C1.
Unit 2
PAST TENSES
Past simple
• To
 describe an action that finished in the past
and has no connection to the present.
• Used
 with specific points in the past (e.g.
yesterday, last year, in 1994) or a period of time
(e.g. for two years).
I bought this watch twenty years ago.
They lived in Lisbon for two years.
Past continuous
• To describe an action that was already in progress
when something else happened.
He was driving down our street when he lost
control of the car.
Present perfect
• We use have + past participle after a modal verb
• To
 describe an action that started in the past but
has some connection to the present (because it
still continues or you can see the results).
• Used
 with unspecific points in the past (e.g.
always, never, in my life) or periods of time (e.g.
for three months, since 2005).
She has put on weight recently.
I’ve always liked reading.
We have lived in this town for over ten years /
since 2005.
Present perfect continuous
• Used
 in the same way as the present perfect but
it emphasises duration, repetition, the fact that
the action continues in the present or is more
important than the result.
You’ve been watching TV for hours!
They’ve been making calls all day.
Past perfect
• To
 indicate that an action was completed before
a specific point in the past.
When we got home, the children had made a
special dinner.
Past perfect continuous
• To indicate that an action took place repeatedly or
was in progress before a point in the past.
He had been feeling ill for weeks before he
went to the doctor.
• We can use both the past simple and the
present perfect with periods of time. With the
past simple, the action is finished and there is
no connection to the present.
I worked in England for ten years. (But now I
don’t.)
I have worked in England for ten years. (I’m
still working there or the experience is still affecting
my present.)
PAST MODALS
to indicate that an action is finished or took place
before a point in time.
Speculation
might / could / may / should / will / must / can’t
(less certainty more certainty)
He might have known about the robbery but he
didn’t tell anyone.
I don’t know who rang the bell. It could have been
the postman.
They should have arrived home by now. They left
hours ago!
He’s an experienced doctor. He will have seen a
similar case before.
She can’t have bought a new car. I’m sure she
didn’t have any money.
Regrets and recriminations
should / could / ought to
Sorry. I should have asked for permission before
using your car.
They could / should have warned us that their
office would be closed today!
You ought to have taken more care with your new
phone. How did you manage to lose it?
 Grammar Reference

INVERSION • -ing clauses don’t specify their subject. Therefore,

• W
 e can make a sentence more dramatic by starting it
with a negative or very restrictive word, for example,
not only (but also), hardly (when), no sooner (than),
only, never, seldom, etc. The main verb in this type
of sentences takes the same structure as a question:
auxiliary verb + subject.
Not only did he keep his job, but they also offered
him a rise.
Hardly had she signed the new contract when she
was offered a much better deal.
No sooner had we started the meeting than we
were interrupted by his call.
Only in our restaurant will you find such good
food at such low prices.
ECHO QUESTIONS
• W
 e can use echo questions as a reaction to what
someone says to indicate that we are listening
and interested in what the person is saying. These
questions are also called follow-up questions. Notice
that, unlike question tags, the question is positive
when the statement is positive and negative when
the statement is negative.
A: I saw a great film last night.
B: Did you? What was it about?
A: I wouldn’t like to work for that company.
B: Wouldn’t you? Why?
• We
 can also repeat part of what we have just heard
using a question word (who, what, where, etc.) at
the end of the utterance to indicate that we misheard
or didn’t understand certain information or to show
surprise. Although these are real questions, the
structure is affirmative.
A: I’m going to buy a new car.
B: You’re going to buy what?
the first element that comes immediately after an
-ing clause is automatically interpreted as its subject.
While crossing the street, he saw a cow. (He was
crossing the street.)
While crossing the street, the cow stopped to
stare at us. (The cow was crossing the street.)
While crossing the street, a car ran over him/ While
crossing the street, he was run over by a car.
• -ing forms can also be used in combination with
prepositions, prepositional phrases or adverbs.
Time
after, on / upon (formal), since, when, while / whilst
On finding out the actual cost of the trip, they
decided to cancel it.
I haven’t taken a formal test since leaving school.
The importance of loyalty is something I learned
while serving in the army.
Manner and consequence
by, thereby, thus
She’s become president by demonstrating that
she is tough and charismatic.
They made me a member of the club, thereby
granting me access to their library.
He signed a ten-year contract, thus ensuring some
economic stability.
Addition
apart from, as well as, in addition to
Apart from studying at university, I worked as a
bank clerk.
As well as visiting the city’s museums, we also
took time to discover its night life.
In addition to making significant progress, we
have raised more funds for the project.

-ING CLAUSES

• W
 e can use -ing clauses to express time, manner
and reason. This type of clause is useful to make our
writing more succinct and effective.
He knew that Cambridge was his best option, so
he applied for admission.
➞ Knowing that Cambridge was his best option,
he applied for admission.

• We use having + past participle to indicate that an

action is completed or finished.
Having read all of her books (completed action), I
was really looking forward to meeting her.