ue en an electric field is applied actos ie direction 10 that of the applied electric field wi of electremie cartert Sy inonhost fe, the holes inthe valence hand travel in the direction wf the ee tree ty) HERDS there are two streams of current inside a ve: a 2 conduction band and the fy current in th ms of curres 1 ies for a pure semiconductor at room temperature, the current engi is weak 9(a)-9- DOPING oe poping i a process of deliberate addition of a desirable impurity atoms to @ pure semiconductor to modify its properties inacontrolled manner. The impurity atom added are called dopants. Sl The impurity added may be = I part per million (ppm). In 2 oping proces. itis required that (i) the dopant atom should take the position of semiconductor ‘zom in the lattice. (ii the presence of the dopant atom should not distort the crystal lamce. (ip the size of the dopant atom should be almost the same 2s tit ofthe crystal atom. (iv) the concentration of dopant atoms should not be large (not sore than 1% of the crystal atoms). It is to be noted that the doping of a semiconductor increases its electrical conductivity to a great extent. Methods of doping. Doping is achieved in many ways; for this, wecan 1. add the impurity atoms in the melt of the semiconductor, or 2. heat the crystalline semiconductor in an atmosphere containing dopant atoms or molecules so that the latter diffuse into the semiconductor, or 3. implant dopant atoms or molecules by bombarding the semiconductor with them. 5(@).10. EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS eee | 4 doped semiconductor or a semi-conductor with suitable | impurity atom added to it, is ealled extrinsic semiconductor. impurity atom added to itis called extrinsic semiconductor, Extrinsic semi conductors are of two types : (8 mtype semiconductors (ii) p-type semiconductors xx (i) BYbe semiconductor. When a pure semiconductor of silicon (Si) or permansum * Stor Ge atom has four valence electrons, is doped with 2 controlled amount of ¢ Bas « a Phosphorous or antimony or bismuth, which have five valence electrons. the Sony any got Ge atom as shown in Fig. 92) 92), The f form covalent bonds by sharing the electrons w vee ae of attraction between electron and nucleus of donor 2: lectric constant of Si semiconductor. The binding energy Pa Scanned with CamScannerony . : : One | Silicon n-type semiconductor and [— - =f D-Ol eV for germanium n-type | F ‘ Semiconductor. Thus, each impurity | atom added donates one free electron | to the crystal structure. These impurity | ~ atoms which donate free electrons for | conduction are called donor atoms. | Since the conduction of electricity ix | -- due to the motion of electrons ic. Regative charges or n-type carriers, | - therefore, the resulting semiconductor | _ is called donor-type or n-type semiconductor. On giving up their | fifth electron, the donor atoms become | Positively charged. However, the | matter remains electrically neutral as a whole. The extra electron of 0 nucleus, in a hydrogen like manner. It has been found that 0-045 eV energy is required to rez, electron from the impurity atom of silicon semiconductor and make it a free electron. At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds may get ruptured, producing thereivy free elec and an equal number of holes in the n-type semiconductor. But overall, the total number of holes in, semiconductor is relatively small than the electrons. Hence in n-type semiconductor, electrons are majyrs carriers and holes are minority carriers. Energy band diagram of n-type semiconductor is shown in Fig. 9(a).9(b). Fora silicon semicondace with impurity atoms of arsenic or phosphorous, the energies of the free electrons are slightly less than & energies of the free electrons in the lowest energy level of conduction band. As a result of it, these elec occupy discrete energy levels (called donor energy levels) between the valence band and conduction bx and the lowest donor electron energy level lies at 0-01 eV for Ge and 0-045 eV for Si below the bottom of conduction band. When we add pentavalent impurity in a pure semiconductor of Ge or Si, the Fermi level in energy £5 shifts very close to conduction band. If doping is very large, the Fermi level may move into the conduction bat It is to be noted that this energy is comparable to the thermal energy of electron at room tempere= (= 0-03 cV). Thus, a very small energy supplied can excite the electrons from donor levels to conduct band. Due to st, the conductivity of semiconductor is remarkably improved. the donor atom orbits around the oy ‘When a pure semiconductor of Germanium (Ge) or Silicon (Si), in which each atom has four valence electrons is doped with a controlled amount of trivalent atoms say gallium, or Indium pccontor (Un) or Boron (B) ot Aluminium Ene (Al which have three valence , ls=.01 10.048 electrons, the impurity atom will replace the Ge or Si atom at shown in Fig. 9(a).10(a). The three valence electrons of the impurity atom will form covalent bonds by sharing the elelctrons _ 9 <. fl Seer eens = pont of the adjoining three atoms of ee while there will be one incomplete covalent bond with a neighbo Ge-atom. due to the deficiency of an electron. This deficiency is completed by taking an electron OF of the Ge-Ge bonds, thus completing the In~Ge bond. This makes Indium ionised (negatively Scanned with CamScannerDEVICES asenome ~ An electron-moving from a Ge-Ge esa the”. A i from a Ge-Ge bond to fill a hole, leaves a hole beh ae pove imate sem conductor structure. The trivalent atoms are called acceptor atoms an< eect CUTS duc to motion of holes, ‘¢.. positive charges or p-type carers. That 16 © apc vctor TS called acceptor type or p-type semiconductor. seo, at ordinary femperature, some of the covalent bonds may inary tu Js may get rupture wy poles and er is pie e, the total number of electrons is relatively small as com ‘ oles p-type semi-conductor. Hen type semiconductor, elect ot riers and holes are majority carriers a te Ts ae ergy band diagram of p-type semiconductor is shown in Fig. 9(a).10(b). cerivondueror, the doping of impurity atoms of Indium or boron having valence three. P sere eer levels which ae situated in the enerry gap sigh above the valence band. These levels are jad acceptor enerpy levels. ° ‘nhen we add a trivalent impurity in a pure semiconductor of Ge or Si, th very close to valence band. If doping is very larg, the Fermi level may mov’ At room temperature, due to thermal energy, the electrons from hand are easily transferred to the acceptor level* until these lied. This produces a large number of holes in the valence (Gund thereby the valence band becomes a hole conducting band. vrs an extemal electric field is applied to 2 p-type semiconductor. holes will act as carriers of current. Due to it, the p-type its electrical conductivity much improved than, Jq pure germ ductor, the fermi level is about . a half way in the energy gap- 1. Ina doped semiconductor, the number density of tlectrons and holes are not equal 3. none Under thermal equilibrium, the product of the free __very close to conduction band. if positive concentrations is a constant 3, In p-type semiconductor, the nd. That 4 hy the resulting 1d, releasing equal number pared to tbe rons are For a Ge ot St ice some dhe valence jevels ate fi semiconductor sho suhat it was for pure semiconductor. negative an Guanatity, independent of the amount of donor and fermi vel lies in the energy gap. sreeptor impurity doping. This relasonship is known yen) close valence band. ae mase-action law and is given by me" = M7 4. With rise in temperature, the where n,m, are the number density of electrons and = moves towards the energy gap, for both holes respectively and n is number density of intrinsic carriers (i.e. electrons oF holes) in a pure g yet rae semiconductor. ne ss be 2. tn n-type semiconductor, the number density of _elesonshave more mobility has 2 Un meiyPe pry equal tothe number density ofdonor _holes.Foragiven voltage applisd toms N, and is very large as compared to number conduction current in n-type density of holes. Hence Me * Ng? >" peeneres is more than that 3. In p-type semiconductor, the number density of jp ot holes fe nearly equal to the number density of acceptor” ° he emer gee than atoms N, and is very large as compared to number te een a density of electrons. Hence m=Ng>>Me * clectrons from the valence band current carrier (n)) ss ever to condastion band, Due 4, The number density of intrisnic of a semiconductor varies with temperature TK, to it electrons and hoies pairs are -£, 12k) srevted. Due to increase in the according to relation mane & number of current carriers, the conductivity of semiconductor {cis the Boltzmann constant increases. This propery of semi where ng is a constant, ‘of the given semiconductor. __duetoris called photoconductivty and E, is the energy gaP ‘Since the effective gap is reduced to about 0-045 eV for Si and 0.01 eV for Ge. Scanned with CamScannerctor lies in the forbidden ep tnetry y Sample Proviem [J 4 silicon specimen is made into a p-type semiconductar py 4, an average, one indium atom per § x 10” silicon atoms. If the number density of atoms jn ys specimen is 5 x 10 atoms/m? : find the number of acceptor atoms in silicon per cubic esau Stn wom in silic conductor will produce one ater, =e om has been dopped per 5x 107 silicon stuma 4, = 107! x 167 § atomelom’ = 110% atomsem? Sempie Probie FJ The number densities of electrons and holes in pure silicon at 27Cx equal and its value is 2-0 x 16 m7. On doping with indium, the hole density increases to 45 iF mm, find the electron density in doped silicon. Sol. Here = 2.0 x 10! m3 in, 245 x10? mo re (290x106 P 8-89 x 107 m> n, 45x1 9(2).11. DISTINCTION BETWEEN INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR ry Itis prepared by doping a small quantity SEP oms to the pure semiconducting ue L. Ic is pare semicosdes seams 20 waded tit imparts 2. Exacoples are crystalline forms of pure 2 Examples are silicon and germanio= with impurity ztoms of arsenic, 200m! | aed gemmenio i | phorous etc. or indium, boron, 2! “Tee pomter of free electrons in ocataction bend | i } | | i 3. The number of free electrons and bole equal. There is excess of elect semiconductors and excess of holes 4. Its electrical conductivity is high 5. Its electrical conductivity depe>! temperature as well 2s on the quest? toms doped in the structure. y is low oe tivity is 2 fonction of ts PEE ie Scanned with CamScanner