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Non-Ferrous Metals
By
Engr KHAN Marcel NJI
kmaxbess@gmail.com

1
Introduction
 Introduction
The important non-ferrous materials included in this chapter are:
• Copper and its alloys
• Aluminium and its alloys
• Nickel and its alloys
• Bearing materials
• Titanium and its alloys
• Soldering and brazing alloys
I. Importance of Non-Ferrous
Metals in Engineering
• Non-ferrous metals are those which contain a metal other than iron as
their main element or constituent.
• Non-ferrous metals find wide applications in various industrial sectors
because of following advantages:
1. Low density, hence light in weight.
2. High electrical conductivity.
3. Easy to fabricate.
4. High corrosion resistance.
II. Difference between Ferrous &
Non- ferrous Metals
Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals
Ferrous metals mostly contains Non-ferrous metals do not contain
iron as a main constituent. iron.
Ferrous metals are magnetic. Non-ferrous metals are non-
magnetic
They give little resistance to They are usually more resistant to
corrosion corrosion than ferrous metals.
Ferrous metals includes mild steel, Non-ferrous metals includes
carbon steels, cast iron, wrought copper, aluminium, nickel, tin,
iron etc. lead, zinc etc.
 Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals
Ferrous metals are heavier, have Non-ferrous metals are much
high strength and durability. higher and malleable than ferrous
metals.
They are suitable for building They are suitable for electrical
construction, rail-road, bridges, wiring, electronic components,
piping etc. heat exchangers etc.
 III. Copper and its Alloys
• The properties of copper are:
1. Good ductility and malleability
2. High electrical and thermal conductivity
3. Non-magnetic
4. Can be easily alloyed with other metals
5. Good corrosion resistance
• Various alloying elements are added to copper to improve/ or add
some properties.
• Major alloying elements are: Zn, Sn, Al, P, Pb, Be, Fe, Si, Ni, Mg and Mn.
• The alloys of copper are classified as brass and bronzes.
• Brasses are alloys of copper and Zinc with small amount of other
alloying elements.
• Bronzes are alloys of copper and Tin with small amount of other
alloying elements.
Copper and its Alloys
 a. Brasses
• Brasses are alloys of Copper and Zinc with small amount of other
alloying elements.
• The phases in Copper-Zinc system are:
 α : Highly ductile
 β : Increases the tensile strength
and lower ductility
 γ : Hard and brittle
• Brasses are classified as:
 α-brasses : Containing Zinc <30%
 α-β brasses : Containing Zinc 30-44%
 α-Brasses
Red Brasses: Brasses containing Zn <20% are referred as Red
Brasses
Composition:
Zn- 2 to 5%, balance is Cu.
Properties:
(i) Cap Copper • Zn is used as a de-oxidizer to avoid formation of
copper oxide.
• Copper oxide is a hard, brittle layer.
• Cap copper is highly ductile.
Applications:
• Caps of detonators in ammunition factories, coins,
tokens.
 Red Brasses: Brasses containing Zn <20% are referred as Red
Brasses
Composition:
Zn- 5 to 15%, balance is Cu.
Properties:
(ii) Gliding • Addition of Zn improves strength.
Metals • It has good ductility and pressing ability.
• Improved corrosion resistance.
Applications:
• Coins, needles, emblems, jewellery, bullet
envelopers, condenser tubes.
Yellow Brasses: Brasses containing Zn >20% are referred as Yellow
Brasses
Composition:
Zn- 30%, balance is Cu.
(i) Cartridge Brass Properties:
(70:30 brass) • It has high resistance to corrosion.
• It has high ductility and malleability.
• It is a dual phase alloy.
• The microstructure in the cast form is dendritic.
• After cold working and subsequent annealing, its
microstructure is observed to be equi-axed grains.
Applications:
• Cartridge cases, radiator fins, headlight reflectors, lamp
fixtures, rivets, springs, plumbing accessories etc.
Yellow Brasses: Brasses containing Zn >20% are referred as Yellow
Brasses
Composition:
Zn- 28%, Sn-1%, balance is Cu.
Properties:
(i) Admiralty Brass
(71:28:1 brass) • It has properties similar to cartridge brass.
• Addition of Sn improves corrosion resistance.
• In applications such as marine environments, excessive
de-zincification occurs, i.e. zinc corrodes preferentially
leaving behind copper in porous form.
• To overcome this, sometimes Al and small amount of Ar is
also added to Admiralty Brass.
Applications:
• Condenser tubes, heat exchanger in steam power plants.
• They contain Zn in the range of 30 to 40%.
• β-phase has more strength.
• They are generally hot worked for fabrication work.
• These are cheaper than α-brasses as zinc is cheaper than copper.
• they have poor corrosion resistance.
 Composition:
Zn- 40%, balance is Cu.
Properties:
(i) Muntz Metal
(60:40 brass) • It becomes single phase above 700°C.
• They are hard and strong as compared to α-brasses.
• At high temperature, β has more ductility and malleability.
• Hence, it is usually hot worked, rolled and extruded.
• It has tensile strength in the range of 35 to 40 kg/mm2 and
hardness of 100 to 120 VPN.
Applications:
• Pump parts such as valves, condenser tubes, shafts, nuts,
bolts, utensils, brazing rods etc.
 Composition:
Zn- 39%, Sn-1% balance is Cu.
Properties:
(iI) Naval Brass
(60:39:1 brass) • It has properties similar to Muntz Metal.
• Addition of Sn improves corrosion resistance.
• It is used in marine environment, hence called
Naval Brass.
Applications:
• Marine hardware, propeller, piston rods, welding
rods, nuts and bolts, water taps etc.
 Composition:
Zn- 38%, Pb-up to 2% balance is Cu.
Properties:
(iii) Leaded Brass/
Free Cutting Brass • Addition of lead improves machinability.
(60:38:2 brass) • Lead exists in the alloy in the form of globules
(insoluble) which aids in breaking of chips during
machining.
• Hence it is also referred as free cutting brass.
Applications:
• Machine parts and hardware's.
 Composition:
• It is typically a 60:40 brass (Muntz metal) with alloying
elements added to it.
(iv) High Tensile • The alloying elements that are added include Al, Fe, Mn, Sn
Brass and Ni.
Properties:
• The alloying elements improve the tensile strength of
brass.
• It is further classified as Al-brass, Mn-brass, Sn-brass
(Naval brass) etc.
• It has tensile strength in the range of 40 to 55 kg/mm2
and elongation of 20 to 30%.
• It has high corrosion resistance.
Applications:
• Marine pump parts, propeller shafts, gear and valve bodies.
 Season Cracking of Brasses
• Both the α and α-β brasses are prone to a defect phenomenon known
as Season Cracking.
• It is a defect, wherein spontaneous cracks are observed in the material.
• During cold working of brasses, internal/residual stresses of tensile
nature are induced in the component.
• These stresses can be due to pressing, drawing or some other cold
working operation.
• The localized stressed area becomes anodic with respect to the other
area of the component.
• It leads to intergranular corrosion resulting in subsequent
disintegration and failure of the component.
• Such a defect phenomenon is called as season cracking.
• Season cracking can be avoided by annealing the component to remove
internal stresses.
• Annealing of brasses is performed at a temperature in between 280° C
and 300° C.
 b. Bronzes
• Bronzes are alloys of Copper and any other major alloying element but
not Zinc (such as Al, Be, Sn etc).
• Al-bronze
• Sn-bronze
• Be-bronze
• Si-bronze
i. Al-Bronzes
• The solubility of Al in copper increase
with decrease in temperature.
• 7.4 % at 1040°C and 8.4 % at 565°C
• The eutectoid transformation occurs
at 11.8% Al and 565°C.
• Commercial Al-Bronzes contain Al in
the range of 4 to 11%.
• Alloying elements such as Fe, Ni, Si,
Zn, Mn etc.
• Al-bronzes are also referred as
imitation gold
• Properties of Al
1. Its specific weight is only 2.7 gm/cm3 compared to 7.8 gm/cm3 for
steel and 8.8 gm/cm3 for copper.
2. its electrical conductivity is about 60% of that of copper.
3. It has high thermal conductivity.
4. It has high corrosion resistance because of oxidation and formation
of protective Al2O3 layer.
5. It has great affinity for oxygen.
6. It is non-magnetic.
Al-Bronzes are of two types:
1. Single phase Al-bronze (4 to 7.5%)
2. Two phase Al-bronze (7.5 to 11%)
 Composition:
• Al (4 to 7.5%)
Properties:
(i) Single phase Al-
Bronze
• The tensile strength is 35 kg/mm2 & % elongation is 50%.
• They have good ductility and malleability because of
single phase structure.
• They can be cold worked by processes such as drawing,
pressing, rolling etc.
• They are available in the form of sheet, tubes and plates.
Applications:
• Jewellery, condenser tubes, marine applications, cigarettes
cases, heat exchangers, corrosion resistant vessels,
chemical plants etc.
 Composition:
• Al (7.5 to 11%)
Properties:
(ii) Two phase Al-
Bronze
• The tensile strength is 45 kg/mm2 & % elongation is 20 to
30%.
• At high temperature it consists of α and β structure.
• they can be hot worked at elevated temperature.
• They have high shrinkage %, hence adequate tolerance is
provided on dies.
Applications:
• Pump casting parts, valve fittings, propellers, cylinder
heads, gears, forming and drawing dies, bearings, spark
plug bodies, electrical contacts etc.
ii. Sn-Bronzes
• The solubility of Tin in copper varies
with the temperature and is higher in
the temperature region of 350°C to
798°C.
Reaction Tempera Transformatio
ture n
Peritectic Reaction 798°C α + L ⟶β
Eutectoid Reaction of β 586°C β ⟶α + γ
Eutectoid reaction of δ 350°C δ ⟶α + ε
• The Cu-Sn equilibrium diagram shows wide separation of liquidus
line from solidus line.
• This result in coring.
• Coring is observed in cast alloys containing more than 8% Sn.
• Tin has good affinity towards oxygen and forms tin oxide.
• Tin oxide is hard and brittle and reduces ductility and malleability.
• Hence, De-oxidizers (P, Zn etc.) are often added during melting.
% content of Tin (Sn) Applications
Up to 8% Sheets, wires, coins, electrical switches
8-12% Pumps, gears, marine components
12-20% Bearings, Bushings
20-25% Bells
• Other Alloying Elements in Sn-Bronzes
Lead:
1. Addition of 2% lead increases machinability.
2. Addition of 8 to 30% lead improves the bearing properties.
3. It also increases fluidity.

Nickel:
1. Addition of 1% nickel ensures uniform distribution of lead globules.
2. Higher addition of nickel increases tensile strength.
 Composition:
• Cu- 94%; Sn-5%; Zn-1%
Properties:
(i) Coinage Bronze
• It is soft and ductile.
• Zinc is added for de-oxidation of the melt.
Applications:
• Coins.
 Composition:
• Cu- 88%; Sn-10%; Zn-2%
Properties:
(ii) Gun Metal
• Zinc is used as a de-oxidizer.
• Zinc also improves fluidity.
• The solid alloy shows dendrites of α and islands of α + δ
eutectoid.
• It has excellent corrosion resistance.
Applications:
• Gun barrels and ordinance parts, marine castings, gears,
bearings, valve bodies etc.
 Composition:
• Sn- 2.5 to 8%; P-0.1 to 0.35%; balance is Cu.
Properties:
(iii) Wrought
Phosphor Bronze
• It is a single phase α solid solution.
• It can be cold worked to improve strength and contacts
etc.
Applications:
• Wire gauges, springs, wire brushes, electrical contacts etc.
 Composition:
• Sn- 5 to 13%; P-0.3 to 1%; balance is Cu.
Properties:
(iv) Cast Phosphor
Bronze • It has better fluidity than wrought phosphor
bronze.
• It also leads to formation of Cu3P, which is brittle.
• It has better antifriction properties.
Applications:
• Gears, bushings, valves etc.
 Composition:
• Cu- 86%; Sn-10%; Zn- 2%; Pb- 2%.
• Its composition is similar to gun metal
(iv) Statuary
Bronze
but contains about 2% lead.
Properties:
• It has better fluidity.
• Its colour is brownish-black.
• It has high corrosion resistance.
Applications:
• Statues.
 Composition:
• Cu- 80%; Sn-10%; Pb- 10%.
Properties:
(v) 80-10-10
Bronze • It has good castability.
• Higher amount of Pb improves bearing
properties.
Applications:
• They are used for heavy pressure bearings and
bushings.
 Composition:
• Cu- 85%; Sn-5%; Zn-5%; Pb- 5%.
Properties:
(v) 85-5-5-5
Bronze • It has good castability and machinability.
• They have better mechanical properties.
Applications:
• Bearings, low pressure valves, pipe fittings, small
gears and ornamental fixtures.
 iii. Si-Bronzes
• The maximum solubility of silicon in copper is 5.3% at 845°C and
decreases to less than 4% at room temperature.
• Si-Bronze composition is Cu-94.5 to 99%; Si- 1 to 5.5%.
• These bronzes have high corrosion resistance, tensile strength and
toughness.
• They are cheaper than Sn-bronzes.
• Other alloying elements that are added to Si-bronzes include Mn, Zn,
Sn, Pb and Fe.

Applications:
• High strength bolts, rivets, springs, pressure vessels, marine
containers, propeller shafts, bells etc.
iv. Be-Bronzes
• The solubility of Be in Cu is 2.1%
at 864°C and decreases further to
0.25% at room temperature.
• This drastic change in solubility
gives rise to precipitation
hardening.
• The precipitation cycle consists of
heating the alloy at around 800°C
and quenching in water.
• This is followed by further
heating from 300 to 320°C for a
couple of hours to accelerate
ageing treatment.
• Be-bronzes have good corrosion
and fatigue resistance.
• They have high resilience and
good bearing properties.
• They have low hysteresis and
non-sparking characteristics.

Applications:
Springs, diaphragms, flexible
bellows, gears, bearings, electrical
appliances, non-sparking tools etc.
 VI. Aluminium and its Alloys
• The important properties of Aluminium are:
1. It is ductile and malleable.
2. Its specific weight is only 2.7 gm/cm3 compared to 7.8 gm/cm3 for
steel and 8.8 gm/cm3 for copper.
3. its electrical conductivity is about 60% of that of copper.
4. It has high thermal conductivity.
5. It has high corrosion resistance because of oxidation and formation
of protective Al2O3 layer.
6. It has great affinity for oxygen.
7. It is non-magnetic.
• Aluminium cab be easily alloyed with elements such as Si, Mg, Cu, Ni,
Zn, Mn, Ti etc.
 a. Al-Cu Alloys
Composition:
• Al-95.5%; Cu-4.5%.
Properties:
(i) LM 11
• It is precipitation Hardenable alloy.
• It produces good strength after precipitation
hardening.
• It has good mechanical and shock resisting
properties.
• It is susceptible to hot tearing.
Applications:
• Castings for aircrafts and high stressed parts.
 Composition:
• Al-94.5%; Cu-4.5%; Mg-0.5%; Mn-0.5%
Properties:
(ii) Duralumin
• It produces good strength after precipitation
hardening.
• It has good mechanical and shock resisting
properties.
• It also has good corrosion resistance.
Applications:
• Aircraft industry.
 Composition:
• Al-92.5%; Cu-4%; Mg-1.5%; Ni-2%
Properties:
(iii) LM 14
(Y-alloy) • It has excellent ability to retain strength at
elevated temperature.
• It has low thermal expansion.
• It has high resistance to corrosion.
• It can be easily cast and rolled.
Applications:
• Pistons, Cylinder heads of I.C. Engines.
 Composition:
• Al-92%; Cu-5%; Ni-1.5%, small amount of Mn, Ti,
Sb, Co and Zr.
(iv) RR 350
(Hinduminium) Properties:
• It has excellent ability to retain strength at
elevated temperature.
• It is superior to Y-alloy in regards to creep
resistance.
Applications:
• Aircraft engines, high temperature.
b. Aluminium-Silicon Alloys (Al-Si)
• The eutectic transformation from
liquid to solid state takes place at a
constant temperature of 577°C.
• Liquid ⟶Solid1 + Solid2
• The eutectic transformation occurs
at alloy composition of 12.2%
silicon.
 Al-Si Alloys
Composition:
• Al-88%; Si-12%.
Properties:
(i) LM 6
• It has excellent fluidity due to presence of Silicon.
• It has high corrosion resistance.
• It has less shrinkage during solidification.
Applications:
• Intricate castings such as water cooled manifolds
and jackets, motor housings, pump castings, etc.
 Composition:
• Al-83.4%; Si-12%, Ni-2.5%, Cu-0.9%, Mg-1.2%.
Properties:
(ii) LM 13
• It is a precipitation Hardenable alloy.
• It has excellent ability to retain strength at
elevated temperature.
• It has low coefficient of thermal expansion.
• It has good bearing properties.
• It can be easily forged.
Applications:
• Forged pistons and other automobile parts.
 c. Al-Mg Alloys
Composition:
• Al-94.5%; Mg-5.0%, Mn-0.5%.
Properties:
(i) LM 5
(Magnalium) • It has high resistance to corrosion.
• It has good machinability and weldability.
• It can be easily anodized and gives better finish.
Applications:
• Marine applications.
 Composition:
• Al-90%; Mg-10%.
Properties:
(ii) LM 10
• It has poor castability because the molten metal
gets easily oxidized and picks up gas on standing.
• Hence, small amount of beryllium is added to
reduce oxidation.
• Sometimes degassing is also done to remove
trapped gases.
Applications:
• Aircraft and automobile components, dairy
equipment, architectural work etc.
 VII. Nickel and its Alloys
• The important properties of Nickel are:
1. It has FCC structure.
2. It has good ductility and malleability.
3. It exhibits good resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
4. It has fairly good electrical conductivity.
5. It has better formability.
6. It is chemically inert hence used for electroplating.
7. It is highly used in production of stainless steel, nickel alloys,
permanent magnets etc.
 Nickel and Its Alloys
Composition:
• Ni-94%, Al-4.5%, Small amount of C, Mn, Fe, S, Si,
Cu, Ti etc.
(i) Dura Nickel
Properties:
• It is age Hardenable alloy.
• It can also be cold-worked to increase strength.
• It has good corrosion resistance.
Applications:
• Diaphragms, bellows, snap-switch blades, fish
hooks, jewellery and optical frames.
 Composition:
• Ni-98.5%, Small amount of C, Mn, Fe, S, Si, Cu, Ti,
Mg etc.
(ii) Perma Nickel
Properties:
• It is age Hardenable alloy.
• It also has high corrosion resistance and good
mechanical properties.
• It has better electrical and thermal conductivity.
• It has better magnetic properties than Dura-
Nickel.
Applications:
• Similar to Dura-Nickel alloy where higher electrical
conductivity and better magnetic properties are required.
 Composition:
• Ni-87%, Si-10%, Cu-3%.
Properties:
(iii) Hastelloy D
• It has good casting properties.
• It has better mechanical strength and toughness.
• Due to its high hardness, it is difficult to machine.
• It has high corrosion resistance even at elevated
temperatures.
Applications:
• Evaporators, reaction vessels, pipelines for
chemical industry.
 Composition:
• Ni-64%, Cu-30%, Si-2%, small amount of other
elements.
(iv) Monel
Properties:
• It has good casting properties.
• It has high corrosion resistance.
Applications:
• Marine casting parts, valve seats, pump liners etc.
 Composition:
• Ni-36%, Fe-64%
Properties:
(v) Invar
• Invar means invariable.
• It has the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion.
• It has good resistance to corrosion.
Applications:
• Length standards, measuring tapes and
instruments such as scales, Vernier's etc.
• Variable condensers, tuning forks, special springs
etc.
 Composition:
• Ni-36%, Cr-12%, Fe-52%
Properties:
(vi) Elinvar
• The modulus of elasticity remains fairly constant
for a wide range of temperature.
• It has negligible elastic changes with respect to
temperature.
Applications:
• Hair springs, balance wheel in watches, other
springs used in precision instruments.
 Composition:
• Ni-60%, Cr-16%, Fe-24%
• Ni-35%, Cr-20%, Fe-45%
(vii) Ni-Cr-Fe
Properties:
alloys
• These alloys have high resistance to oxidation and to the
action of carburizing gases.
• They have high thermal conductivity and emissivity.
• They have high melting point because of presence of Fe
and Cr.
Applications:
• Electrical heating elements for toasters, hair driers, hot
water heaters, rheostats etc.
• Heat treating equipments, furnace parts, carburising and
nitriding containers etc.
 Composition:
• Ni-77%, Cr-15%, Fe-8%
Properties:
(viii) Inconel
• It has good corrosion and oxidation resistance.
• It maintains good strength at elevated
temperatures.
• It can withstand repeated heating and cooling
cycles.
Applications:
• Heaters, furnace parts, carburizing containers,
thermocouple covering tubes, exhaust manifolds
of aero engines, mufflers etc.
 Composition:
• Ni-73.5%, Cr-15%, Fe-8%, Ti-2.5%, Al-1%
Properties:
(ix) Inconel X
• It is age Hardenable alloy.
• It can retain mechanical strength and toughness
even at elevated temperatures of up to 800°C.
Applications:
• High temperature applications such as gas
turbines, superchargers, jet propulsion parts.
 Composition:
• Ni-78%, Fe-22%.
Properties:
(x) Permalloys
• It has high magnetic permeability.
• It has low hysteresis losses, and low electrical
resistivity.
Applications:
• Used for apparatus that work on magnetic waves
such as radio, transmitters, communication
circuits etc.
 Composition:
• Ni-14 to 28%, Al-8 to 12%, Co-5 to 35%, Fe-25 to
73%.
(xi) Alnico
Properties:
• It has excellent magnetic properties.
Applications:
• Permanent magnets in motors, generators,
speakers, microphones etc.
 VIII. Titanium and its Alloys
• Titanium is a strong, light weight and corrosion resistant metal.

• Titanium ores are initially reduced to titanium in a furnace and then

converted into Ticl4 in chlorine atmosphere. This compound is
reduced with magnesium to produce titanium sponge.

• Titanium has two allotropic forms i.e. HCP alpha phase and BCC beta
phase.
 Characteristics and properties of Titanium
1. They are 40% lighter than the steel and 60% heavier than the
aluminium.
2. Titanium has good corrosion resistance.
3. Melting point of titanium is higher than the iron.
4. It has low thermal conductivity.
5. Its thermal coefficient of expansion is low.
6. Its electrical resistivity is also high.
 IX. Lead (Pb)
• Lead is the oldest of the commonly used metals and the softest of the
heavy metals.

• In the nature, lead exist in the form of sulphide or oxide.

• When it is cast or cut, it is lustrous silvery colour initially, but after

some time, the surface turns a dull bluish grey because of oxidation.
 Lead (Pb)
Properties:
1. Lead has a FCC crystal structure.
2. It has good ductility and malleability.
3. It is poisonous and should not be brought into contact with food
items.
4. It is very soft and it has low melting point (327°C) with high density.
5. It has high coefficient of thermal expansion and low electrical
conductivity.
6. It can be easily soldered, welded and cast.
7. It has high resistance to corrosion against most acids.
8. Its X-rays and γ-rays absorbing power is high.
9. It has low strength.
10. It also possesses good lubricating properties.
 X. Tin (Sn)
• Tin is normally white, soft and malleable metal.
• It is very much similar in properties to lead.
• Tin can available as granulated, fine powder, sheet, foil and wire.
Properties:
1. Tin is a non-toxic, white, soft and pliable metal.
2. It has density of 7.30 gm/cm3, melts at 231.9°C and its corrosion
resistance is high.
3. Tin shows an allotropic transformation at about 13°C when white
tin changes to brittle gray tin.
4. Tin alloys with copper, antimony, cadmium and silver and its
hardness increases.
 XI. Cobalt (Co)
• Cobalt is a silvery white metal with a faint bluish touch.

• It is similar to nickel in appearance and mechanical properties.

• Its chemical properties are combination of nickel and iron.

• below 421°C cobalt has HCP structure and above 421°C it has FCC
structure.

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