machines
Article
Cutting Performance and Tool Wear of AlCrN- and
TiAlN-Coated Carbide Tools during Milling of
Tantalum–Tungsten Alloy
Jiahao Wang 1 , Zhengqing Liu 1 , Yang Wu 2 , Qiucheng Wang 1, * and Dayu Shu 2
Citation: Wang, J.; Liu, Z.; Wu, Y.;
Wang, Q.; Shu, D. Cutting
Performance and Tool Wear of
AlCrN- and TiAlN-Coated Carbide
Tools during Milling of Tantalum
–Tungsten Alloy. Machines 2024, 12,
170. https://doi.org/10.3390/
machines12030170
Academic Editor: Yuwen Sun
Received: 24 January 2024
Revised: 22 February 2024
Accepted: 28 February 2024
Published: 1 March 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Machines 2024, 12, 170. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines12030170
1 College of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China;
15057357587@163.com (J.W.)
2 Southwest Technology and Engineering Research Institute, Chongqing 400039, China
* Correspondence: wqc@zjut.edu.cn
Abstract: Tantalum–tungsten alloys have been widely used in different industrial sectors—for
example, in chemical, medical, aerospace, and military equipment. However, they are usually
difficult to cut because of the large cutting force, rapid tool wear, and poor surface finish during
machining. This paper presents the machining performance and cutting tool wear of AlCrN/TiAlN-
coated carbide tools during the milling process of Ta-2.5W. The effects of cutting parameters on
the cutting forces and surface roughness of AlCrN/TiAlN-coated carbide tools were obtained and
analyzed. The results show that the wear resistance of AlCrN-coated tools is better than that of
TiAlN-coated tools, and that the main wear mechanisms of both cutting tools are crater wear, adhesive
wear, and diffusion wear. Compared to TiAlN-coated tools, AlCrN-coated tools reduced the cutting
forces by 1% to 15% and decreased the surface roughness by 6% to 20%. A cutting speed within the
range of 80–120 m/min can ensure a low cutting force while maintaining good surface roughness,
which is more conducive to machining Ta-2.5W.
Keywords: tantalum–tungsten alloy; coated tools; cutting force; tool wear; surface roughness
1. Introduction
With the development of manufacturing industries, tantalum–tungsten alloys have
gained popularity due to their high strength, high melting point, good ductility, corrosion
resistance, wear resistance, and high-temperature mechanical properties [1]. In recent years,
they have been widely used in the field of electronics, the chemical industry, aerospace,
national defense, the military industry, biomedicine, etc., as a material for parts such as
aviation engines, gas turbines, weapons and equipment, and human sponge bones [2–5].
However, due to their good plasticity and high strain-hardening capacity, they cause
problems such as large cutting forces, elevated temperatures, and poor chip breaking [6,7].
This problem can lead to various forms of tool wear, including chipping, notch wear, and
adhesive wear [8]. Tool wear can lead to reduced processing stability, reduced workpiece
dimensional accuracy and surface quality, and, in turn, reduced processing efficiency and
tool life [9,10]. Therefore, studying the machinability of tantalum–tungsten alloys and their
tool wear mechanism, and optimizing the cutting parameters to improve cutting efficiency
and tool life is of great practical significance.
To investigate the machining difficulties of tantalum and its alloys, several scholars
have analyzed the deformation behavior of tantalum–tungsten alloys. Gao et al. [11] used
the quasi-static, SHPB, and Taylor impact experimental results of Ta-2.5W and Ta-10W to
develop and validate an empirically based constitutive relation for flow stress. Gourdin
et al. [12] observed that adding tungsten solutes to tantalum significantly reduced the strain
rate sensitivity of the flow stress near the yield in tantalum, and work hardening increased
with the rate of addition. Khan et al. [13] proposed a new constitutive model based on a
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/machines
Machines 2024, 12, 170 2 of 11

series of stress–strain experiments on tantalum and its alloys (Ta-2.5W). Subsequently, Zhou
et al. [14] experimentally validated this model, demonstrating its higher correlation with
the published data on tantalum–tungsten alloys compared to other models. Furthermore,
their work confirmed that the work-hardening behavior of tantalum and its alloys is a
combined result of strain, strain rate, and temperature hardening. Davis et al. [7] examined
the plastic flow kinetics of tantalum, applying Surface Adsorption (SA) media to the initial
workpiece surface, which triggered Mechano-Chemical (MC) effects in the substantial strain
deformation of metals, resulting in a reduction in cutting forces of over 70% and a tenfold
improvement in surface finish. As can be seen, in order to improve the processing quality
of tantalum–tungsten alloys, the influence of work hardening needs to be minimized as
much as possible.
The cutting parameters play a crucial role in the wear of cutting tools and the quality
of machining surfaces during the machining process. Appropriate cutting parameters can
significantly improve machining quality and production efficiency. The cutting parameters
of tantalum–tungsten alloys have been preliminary studied. Wang et al. [15], using tung-
sten carbide tools in the machining of pure tantalum with parameters set to v = 21 m/min,
ap = 0.08 mm, and f = 0.08 mm/r, found that, compared to traditional machining, cryo-
genically enhanced machining improved the surface roughness by 200% and the tool life
by 300%. Mizutani et al. [16] conducted ultra-precision machining experiments on pure
tantalum using tools with rake angles of 23◦ , 28◦ , and 33◦ , respectively. Their results
indicated that a rake angle of 28◦ minimized the cutting forces and surface roughness while
extending tool life. Wang et al. [17], targeting tool life, optimized the cutting parameters
through orthogonal experiments, concluding that the optimal parameters for Ta-2.5W
under water-based cooling are a cutting speed of 120 m/min, cutting depth of 0.1 mm, and
feed rate of 0.125 mm/r.
Furthermore, tool wear can increase cutting forces and temperatures, adversely af-
fecting the surface quality and efficiency of machining [18]. Due to the characteristics of
tantalum–tungsten alloys, traditional tools struggle with their machining. However, the
combination of the superior wear and oxidation resistance of hard coatings, applied via
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) technology, with tool materials significantly extends
tool life [19,20]. Kumar et al. [21] compared the wear behaviors of uncoated and AlCrN-
and AlTiN-coated tools in high-hardness steel cutting tests. The results showed that
AlTiN-coated tools exhibited better oxidation, wear, and adhesion resistance, while AlCrN
coatings performed better in high-speed cutting. Lazarus [22] found, in turning tests of
Ta-2.5W, that adding an AlCrN coating to a TiAlN coating increased tool life by 15% to 20%.
However, there is currently very little research on the effects of different parameters
on the machining of tantalum–tungsten alloys. Moreover, although studies indicate that
coated cutting tools perform well in machining Ta-2.5W, they do not provide a suitable
range of cutting parameters. This study aims to investigate the impact of cutting parameters
on cutting forces and surface roughness during the machining of Ta-2.5W. Additionally, it
presents the cutting performance of TiAlN/AlCrN-coated carbide tools and the mechanisms
of cutting tool wear.

2. Materials and Methods

The workpiece used in this experiment was a Ta-2.5W round bar with dimensions of
Φ65 mm × 150 mm. The main chemical composition of the Ta-2.5W is outlined in Table 1.
The yield strength, measured through quasi-static compression testing, was determined to
be 286 MPa, as illustrated in Figure 1. The cutting tools selected were TiAlN-coated and
AlCrN-coated carbide tools, each with a diameter of 10 mm. These cutting tools had four
flutes, a flute length of 25 mm, and a helix angle of 35◦ . Based on our summary of cutting
experiments on tantalum and its alloys, a single-factor test was set up for cutting speed,
and the cutting parameters are shown in Table 2.
Machines 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 11

Machines 2024, 12, 170 3 of 11 speed

experiments on tantalum and its alloys, a single-factor test was set up for cutting
and the cutting parameters are shown in Table 2.

Table 1.1.Main
Table Mainchemical
chemicalcomposition of Ta-2.5W.
composition of Ta-2.5W.
Elements
Elements WW CC NN HH O O Fe Fe Ti TiNb NbTa Ta
WtWt(%)
(%) 2.75
2.75 0.01
0.01 0.01
0.01 0.0015
0.0015 0.015
0.015 0.01 0.010.01 0.01
0.5 BAL
0.5 BAL

Figure 1.1.Ta-2.5W
Figure Ta-2.5Wquasi-static
quasi-statictest.
test.

Table 2.2.Cutting
Table Cuttingparameters
parametersof tests.
of tests.

Factors
Factors Level 1 Level 1 Level 2 Level 2 Level 3 Level 3 Level 4 Level 4 Level 5 Level 5
Cutting
Cutting speed
speed (m/min)
(m/min) 40 40 80 80 120 120 160 160 200 200
Feed per tooth (mm/r) 0.1 0.2 — — —
Feed per tooth (mm/r) 0.1 0.2 — — —
Axial depth of cut (mm) 0.2 0.4 — — —
Axial depth
Radial depth of of
cutcut (mm)
(mm) 1 0.2 2 0.4 — — — — — —
Radial depth of cut (mm) 1 2 — — —
Figure 2 illustrates the experimental setup of this study. All experiments were con-
ductedFigure
on a 2 illustrates the
KDVM800LH experimental
vertical machiningsetup of A
center. this study. All three-directional
piezoelectric experiments were con-
ducted on a KDVM800LH
dynamometer (Kistler 9257B,vertical machining
Winterthur, center.collected
Switzerland) A piezoelectric
real-timethree-directional
cutting force dy-
namometer (Kistler
signals. The data were9257B, Winterthur,
displayed Switzerland)
on a laptop collected
using DynoWare real-time
version 2.5.3.8,cutting force sig-
with the
sampling
nals. The rate
dataset at 2 displayed
were kHz. At theonend of eachusing
a laptop set of experiments,
DynoWare versionthe surface roughness
2.5.3.8, with the sam-
of the workpiece was measured using a digital microscope (Keyence VHX-7100,
pling rate set at 2 kHz. At the end of each set of experiments, the surface roughness Osaka, of the
Japan). Measurements
workpiece was measuredwere taken
usingatafive random
digital points for (Keyence
microscope each set, and the average
VHX-7100, value Japan)
Osaka,
was recorded. On the other hand, the cutting tool wear was analyzed using a scanning
Measurements were taken at five random points for each set, and the average value was
electron microscope (ZEISS Sigma 300, Berlin, Germany).
recorded. On the other hand, the cutting tool wear was analyzed using a scanning electron
microscope (ZEISS Sigma 300, Berlin, Germany).
 Machines
Machines 2024, 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
12, 170 4 of 11

Figure
Figure 2. CNC 2. CNC
milling milling
machine machine and
and experimental experimental
setup setup of this study.
of this study.

3. Results and Discussion

3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Cutting Forces
In this3.1. Cutting Forces
experiment, the maximum value of the cutting force signals in three directions
In this experiment,
(Fx , Fy , Fz ) was exported the maximum
using DynoWare value
universal data of the cutting
acquisition force software.
and analysis signals in three
Excluding (F the peak force signals of individual extreme sudden changes, we measured
x, Fy, Fz) was exported using DynoWare universal data acquisition and analysis
the forces in three directions
Excluding the peakduring
forcethe stableof
signals milling stage and
individual utilized
extreme Formula
sudden (1) to we me
changes,
calculate the cutting
forces in force
threefor analysis. during the stable milling stage and utilized Formula (1
directions
late the cutting forceFfor
= (Fanalysis.
2 2 2 1/2
x + Fy + Fz ) , (1)
F = (Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2)1/2,
Figure 3 presents the resultant cutting forces for both AlCrN-coated and TiAlN-coated
tools when machining Ta-2.5W under various cutting parameters. As Figure 3 illustrates,
Figure 3 presents the resultant cutting forces for both AlCrN-coated an
the cutting forces of the two coated tools are very similar, with nearly identical trends.
coated tools when machining Ta-2.5W under various cutting parameters. As F
Under the same cutting parameters, the cutting force of the AlCrN-coated tool is reduced
by 1% to 15% lustrates,
compared thetocutting forces of the
the TiAlN-coated tool.two coated
Figure toolsthat
3a shows arewhen
very fsimilar,
= 0.1 mm/r, with nearly
trends. Under the same cutting parameters, the cutting
ap = 0.2 mm, and ae = 1 mm, the cutting forces for both coatings increase with an increase in force of the AlCrN-coa
reduced
cutting speed, by TiAlN-coated
with the 1% to 15% compared tool being to theaffected
more TiAlN-coated
by cuttingtool. Figure
speed. 3a shows
Figure 3b tha
0.1 mm/r,
illustrates that, ap and
as f, ap, = 0.2aemm, and athe
increase, e=1 mm, the
cutting cutting
forces forces
of both typesforofboth
coated coatings
tools increa
significantly rise. When
increase the cutting
in cutting speedwith
speed, is between 40 and 120 m/min,
the TiAlN-coated there ismore
tool being a trend affected b
of initial increase followed by a decrease in cutting force, with the smallest
speed. Figure 3b illustrates that, as f, ap, and ae increase, the cutting forces increase in of b
cutting force at a speed of 120 m/min. This also corroborates the findings of researchers
of coated tools significantly rise. When the cutting speed is between 40 and 1
such as Wang [17] and Lazarus [22], who advocate for machining tantalum–tungsten alloys
there is a trend of initial increase followed by a decrease in cutting force, with th
at 120 m/min to extend tool life. Additionally, it should be noted that the installation of a
increase
relatively heavy in cutting
fixture force at a speed
on the dynamometer may of 120inm/min.
result damping, This also corroborates
leading to a loss of the fi
researchers such as Wang [17] and Lazarus [22], who
cutting force, especially at higher cutting speeds. Therefore, there may be some error advocate forinmachining
the
tungsten
measured cutting alloys at 120 m/min to extend tool life. Additionally, it should be note
force.
From installation
the perspective of aof relatively
tool wear, heavy fixtureand
the AlCrN on the dynamometer
TiAlN coatings exhibitmaysimilar
result in damp
widths anding forms of wear on the flank face. However, the wear on the rake
to a loss of cutting force, especially at higher cutting speeds. Therefore, the face shows
that the AlCrN-coated
some error in toolthehas less wearcutting
measured and better
force.wear resistance, which can reduce
friction betweenFrom the tool and the workpiece.
the perspective of tool wear, theTherefore, the AlCrN
overall cutting
and TiAlNforcescoatings
of the exhib
two coatings are not significantly different, with the AlCrN-coated tool exhibiting a lower
widths and forms of wear on the flank face. However, the wear on the rake f
cutting force. Moreover, due to the strain hardening characteristic of Ta-2.5W, the cutting
that theincreases
force significantly AlCrN-coatedafter the tool
cuttinghasspeed
less reaches
wear and better
a certain wear
level dueresistance,
to the workwhich c
hardening friction between
of the material. Thethe tool speed
cutting and the workpiece.
significantly Therefore,
impacts the overall
the cutting force when cutting for
machining two coatings are not
tantalum–tungsten significantly
alloys. Additionally,different, with the
other cutting AlCrN-coated
parameters also play toolanexhibiti
cutting
important role. force. Moreover,
Therefore, to reduce the due to theforce
cutting strain hardening
during characteristic
the machining of Ta-2.5W, t
of tantalum–
tungsten alloys,
force lower cutting speeds
significantly increases should
afterbethe
employed, and other
cutting speed cutting
reaches parameters
a certain level due to
should alsohardening
be moderated.of the material. The cutting speed significantly impacts the cutting f
machining tantalum–tungsten alloys. Additionally, other cutting parameters al
important role. Therefore, to reduce the cutting force during the machining of
tungsten alloys, lower cutting speeds should be employed, and other cutting p
should also be moderated.
Machines
Machines2024,
2024,12,
12,x170
FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 511of 11

Figure 3. Cutting force under different cutting parameters for AlCrN/TiAlN-coated carbide tools:
Figure 3. Cutting force under different cutting parameters for AlCrN/TiAlN-coated carbide tools:
(a)
(a) ff== 0.1
0.1mm/r,
mm/r, aapp == 0.2
0.2 mm,
mm,aaee == 11 mm;
mm;(b)
(b)ff==0.2
0.2mm/r,
mm/r,aapp== 0.4
0.4mm,
mm,aaee==22mm.
mm.
3.2. The Condition of the Tool’s Surface Wear
3.2. The Condition of the Tool’s Surface Wear
Figures 4 and 5 show the surface wear of AlCrN- and TiAlN-coated carbide tools,
Figures under
respectively, 4 and the
5 show the surface
parameters of v =wear of AlCrN-
120 m/min, f = and TiAlN-coated
0.2 mm/r, ap = 0.4 carbide
mm, andtools,
arespectively,
e = 2 mm, under
during the
the parameters
dry milling of
of v = 120
Ta-2.5W. m/min,
Figures f =
4a0.2
and mm/r,
5a a
show p = 0.4
that mm,
this and
is theae = 2
mm, during the dry milling of Ta-2.5W. Figures 4a and 5a show that this is the area where
area where the maximum wear occurs on the tool face. As the surface of the workpiece
is
thesusceptible
maximumtowear workoccurs
hardeningon theduring milling,
tool face. As itthe
becomes
surfacethe of area where the machined
the workpiece is susceptible
material
to work ishardening
located. Consequently,
during milling, the flank face is more
it becomes prone
the area to wear
where the than other parts
machined of is
material
the cutting edge, resulting in the formation of a V-shaped notch. This
located. Consequently, the flank face is more prone to wear than other parts of the cutting V-shaped notch is a
typical characteristic of groove wear, which severely affects tool life
edge, resulting in the formation of a V-shaped notch. This V-shaped notch is a typical [9]. Figure 5c reveals
that the AlCrN-coated
characteristic of groove tool shows
wear, whichrelatively
severely minor wear
affects onlife
tool the[9].
rake face after
Figure 10 minthat
5c reveals of the
machining, but chipping occurs at the tool tip. This is attributed to the formation of a
AlCrN-coated tool shows relatively minor wear on the rake face after 10 min of machining,
built-up edge (BUE) due to the high plasticity of the material and the high temperature and
but chipping occurs at the tool tip. This is attributed to the formation of a built-up edge
pressure in the cutting zone. The BUE, acting as a substitute for the tool edge in cutting,
(BUE) due to the high plasticity of the material and the high temperature and pressure in
somewhat reduces tool wear. However, due to the continuous shedding and formation of
the cutting
these zone.
BUEs, the The BUE,
surface qualityacting as a substitute
and dimensional for the
accuracy toolmachined
of the edge in cutting, somewhat
surface will be
reduces tool wear. However, due to the continuous shedding
affected. Additionally, BUE contributes to the blunting of the cutting edge. This dulling and formation of these
BUEs,escalates
effect the surface quality
the force and dimensional
required for cutting and accuracy of the machined
the temperature during surface will It
the process. be af-
fected.
also Additionally,
impedes BUEremoval
the efficient contributes to the
of chips, blunting ofinfluencing
subsequently the cutting the edge. This dulling
durability and ef-
fect escalatesofthe
performance theforce
cuttingrequired for cutting
tool. Figure and the
4d indicates temperature
severe wear at the during theafter
tool tip process.
20 min It also
impedes
of the efficient
machining, removal
accompanied by of chips,collapse
surface subsequently influencing
and pitting. This isthe durability
because and per-
a milling
cutter
formance withofa the
complete
cuttingcutting edge experiences
tool. Figure 4d indicatesthe highest
severe wearstress
at theattool
the tip
edge, while
after 20 min a of
milling
machining,cutter with a notched
accompanied edge has
by surface its maximum
collapse stressThis
and pitting. nearisthe notch,aleading
because milling to cutter
stress
with aconcentration
complete cuttingand accelerated tool wear.
edge experiences theInhighest
Figure 5c, the TiAlN-coated
stress at the edge, while tool shows
a milling
significant rake face wear after 10 min of machining, with
cutter with a notched edge has its maximum stress near the notch, leading tocrescent-shaped wear at stress
the tipcon-
and a surrounding
centration collapse.tool
and accelerated After 20 min
wear. of machining,
In Figure Figure 5d shows
5c, the TiAlN-coated tool that
shows thesignificant
wear
of the TiAlN-coated tool has greatly increased, with the cutting edge nearly disappearing,
rake face wear after 10 min of machining, with crescent-shaped wear at the tip and a sur-
indicating tool failure.
rounding collapse. After 20 min of machining, Figure 5d shows that the wear of the TiAlN-
coated tool has greatly increased, with the cutting edge nearly disappearing, indicating
tool failure.
Machines
Machines 2024,12,
Machines2024,
2024, 12,170
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 666of
of 11
of 11

Figure
Figure 4. Tool wear
4. Tool
Tool wear of
of AlCrN-coated
AlCrN-coatedcarbide
carbidetools:
tools:(a)
(a)1010min
min flank
flank wear;
wear; (b)(b)
20 20
minmin flank
flank wear;
wear; (c)
Figure 4. wear of AlCrN-coated carbide tools: (a) 10 min flank wear; (b) 20 min flank wear; (c)
(c) 10
10 min
10 min rake
min rake wear;
rake wear;
wear; (d)(d)
(d) 20 20
20 minmin rake
min rake wear.
rake wear.
wear.

Figure
Figure 5. Tool wear
5. Tool
Tool wear of
of TiAlN-coated
TiAlN-coatedcarbide
carbidetools:
tools:(a)
(a)1010min
minflank
flank wear;
wear; (b)(b)
20 20
minmin flank
flank wear;
wear; (c)
Figure 5. wear of TiAlN-coated carbide tools: (a) 10 min flank wear; (b) 20 min flank wear; (c)
(c)
10 10
10 min
minmin rake
rake
rake wear;
wear;
wear; (d)(d)
(d) 20 20
20 min
min
min rake
rake
rake wear.
wear.
wear.
3.3. Tool Wear Behavior and Its Related Mechanism
3.3. Tool Wear Behavior and its Related Mechanism
Figure 6 presents the scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrographs of the rake
Figure 6 presents the scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrographs of the rake
faces of AlCrN- and TiAlN-coated tools after 20 min of machining under the conditions
faces of AlCrN- and TiAlN-coated tools after 20 min of machining under the conditions v
v = 120 m/min, f = 0.2 mm/r, ap = 0.4 mm, and ae = 2 mm. Due to the good plasticity of the
= 120 m/min, f = 0.2alloy,
tantalum–tungsten mm/r, app = 0.4 edge
a built-up mm, was
and prevalent
aee = 2 mm.during
Due tothethe good plasticity
machining of the
experiments,
tantalum–tungsten alloy, a built-up edge was prevalent during the machining
which has also been observed in previous studies [8]. On the other hand, the surfaces of experi-
ments,
the which
coated hashave
tools also partially
been observed in previous
delaminated studies
coatings, and [8]. On the
there is aother hand, amount
significant the sur-
faces of the coated tools have partially delaminated coatings, and there
of adhered material in the wear area due to the generation of chips and chip fragments is a significant
amountmilling.
during of adhered
As amaterial in friction
result, the the wearbetween
area due tocutting
the the generation
tool and of
thechips and chip
material frag-
generates
ments during milling. As a result, the friction between the cutting tool and
significant heat, leading to elevated pressure and temperatures. This environment causes the material
 diffused into the tool. In contrast, Figure 7b and Table 4 show that, in area B, the propor-
tions of Ta and W are relatively lower, at 5.25% and 8.60%, respectively, while those of Al
and Ti are 16.81% and 20.60%, respectively. This indicates some degree of elemental dif-
fusion in the TiAlN-coated tool, though not as severe as in the AlCrN-coated tool. The O
Machines 2024, 12, 170 content in area B of the TiAlN-coated tool was lower than that of the AlCrN-coated tool,7 of 11
Machines 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
implying lower oxidation wear, which can effectively improve tool service life [23].7How- of 11
ever, the low percentages of O in areas A and B indicate that the oxidation reaction occur-
ring in this region is not severe. In conclusion, under the same parameter conditions, the
cutting chips and
AlCrN coating fragments
exhibits better to
wearadhere to thethan
workpiece surface. Due to the continuous
generates significant heat, leading toresistance
elevated pressure the and
TiAlN coating;
temperatures.furthermore,
This environ-the
relative
primary movement
forms between
of wear during the workpiece and the tool, the adhesion point will break, and
ment causes cutting chips andthe milling of
fragments to Ta-2.5W
adhere towith
theAlCrN- and surface.
workpiece TiAlN-coated
Due totools
the
aare
little part of the
adhesiverelative tool material
and diffusion will be removed, causing adhesive wear.
wear.between the workpiece and the tool, the adhesion point
continuous movement
will break, and a little part of the tool material will be removed, causing adhesive wear.
Figure 7 shows the Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis of areas A and B,
and the elemental compositions of AlCrN/TiAlN-coated carbide tools are shown in Tables
3 and 4, respectively. Figure 7a and Table 3 show that, in area A, the mass percentages of
Ta and W are 14.18% and 28.90%, respectively, which are much higher than those of Al
(4.71%) and Cr (6.24%). This suggests that elements from the workpiece material have
diffused into the tool. In contrast, Figure 7b and Table 4 show that, in area B, the propor-
tions of Ta and W are relatively lower, at 5.25% and 8.60%, respectively, while those of Al
and Ti are 16.81% and 20.60%, respectively. This indicates some degree of elemental dif-
fusion in the TiAlN-coated tool, though not as severe as in the AlCrN-coated tool. The O
content in area B of the TiAlN-coated tool was lower than that of the AlCrN-coated tool,
implying lower oxidation wear, which can effectively improve tool service life [23]. How-
ever, the low percentages of O in areas A and B indicate that the oxidation reaction occur-
ring in this region is not severe. In conclusion, under the same parameter conditions, the
Figure
Figure 6. SEM results
6.coating
SEM resultsof
ofthe
therake
rake facesfor
for(a)(a)
anan AlCrN-coated carbide
tooltool
andand a(b) a TiAlN-coated
AlCrN exhibits betterfaces
wear resistance AlCrN-coated carbide
than the TiAlN coating; (b) TiAlN-coated
furthermore, the
carbide
carbide tool.
primary forms of wear during the milling of Ta-2.5W with AlCrN- and TiAlN-coated tools
are adhesive and diffusion wear.
Figure 7 shows the Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis of areas A and
B, and the elemental compositions of AlCrN/TiAlN-coated carbide tools are shown in
Tables 3 and 4, respectively. Figure 7a and Table 3 show that, in area A, the mass percentages
of Ta and W are 14.18% and 28.90%, respectively, which are much higher than those of
Al (4.71%) and Cr (6.24%). This suggests that elements from the workpiece material have
diffused into the tool. In contrast, Figure 7b and Table 4 show that, in area B, the proportions
of Ta and W are relatively lower, at 5.25% and 8.60%, respectively, while those of Al and Ti
are 16.81% and 20.60%, respectively. This indicates some degree of elemental diffusion in
the TiAlN-coated tool, though not as severe as in the AlCrN-coated tool. The O content in
area B of the TiAlN-coated tool was lower than that of the AlCrN-coated tool, implying
lower oxidation wear, which can effectively improve tool service life [23]. However, the
low percentages of O in areas A and B indicate that the oxidation reaction occurring in
this region is not severe. In conclusion, under the same parameter conditions, the AlCrN
coating exhibits better wear resistance than the TiAlN coating; furthermore, the primary
forms
Figure 6.ofSEM
wear during
results of thethe
rakemilling
faces forof(a)Ta-2.5W with AlCrN-
an AlCrN-coated carbide and TiAlN-coated
tool and tools are
(b) a TiAlN-coated
adhesive and diffusion wear.
carbide tool.

Figure 7. EDS results of wear regions for (a) region A and (b) region B, corresponding to the boxes in
Figure 6.
Machines 2024, 12, 170 8 of 11

Table 3. Elemental composition of AlCrN-coated tool.

Element Weight Percentage (%)

C 34.73
O 4.14
Al 4.71
Cr 6.24
Ta 14.18
W 28.90
N 7.09

Table 4. Elemental composition of TiAlN-coated tool.

Element Weight Percentage (%)

C 27.12
O 3.00
Al 16.81
Ti 20.60
Ta 5.25
W 8.60
N 18.62

3.4. Surface Roughness

Figure 8 shows the machined surface roughness under different cutting parame-
ters. It is observed that the surface roughness for both coated tools decreases with an
increase in the cutting speed. This decrease is attributed to the high plasticity of the
tantalum–tungsten alloy Ta-2.5W. At lower cutting speeds, chips adhere to the milling
cutter’s teeth, forming large and unstable BUEs. BUEs alter the tool’s cutting angle,
diminishing its milling performance and producing a poorer surface quality. As the
cutting speed and feed rate increase, work hardening of the material occurs, resulting
in increased strength and reduced plasticity, thereby gradually diminishing the BUEs
and consequently lowering the surface roughness. By comparing the changes in surface
roughness under four different cutting parameters, as seen in Figure 8, starting with
initial conditions of ap = 0.2 mm, ae = 1 mm, and f = 0.1 mm/r, increases in cutting depth,
cutting width, or feed rate each lead to varying degrees of surface roughness reduction.
As seen in Figure 8b, when the cutting width is increased to 2 mm, the reduction in
surface roughness is minimal, and this parameter exhibits the greatest stability in the
40~120 m/min speed range, roughness reduction within 0.2 µm. In Figure 8d, increasing
the feed rate from 0.1 mm/r to 0.2 mm/r results in a 0.5 µm decrease in surface rough-
ness, which reaches below 1.6 µm, indicating an optimal surface finish. Comparatively,
the superior hardness and exceptional wear resistance of AlCrN coatings contribute to
enhanced cutting edge stability, mitigating wear and thus preserving a sharper and more
precise cutting edge throughout the machining process. This leads to smoother surfaces;
under the same conditions, the surface roughness from AlCrN-coated tools decreases by
6% to 20% more than that for TiAlN-coated tools.
Machines
Machines2024,
2024,12,
12,x170
FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 11
9 of 11

Figure 8. Surface roughness under different cutting parameters and coating materials:
Figure 8. Surface roughness under different cutting parameters and coating materials: (a) ap = 0.2
(a) ap = 0.2 mm, ae = 1 mm, and f = 0.1 mm/r; (b) ap = 0.2 mm, ae = 2 mm, and f = 0.1 mm/r;
mm, ae = 1 mm, and f = 0.1 mm/r; (b) ap = 0.2 mm, ae = 2 mm, and f = 0.1 mm/r; (c) ap = 0.4 mm, ae
(c)
= 1ap = 0.4
mm, andmm,
f =ae
0.1= mm/r;
1 mm, (d)
andap
f ==0.1
0.2mm/r; (d)=ap
mm, ae = 0.2 and
1 mm, mm,f ae = 1mm/r.
= 0.2 mm, and f = 0.2 mm/r.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this paper, the cutting performance and wear mechanism of TiAlN/AlCrN-coated
In this the
tools during paper, the cutting
machining performance and
of tantalum–tungsten wear
alloys aremechanism
studied. Theofmachining
TiAlN/AlCrN-coated
process
toolsstudied
was duringinthe machining
terms of tantalum–tungsten
of two aspects: cutting force and alloys
surfaceare studied.According
roughness. The machining
to the pro-
analyses
cess wasprovided,
studied inthe following
terms of two results werecutting
aspects: obtained:
force and surface roughness. According
to theDuring
(1). analyses provided,
the milling the following results
of tantalum–tungsten alloywere
Ta-2.5Wobtained:
at a low cutting speed, the high
(1). plasticity
During the of the material
milling frequently leads to the
of tantalum–tungsten adherence
alloy Ta-2.5W of chips to the
at a low cuttingspeed,
cutting tool, the
forming a BUE and deteriorating the surface roughness. As the cutting speed
high plasticity of the material frequently leads to the adherence of chips to the cutting increases,
the work-hardening effect intensifies, resulting in enhanced material strength and
tool, forming a BUE and deteriorating the surface roughness. As the cutting speed
reduced plasticity, which in turn causes a rapid increase in the cutting forces and an
increases, the work-hardening effect intensifies, resulting in enhanced material
improvement in surface roughness.
strength and reduced plasticity, which in turn causes a rapid increase in the cutting
(2). When machining tantalum–tungsten alloy Ta-2.5W, the superior hardness and excep-
forceswear
tional and an improvement
resistance of AlCrN in coatings
surface roughness.
stabilize the cutting edge more effectively
(2). than
When machining tools;
TiAlN-coated tantalum–tungsten alloy Ta-2.5W,
this results in a reduction theforces
in cutting superior
by 1% hardness
to 15% andand ex-
ceptional wear resistance of AlCrN
a decrease in surface roughness by 6% to 20%. coatings stabilize the cutting edge more effec-
tively than
(3). Under TiAlN-coated
dry milling conditions tools; this results
of Ta-2.5W in a reduction
at a cutting speed of in120cutting
m/min, forces by 1% to
feed rate
15%
of 0.2and a decrease
mm/r, in surface
cutting depth of 0.4roughness by 6%width
mm, and cutting to 20%.of 2 mm, the primary wear
(3). observed
Under dry onmilling
both coatings
conditionswas ofconcentrated
Ta-2.5W at on the flank
a cutting face,ofwith
speed 120similar
m/min,wear
feed rate
magnitudes observed. However, at the rake face, AlCrN coatings
of 0.2 mm/r, cutting depth of 0.4 mm, and cutting width of 2 mm, the primary wear demonstrated
superior
observedwear resistance.
on both coatings Furthermore, the main
was concentrated onwear mechanisms
the flank of AlCrN-coated
face, with similar wear mag-
and TiAlN-coated tools were crater wear, adhesive wear, and
nitudes observed. However, at the rake face, AlCrN coatings demonstrated diffusion wear. superior
Subsequent studiesFurthermore,
wear resistance. could further the
investigate the relationship
main wear mechanisms between cutting pa- and
of AlCrN-coated
rameters and tool lifetools
TiAlN-coated to better
wereenhance the quality
crater wear, and wear,
adhesive efficiency
andofdiffusion
machining tantalum–
wear.
tungsten alloys.
Subsequent studies could further investigate the relationship between cutting param-
eters and tool life to better enhance the quality and efficiency of machining tantalum–
tungsten alloys.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.W.; methodology, J.W.; formal analysis, J.W. and Z.L.;
investigation, J.W.; resources, D.S.; data curation, Z.L.; writing—original draft preparation, J.W. and
Z.L.; writing—review and editing, Y.W. and Q.W.; visualization, Y.W. and Q.W.; supervision, Z.L.,
Machines 2024, 12, 170 10 of 11

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.W.; methodology, J.W.; formal analysis, J.W. and Z.L.;
investigation, J.W.; resources, D.S.; data curation, Z.L.; writing—original draft preparation, J.W. and
Z.L.; writing—review and editing, Y.W. and Q.W.; visualization, Y.W. and Q.W.; supervision, Z.L.,
Y.W., Q.W. and D.S.; project administration, Z.L., Q.W. and D.S.; funding acquisition, Q.W. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data will be made available upon request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

References
1. Ma, G.; Wei, Z.; Wu, G.; Mao, X. The microstructure and strength of a tantalum alloy: Influence of temperature. Mater. Sci. Eng. A
2023, 880, 145312. [CrossRef]
2. Agrawal, M.; Jha, R.; Singh, K.K.; Singh, R. Optimization of Leaching Parameters for Recovery of Tantalum from Waste Tantalum
Capacitors. In Springer Proceedings in Physics: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Advances in Materials Processing:
Challenges and Opportunities, Roorkee, India, 17–19 October 2023; Springer Nature Singapore: Singapore, 2023; Volume 293,
pp. 213–218. [CrossRef]
3. Stelmakh, V.; Rinnerbauer, V.; Chan, W.R.; Senkevich, J.J.; Joannopoulos, J.D.; Soljacic, M.; Celanovic, I. Tantalum-tungsten alloy
photonic crystals for high-temperature energy conversion systems. Conf. Photonic Cryst. Mater. Devices 2014, 9127, 116–124.
[CrossRef]
4. Liu, G.; Gu, X.; Heng, F.; Men, J. Microstructure evolution and deformation mechanism with comparison of Ta-2.5 W and Cu
under detonation load. Mater. Today Commun. 2024, 38, 107737. [CrossRef]
5. Cheng, C.; Fu, Y.; Du, C.; Du, Z.; Jiang, Z.; Zhou, F.; Zhong, K.; Wang, X. Experimental and numerical study of tantalum-tungsten
alloy rod penetrator impacting thick armor plate. Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater. 2022, 107, 105873. [CrossRef]
6. Chen, S.R.; Gray, G.T. Constitutive behavior of tantalum and tantalum-tungsten alloys. Metall. Mater. Trans. A-Phys. Metall. Mater.
Sci. 1996, 27, 2994–3006. [CrossRef]
7. Davis, J.M.; Saei, M.; Mohanty, D.P.; Udupa, A.; Sugihara, T.; Chandrasekar, S. Cutting of tantalum: Why it is so difficult and
what can be done about it. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 2020, 157, 103607. [CrossRef]
8. Burgess, J.W. Wear of Nanostructured Tool Coatings Bonded to Turning Inserts Dry Turning a Tantalum Tungsten Alloy; Purdue
University: West Lafayette, IN, USA, 2009; p. 145.
9. Li, W.J.; Zhou, B.W.; Xing, L.J.; He, H.; Ni, X.J.; Li, M.J.; Gong, Z.H. Influence of cutting parameters and tool nose radius on the
wear behavior of coated carbide tool when turning austenitic stainless steel. Mater. Today Commun. 2023, 37, 107349. [CrossRef]
10. Abukhshim, N.A.; Mativenga, P.T.; Sheikh, M.A. Heat generation and temperature prediction in metal cutting: A review and
implications for high speed machining. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 2006, 46, 782–800. [CrossRef]
11. Fei, G.; Zhang, X.; Ahmad, S.; Wang, M.Y.; Li, L.; Xiong, W.; Zhang, J. Dynamic Behavior and Constitutive Model for Two
Tantalum-Tungsten Alloys under Elevated Strain Rates. Rare Met. Mater. Eng. 2017, 46, 2753–2762. [CrossRef]
12. Gourdin, W.H.; Lassila, D.H.; Leblanc, M.M.; Shields, A.L. The influence of tungsten alloying on the mechanical-properties of
tantalum. J. De Phys. LV 1994, 4, 207–212. [CrossRef]
13. Khan, A.S.; Liang, R. Behaviors of Three BCC Metal Over a Wide Range of Strain Ratesand Temperatures Experiments and
Modeling. Int. J. Plast. 1999, 15, 1089–1109. [CrossRef]
14. Zhou, J.; Khan, A.S.; Cai, R.; Chen, L. Comparative study on constitutive modeling of tantalum and tantalum tungsten alloy. J.
Iron Steel Res. Int. 2006, 13, 68–74. [CrossRef]
15. Wang, Z.; Rajurkar, K.P.; Fan, J.; Petrescu, G. Cryogenic machining of tantalum. J. Manuf. Process. 2002, 4, 122–127. [CrossRef]
16. Mizutani, M.; Naruse, T.; Kameyama, Y.; Koma, Y.; Ohmori, H.; Sasaki, C. Fabrication of cutting tools for ultraprecision machining
of tantalum and their cutting characteristics. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 2009, 27, 1367–1369. [CrossRef]
17. Wang, R.; Wang, X.; Yan, P.; Zhou, T.; Jiao, L.; Teng, L.; Zhao, B. The effects of cryogenic cooling on tool wear and chip morphology
in turning of tantalum-tungsten alloys Ta-2.5W. J. Manuf. Process. 2023, 86, 152–162. [CrossRef]
18. Umut, K.; Erhan, B. Investigating effects of milling conditions on cutting temperatures through analytical and experimental
methods. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2017, 262, 532–580. [CrossRef]
19. He, H.B.; Li, H.Y.; Zhang, X.Y.; Yue, Q.B.; Zhang, J.; Ma, L.; Li, Y.M. Research on the Cutting Performances and Wear Mechanisms
of TiAlCrN Coated Tools During Dry Turning. Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. 2019, 20, 201–207. [CrossRef]
20. Das, S.; Dhupal, D.; Kumar, A. Experimental investigation into machinability of hardened AISI 4140 steel using TiN coated
ceramic tool. Measurement 2015, 62, 108–126. [CrossRef]
21. Kumar, C.S.; Patel, S.K. Effect of chip sliding velocity and temperature on the wear behaviour of PVD AlCrN and AlTiN coated
mixed alumina cutting tools during turning of hardened steel. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2018, 334, 509–525. [CrossRef]
Machines 2024, 12, 170 11 of 11

22. Lazarus, L.J. Topical report: Tantalum-2.5% tungsten machinability testing. Honeywell Fed. Manuf. Technol. 2009, 12–13. [CrossRef]
23. Iram, S.; Cai, F.; Wang, J.; Zhang, J.; Liang, J.; Ahmad, F.; Zhang, S. Effect of Addition of Mo or V on the Structure and Cutting
Performance of AlCrN-Based Coatings. Coatings 2020, 10, 298. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.