Dynamics of Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum Nonconservation

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Dynamics of Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum Nonconservation
Technical Report · June 2022

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19775.18080
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Vol. 7, 2022-09
Dynamics of Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum

Nonconservation
Hugo Hernandez
ForsChem Research, 050030 Medellin, Colombia
hugo.hernandez@forschem.org
doi:
Abstract
The equations of motion describing rotation are similar to the conventional equations of
translational motion by considering angular velocity instead of velocity, angular acceleration
instead of acceleration, torque instead of force, moment of inertia instead of mass, and angular
momentum instead of linear momentum. However, unlike total linear momentum, the total
angular momentum of a system is not a conservative property. In order to understand this
phenomenon, the dynamic equations of rotational motion are derived from the equations of
translational motion. It is shown that angular momentum is relative to the reference point of
observation, and to the particular scale of observation considered. A clear distinction is made
between internal rotation about the center of mass of the body, and external rotation about
any other reference point. The conservation of total linear momentum implies that a body must
necessarily experience internal rotation. Whenever a body is observed to externally rotate, in
reality we are observing two or more different motions simultaneously as a result of the
interaction between many different bodies.
Keywords
Angular Acceleration, Angular Momentum, Angular Velocity, Composite Bodies, Conservative
Properties, Energy, Forces, Fundamental Atoms, Interaction, Kinematic Equilibrium, Linear
Momentum, Moment of Inertia, Multiscale, Rotational Motion, Torque
1. Introduction
The linear momentum of a certain object of mass m, moving with a given velocity , is simply
defined as the product of its mass and velocity [1]:
(1.1)
Cite as: Hernandez, H. (2022). Dynamics of Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
Nonconservation. ForsChem Research Reports, 7, 2022-09, 1 - 28. Publication Date: 24/06/2022.
Dynamics of Rotational Motion and
Angular Momentum Nonconservation
Hugo Hernandez
ForsChem Research
Considering Newton’s third law of motion [2], it is possible to show that the linear momentum
of a system of interacting bodies is naturally preserved [3]. This phenomenon is known as the
law of conservation of momentum [4].
The translational kinetic energy of a body associated to its linear momentum can be
expressed as [1]:
(1.2)
Since the linear momentum is conserved, the kinetic energy associated to such motion does
not necessarily remain constant. However, the total energy (kinetic plus potential energy) of an
isolated system is conserved (law of energy conservation) [3,5].
On the other hand, the angular momentum of the same body of mass , rotating about an
arbitrary reference axis at angular velocity , is defined as [6]:
(1.3)
where is the moment of inertia of the body, given by:
(1.4)
and is the radius of gyration of the body (shortest distance between the center of mass of
the body and the arbitrary reference axis).
Of course this is a simplified expression. For a body composed by elements, a more general
definition of the moment of inertia is:
(1.5)
where represents the mass of each element of the body, and the corresponding radius
of gyration of the center of mass of the element.
The angular velocity is related to the instantaneous linear velocity of the body by [7]:
(1.6)
24/06/2022 ForsChem Research Reports Vol. 7, 2022-09 (2 / 28)

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The kinetic energy of the body associated to rotational motion is given by [8]:
(1.7)
In the absence of external torques [9], angular momentum is conserved [6]. Thus, for an
isolated system the total energy, linear momentum and angular momentum should remain
constant. However, there are some situations where the independence of these laws is
challenged.
Let us consider for example an isolated system comprising several diatomic molecules having
inertial motion without any rotation. According to the energy equipartition theorem [10], after
several collisions between them, the total translational energy is expected to be equally
distributed as translational kinetic energy in three directions, but also as rotational kinetic
energy in two different degrees of freedom§. While there is no torque “external” to the
system, there is a change in the angular moment of the molecules. This apparent contradiction
can be resolved by clearly identifying the rotating body (molecules instead of the whole
system) and the forces acting on it. As it will be seen in Section 5, only forces “external” to the
body can cause a net torque on the body.
In another example, let us consider the classical situation of a spinning ice skater, whose
angular velocity changes just by changing the position of the arms (changing the moment of
inertia) [6]. If we consider the skater as an isolated system, the change in the moment of
inertia from to results in the following rotational velocity (according to the conservation of
angular momentum):
(1.8)
But at the same time, the conservation of the total energy of the skater (translational,
rotational and potential due to gravity) results in**:
(1.9)
So, unless the moment of inertia remains constant, one of these two equations is invalid.
§
And eventually, it can also include vibrational kinetic energy terms.
**
Assuming no translational motion and no change in the position of the center of mass of the skater.

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Recent experiments using smartphone gyroscopes have confirmed the conservation of angular
momentum but not the conservation of rotational kinetic energy [11]. However, additional
experiments, also with smartphone gyroscopes, have shown that the total energy is conserved
[12]. Different experimental results on the conservation of angular momentum during
Aharonov-Bohm scattering have led to contradictory conclusions [13,14]. Also, molecular
simulation methods have also been found to violate the conservation of angular momentum
apparently without any problem [15], whereas other results have shown relevant non-physical
behaviors [16,17].
While total energy and linear momentum conservation are always conserved, angular
momentum is only conserved under particular situations. Not meeting those conditions is most
probably the cause of all those contradictory conclusions. Such conditional conservation also
raises the question of whether angular momentum can be truly considered a conservative
property, or simply a property that remains constant under certain particular conditions.
On the other hand, an interesting phenomenon occurs in the presence of net torques as
translational motion becomes rotational motion. For example, when pushing a merry-go-
round, or hitting a basketball to make it spin on a finger. In addition, rotational motion can also
be observed to become translational motion, for example, when an object is released by
someone in a merry-go-round, when a rotating wheel hits a loose object, or when a swinging
bat hits a baseball. Also, many rotating objects are observed to eventually translate without an
evident external influence, like a curved ball in baseball, soccer, and other sports. All these
phenomena can be better understood by considering the dynamics of rotational motion. Also,
it can help understand angular momentum and the conditions for its conservation; and most
importantly, the relation between rotational motion and linear momentum.
2. Understanding Torque
The torque (vector) applied by a force (vector) on a body is defined as follows [9]:
(2.1)
where is the minimum distance vector between the point of application of the force and the
axis of rotation of the body (as illustrated in Figure 1), and the operator represents the cross
product between vectors.
While this definition may seem clear and straightforward, there are some difficulties in its
interpretation, for example:

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 Is the axis of rotation always fixed and previously known, or is it changing as a result of
the forces applied on the body?
 Is there a single axis of rotation, or can more than one axis of rotation exist
simultaneously for the same body? If that is the case, which axis should be considered?
 Can the rotation of the body around an internal axis be considered simultaneously with
the rotation of the center of mass of the body around an external axis?
 What happens if the body is not rigid? Does it affect the definition of the torque?
 Can a single force create a torque, or at least two forces are required?
 Why has torque a direction? Why is the motion of the body not taking place in that
direction?
Figure 1. Force and torque acting on a body rotating around an axis.
In order to better understand torque and try to solve these questions, we must first realize that
our macroscopic physical world is composed of different elements and structures, which at the
same time are composed of lower-scale elements and structures. While this structural down-
scaling might occur indefinitely, by considering the atomic theory, eventually we will reach
some basic elements constitutive of matter. Those elements are not the chemical atoms known
today, because they are also composed of smaller entities such as protons, electrons, etc. The
“true” or fundamental atoms are indivisible units of mass, without any internal structure.
Therefore, those entities can be considered incapable of showing internal motion††, but only
external motion (translation). Also, due to the lack of internal structure we can assume that
they are perfectly rigid. Finally, let us assume that they are simply dots, which can be
represented by perfectly spherical shapes.
††
Internal motion means that the relative velocity between two internal elements is different from zero.

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Let us now consider a composite body ( ) comprising two basic elements or fundamental
atoms ( and ) as depicted in Figure 2, where the interaction between the components
creates a stable kinematic equilibrium [7]. That is, the repulsive and attractive forces exactly
compensate resulting in a zero net interaction force. If the components slightly separate from
each other, the attractive force becomes larger than the repulsive interaction. If they get
slightly closer, the repulsive force becomes larger than the attractive interaction. This interplay
of forces guarantees that the components remain at a stable equilibrium distance. Interaction
potential energy functions leading to stable kinematic equilibrium are characterized by the
presence of a “potential well”. Examples of such interaction functions include the Lennard-
Jones potential model [18], the Buckingham potential model [19], the Morse potential model
[20], and the harmonic potential model [7], just to mention a few.
Figure 2. Composite body with two elementary components in kinematic equilibrium.
Any interaction between two individual elements of matter will inevitably lead to two different
forces of identical magnitude but acting on different directions, corresponding to the net
forces acting on each element. This is basically Newton’s third law of motion. As a result of this
symmetry, linear momentum is necessarily and inevitably conserved [3]. Also, as a result of
motion and interaction, the total energy of the composite body, including the kinetic energy of
the individual elements and the potential energy between them, will always remain constant
[3]. In fact, all these types of energies are merely mathematical definitions, obtained from the
equations of motion and interaction, and thus, energy conservation is a self-evident truth. On
the other hand, the internal angular momentum and internal rotational energy of an
elementary atom is simply zero or non-existent. Thus, so far nothing can be inferred about
angular momentum conservation.

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At this point, let us introduce the definition of the net internal torque :
∑( )
(2.2)
The net internal torque acting on a body is defined as the sum of cross products between the
relative position vector of the point of application of each force ( ) with respect to the
center of mass of the body ( ), and the corresponding force vector acting on the body.
The interaction between elementary atoms is always exerted on their centers of mass. Thus,
the term is the vector zero, and therefore the net internal torque acting on elementary
atoms is necessarily always zero. This is consistent with the previous assumption of
impossibility of internal rotation of elementary atoms.
Going back to the composite body presented in Figure 2, its center of mass will be:
( )
(2.3)
where is the mass of an elementary atom, is the total mass of

the composite body , and is the position vector of the center of mass of a specific body .
Let us now consider that a third elementary atom approaches the composite body and
interact with its components with non-zero net forces, as illustrated in Figure 3. The forces
acting on body are and , applied at and , respectively.
Figure 3. Interaction between a composite body and an external element.

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In this case, the net internal torque acting on composite body as a result of its interaction
with element is:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(2.4)
While there is a non-zero internal torque acting on body , the net internal torque acting on the
elementary atom is still zero. Also notice that the net internal torque acting on is in this
case equivalent to the internal torque that would be exerted if a differential force were applied
at only one of its components. Such differential force corresponds to the force acting on the
selected component minus the force acting on the other component, because they are causing
torques in opposite directions. Of course, this is only a particular case for a -body composite.
If the composite body comprises different elementary atoms, the net internal torque
obtained as a result of its interaction with body will be:
∑( )
(2.5)
where , the center of mass of the composite body, is:
∑ ∑ ∑
(2.6)
Thus, Eq. (2.5) becomes:
∑( ∑ )
(2.7)
So far, the internal torque is simply a mathematical definition with no physical meaning. In the
following Section we will analyze the effect of a net internal torque on a composite body.

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3. Translational and Rotational Motion Dynamics of Composite Bodies
In this Section, the dynamic behavior of a composite body comprising different elements is
considered.
First of all, the rate of change in the position of the center of mass of the composite body will
be (from Eq. 2.6):
(3.1)
Rearranging terms we find:
(3.2)
Eq. (3.2) indicates that the linear momentum of the composite body is the sum of the linear
momenta of individual components. This expression also shows that the transformation of
individual elements (microscale) into a composite body (macroscale) preserves the linear
momentum and therefore, the law of linear momentum conservation remains valid
independently of the scale of observation considered.
Now, the second derivative in the position of the center of mass of the composite body is
(from Eq. 3.1):
(3.3)
Rearranging terms again we obtain:
(3.4)
Eq. (3.4) indicates that the net force acting on the composite body is simply the sum of the net
forces acting on the individual components, independently on the point of application of the
different forces. The conclusion so far is that the location of individual forces on a body does not
affect its macroscale translational motion, that is, the motion of the center of mass of the body.

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If we now compare the kinetic energy observed at the microscale (considering the individual
kinetic energy of the components) with the kinetic energy observed at the macroscale
(translational kinetic energy of the composite body) we notice a difference, which will be
denoted as internal kinetic energy of the composite body [21]:
∑ ( ) ( )
∑ ( ) (∑ ) (∑ )
(3.5)
Thus, the internal kinetic energy of the composite body is determined by the velocities of the
individual components, which in turn are influenced by the net force acting on each one of
them:
( ) ( ) ( )
∫
(3.6)
where is the current time and is an arbitrary previous reference time.
Eq. (3.5) then becomes:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∑ (( ∫ ) ( ∫ ))
( ) ( )
( ∫ ∑ ( ) ) ( ∫ ∑ ( ) )
(3.7)
In other words, the sum of forces acting on a composite body determines the translational
motion of the body, but the locations of those forces determine the internal motion of its
components.
Let us now define the relative position of the center of mass of each component with respect
to the center of mass of the composite body as follows:
(3.8)

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Therefore,
(3.9)
Replacing Eq. (3.9) in Eq. (3.2), and simplifying we obtain:
(3.10)
indicating that the net relative linear momentum of the composite body is zero (vector zero),
as it might be expected, because we are not considering the translation of the body.
Also, replacing Eq. (3.9) in Eq. (3.4) and rearranging we find:
∑ ∑
(3.11)
indicating that the sum of relative forces (based on relative accelerations) acting on the
body is also zero (vector zero).
The relative force is related to the actual force by the following expression:
(3.12)
Finally, the internal kinetic energy becomes (from Eq. 3.5 and 3.9):
∑ ( )
(3.13)
The term is the relative velocity of each element with respect to the center of mass of the
body. This relative velocity can be decomposed into two velocity components: The first ( )
aligned with the relative position vector , and the second ( ), perpendicular to the
relative position vector :
(3.14)
such that:

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(3.15)
(3.16)
Therefore, each velocity component can be determined as follows:
( )
(3.17)
(3.18)
Notice that in a -dimensional system, there are infinite directions perpendicular to the relative
position vector. The particular perpendicular direction is therefore determined by Eq. (3.18).
The perpendicular velocity vector and the relative position vector determine a plane of
relative motion. Let us now arbitrarily define a Cartesian coordinate system with origin at the
center of mass of the composite body, such as the unit directions ̂ ( -axis) and ̂ ( -axis)
also determine the same plane of relative motion of the particular element considered, as
shown in Figure 4. Then, an angle is formed between the -axis and the relative position
vector.
Figure 4. Plane of relative motion for a particular element in the composite body, and arbitrary
Cartesian coordinate system.
This angle can be determined as follows:
( )
(3.18)
where and are the components of in the - and -directions, respectively:

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̂ ̂
(3.19)
The rate of change in this relative angle for the particular element considered is the angular
speed:
( ) ( )
(3.20)
Now, considering that:
(3.21)
and
( ̂ ̂ ) ( ̂ ̂ )
( ) (̂ ̂ ) ( )̂
(3.22)
we can define the angular velocity vector as:
(3.23)
where ̂ represents the unit vector normal to the plane of motion, considering a counter-
clockwise motion. Notice that the angular velocity vector is introduced for mathematical
simplicity, as the direction of this vector helps describe the plane of motion.
In addition, notice that (using Eq. 3.17 and 3.18):
( ) ( )
(3.24)
On the other hand, the corresponding angular acceleration vector is:
(3.25)

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Then, from Eq. (3.23) the angular acceleration vector is equivalent to:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
(3.26)
If we now define the moment of inertia of the component with respect to the center of mass
of the composite body as:
(3.27)
Then, Eq. (3.26) can be expressed as follows:
( )
(3.28)
And rearranging:
( )
(3.29)
The term is denoted as the angular momentum of each component relative to the
center of mass of the composite body:
(3.30)
Now, since ∑ (Eq. 3.12), we have:
( ∑ ) ∑
( ) ∑
(3.31)

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Eq. (3.31) shows that the angular momentum vector of an element changes when a non-zero net
torque is acting on the element, unless such torque is compensated by other forces applied on the
body:
( ) ∑
(3.32)
Also, from Eq. (2.5) and (3.31) we find that the rate of change in the internal angular
momentum vector of the composite body , defined as:
∑ ∑
(3.33)
is:
∑ ∑( ∑ ) ∑ ∑ ∑
∑ ( ) ( )
(3.34)
where ∑ is net internal torque of the composite body .
Notice that the plane of motion of each component is not necessarily the same, and these
differences are reflected on the direction of angular momentum vector, which is perpendicular
to the net plane of internal motion of the composite body.
Now, the internal energy of the composite body (Eq. 3.13) can be expressed as follows (using
Eq. 3.14, 3.17, 3.18, and 3.23):
∑ ( ) ∑ (( ) ( )) ∑ ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
∑ ∑
( )
∑ ∑ ( )( ) ∑ ( ) ∑
(3.35)

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The term represents a radial internal kinetic energy:
∑ ( )
(3.36)
whereas the term represents a rotational internal kinetic energy:
(3.37)
The radial internal kinetic energy emerges as a result of changes in the moment of inertia of
each component.
4. Conditional Conservation of Internal Angular Momentum
Up to this point, we have all the basic elements required to understand the behavior of internal
angular momentum. Let us consider again Eq. (3.34) obtained for a composite body:
(4.1)
This expression indicates that the rate of change in internal angular momentum for the body is
equivalent to the net internal torque of a composite body (with respect to its center of mass).
Let us recall that the direction of the angular momentum vector describes the perpendicular
internal plane of motion. It does not necessarily mean that all components of the body will
move on such plane, but it is an equivalent plane resulting from the combination of the
individual internal motion of the components.
Thus, if the net internal torque acting on the body is , then the internal angular momentum of
the body remains constant. Let us now consider two basic situations: First, a single, isolated
composite body with interacting components, and second, two different composite bodies
interacting with each other.
In the first case, we have a composite body comprising different interacting elements.
Figure 5 illustrates this body, particularly showing an arbitrary pair of elements ( and ) with
their corresponding interactions. The net force acting on the composite body as a result of this
pair interaction is:

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( )
(4.2)
since . Thus, the interaction between elements has no effect on the translational
motion of the composite body. This result is consistent with Eq. (3.11).
Figure 5. Pair interaction (repulsion) between elements in a single composite body.
On the other hand, the net internal torque exerted on the composite body by the interaction
forces is (from Eq. 3.33 and 3.29):
( ) ( )
(4.3)
The last cross product is zero because is parallel to , the relative position
between the centers of mass of the elements.
This means that interactions between elements in a body have no effect on the internal angular
momentum of the composite body. Thus, we might conclude that the internal angular
momentum of a body in the absence of external forces remains constant even when interactions
between elements cause internal motion.
Let us now consider the pair interaction between two elements ( and ) from different
composite bodies ( and ) as depicted in Figure 6. The net force acting on each composite
body as a result of the interaction is:
( ) ( )
(4.4)

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Figure 6. Pair interaction (attraction) between elements in different composite bodies.
Therefore, the interaction between elements of different bodies has an effect on the
translation of the bodies. On the other hand, the effect of the interaction on the internal
torque on each composite body is:
( )
(4.5)
( )
(4.6)
Thus, if no other forces are acting on the bodies,
(4.7)
(4.8)

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As a result, it is highly unlikely that we can obtain a constant internal angular momentum
during the interaction between two different composite bodies, unless the direction of the
force is aligned towards the center of mass of the bodies.
The fact that the internal angular momentum is constant when the net internal torque is zero
does not necessarily imply that the internal angular momentum is a conservative property. On
the contrary, given that the internal angular momentum changes as result of interactions
between composite bodies we can conclude that the internal angular momentum is not a
conservative property. In this sense, it is different from truly conservative properties such as
total energy or total linear momentum, which are unconditionally conserved.
5. Multiscale Rotational Motion
Probably the main difficulty with the concept of angular momentum arises due to the
multiscale nature of this property. Let us for example consider the multiscale system depicted
in Figure 7.
Figure 7. System with different definitions of composite bodies at different scales.

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At the lowest scale (Scale I), the system comprises elementary bodies (incapable of internal
rotation). At the next scale (Scale II), these elementary bodies are grouped into composite
bodies , and . In the following scale (Scale III), bodies and form the composite
body , while remains unchanged. In the top scale (Scale IV), all elements are part of the
composite body .
We will now consider only the attraction force between elements and ,
located at composite bodies and , respectively.
Observing the system at Scale I, we notice that the forces are exerted on the corresponding
centers of mass of the elements, and therefore the internal torque on each element is:
(5.1)
(5.2)
Therefore, at Scale I, the angular momentum of all elements is constant. Furthermore, the
angular momentum of all individual elements is zero because there is no internal rotation.
At Scale II, we have:
(5.3)
( )
(5.4)
( )
(5.5)
Thus, angular momenta of bodies and , at Scale II, are not constant. This is interesting,
because nothing has changed in the system except the scale of observation. In addition, we
can verify that the total angular momentum is not constant either:
( ) ( )
(( ) ( ))
(5.6)

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Eq. (5.6) yields a zero vector only when:
 The magnitude of the interaction force is exactly zero.

 The position of the center of mass of composite body relative to the center of mass
of composite body is exactly identical to the position of the center of mass of
element relative to the center of mass of element .
The rate of change in internal angular momentum at Scale III is exactly the same for composite
body , but for it is:
( )
(5.7)
and the corresponding rate of change in total angular momentum is:
( ) ( )
(( ) ( ))
(5.8)
which is, in general, not only different from zero, but also different from the rate of change in
total angular momentum observed at Scale II.
Finally, let us consider composite body at Scale IV:
( ) ( ) ( )
(5.9)
Thus, when the composite body contains all elements, the internal angular momentum of the
body is again constant, as it was shown in Section 4.
In conclusion, internal angular momentum is relative to the scale of observation and to the
particular definition of the body. Under certain circumstances, namely when the net torque
acting on the body is zero, angular momentum remains constant. However, depending on the
particular definition of the body, the net torque can be zero or different from zero, even when
the forces acting on the system are the same. Thus, angular momentum conservation depends
on the scale of observation. For this reason, internal angular momentum cannot be considered a
conservative property. Notice that linear momentum and energy are truly conservative
properties because they always remain constant independently of the scale of observation.

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6. External Torque and Angular Momentum
So far we have considered the behavior of internal torque and its effect on the dynamics of
internal angular momentum of a body, that is, referred always to the center of mass of the
body. However, we may define the rate of change in angular momentum, in general, with
respect to any arbitrary reference point in space. Thus, we have for a single external force
applied on the body:
( )
(6.1)
where is the torque caused by a force applied at point , determined with respect to
the reference point , and is the net angular momentum of the body with respect to .
The arbitrary reference point can be located either inside or outside a material body. The
application point of the force, on the other hand, must be necessarily located inside the body.
Furthermore, a corresponding reaction force (equal magnitude but opposite direction) must
necessarily be applied at a different body‡‡. If corresponds to the center of mass of the body,
then we have the internal torque and angular momentum. In any other case we would have an
external torque and angular momentum, even if is still located inside the body.
Now, any reference point located in an infinite straight line passing through and aligned
with the direction of the force applied will result in zero torque, and in a constant angular
momentum. However, any other reference point will have non-zero torque and change in
angular momentum. This makes the definition of the reference point an important question.
The initial definition given in Eq. (2.1) required the reference point to be along the axis of
rotation of the body. However, this concept may also be relative.
Let us consider a system similar to the one depicted in Figure 2, where a composite body is
formed by two elements ( and ). Let us now assume that element is moving relative to
element , and there is a net attractive force resulting in a circular orbit as shown in Figure 8a.
This periodic motion represents a macroscale kinematic equilibrium condition [7]. The center of
mass of the composite body also describes a circular orbit around . Therefore, seems to be
located on the axis of rotation, which is perpendicular to the plane of motion.
However, since motion is relative, we may also observe the system from element . In this
case, element (and the center of mass) is moving in a circular orbit around , as illustrated in
Figure 8b. The orbits have the same size than in the previous case. In this alternative, element
seems to be located on the axis of rotation of the system instead of element .
‡‡
A reaction force located in the same body does not create a net torque as it was shown in Eq. (4.3).

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Figure 8. Relative rotation of two elements in a composite body . a) Motion relative to

element . b) Motion relative to element . c) Motion relative to the center of mass of body .
d) Motion relative to an arbitrary reference point .
Now, if the motion of the body is observed from its center of mass then elements and will
appear to move following concentric orbits, as presented in Figure 8c. These orbits are smaller
than the corresponding orbits observed in previous cases and the relative speeds of the
elements are consequently reduced. For this third case, neither nor , but their center of
mass is located on the axis of rotation. If the masses are identical, the elements will follow the
exact same orbit.
Finally, let us assume that the body is rotating around an arbitrary reference position , as
shown in Figure 8d. Notice that the relative motions observed from the different references as
shown in Figure 8a to Figure 8c remain unchanged.
Since the interaction forces compensate each other resulting in a net torque of zero, the
angular momentum remains constant in all cases. However, the magnitude of the angular
momentum is different in each situation, particularly if the masses of and are different.

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Hugo Hernandez
ForsChem Research
Something similar occurs with the total energy of the system, which remains constant but the
magnitude of the total energy is different in each case. However, the total linear momentum
vector only remains constant when the body rotates around its center of mass. Notice that the
total linear momentum of the system is (consider the notation used in Figure 4):
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(6.2)
where is the angular velocity of the elements with respect to .
Notice also that the following equality holds from the definition of the center of mass between
bodies and ( ):
( )
(6.3)
Thus, Eq. (6.2) becomes:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(6.4)
Since the mass of the elements and the angular velocity are in this case constant, then the total
linear momentum is conserved only if the relative position vector of the center of mass
with respect to the reference point remains constant. However, the center of mass is also
expected to move around the reference point as it can be seen in Figure 8d. Therefore, linear
momentum can only be conserved when . In other words, a composite system must
necessarily rotate around its center of mass (Figure 8c). Of course, if one of the bodies is much
more massive than the other (e.g. a massive proton compared to a much lighter electron in a
Hydrogen atom), the center of mass of the composite body will be located near the center of
mass of the heavier element, giving the impression of rotation around the massive body, while
in reality they are both rotating around their center of mass.
This may seem counterintuitive as we may have seen bodies rotating around points different
from their centers of mass (e.g. an unbalanced wheel, or a wrench turning around a bolt). In
order to understand this, let us consider again Figure 8d. The behavior depicted in this case is
physically not possible because rotation requires a net attractive force directed towards the
reference point, and such force requires the presence of at least another body located in the
direction between the center of mass and the reference point . Now, if we have a third
body as shown in Figure 9, the composite body and the body will rotate around their
corresponding center of mass located at . At the very same time, elements and can be
simultaneously rotating around .

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Hugo Hernandez
ForsChem Research
Figure 9. Rotational motion between a composite body comprising two elements and ,
and a third body .
The complexity of this system is greatly increased. The blue dashed line at and the center
of mass of denotes the net attractive force exerted between body and the composite
body . However, these net forces are the result of the individual attractive forces acting
between or with . Solid circular orbits indicate the motion of each element observed from
the center of mass between and . Dot-dashed lines indicate the relative motion of elements
and observed from their center of mass .
As the number of elements involved increases, as well as the interaction forces between them,
the complexity of the system increases, giving rise to a wide variety of rotational motion
regimes. All of these regimes can be explained by the simultaneous translational motion of the
centers of mass of the different components, coupled with the rotational motion around the
corresponding centers of mass of interacting elements. Notice that an unbalanced wheel
rotates around the center because there is a shaft interacting with the wheel. Similarly, the
wrench turns around the bolt because the bolt interacts with another massive object limiting
the degrees of freedom of motion of the bolt. Nevertheless, the total linear momentum and
total energy of the system must always remain constant. On the other hand, angular
momentum does not necessarily remains constant. It only remains constant when there is a
zero net torque acting on the composite body observed at a particular scale.

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Hugo Hernandez
ForsChem Research
7. Conclusion
The dynamic equations of rotational motion were derived from the conventional equations of
translational motion. A clear distinction is made between internal rotation (around the center
of mass of the body) and external rotation (around any other reference point). It was also
shown that only internal rotation is consistent with the conservation of total linear momentum
of a system. External rotation is an apparent situation involving different regimes of rotational
and/or translational motion taking place at different parts of the same body. It was also shown
that the dynamic behavior of the angular momentum changes with the scale of observation,
and with the definition of the body. As long as the net internal torque acting on the body (with
respect to its center of mass) the angular momentum will remain constant. However, the net
internal torque may change by changing the definition of the body. The fact that angular
momentum is not conserved unconditionally indicates that it is not a truly conservative
property like linear momentum or energy.
In addition, different questions were asked regarding the concept of torque and its relation
with rotational motion. The present analysis of rotational motion allows us to answer those
questions:
 Is the axis of rotation always fixed and previously known, or is it changing as a result of
the forces applied on the body?
A body always rotates around its center of mass. Any force applied on the body will
change its translational motion, and depending on the spatial location of the force it
may affect its rotational motion around the center of mass. The combination of
different motions due to the interaction of different bodies will result in a wide variety
of behaviors, giving the impression of changing the axis of rotation.
 Is there a single axis of rotation, or can more than one axis of rotation exist
simultaneously for the same body? If that is the case, which axis should be considered?
Depending on the particular definition of bodies in a system, different simultaneous
rotational motions can exist.
 Can the rotation of the body around an internal axis be considered simultaneously with
the rotation of the center of mass of the body around an external axis?
Yes. However, such external axis will be the center of mass of a larger scale object
containing the original body considered.
 What happens if the body is not rigid? Does it affect the definition of the torque?
The rigidity of the body has no effect on the definition of the torque. However, when a
body is not rigid, each element of the body can move at a different angular velocity, so
the observation of the rotational motion will not be evident as in the case of a rigid
body. This will also have an effect on the moment of inertia of the body, and resulting
in a radial internal kinetic energy not observed in rigid bodies.

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Hugo Hernandez
ForsChem Research
 Can a single force create a torque, or at least two forces are required?
While in principle the definition of the torque only requires a single force, interaction
forces between bodies always exist in complementary pairs.
 Why has torque a direction? Why is the motion of the body not taking place in that
direction?
The direction of the torque vector, as well as the direction of the angular velocity
vector, represents a perpendicular direction to the net plane of rotational motion of a
body.
Acknowledgment and Disclaimer
This report provides data, information and conclusions obtained by the author(s) as a result of original
scientific research, based on the best scientific knowledge available to the author(s). The main purpose
of this publication is the open sharing of scientific knowledge. Any mistake, omission, error or inaccuracy
published, if any, is completely unintentional.
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-
for-profit sectors.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC
4.0). Anyone is free to share (copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format) or adapt
(remix, transform, and build upon the material) this work under the following terms:
 Attribution: Appropriate credit must be given, providing a link to the license, and indicating if
changes were made. This can be done in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that
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 NonCommercial: This material may not be used for commercial purposes.
References
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Part 1. Topic 6. Section 6.1: Momentum and Impulse. pp. 161-166.
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physics-11e-serway/9781305952300.
[3] Hernandez, H. (2017). A Mathematical Reflection on the Origin of the Laws of Conservation of
Energy and Momentum. ForsChem Research Reports, 2, 2017-1, 1-17. doi:
10.13140/RG.2.2.28312.60167.
Part 1. Topic 6. Section 6.2: Conservation of Momentum. pp. 166-169.

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Hugo Hernandez
ForsChem Research
Part 1. Topic 5. Section 5.6: Systems and Energy Conservation. pp. 142-144.
Part 1. Topic 8. Section 8.6: Angular Momentum. pp. 249-253. https://www.cengage.com/c/college-
physics-11e-serway/9781305952300.
[7] Hernandez, H. (2021). Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium between Two Bodies. ForsChem Research
Reports, 6, 2021-16, 1-38. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.21064.85767.
Part 1. Topic 8. Section 8.5: Rotational Kinetic Energy. pp. 246-248.
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serway/9781305952300.
[10] Kaznessis, Y. N. (2012). Statistical Thermodynamics and Stochastic Kinetics. An Introduction for
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kinetics/5F613011744B750347F61FF6DDC26DF8.
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10.1119/1.4830076.
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Physics Teacher, 52(3), 180-181. doi: 10.1119/1.4865529.
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Dynamics of Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum

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Figure 1. Force and torque acting on a body rotating around an axis.

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Figure 2. Composite body with two elementary components in kinematic equilibrium.

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where is the mass of an elementary atom, is the total mass of

Figure 3. Interaction between a composite body and an external element.

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Thus, Eq. (2.5) becomes:

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3. Translational and Rotational Motion Dynamics of Composite Bodies

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where is the current time and is an arbitrary previous reference time.

Eq. (3.5) then becomes:

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Also, replacing Eq. (3.9) in Eq. (3.4) and rearranging we find:

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This angle can be determined as follows:

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In addition, notice that (using Eq. 3.17 and 3.18):

On the other hand, the corresponding angular acceleration vector is:

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The term represents a radial internal kinetic energy:

4. Conditional Conservation of Internal Angular Momentum

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Figure 5. Pair interaction (repulsion) between elements in a single composite body.

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Figure 6. Pair interaction (attraction) between elements in different composite bodies.

Thus, if no other forces are acting on the bodies,

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5. Multiscale Rotational Motion

Figure 7. System with different definitions of composite bodies at different scales.

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At Scale II, we have:

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Eq. (5.6) yields a zero vector only when:

 The magnitude of the interaction force is exactly zero.

Finally, let us consider composite body at Scale IV:

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6. External Torque and Angular Momentum

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Figure 8. Relative rotation of two elements in a composite body . a) Motion relative to

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Acknowledgment and Disclaimer

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