 0.236 0.263 54 2.74 × 10−12

24 Grade 002 294.30 0.304 0.186 0.210 44 4.16 × 10−13
25 Grade 003 294.30 0.354 0.224 0.253 39 9.34 × 10−13
26 Grade 004 294.30 0.356 0.233 0.265 46 1.35 × 10−11
27 Grade 005 294.30 0.544 0.338 0.388 42 3.86 × 10−11
28 Grade 006 294.30 0.268 0.197 0.250 46 3.94 × 10−12
29 Grade 007 294.30 0.231 0.160 0.176 32 9.74 × 10−12
a Mechanical carbon in contact with alpha sintered silicon carbide (grade 013) under constant operating conditions.
428 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432

0.6

0.5

0.4
Friction Coefficient

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Distance Travelled (Cycles x 10 3)

Fig. 7. Friction coefficient as a function of distance travelled. All combinations examined in experiment 2 produced profiles that fell within the range shown.

4. Discussion—analysis of results In this work a number of different mechanical carbon

The results of this work have demonstrated the fundamen-
tal importance of stable contact films to the performance
of mechanical carbon in line contact with silicon carbide
under dry running conditions. The work has identified a
mechanism of formation, a mechanism of failure and the
tribo-dynamics under stable operating conditions. The crit-
ical features have been identified as:
1. The breakdown of the surface structure of the mechanical
carbon into units of wear debris of around 1.0 ␮m in
diameter.
2. The consolidation and agglomeration of the generated
wear debris on to both the contacting surfaces.
3. The development of the adhering wear debris into larger
layer type structures, which overlap to form a film, which
covers large areas of the contact surfaces.
4. The development, during stable operation, of a balance
between film breakdown and film consolidation.
5. The identification of film failure by a seizure and blister-
ing type mechanism, which occurs at a common temper-
ature within the contact zone.
6. The increased presence of O2 in the contact film and
therefore the potential of condensable vapours in the
film/layer forming process.
The experiments have shown that these characteristics
combine to generate a third phase between the contacting
surfaces which has associated with it a low resistance to tan-
gential sliding and it is the stability of this third phase that
dictates the tribological performance.
grades have been examined. These were made up from dif-
ferent formulations and had different bulk mechanical prop-
erties. Irrespective of this difference they showed significant
similarity in their tribological performance. The exception to
this was the PV limit, which was effectively the only defin-
ing characteristic. It has been shown that similarities existed
across the range of combinations examined in terms of the
friction coefficient/PV profiles (with the exception of the PV
limit), the temperature at the point of contact film failure,
and the wear character. Also it was shown that the mechan-
ical carbon materials examined responded in the same man-
ner to a change in the surface texture of the alpha sintered
silicon carbide and a similar response was also shown when
reaction bonded silicon carbide was used in place of the al-
pha sintered silicon carbide counterface.
These similarities in performance can be related to the
macro-similarities in the nature and tribo-characteristics of
the contact film formed. The mechanical carbon grades ex-
amined in this work, though different in formulation and
mechanical properties, are constructed from the same basic
graphite crystallite unit. The contact films formed are, there-
fore, composites of this same base unit and it is this common
structural feature that provides the macro-similarity between
the resultant contact films.
The defining PV limit, however, cannot be described or
explained at this macro-level. The PV limit defines the spe-
cific bearing power above which the contact film becomes
unstable and film failure results. To understand this and iden-
tify the fundamental principles involved, the influence of the
graphite crystallite size and orientation and the associated
 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432
surface reactivity need to be evaluated. The following model
is proposed.
4.1. An integrated model for dry running contact
The contact has to satisfy a mechanical condition and a
thermal condition. However, the contact environment, the
surface reactivity of mechanical carbon and the properties
of the contact film formed will greatly influence how these
conditions are satisfied.
Savage [1] and Savage and Schaefer [2] suggested that
the low friction of graphite was associated with low sur-
face forces due to the surface adsorption of water or other
condensable vapours. This definitive work was further sup-
ported by subsequent studies [3–5] in this field. Jenkins [6],
Porgess and Wilman [7], Midgley and Teer [8] and Quinn
[9], showed that worn graphite surfaces exhibit a preferred
orientation of basal planes. Workers [7–9] further demon-
strated that in fact the basal planes were tilted at some small
angle with their normals pointing against the direction of
sliding. Roselman and Tabor [10] identified the basal planes
as low energy surfaces. Also, assuming that the contacts dur-
ing sliding are mainly between basal plane surfaces, they
suggested that shear occurred primarily at these interfaces,
rather than beneath the surface, leading to low friction and
wear. Deacon and Goodman [11] and Campbell and Kozak
[12] highlighted the significance of edge site interactions
on the friction and wear behaviour developed. Lancaster
[13] and Clarke and Lancaster [14] examined the contact
films formed by various carbon brush materials and by car-
bon materials used for dry bearings. They related the low
friction of these materials to the low strength of the con-
tact films and suggested that the film acts as a thin solid
lubricant. It was also suggested that the low strength of
the contact film was a consequence of weak intercrystalline
bonding.
The results produced here lend further support to the
Lancaster/Clarke film theory but also the results suggest
that an integrated model for dry running contact should in-
clude a component relating to the adsorption of condensable
vapours. A contact model that combines both these concepts
is proposed.
In this work it has been shown, in agreement with [15–18],
that during sliding the contact film, on a macroscopic scale,
is in a continuous state of disintegration and regeneration
and it is shown that total film failure occurs when the dis-
integration part of this cycle dominates. The failure of the
film is shown to have a blistering component to the process
and this is in agreement with the findings of Arnell et al. [3],
Midgley and Teer [4] and Swinnerton and Turner [19]. In ad-
dition to this, measurements of the frictional heat generated
close to the contact zone imply that contact film failure oc-
curs at a common interface temperature, and this is in agree-
ment with Lancaster [20]. These factors together describe
a seizure mechanism in which the physisorbed components
429
are removed from the contact surfaces and the resulting inti-
mate contact between these surfaces generates high adhesive
forces and consequent contact film failure.
The breakdown of the randomly orientated polycrystalline
grains at the surface of the mechanical carbon generates
wear debris that is highly reactive (orders of magnitude more
reactive than activated charcoal [16]) and adsorbs polar gas
(H2 O, O2 , CO2 , NH3 , CH3 OH, etc.) from the surrounding
environment. The adsorption generally takes place at the
edges of the crystallites within the debris where there are
unsatisfied bonding forces. The saturation of these active
edge sites promotes the creation of a contact film of low
shear strength, which is covered by a transient monolayer
of adsorbed vapour molecules. This lowers the free energy
of the contacting surfaces and generates an interface that
has a low resistance to tangential sliding [21]. Increasing
the severity of the contact by increasing the PV parameter
causes the interface temperature to increase. At the PV limit
the interface temperature is such that water vapour, etc. is no
longer physisorbed on to the contact surface and adhesive
crystallite edge interactions can now take place and the film
is destroyed.
Microprobe analysis identified a higher level of O2 in
the contact films than that found in the bulk material. This
supports the adsorption theory and aligns with the findings of
Buckley and Johnson [22] who suggested a carbon–oxygen
bond and noted a 1000× increase in wear rate when the
air pressure surrounding the interface was reduced to 1.3 ×
10−5 N/m2 . They also noted the disappearance of the carbon
graphite contact film from the mating surfaces.
The disintegration/regeneration process associated with
contact film stability is also a symptom of the above. Under
stable operating conditions with both bearing surface cov-
ered with a smooth contact film contact between the two
surfaces will take place at discrete microscopic locations,
which are continually changing. The flash temperatures at
these locations will be such that the physisorbed vapour will
be driven off, adhesive crystallite edge interactions will take
place and the film will be disrupted. Subsequent localised
contact relief will then allow the film to regenerate and re-
pair in the denuded areas while film disruption takes place
elsewhere within the contact zone. If the PV parameter is
now increased more contact spots are created, more film
disruption takes place and the general interface temperature
increases. Film regeneration, however, keeps up with the de-
mand until, at the PV limit, it is unable to do so and the film
is completely destroyed.
The effects described above can be visualised by relating
the rate at which vapour molecules bombard the surface to
the rate at which they are evaporated.
The rate of bombardment is given by [1]
(3.535 × 1022 cm−2 s−1 )p
nb = (1)
(MT)1/2
where p is the gas partial pressure, M the molecular weight
of the bombarding gas and T the absolute gas temperature.
430 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432
The rate of evaporation from the surface is given by [1]
ne = A e−Q/RTs (2)
where A is a constant, Q the activation energy of evaporation
of a vapour from the surface, Ts the surface temperature and
R the universal gas constant.
At the flash temperatures generated at the local contact
points, the rate of evaporation will be significantly greater
than the rate of bombardment and the film will be disrupted.
On a larger scale, when the general surface temperature
reaches a critical value the rate of evaporation across the
whole contact surface will be greater than the rate of bom-
bardment and total film disintegration then takes place.
Relating this rationale to the friction condition, the load W
is supported partly (fW) by the monolayer of vapour having a
friction coefficient of µv and partly ((1−f)W) by the contact
film having a friction coefficient µc . The total friction force
F (µt W) can be expressed as
F = µv fW + µc (1 − f)W (3)
This expression, to a first approximation, represents the state
of equilibrium between film disintegration and film regener-
ation and it allows the description of the tribo-performance
in terms of the friction coefficient. At the PV limit f tends
towards 0 and the friction condition is then dominated by
adhesive crystallite edge interactions and this leads to con-
tact film failure.
On the wear rate of mechanical carbon under stable oper-
ating conditions, this work as shown that this is quite benign.
The debris from localised contact film failure is available
for film regeneration and it only constitutes wear in terms of
material removal if it is expelled from the contact zone. This
can be related to mechanical seals where there are a number
of adjacent contact zones within the sealing interface and
there are only two boundaries from which debris can be ex-
pelled as wear. The contact geometry in mechanical seals
facilitates the reuse of debris, from localised contact film
failure, in the film regeneration process and under stable op-
erating conditions benign wear rates can be expected. The
mode by which the contact film fails and generates reusable
debris is very complex. Surface fatigue is considered to be a
contributor [14,15,17], so too must Hertzian contact stresses
[17] and elastic compressive and thermal strain recovery.
The above model combines both the Lancaster and Sav-
age theories on the frictional behaviour of carbon graphite
materials. The model proposes that mechanical carbon ma-
terials depend for tribo-performance on the generation of
a contact film of low shear strength on one or both con-
tacting surfaces and the generated contact film requires the
presence, within the contact zone, of water or other vapour
molecules for the development of its structure and proper-
ties. It has not been possible to develop a full mathematical
model of the contact condition because further more detailed
information about the crystallite structure and the properties
of the contact film formed would be required. Also, the pre-
cise mode of contact film rupture needs further clarification.
Nevertheless this model still offers a very useful tool.
4.2. Use of the model
This work has shown that the film forming characteristics
of the mechanical carbon grades examined, the surface tex-
ture of the counterface and the type of silicon carbide used
influence the tribo-performance produced. The usefulness
and functionality of the model is demonstrated in explana-
tion of these effects.
With respect to the film forming characteristics of the
mechanical carbon grades, wear debris composed of small
graphite crystallites will have a higher concentration of
edge sites and hence adsorption sites. Materials manufac-
tured from formulations containing a high proportion of
fine non-graphitic fillers will develop wear debris and con-
tact films with a high concentration of small crystallites and
consequently have a high demand for condensable vapours.
With this higher proportion of small crystallites there is
a greater probability of adhesive crystallite edge interac-
tions. Both film disintegration and regeneration occur more
rapidly and the interface temperature is higher for a given
contact condition. The balance between the rate of molecu-
lar bombardment and evaporation is harder to maintain and
as a consequence f tends towards 0 at a lower PV value for
these types of formulations. Grades 001 and 005 are mate-
rials with a very high concentration of fine non-graphitic
fillers and small graphite crystallite components and grade
003 is a material with a higher graphitic character composed
of larger graphite crystallites. The remaining grades have
compositions between these two extremes. Grades 001 and
005 failed at a much lower PV than grade 003. Grades 002
and 004 produced the highest PV capability. These mate-
rials contained, within their composition, components that
supported the film disintegration and regeneration process,
to a greater degree. Grades 006 and 007 have a basic carbon
graphite composition with an even distribution of graphite
crystallite sizes and these gave PV limits that were within
the mid-range.
The reduction in the PV limit, for a given mechanical car-
bon grade, observed by increasing the coarseness of the con-
tacting surface of the alpha sintered silicon carbide can be
evaluated in the same way as the above. The increased textu-
ral coarseness increased the volume of the surface interstices
that need to be filled with carbon graphite wear debris be-
fore a smooth surface is formed. This results in an increase
in the gross film thickness. The contact film, in relation to
the bulk silicon carbide, is in effect a thermal barrier. The
structure of the contact film, being derived from the break-
down of randomly orientated polycrystalline grains at the
surface of the mechanical carbon, will be highly disordered
in terms of its graphitic nature. This will give a relatively
high thermal resistance particularly when compared to that
of silicon carbide. Increasing the film thickness, by increas-
ing the textural coarseness, increases the efficiency of this
 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432
barrier and limits the heat sink provided by the counterface.
The result of this is that the balance between the rates of
molecular bombardment and evaporation is harder to satisfy
and as a consequence f tends towards 0 at a lower PV value
and the film disintegrates.
A similar effect to this was observed when various me-
chanical carbon grades were run against reaction bonded
silicon carbide. The elastic and thermal properties of re-
action bonded silicon carbide and alpha sintered silicon
carbide are very similar and the difference in the PV limits
observed would not be expected. A potential explanation
is suggested by microscopic examination of the material
microstructure, wear surfaces and reference to the model
and analysis above. The structure of reaction bonded sili-
con carbide consists of silicon carbide grains in a network
of approximately 10% free silicon. The structure of alpha
sintered silicon carbide contains no second separate phase.
During the action of surface preparation and the action
of sliding there are significant differences in the rates of
material removal from the silicon carbide and free sili-
con phases in the reaction bonded silicon carbide resulting
from differences in their hardness and wear resistance. This
causes the free silicon to lie below the hard silicon carbide
grains, producing a micro-surface texture not produced on
the alpha sintered silicon carbide. This micro-surface tex-
ture provides surface interstices that need to be filled with
carbon graphite wear debris producing a thicker contact
film and again f tends towards 0 at a lower PV value.
Arnell et al. [3] and Midgley and Teer [4] produced evi-
dence of periodic film disintegration and re-establishment on
a major scale and Teo and Lafdi [18] have further examined
these friction transitions. This situation can be related to a
process of ‘over filming’. With highly graphitic mechanical
carbons there is the potential for the formation of relatively
thick heavy surface film deposits. Williams et al. [17] con-
firmed this in their study of fine textured electro-graphite’s
and epoxy impregnated baked carbons. To overcome this
problem many mechanical carbon manufacturers incorpo-
rate abrasive particles into the material formulation. The pur-
pose of this is reported to be to prevent very smooth surfaces
forming resulting in high real area of contact. The model
proposed here offers a slightly different explanation. The
model suggests that it is desirable to generate a thin contact
film and promote the minor film disintegration and regener-
ation process. The role of the abrasive component is that it
encourages both of these conditions. It is widely recognised
that an abrasive particle size beyond 0.3 ␮m will produce a
large increase in wear rate of both the mechanical carbon and
its associate counterface. This is due, primarily, to exces-
sive film removal. All the mechanical carbons in this work
contained within their formulation, to a greater or lesser de-
gree, an abrasive component. Examination of the photomi-
crographs in Figs. 2, 5 and 6 shows minor abrasive wear on
the surface of the films formed thus supporting the notion
of micro-abrasion to control contact film thickness and pro-
mote the minor film disintegration and regeneration process.
431
4.3. Relevance of the contact model to mechanical face
seal design
As shown, the performance of a mechanical face seal un-
der dry running conditions idealised to line contact, utilising
a mechanical carbon as one of the seal faces, depends criti-
cally on the development of a stable contact film. If this does
not form then the seal will function inefficiently and the ser-
vice life will be short. The model developed here enables
the mechanisms taking place at the sealing interface and the
requirements for stable operation to be visualised and eval-
uated. The central objective is to maintain a dynamic bal-
ance between contact film disintegration and regeneration.
The model permits a qualitative assessment of whether the
duty conditions and seal face design will permit this.
In gas turbine engine mainshaft bearing compartments,
contacting face seals (and carbon ring seals) are subjected
to high speeds and high temperatures. Notwithstanding
the requirement to prevent the mechanical carbon from
oxidising the stability of the contact film is critical to the
performance of the seal. The model here provides the seal
material designer with both a diagnostic tool and develop-
mental tool. The model enables an evaluation of the likely
impact of the contacting condition and environmental as-
pects on the tribo-dynamics of the contact film and film
forming process. It provides the format for seal face and
seal design performance mapping. It provides a framework
for the development of seal face materials and seal face de-
sign. The model also offers a route(s) for the development
of mechanical carbons for seal face applications in vac-
uum and inert gas atmospheres. There is also use for this
model in lubricated mechanical face seals. In a liquid or
gas lubricated mechanical seal there is always a degree of
mechanical contact either at stop/starts and during general
operation due to the close dimensional tolerances associated
with thin liquid/gas films. During these periods of partial
lubrication the contacting faces need to be able to cope
with the tribo-stresses presented. In the case of mechanical
carbon, it needs to generate a stable contact film and the
model can again be used to predict the likely outcome.
Importantly the model proposed here enables the key
features of mechanical face seal design to be related to
the critical tribological characteristics of the leading seal
face materials. This is an important connection. The future
development of mechanical seal face material technology
hinges on a greater understanding and subsequent develop-
ment of the tribo-mechanisms that promote low frictional
forces within the sealing interface.
5. Conclusions
Clearly, the results and analysis carried out in this research
have added to the knowledge and understanding of the tri-
bological behaviour of mechanical carbon and the leading
seal face materials. The work has developed analysis and
432 G.A. Jones / Wear 256 (2004) 415–432
tools that could be of use to both the seal designer and the
materials technologist. This work has shown that a critical
factor governing the tribo-performance of the leading seal
face materials, under dry running conditions, is the ability of
the mechanical carbon to form a contact film on both the sil-
icon carbide counterface and on itself. The carbon graphite
contact film has been shown to be a third phase of low shear
strength that modifies the friction condition. The stability of
this film is shown to be a function of the balance between
film disintegration and regeneration and analysis has related
this state to the balance between the rate at which the con-
tacting surfaces are bombarded with vapour molecules, from
the surrounding environment, and the rate at which these
molecules are evaporated off. The failure of the contact film
was shown to be complex and generated a blistering type of
process. Adhesive crystalline edge site interactions, surface
fatigue and elastic compressive and thermal strain recovery
are potential contributory mechanisms. The contact model
presented to describe the tribo-mechanisms observed, com-
bines both the Lancaster and Savage theories of the friction
of carbon and graphite. The model was used to rationalise
the contact film dynamics and the wider experimental ob-
servations. The importance of the physical properties and
the contact surface texture of the silicon carbide are shown.
The model is related to mechanical face seal design and de-
velopment providing a link between the critical mechanical
face seal design criteria and the tribological characteristics
of the seal face materials.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express his appreciation to Gledco
Engineered Materials Ltd., US Graphite Inc., and the Uni-
versity of Salford for their support of this research. The
advice and excellent technical assistance of Professor R.D.
Arnell and Mr. G. France, University of Salford, are grate-
fully acknowledged.
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