Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2009: Power for Land, Sea and Air

GT2009
June 8-12, 2009, Orlando, Florida, USA

GT2009-60058

DEVELOPMENT OF A ONE DIMENSIONAL DYNAMIC GAS TURBINE SECONDARY AIR SYSTEM

MODEL – PART I: TOOL COMPONENTS DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION

L. Gallar, C. Calcagni, V. Pachidis, P. Pilidis

Cranfield University
School of Engineering
Department of Power and Propulsion
MK43 0AL, Beds, United Kingdom
l.gallarredondo@cranfield.ac.uk

ABSTRACT initially broken down into a series of chambers of a finite

The Secondary Air System (SAS) of a jet engine is an volume connected by pipes that are initially modelled in
open system: there is a bleed off take from the compressor - at isolation and then interconnected. The resultant tool constitutes
the lowest possible pressure compatible with the sink where the a baseline onto which further improvements and modifications
flow is to be discharged -, the air then travels through the will be implemented in subsequent works.
internal cavities of the engine cooling down the compressor and This first part of the paper explains the mathematical
turbine discs and sealing and cooling bearing chambers. apparatus behind the model of the two main components of the
Eventually, the air is discharged at the turbine rims preventing SAS – chambers and pipes – isolated. Then the assumptions
the air of the main gas path from entering the internal made and the limitations that arise as a result are described
turbomachinery cavities that would damage the turbine thoroughly. Finally, the computational results obtained are
assembly. Ultimately the system is also primarily responsible successfully compared against experimental data available in
for determining the endloads exerted on the turbine discs. the public literature for validation.
The amount of air bled from the main gas path, although
necessary, impairs the engine performance because it is purged NOMENCLATURE
from the main engine cycle. In order to quantify and minimise Speed of sound
its pernicious effect, the usual practice is to model the engine A Area
SAS in steady state conditions with 1D network solvers where C Characteristic curve
the net nodes represent the various components of the system. cv Specific heat coefficient at constant volume
For usual engine transients it is sufficient to analyse the Fr Froude number
system performance with a quasi steady approach because the h Specific enthalpy
time constant of the air system is insignificant compared with k Heat conduction coefficient
the turbomachinery characteristic time. Nonetheless, the rapid l Characteristic length
changes that occur during slam accelerations or failure M Number of outlet ports
scenarios – particularly shaft failure events- call for a different n Polytropic coefficient
approach to calculate the endloads fluctuations. However, to the N Number of inlet ports
author’s knowledge, there is not such an approach to predict the p Pressure
transient response of the system available in the literature Pr Prandtl number
hitherto. S Entropy
The aim of the present research is to develop a dynamic St Strouhal number
model for gas turbine secondary air systems capable of tackling R Riemann invariant
the sudden changes in the flow properties that occur within the Re Reynolds number
system in the aforementioned cases. The whole system is t Time

1 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

Downloaded From: http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/31/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use

 T Temperature
u Flow velocity (modulus)
v Flow velocity
V Volume
w Riemann invariant
W Mass flow
Greek symbols, subscripts and superscripts:
α Thermal diffusivity
γ Specific heat coefficient
Depth of penetration of the thermal effects
Rayleigh’s dissipation function
Characteristic curve
π Non dimensional pressure
Density
τ Characteristic non dimensional time
Ω Rotational speed
e Exterior
i Inlet
o Outlet
t Total or stagnation
n Generic time step
* Critical conditions
1 INTRODUCTION
The secondary air system (SAS) of gas turbines has
attracted an increasing attention from the engineering
community based on the foundations laid by researchers like
Kutz and Speer in 1994 [1]. Whereas in the past the secondary
air system has been usually modelled as a standalone system
for design purposes, nowadays there is a growing tendency to
develop models of the air system for their inclusion in wider
tools such as performance prediction programs or merged into
thermomechanical codes [2]. The research carried out in this
topic comprises also CFD studies, most of which are dedicated
to the investigation of the interaction of the cooling flows with
the main gas path and the ingestion of hot gases into the SAS
cavities like those completed by Chew and Hills [3,4] or [5].
Furthermore, some work has been undertaken in the context of
some European collaborative research projects like the ICAS-
GT to address some of the challenges that this wide topic offers
[6,7,8]. The aim of this paper is to divulge an approach ideated
to develop a model for the air system during transient operation
such as slam accelerations and shaft failure scenarios in which
pressure peaks propagated across the conduits may be of
importance.
In essence, the SAS has been broken down into a series of
reservoirs connected by tubes in a similar fashion as that
described in Kutz and Speer [1], Muller [2] or Ebenhoch and
Speer [9]. However, unlike the studies mentioned that are
focused on the steady state behaviour of the system, during
transient operation the SAS is susceptible to experience reverse
flow in some of its branches and reach sonic conditions. It is for
this reason that a strategy based on empirically derived
correlations and parameters such as discharge coefficients for
2 Copyright © 2009 by ASME
Downloaded From: http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/31/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use
every single component is unfeasible at the present day due to
the lack of data at reverse flow conditions when a model able to
deal with flow that may pulsate indistinctly forwards and
backwards is required. The approach based solely on tanks
connected through nozzles by tubes is rather simple, and is
unable to capture the complex flow phenomena that occur
across other elements like restrictors, junctions and labyrinth
seals; however, it constitutes an outstanding starting tool into
which successive improved models for such elements can be
interspersed in-between components. Also the approach
explained herein enables the designer to readily modify the
layout of the SAS design and assess different design options.
Moreover, the model yields satisfactory preliminary results as it
is demonstrated in the second part of this paper, [29].
This first part of the paper reports the work done to derive
and validate the models for the isolated components whereas
the second part covers their integration into a single network
and its validation, together with some results for the
performance of the air system under a shaft failure event [29].
Furthermore, the second paper discusses the combination of
boundary conditions at the interfaces of the components
suitable to reach convergence of the whole system.
2 SIMULTANEOUS CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF A
PRESSURE VESSEL
2.1 Assumptions
The secondary air system contains a number of volumes
that have a filling time that must accompany a pressure change.
The assumptions upon which the mathematical models for the
charge and discharge of a vessel are built are two. First, it is
considered that the thermodynamic magnitudes in the vessel are
uniform – they do not change spatially and are only time
dependent - and second, the flow velocity in the vessel (region
I) is low apart from small localised regions such as the outlet
area in the case of the discharge and the inlet jet in the case of
the charge (region II). These two assumptions enable both
processes, charge and discharge, to be analysed easily with the
integral form of the Navier – Stokes equations. However,
whereas the latter is satisfied as long as the port of the vessel is
small compared with its volume in both processes (A/V 2/3<<1),
the physics the first assumption is founded on are different and
are explained below:
Discharge: as deduced from the state principle first
enounced by Kline and Koening [10] it is enough to
demonstrate the uniformity of two thermodynamic properties in
a simple homogeneous system to ensure the uniformity of all of
them. In the case of the discharge (fig. 1), it can be
demonstrated [11] that in the region close to the outlet port
(region II, small compared with the volume of the vessel) the
Reynolds number is high and despite the value of the Reynolds
number inside the vessel the pressure in the vessel can be
considered uniform. The entropy equation applied to the
discharging vessel provides:
 (1)

Again, following the approach explained in [11] it can be V, pt, Tt Ao

demonstrated that the entropy rise due to the viscous dissipation
can be neglected due to the fact that the Reynolds number at the
outlet is high (Re>>1). Multiplying the equation by the (I)
discharge time upon the gas specific heat coefficient at constant (II) Pe, Te
volume, td/cv, and rearranging the equation the effect of the heat
conduction into the vessel - represented by the middle term of
the eq. 1 - can be estimated to be of the order of

(2)

Figure 1 Discharging vessel

The magnitude δt ~ √αtd is the penetration depth of the
thermal effects. At the sight of eq. 2 two limit cases can be
distinguished. In the first case δt is small compared with the
vessel length; that is, the effect of heat conduction is confined Ai V, pt, Tt
to a thin layer close to the walls and hence the entropy can be
considered constant within the vessel and equal to its initial
value. On the contrary, in the second case the bulk of the fluid (II)
attains the temperature of the walls quickly enough for the (I)
Pe, Te
process to be isothermal. In any case, for both scenarios two
thermodynamic magnitudes are found to be uniform – pressure
and entropy in the first and pressure and temperature in the
second – enabling the discharge to be modelled as an isentropic
or isothermal process respectively.

Charge: unlike the discharge, under no circumstances the

process is isentropic because the mixing of the inlet jet with the Figure 2 Charging vessel
surrounding fluid makes the viscous and heat transfer effects in
eq.1 to be considerable (fig.2). However, the mixing process 2.2 Mathematical Apparatus
that takes place is extremely effective and forces the
temperature in the vessel to be uniform, although not Simultaneous charge and discharge: considering the
necessarily constant. It is therefore demonstrated that all the previous epigraph and assuming that the control volume is not
thermodynamic properties within the vessel are uniform during moving, and that the heat addition, buoyancy forces and flow
the charge process. velocity in the vast majority of the vessel are negligible, the
At the light of the previous discussion it can then be application of the mass flow continuity and the total energy
concluded that during the simultaneous charge and discharge of equations in their integral form to a vessel with N inlet and M
a vessel whose inlet and outlet areas are negligible in outlet ports eventually yields:
comparison with its volume, for the two limit cases of
isentropic and isothermal discharge, the thermodynamic
(3)
properties in the vessel are uniform. In the worst case scenario
analysed over a discharge time of 150ms the value of the ratio
V1/3 / δt is 20 and corresponds to the smallest vessel included in
the SAS network studied. In such scenario heat conduction into
the system is not to be disregarded; in any case, for such small
reservoir the assumption of the port area being much smaller (4)
than the volume of the vessel does no longer hold either,
suggesting a more suitable model for the component should be
pursued, perhaps based on a smoothly variable section duct
model. For all the other cases the aforementioned ratio is kept
well above 100.

3 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

Downloaded From: http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/31/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use

 Furthermore, utilising the perfect gas equations for the
total enthalpy and entropy the total energy equation can be
rearranged to give
(5)
Provided that the inlet and outlet mass flows are known,
the mass flow equation can be solved with the help of an Euler
scheme:
(6)
And once the density evolution is known the pressure can
be obtained in a similar fashion from eq. 6:
(7)
Nozzle behaviour: the previous methodology provides the
thermodynamic conditions inside the vessel given that the mass
flows at the interfaces are known. It is assumed that the vessel
is connected to the outside on each port by a convergent nozzle.
It is the study of these nozzles that determines the mass flows
entering and leaving the vessel at each time step. For every
time step, the inlet to tank and outlet to tank pressure ratios are
compared to the sonic throat pressure ratio to determine
whether the mass flow through the nozzle is the critical, W*, or
not, W. In the case of a discharge the mass flow for both cases
is given by:
(8)
(9)
Whereas in the case of a charge the mass flow is obtained from:
(10)
(11)
4 Copyright © 2009 by ASME
Downloaded From: http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/31/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use
To analyse the outcome of some possible operating
scenarios such as a shaft failure the closure of some of the ports
of the secondary air system may need to be considered. Should
that be wished, it would be enough to replace the area A in any
of the previous equations by a known function of time, An, so
that this effect is accounted for in every time step.
2.3 Validation
The experimental data available in the literature for
charging and discharging vessels is limited to cases where
either of the processes is considered in isolation but not
simultaneously. In order to seize that data to validate the code
issued for the simultaneous charge and discharge process of a
reservoir, simulations have been carried out imposing either the
inlet or the outlet ports to be closed (A=0).
In [12] Dutton and Coverdill described a set of
experiments carried out for didactic purposes in which the
isolated charge and isolated discharge of several pressure
vessels is monitored and also modelled as isothermal and
adiabatic. In particular, one of the tests consisted of a pressure
vessel that is hastily discharged through a convergent nozzle to
the atmosphere. The results for the Dutton and Coverdill’s
models, the rig data and the model developed in the present
work are grouped in fig. 3. In this particular case both adiabatic
models agree with each other and fit satisfactorily with the rig
data; however, in a general case where the discharge may not
be so quick the rig data would come closer to, but never
trespass, the isothermal model line that represents the
theoretical process in which heat transfer is effective enough
for the temperature to be constant and equal to the
environment’s.
Figure 3 Discharging vessel. Model validation
 The second experiment reported in [12] relevant to the the SAS cavities will exacerbate the problem. Whereas the SAS
study under consideration explores the charge of an initially reservoirs act as pressure fluctuation dampers, the tubes induce
vacuum reservoir from the atmosphere through a convergent a retard and magnify such pressure spike.
nozzle. In this case, the rig data seems to be better To analyse the unsteady movement of the gas through a
approximated by the isothermal model developed by Dutton duct the Navier-Stokes equations evolve to the Euler equations
and Coverdill (fig. 4); nevertheless, the agreement between the by applying the following assumptions [14] whose suitability to
adiabatic model and the model developed herein is remarkable, reflect the physics of the SAS conduits will be discussed
and such model is expected to deal with the rapid charging hereafter:
processes that occur in the SAS adequately. Re >> 1. Inviscid flow.
RePr >> 1. Heat conduction negligible.
3 TUBE MODELLING One dimensional movement.
St >~ 1. Unsteady.
3.1 Assumptions and mathematical apparatus Buoyancy effects negligible.Fr>>1
The necessity to model the flow through a duct as a transient Perfect gas model applicable.
phenomenon arises from the fact that the flow is affected by the
No radiated heat considered.
fluid inertia because a finite time is required for any
Non rotating duct.
perturbation exerted in the flow at one end of the duct to be
transported to the other end. In particular, if during a transient
Consequently, the system of equations, in its characteristic
scenario there is an undesired pressure overshoot along the
form is reduced to:
system the existence of long and narrow conduits that connect

(12)

Where the Riemann invariants and the characteristic

curves are given by:

and (13)

The first equation can be integrated to yield that the

entropy of the particles, although different amongst them, does
not change along their movement. On the other hand, the
second and third equations show that the invariant R + will be
constant as we travel towards the positive direction of the x axis
at speed , whereas R- will not change with respect to an
Figure 4 Charging vessel. Model validation observer that moves towards –x at speed .
This discussion provides the necessary background to
C+, C0 understand why the choice of boundary conditions is
profoundly influenced by the flow regime. The characteristic
lines given by eq. 13 can be interpreted as the directions along
which small disturbances are propagated within the flow, and it
is evident that their slope – particularly that of C- - and hence
their direction, depend on the relationship between and the
Figure 5 Tube characteristic curves. Adapted from [13]
speed of sound . The possible combinations are summarised in
table 1.
Subsonic Supersonic
Due to the fact that information is only transported along
Physical Numerical Physical Numerical characteristics that enter the domain (fig. 5), for the system of
Inlet w1,w2 w3 w1,w2,w3 // equations to be mathematically closed, there is the need in
Outlet w3 w1,w2 // w1,w2,w3 some cases to add numerical boundary conditions (table 1).
Table 1 Tube model. Boundary conditions against flow regime. Such conditions can be derived utilising several methods such
as the characteristics [28] or extrapolation methods. Moreover,

5 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

Downloaded From: http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/31/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use

 while the boundary conditions that are usually known refer to
primitive measurable variables such as pressure or velocity, the
boundary conditions that are to be inputted into the system of
equations must be formulated in terms of the characteristic
variables and therefore they need to be constructed from those
elemental variables.
3.2 Implementation
The Euler equations constitute a non linear hyperbolic
partial differential equations system that can be formulated in a
conservative or a non-conservative form. On top of the fact that
the applicability of numerical schemes based on the latter
formulation is restricted to cases exempt of discontinuities – i.e.
shock waves – at the risk of not reaching convergence
otherwise, the conservative approach benefits from some
computational advantages that deem it the right choice for the
present study where flow reversal is likely to occur in some of
the SAS branches at off design conditions. It is for these
reasons that a so called Roe’s approximate upwind Riemann
solver has been chosen as the baseline algorithm employed in
the simulations [15]. Furthermore, Roe’s scheme is a finite
volume method fit to tackle flow discontinuities in contrast to
finite difference methods [16]. The method is too lengthy to be
contained here, and the interested reader should confer [13,
15,17,18] for a thorough description.
To guarantee the numerical stability of the scheme, the
Courant-Friedrichs-Lewis (CFL) condition is utilised, as
suggested in [13,17,19]. According to such approach, for the
scheme to be stable the CFL should be smaller than unity and
the couple and must obey the following relation:
Suddenly, as the diaphragm is ruptured a shock wave
propagates to the right compressing the flow left behind and, at
the same time, an expansion wave travels towards the left end
of the tube expanding the flow. After 6.1 milliseconds have
elapsed, Hirsch’s solution and the results produced by the code
for the density, velocity and pressure evolutions of the flow are
compared in figures 7, 8 and 9 and show that the numerical
convergence and stability of the scheme is excellent.
The ability of the model to capture the physics of the flow
movement was assessed by comparing the computational data
with the test data published by Felling et al. in [20]. In such
work, the evolution of the flow properties within a shock tube
was recorded and two different computational models were
engineered to describe the movement. The computational
results obtained follow the trend exhibited by the rig data
although a difference on the height of the pressure plateau does
exist (fig. 10). However, the agreement attained with the tube
code is still better that the results produced by the two codes
developed by Felling – Shtube.exe and Meltube.exe.

(14)
0 5m 10m
Figure 6 Shock tube
In order to unequivocally define the numerical scheme the
numerical fluxes at the boundaries, and for the
following time step are required. In the present scheme two
fictitious cells have been introduced upstream and downstream
of the inlet and the outlet respectively, and the numerical fluxes
have been calculated in the same manner as for any other
interior cell.

3.3 Validation
To validate the tube code two different comparison tests
have been carried out. The first aims to assess the numerical
error associated with the numerical scheme utilised to model
the flow whereas the second is in turn carried out against the
experimental data obtained by Felling et al. [20] for a shock
tube.
In [13] Hirsch produces the solution for the so called
Riemann problem; that is, the evolution of the flow
thermodynamic properties for a 10 metres shock tube
compartmented by means of a thin membrane as sketched in
fig. 6. The same gas is initially confined by such diaphragm at
two different states: Figure 7 Shock tube. Numerical model validation - Density

6 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

Downloaded From: http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/31/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use


Figure 8 Shock tube. Numerical model validation - Velocity
Figure 9 Shock tube. Numerical model validation - Pressure
Figure 10 Shock tube. Numerical model validation –
Experimental
7 Copyright © 2009 by ASME
Downloaded From: http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/31/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use
4 ASSUMPTIONS: VALIDITY AND LIMITATIONS
The main limitation of the work described in this paper is
that the rotation of the system is not accounted for yet. The
effect of rotation in the SAS performance has been described in
the literature for the cavities [1,2,21], connecting tubes [21,22]
and discharge holes [23,24]. In essence, the rotation of the
system promotes a pressure rise along the system that can
alleviate or even overcome – depending on the rotational speed
- the pressure loss produced as a result of the heat transfer and
friction. In the system cavities the effect of rotation gives rise to
the development of a toroidal structure in which the core of the
fluid is rotating surrounded by the boundary layer anchored to
the walls. Any rapid change in the flow conditions, particularly
spool speed, is first grasped by the boundary layer, which in
turn propagates the information to the inner spinning fluid by
means of the fluid viscosity. As a result, the changes in the core
of the flow in the SAS cavities are smoother and slower, and
the first studies undertaken to this respect confirm the theory
that the effect of the rotation vortices retard any pressure
overshoot present in the system. This fact is reflected in the
Navier-Stokes equations by the Froude number. While the
Froude number based on the gravity is high, allowing the
gravitational force to be disregarded, the Froude number based
on the rotational speed of the system can be of the order of
unity, and deters from neglecting the buoyancy forces
associated with rotation. That is:
(15,16)
This effect can be accounted for by imposing a vortex
distribution on the walls. Owen and Rogers [25] provide
indications to determine the forced vortex law exponent in
rotating cavities.
On the other hand, the adiabatic and isothermal evolutions
are idealisations and hence any real process will lay in-between
them; that is, in eq. 17 the polytropic coefficient, n, will be
contained in the range from 1 (isothermal) to 1.4 (adiabatic).
The determination of n is a difficult task as it strongly depends
on the geometry being investigated [26]. On top of all, it is also
a function of the heat transfer rate, which in turn changes with
time. It is for all these reasons that this approach is unviable as
it demands an experimental approach for every single geometry
and operating conditions to determine n.
(17)
Another limitation arises from the fact that the
charge/discharge theory is only applicable to vessels whose port
area is much smaller than their volume (A/V 2/3<<1). Otherwise
the fluid in the vessel can no longer be considered stagnated
and as a result the Navier-Stokes equations in their integral
form are not easily solved. An approach based on variable
 section area duct models is suggested as the way forward to this
regard.
Finally, the heat input into the system is neglected as it is
considered to have a second order effect in the results. Anyhow,
this is believed to be an optimistic approach as any heat
inputted into the air system will introduce pressure losses that
will alleviate any pressure overshoot along the SAS conduits.
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The work rendered herein covers the development for
transient operation of the models of the two basic components
that conform the SAS network. The validation of the models
has also been covered and has been demonstrated to be
successful. The code is able to handle reversal in the flow
direction and supersonic conditions and accounts for flow
inertia effects as the main novelties with respect to prior works.
The extensive investigation carried out on the impact of the
boundary conditions in the solution and behaviour of the
equations allows for the network of tanks and tubes to be
readily modified making it a flexible tool. Models for other
components such as restrictors and labyrinth seals are under
development. Moreover, the model limitations have been
identified and are being addressed for a greater applicability of
the code. The final tool will allow the user to explore a number
of design possibilities and assess the behaviour of secondary air
systems during transient scenarios, as exemplified by the results
contained in [29].
REFERENCES
[1] Kutz, K. J. Speer, T. M., ―Simulation of the secondary air
system of aero engines‖, ASME Journal of turbomachinery,
Vol. 116, pp. 306-315, April 1994.
[2] Muller, Y., ―Secondary air system model for integrated
thermomechanical analysis of a jet engine‖, ASME paper no.
GT-2008-50078, 2008;
[3] Chew, J.W. and Hills, N.J., ―CFD for Turbomachinery
internal air systems. Invited paper‖, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, vol.
365, pp. 2587-2611, 2007.
[4] Hills, N.J., Chew, J.W. and Turner, A.B., ―Computational
and mathematical modelling of turbine rim seal ingestion‖.
ASME paper 2001-GT-204, 2001.
[5] Förster, I. Martens, E. Friedl, W. H. Peitsch, D., ―Numerical
study of hot gas ingestion into an engine type high-pressure
turbine rotor-stator cavity‖, ASME paper no. GT-2001-0114,
2001.
[6] Young, C. Rolls-Royce Fluid Systems group, ICAS-GT2
http://www.dglr.de/veranstaltungen/extern/aerodays2006/sessio
ns/A_Sessions/A7/A73.pdf;
[7] Smout, P. D., ―ICAS-GT — EU research into gas turbine
internal air system performance‖, Air & Space Europe, Vol. 3,
No. 3-4, May-August 2001, pp.166-169, 2001.
8 Copyright © 2009 by ASME
Downloaded From: http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/31/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use
[8] Smout, P. D. Chew, J. W. Childs, P. R. N., ―ICAS-GT: A
European collaborative research programme on internal cooling
air systems for gas turbines‖, ASME paper no. GT-2002-30479,
2002.
[9] Ebenhoch, G., Speer, T. M. ,‖Simulation of cooling systems
in gas turbines‖, ASME Journal of turbomachinery, Vol. 118,
pp. 301-306, April 1996.
[10 Kline, S.J. and F.O. Koenig, ―The State Principle - Some
General Aspects of theRelationships Among the Properties of
Systems‖ and Discussion, Journal of Applied Mechanics, pp.
29-34, 625-630, 1957.
[11] Liñán, M.A. Rodriguez, F. M. Higuera, A. F. J., ―Mecanica
de fluidos - tercer curso‖, Escuela Técnica Superior de
Ingenieros Aeronáuticos, Madrid, 2001.
[12] Dutton, J. C. Coverdill, R. E., ―Experiments to study the
gaseous discharge and filling of vessels‖, Int. J. Engng. Ed.
Vol.13, No.2, pp. 123-134, 1997.
[13] Hirsch, C., ―Numerical computation of internal and
external flows, Vol. 2‖, Wiley, 1990.
[14] Landau, L. D. Lifschitz, E. M., ―Fluid Mechanics - Course
of theoretical physics‖, Vol. 6, 2nd edition, Pergamon Press,
1987.
[15] Roe, P. L. , ―Approximate Riemann solvers, parameter
vectors and difference schemes‖, Journal of Computational
Physics, no. 43, pp 357-372, 1981.
[16] CFD Online, Online center for computational fluid
dynamics, www.cfd-online.com.
[17] Toro, E. F., ―Riemann solvers and numerical methods for
fluid dynamics‖, Springer, 1999.
[18] McNeil, C. S., ―Efficient upwind algorithms for solution of
the Euler and Navier-Stokes equations‖, PhD Thesis, Cranfield
University, 1995.
[19] Cebeci, T. Shao, J. P. Kafyeke, F. Laurendeau, E.,
―Computational fluid dynamics for engineers‖, Springer, 2005.
Hirsch, C, ―Numerical computation of internal and external
flows, Vol. 1‖, Elsevier, 2007.
[20] Felling, M. M. Page, R. H. Korst, H. H. White, R. A. ―An
experimental analysis and demonstration of the non-steady flow
in a shock tube‖, Int. J. Engng. Ed. Vol. 14, No.1, pp. 59-66,
1998.
[21] Alexiou, A. Mathioudakis, K. ―Secondary air system
component modelling for engine performance simulation‖,
ASME paper no. GT-2008-50771, 2008.
[22] Zimmermann, H., ―Some aerodynamic aspects of engine
secondary air systems‖, ASME Journal of engineering for gas
turbine and power, Vol. 112, pp. 223-228, April 1990.
[23] Wittig, S., Kim, S., Jakoby, R. and Weissert, I.
―Experimental and numerical study of orifice discharge
 coefficients in high-speed rotating disks‖ ASME Journal of
turbomachinery, Vol 118, pp. 400-407, April 1996.
[24] Alexiou, A., Hills, N.J., Long, C.A., Turner, A.B., Wong,
L-S., Millward, J.A. ―Discharge coefficients for flow through
holes normal to a rotating shaft‖, International journal of heat
and fluid flow, Vol. 21, pp 701-709, 2000.
[25] Owen, J. M. Rogers, R. H, ―Flow and heat transfer in
rotating disc systems volumes 1 and 2‖, Research Studies Press
Ltd, Somerset, 1989.
[26] Thorncroft, G. Patton, J. S. Gordon, R., ―Modelling
compressible air flow in a charging or discharging vessel and
assessment of polytropic exponent‖, AC 2007-2695, ASEE
Annual Conference & Exposition, 2007.
[27] Foley, A. ―On the performance of gas turbine secondary air
systems‖, ASME paper no. GT-2001-0199, 2001.
[28] Fritz, J., ―Partial differential equations‖ 4th edition,
Springer, 1991.
[29] Calcagni, C., Gallar, L., Pachidis, V, ―Development of a
one dimensional dynamic gas turbine secondary air system
model – part II : Assembly and validation of a complete
network‖, ASME paper no. GT2009-60051, 2009. (Under
revision)

9 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

Downloaded From: http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/31/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use