Life below Water:

Impact of Plastic Pollution on Marine Ecosystems

People and the Earths Community

MST 102B

Hazel Marie T. Samson

Jinky Jade Tercio

Nursing II

February 16, 2024

Abstract

There is no doubt that plastic is polluting the environment. Evidently, plastic pollution

has emerged as a global threat particularly in our oceans. The exponential increase in the

use of plastic in modern society and the inadequate management of the resulting waste

have led to its accumulation in the marine environment. Much terrifying evidence has

been provided to show how great the impact of plastic on our environment especially in

the marine ecosystems has become. There is also increasing evidence of numerous

mechanisms by which marine plastic pollution is causing effects across successive levels

of biological organization. With the rapid increase in global plastics production and the

resulting large volume of litter that enters the marine environment, determining the

consequences of this debris on marine life and ocean health has now become a critical

environmental priority, particularly for threatened and endangered species. This paper

presents the leading causes of plastic pollution in oceans, its effects on marine life and

habitat, and the actions that we must implement to address and solve the issue.
Plastic has played an important role in our daily lives since the 1950s. Our society and

economy have benefited from plastic products in a variety of uses: packaging,

construction materials, clothing, automotive, transportation, medical supplies, food

safety, etc. (Vince and Hardesty, 2018; Worm et al., 2017). Due to the growing

popularity of plastics over the years, plastic waste constitutes nowadays a large share of

global litter both on land and at seas (Nyka, 2018; Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2017)

and has become a global threat to our environment (EC, 2018; Worm et al., 2017).

Currently, plastic is becoming a global concern in the field of marine pollution (Haward,

2018). This issue is becoming more serious and threatening due to some reported

evidence about the detection of plastic particles inside living organisms. Some animals,

including birds, fish and turtles, were reported to be affected by plastic pollution

(Critchell and Hoogenboom, 2018; Duncan et al., 2019; Forrest and Hindell, 2018; Gallo

et al., 2018; Nelms et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2018; Thiel et al., 2018; Van Franeker and

Law, 2015; Wilcox et al., 2018). Tiny particles of plastic debris (often called

microplastics) are so pervasive in aquatic ecosystems that we can also find them in

seafood and table salt.

An estimated 4.4–12.7 million metric tons of plastic are added to the oceans annually.

Like many other contaminants (such as greenhouse gases and ozone-depleting

substances), plastic is not constrained by national boundaries, because it migrates via

water and air currents and settles in benthic sediments. More than 50% of the ocean’s

area sits beyond national jurisdiction, including the infamous “garbage patches” in

oceanic gyres where plastic accumulates. By 2015, annual plastic production had
approached the combined weight of the human population (Worm et al., 2017), and it is

estimated that 150 MMT of plastic were circulating in the marine environment as of 2016

(World Economic Forum, 2016). Furthermore, experts estimate that up to 10% of plastic

debris produced will enter the sea (Thompson, 2006) and that plastics will outweigh fish

in the ocean by 2050 (World Economic Forum, 2016).

Where is all this plastic in the world’s oceans coming from? Many of the sources are

known, but not all of them. The rise of single-use items is a major factor: in 2015, half of

all plastic waste was from packaging alone; while according to a 2018 estimate, single-

use plastics account for 60-95% of global marine plastic pollution. The main sources of

plastic debris found in the ocean are land-based, coming from urban and stormwater

runoff, sewer overflows, littering, inadequate waste disposal and management, industrial

activities, tyre abrasion, construction and illegal dumping. Ocean-based plastic pollution

originates primarily from the fishing industry, nautical activities and aquaculture. All of

these factors are predominantly due to human activities. Under the influence of solar UV

radiation, wind, currents and other natural factors, plastic breaks down into small

particles called microplastics (particles smaller than 5 mm) or nanoplastics (particles

smaller than 100 nm).

Marine wildlife suffers the most direct and damaging effects of ocean plastic pollution.

From all kinds of fish to turtles, seals, crustaceans, micro-organisms and many other

forms of life, the damage caused by plastic pollution to marine animals is increasingly

visible as we learn more about this problem. The impacts of plastics on marine
ecosystems range from direct health effects in marine organisms, due to ingestion or

entanglement in litter and fishing gear, to hitchhiking (i.e., attaching to and floating with

plastics) of organisms, including invasive species and pathogens, to impacts on fisheries

(including damaged gear, decreased catches), to loss of ecosystem services (GESAMP

2015). Research on microplastics indicates that ingestion of microplastics by marine

organisms can cause a range of effects, including blockage of intestinal tracts,

inflammation, oxidative stress, hormone disruption, reproductive impact, and metabolic

and behavioral changes (Wright, Thompson, and Galloway 2013). However, recent

research finds that exposure to smaller, nanoplastic particles is more likely to cause

adverse outcomes (Rochman et al. 2016). The impacts of micro- and nanoplastics on

marine environments at the ecosystem level are largely unexplored, but may include

changes in nutrient cycles and food chains as well as changes in microbial communities

growing on plastics (Zettler, Mincer, and Amaral-Zettler 2013).

Currently, there are several global efforts aiming at action for reducing and preventing

marine pollution and for mitigating its impacts. Accordingly, management of this waste

needs support not only on the global scale, but also at national and local levels. There is a

large gap in international hard law specifically dealing with land-based plastic marine

pollution. The United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS) Part XII (articles

192–237) is dedicated to the protection and preservation of the marine environment.

States are required to take all measures “that are necessary to prevent, reduce and control

pollution of the marine environment from any source, using for this purpose the best

practicable means at their disposal and in accordance with their capabilities, and they
shall endeavor to harmonize their policies in this connection”(Article 194). Efforts should

be made to adhere to and strengthen existing international legislative frameworks that

address marine plastic pollution. International collaboration is necessary to reduce the

demand for single-use plastic products, shift to a sustainable plastics economy, and

improve waste management infrastructure that promotes zero-waste. Regional and

national governments should also explore national legislative frameworks on Extended

Producer Responsibility. These are emerging as innovative, low-cost solutions, as are

policies to promote circular economies. Governments, research institutions and industries

need to work collaboratively to redesign products, and rethink their use and disposal to

reduce microplastic waste. Countries should also come together to establish measurable

reduction targets for plastic waste, aimed toward zero-waste, stimulating actions that

reduce marine plastic pollution. Consumers and society must shift to more sustainable

consumption patterns. This will require solutions which go beyond waste management

and consider the whole lifecycle of plastic products; from design to infrastructure, and

household use. No single solution will stop marine plastic pollution. As individuals and a

contributer to the pollution, it is necessary for us to reduce our demand for single-use

plastic products, shift to a sustainable plastics economy, and improve waste management

infrastructure that promotes zero-waste. To do this, we must commit to specific,

measurable, time-bound targets to reduce plastic emissions into our oceans.

The problem of marine plastic pollution is rooted in the production-consumption pattern

of our societies and the way countries manage and dispose their waste (Chen, 2015;

Hugo, 2018). There is no doubt that plastics already severely pollute the environment and
also affect the marine ecosystem. Variable impacts of common debris items on the health

of marine wildlife were identified, with entanglement by fishing-related gear, balloons

and plastic bags emerging as the greatest threat to seabirds, sea turtles and marine

mammals. However, a wide variety of other items posed at least some threat to these

organisms through either ingestion, contamination or both, suggesting that a

comprehensive approach to preventing plastics from entering the ocean is vitally needed.

This work points towards a number of opportunities for both policy-based and consumer-

driven changes in plastics use that could have demonstrable effects on a range marine

species that are ecologically important and serve as indicators of marine ecosystem

health.
 References

Ferraro, G., & Failler, P. (2020). Governing plastic pollution in the oceans: Institutional

challenges and areas for action. Environmental Science & Policy, 112, 453–460.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2020.06.015

Kurniawan, S. B., Abdullah, S. R. S., Imron, M. F., & Ismail, N. A. (2021). Current state of

marine plastic pollution and its technology for more eminent evidence: A review. Journal

of Cleaner Production, 278, 123537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123537

Borrelle, S. B., Rochman, C. M., Liboiron, M., Bond, A. L., Lusher, A., Bradshaw, H., &

Provencher, J. F. (2017). Why we need an international agreement on marine plastic

pollution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of

America, 114(38), 9994–9997. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1714450114

Sigler, M. (2014). The effects of plastic pollution on aquatic wildlife: Current situations and

future solutions. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 225(11). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-

014-2184-6

Almroth, B. C., & Eggert, H. (2019). Marine plastic pollution: sources, impacts, and policy

issues. Review of Environmental Economics and Policy, 13(2), 317–326.

https://doi.org/10.1093/reep/rez012

Cózar, A., Echevarrı́A, F., González-Gordillo, J. I., Irigoien, X., Úbeda, B., Hernández‐León, S.,

Palma, Á. T., Navarro, S., García-De-Lomas, J., Ruiz, A., Fernández-De-Puelles, M., &

Duarte, C. M. (2014). Plastic debris in the open ocean. Proceedings of the National
 Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(28), 10239–10244.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1314705111

Dauvergne, P. (2018). Why is the global governance of plastic failing the oceans? Global

Environmental Change, 51, 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.05.002

Jambeck, J., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T. R., Perryman, M. E., Andrady, A. L., Narayan, R.,

& Law, K. L. (2015). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347(6223),

768–771. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260352

Löhr, A., Savelli, H., Beunen, R., Kalz, M., Ragas, A., & Van Belleghem, F. (2017). Solutions

for global marine litter pollution. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 28,

90–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2017.08.009

Marine plastic pollution. (n.d.). IUCN. https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/marine-

plastic-pollution

Marine pollution. (n.d.). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/marine-pollution/

Ocean plastics pollution. (n.d.). https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/ocean_plastics/

Schmaltz, E., Melvin, E. C., Diana, Z., Gunady, E. F., Rittschof, D., Somarelli, J. A., Virdin, J.,

& Dunphy‐Daly, M. M. (2020). Plastic pollution solutions: emerging technologies to

prevent and collect marine plastic pollution. Environment International, 144, 106067.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106067

The Ocean Cleanup. (2024, February 1). Ocean Plastic Pollution Explained • The Ocean

Cleanup. https://theoceancleanup.com/ocean-plastic/#what-is-the-impact-of-plastic-

pollution

Tibbetts, J. (2015). Managing Marine Plastic Pollution: Policy initiatives to address wayward

waste. Environmental Health Perspectives, 123(4). https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.123-a90

Villarrubia-Gómez, P., Cornell, S., & Fabrés, J. (2018). Marine plastic pollution as a planetary

boundary threat – The drifting piece in the sustainability puzzle. Marine Policy, 96, 213–

220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.11.035

Vince, J., & Hardesty, B. D. (2018). Governance solutions to the tragedy of the commons that

marine plastics have become. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00214

Fava, M. F. (2022, June 9). Ocean plastic pollution an overview: data and statistics. Ocean

Literacy Portal. https://oceanliteracy.unesco.org/plastic-pollution-ocean/

Thushari, G., & Senevirathna, J. (2020). Plastic pollution in the marine environment. Heliyon,

6(8), e04709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04709

UNESCO Ocean Literacy. (2022, October 25). UNESCO Ocean Literacy | Sharing the world’s

ocean Knowledge. Ocean Literacy Portal. https://oceanliteracy.unesco.org/?post-

types=all&sort=popular

Ritchie, H. (2023, December 28). Where does the plastic in our oceans come from? Our World

in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/ocean-plastics

Hutchinson, B. (2024, February 12). 7 Solutions to ocean plastic pollution. Oceanic Society.

https://www.oceanicsociety.org/resources/7-ways-to-reduce-ocean-plastic-pollution-

today/

Kantai, T. (n.d.). The road to a treaty on (Marine) plastic pollution. International Institute for

Sustainable Development. https://www.iisd.org/articles/policy-analysis/treaty-marine-

plastic-pollution
Ocean plastic pollution threatens marine extinction says new study. (2023, March 7). World

Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/02/extinction-threat-ocean-

plastic-pollution/

Rannard, B. G. (2023, March 8). Oceans littered with 171 trillion plastic pieces. BBC News.

https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-64889284