Rachana Nyaichyai

Chapter 3 :
Storage Fundamentals
Primary memory
 Primary memory is also known as main
memory or may also refer to “Internal
memory.” and primary storage.
 All those types of computer memories that
are directly accessed by the processor using
data bus are called primary memory.
 That allows a processor to access stores
running programs and currently processed
data that stored in a memory location.
 The use of memories is therefore mandatory in all
systems using a microprocessor, including
computers.
 An example of Primary memory is RAM and ROM
that store programs. These memories are limited in
capacity and manufactured by using integrated
circuits (IC) or semiconductor device.
 Its speed of Data accessing is faster than secondary
memory.
 It is more expensive than secondary memory.
 When you turn on the computer, Generally CPU
searches for essential codes in RAM to get it.
 Otherwise, it goes to ROM.Yes, they both chips
collectively called primary memory in a computer
system
Types of Primary Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory)
 The Word “RAM” stands for “random
access memory” or may also refer to short-
term memory. It’s called “random” because
you can read store data randomly at any
time and from any physical location.
 It is a temporal storage memory.
 RAM is volatile that only retains all the data
as long as the computer powered.
 It is the fastest type of memory.
 RAM holds data and processing instructions
temporarily until the CPU needs it.
 RAM is considered “random access” because you
can access any memory cell directly if you know the
row and column that intersect at that cell.
 RAM is electronic chips made of so called
semiconductor material, just like processors and
many other types of chips.
 In RAM, transistors make up the individual storage
cells which can each “remember” an amount of data,
for example, 1 or 4 bits – as long as the PC is
switched on. Physically, RAM consists of small
electronic chips which are mounted in modules
(small printed circuit boards).
 The modules are installed in the PC’s motherboard
using sockets – there are typically 2, 3 or 4 of these.
Types of RAM
 SRAM
 DRAM
Static RAM
 Static RAM is the form of RAM which made
with flip flops and used for primary storage.
 It retains data in latch as long as the computer
powered.
 SRAM is more expensive and consumes more
power than DRAM.
 It used as Cache Memory in a computer system.
 As technically, SRAM uses more transistors as
compared to DRAM.
 It is faster compared to DRAM due to the
latching arrangement, and they use 6 transistors
per data bit as compared to DRAM, which uses
one transistor per bit.
 In static RAM, a form of flip flop holds each bit
of memory.
 A flip-flop for a memory cell takes four or six
transistors along with some wiring, but never
has to be refreshed. This makes static RAM
significantly faster than dynamic RAM.
 However, because it has more parts, a static
memory cell takes up a lot more space on a
chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore,
you get less memory per chip, and that makes
static RAM a lot more expensive.
 Static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic
RAM is less expensive and slower.
 Static RAM is used to create the CPU’s speed
sensitive cache, while dynamic RAM forms the
larger system RAM space.
 Dynamic Random Access
Memory (DRAM)
 It is another form of RAM used as main
Memory, its retains information in
Capacitors for a short period (a few
milliseconds) even though the computer
powered.
 The Data is Refreshed Periodically to
maintain in it. The DRAM is cheaper, but it
can store much more information.
 Moreover, it is also slower and consumes
less power than SRAM.
 In the most common form of computer memory, Dynamic Memory
Cell, represents a single bit of data.
 The capacitor holds the bit of information – a 0 or a 1. The transistor
acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the memory chip
read the capacitor or change its state.
 A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To
store a 1 in the memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons.
 To store a 0, it is emptied. The problem with the capacitor’s bucket is
that it has a leak. In a matter of a few milliseconds a full bucket
becomes empty.
 Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, either the CPU or the
Memory Controller has to come along and recharge all of the
capacitors holding it before they discharge. To do this, the memory
controller reads the memory and then writes it right back. This refresh
operation happens automatically thousands of times per second.
 This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic
RAM has to be dynamically refreshed all of the time or it forgets what
it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is that it takes time
and slows down the memory.
ROM (Read Only Memory)
 ROM is the long-term internal memory. ROM is
“Non-Volatile Memory” that retains data without the
flow of electricity.
 Read-only memory, or ROM, is a type of computer
storage containing non-volatile, permanent data that,
normally, can only be read, not written to.
 ROM contains the programming that allows a
computer to start up or regenerate each time it is
turned on.
 ROM is an essential chip with permanently written
data or programs.
 ROM comes with pre-written by the computer
manufacturer to hold the instructions for booting-up
the computer.
 ROM also performs large input/output (I/O) tasks
and protects programs or software instructions
 Almost every computer incorporates a
small amount of ROM that contains the
start-up firmware.
 This boot firmware is called the basic
input/output system (BIOS).
 This software consists of code that
instructs the boot-up processes for the
computer -- such as loading the operating
system (OS) into the random access
memory (RAM) or running hardware
diagnostics.
 Consequently, ROM is most often used for
firmware updates.
How does ROM work?
 ROM is sustained by a small, long-life battery in the
computer. It contains two basic components: the
decoder and the OR logic gates. In ROM, the
decoder receives input in binary form; the output
will be the decimal equivalent. The OR gates in
ROM use the decoder's decimal output as their
input.
 ROM performs like a disk array. It contains a grid of
rows and columns that are used to turn the system
on and off. Every element of the array correlates
with a specific memory element on the ROM chip.
A diode is used to connect the corresponding
elements.
 When a request is received, the address input is
used to find the specific memory location. The value
that is read from the ROM chip should match the
contents of the chosen array element.
Types Of ROM
 PROM
 EPROM
 EEPROM
PROM (Programmable Read
Only Memory)
 It can be programmed only be done once and
read many. Unlike ROM, PROMs retain their
contents without the flow of electricity.
 PROM is also nonvolatile memory.
 The significant difference between a ROM and
a PROM is that a ROM comes with pre-
written by the computer manufacturer
whereas PROM manufactured as blank
memory.
 PROM can be programmed by PROM burner
and by blowing internal fuses permanently.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory)
 EPROM is a type of ROM chip that can
retain the data even if there is no power
supply.
 The data can be erased and reprogrammed by
using ultraviolet (UV) light. The UV light clears
the data on the chip so that it can reprogram.
 For writing and erasing data on the EPROM,
we need a particular device which is known as
PROM programmer.
 The process of programming an EPROM is
often called BURNING, and the box into which
it is plugged to program it an EPROM burner.
 EPROM is a non-volatile memory.
 EPROM is developed by Dov Frohman in
1971 at Intel.
 A programmed EPROM can retain its data for
a minimum of 10 to 20 years. There is a
transparent quartz crystal window at the top
of the EPROM which allows the UV light to
erase the data.
 The data on EPROM can be erased a limited
number of times because excessive erasing
damages the silicon dioxide layer and it makes
the use of chip unreliable.
 The programming process on EPROM is not
electrically reversible
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory)
 It is a non-volatile ROM chip which used for storing a
small amount of data in computers or some other
electronic devices.
 Through EEPROM, an individual byte of data can be
erased and reprogrammed entirely, not selectively by
the electrical voltage.
 For modification in the EEPROM chip, there is no need
of removing the chip from the computer.
 EEPROM perform read and write cycle very slowly as
compared to the read and write cycles of RAM. Here,
erase and write operations are performed by byte per
byte.
 EEPROM is a distinct type flash memory that can store
large-capacity (static or semi-static) “data” bits or
“program” bits than conventional EEPROM devices.
Parameter Primary Memory Secondary Memory

The primary memory is The secondary memory is

Nature categorized as volatile & always a non-volatile
nonvolatile memories. memory.

Secondary memory is
These memories are known as a Backup
Alias also called internal memory or Additional
memory. memory or Auxiliary
memory.

Data cannot be accessed

directly by the processor.
Data is directly accessed It is first copied from
Access
by the processing unit. secondary memory to
primary memory. Only
then CPU can access it.
 It’s a non-volatile
It’s a volatile memory
memory so that that data
meaning data cannot be
Formation can be retained even
retained in case of power
after power
failure.
failure.

It holds data or
It stores a substantial
information that is
amount of data and
currently being used by
Storage information. Capacity is
the processing unit.
generally from 200GB to
Capacity is usually in 16
terabytes.
to 32 GB

Primary memory can be Secondary memory is

Accesses
accessed by the data bus. accessed by I/O channels.

Primary memory is Secondary memory is

Expense costlier than secondary cheaper than primary
memory. memory.
Secondary Storage
 Secondary storage, sometimes called auxiliary storage,
is non-volatile and is used to store data and programs
for later retrieval.
 Most storage devices use either magnetic or optical
storage media.
 Magnetic storage devices use the principle that
magnetically charged material has both a North and
South Pole. These two poles are used to represent 0's
and 1's and hence binary numbers.
 When data are read from magnetic media, the
read/write head is used to convert the different
magnetic poles into binary numbers that the CPU can
process.
 Conversely, when writing data to magnetic media, the
read/write head converts the binary signals from the
CPU into magnetic charges. Care needs to be taken
that magnetic radiation doesn't spoil any stored data.
 Optical media devices use lasers to bum tiny craters or pits
onto the surface of a plastic or metallic disk.
 The presence or absence of a pit on the surface of the disk is
used for binary storage.
 Although slower than magnetic media, optical media are
more robust (stored data are not affected by magnetic
radiation) and have larger storage capacities for their size.
 Some common examples of secondary storage devices are:
➢ Magnetic Tapes
➢ Magnetic Disks
➢ Cartridge tape
➢ Hard disk
➢ Floppy disk
➢ Optical Disk
➢ Compact disk
➢ Zip Drive
➢ Flash Drive etc.
Magnetic Tapes
 Magnetic tape is a plastic ribbon usually a half inch
or quarter inch wide and 50 to 2400 ft. long.
 In magnetic tape only one side of the ribbon is used
for storing data.
 It is sequential memory which contains thin plastic
ribbon to store data and coated by magnetic oxide.
 Data are recorded on the tape in the dorm of tiny
invisible magnetized & non-magnetized spots
representing 0’s and 1’s on the coating surface.
 Data read/write speed is slower because of
sequential access. It is highly reliable which requires
magnetic tape drive writing and reading data.
 The width of the ribbon varies from 4mm to 1 Inch
and it has storage capacity 100 MB to 200 GB.
 Magnetic tape is the low-cost average for
storage because it can save a huge number
of binary digits, bytes, or frames on each
inch of the tape.
 The benefit of magnetic tape contains
unconditional storage, inexpensive, high
data density, fast transfer rate, flexibility,
and ease of use.
Types of Magnetic Tapes
 Half inch tape reel
 Half inch tape cartridge
 Quarter-inch streamer tape
 4mm digital audio-tape (DAT)
Application Areas of Magnetic
Tapes
 The magnetic tapes are very much
suitable for the following applications −
➢ Serial or sequential processing.
➢ Backing up data on tape is very cheap.
➢ It is applicable for the transfer of data
between multiple machines.
➢ It is suitable for the storage of a large
volume of data.
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes

 Cost − Magnetic tape is one of the low-

cost storage media. Therefore, backing up
data on tape is very cheap.
 Storage capacity − It is very large.
 Portability − It is easily portable.
 Reusable − It can remove a specific data
and save another data at the same place.
Therefore it can be reused.
Disadvantages of Magnetic
Tapes
 Access Time − Accessing a record requires
accessing all the records before the required
record. So access time is very large in magnetic
tape.
 Non-flexibility − Magnetic tape is not flexible.
 Transmission Speed − The cost of data
transfer is moderate in magnetic tape.
 Vulnerable to damage − Magnetic tapes are
highly vulnerable to damage from dust or careless
handling.
 Non-human readable − Data stored on it is
not in human-readable form, therefore manual
encoding is not possible at all.
Magnetic Disk
 A magnetic disk is a storage device that
uses a magnetization process to write,
rewrite and access data.
 It is covered with a magnetic coating and
stores data in the form of tracks, spots
and sectors. Hard disks, zip disks and
floppy disks are common examples of
magnetic disks.
Working of Magnetic Disk
 A magnetic disk primarily consists of a rotating magnetic surface
(called platter) and a mechanical arm that moves over it.
 The mechanical arm is used to read from and write to the disk.
 The data on a magnetic disk is read and written using a
magnetization process.
 Both of the surface of the platter have coating of iron oxide that
can record data by magnetization. Data is recorded on its coated
surface as tiny magnetized and non-magnetized spots representing
0’s and 1’s.
 It uses a standard binary code usually an 8 bit EBCDIC for
recording data.
 Data is organized on the disk in the form of tracks and sectors,
where tracks are the circular divisions of the disk. Tracks are
further divided into sectors that contain blocks of data. All read
and write operations on the magnetic disk are performed on the
sectors. The floating heads require very precise control to
read/write data due to the proximity of the tracks.
 The disk pack is stored in a specially designed envelope in a
sealed contamination free container.
 The first magnetic hard drive built by IBM in
1956 was a large machine consisting of 50 21-
inch (53-cm) disks. Despite its size, it could
store just 5 megabytes of data.
 Magnetic disks have traditionally been used as
secondary storage devices in computers, and
represented the mainstream technology for
decades.
 With the advent of solid-state drives (SSDs),
magnetic disks are no longer considered the
only option, but are still commonly used.
 The size of modern hard disks is just about
3.5 inches (approx. 9 cm) with their capacity
easily reaching one or more terabytes.
Advantages:-
 Access time − With a magnetic disk, it is
achievable to access a record explicitly.
Therefore access time is less in this case.
 Flexibility − Magnetic disk has to be the
flexibility of being used as a sequential as well
as direct access storage device.
 Transmission Speed − The rate of data
transfer is fast in a magnetic disk.
 Reusable − It can remove a specific data and
save another data at the same place.
 Storage Capacity − It can store a very large
amount of data.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Disk
 Cost − The cost of per character storage is
much higher as compared to magnetic tape.
 Non-Portability − Portability of it is very
less as compared to magnetic tape.
 Limited size record − Duration of record
which can be saved on it is limited by the
size of disk track or disk sector.
 Non-human readable − Data stored on it
is not in human-readable form, therefore
manual encoding is not possible at all.
Cartridge Tape
 A tape cartridge is a storage device that
contains a spool of magnetic tape used to
store different kinds of data, from corporate
data to audio and video files.
 Each cartridge is designed to fit into a
compatible audio/video recorder system or
computer system.
 In the context of computing, however, a tape
cartridge is the magnetic tape storage
cartridge used in tape library units to store
digital data on magnetic tape, which is
packaged in cassettes and cartridges.
 A magnetic tape cartridge is an essential
component of a robust backup system, which makes
use of tape libraries for long-term backup storage.
 The tape cartridge is the actual piece of hardware
that data is saved to; through an autoloader or a
robot, the cartridge is inserted into one of many
tape drives within a tape library unit for reading and
writing.
 Because of the nature of the tape cartridge, only
sequential writing and reading are possible, so if a
specific file needs to be located, the tape drive must
read the tape cartridge from the beginning of the
spool until it reaches the specific file location.
 This can take time and is the biggest drawback of a
storage system using magnetic tape cartridges.
However, tape is cheaper per gigabyte compared to
hard drives and solid-state drives, making it ideal for
long-term storage archiving.
Optical Disk
 Optical disk storage system are made up of
metallic or plastic disk coated with highly
reflective material.
 Optical disk used the laser beam technology
for reading and writing of data to and from
the disk surface.
 An optical disk is any computer disk that uses
optical storage techniques and technology to
read and write data.
 It is a computer storage disk that stores data
digitally and uses laser beams (transmitted
from a laser head mounted on an optical disk
drive) to read and write data.
 An optical disk is primarily used as a portable
and secondary storage device.
 It can store more data than the previous
generation of magnetic storage media, and has
a relatively longer lifespan. Compact disks
(CD), digital versatile/video disks (DVD) and
Blu-ray disks are currently the most commonly
used forms of optical disks. These disks are
generally used to:
❖ Distribute software to customers
❖ Store large amounts of data such as music,
images and videos
❖ Transfer data to different computers or
devices
❖ Back up data from a local machine
How do optical disks work?
 Optical disks rely on a red or blue laser to
record and read data.
 Most of today's optical disks are flat, circular
and 12 centimeters in diameter.
 Data is stored on the disk in the form of
microscopic data pits and lands.
 The pits are etched into a reflective layer of
recording material. The lands are the flat,
unintended areas surrounding the pits.
 The type of material selected for the recording
material depends on how the disk is used.
 Prerecorded disks such as those created for audio
and video recordings can use cheaper material like
aluminum foil.
 Write-once disks and rewritable disks require a
more expensive layer of material to accommodate
other types of digital data storage.
 Data is written to an optical disk in a radial pattern
starting near the center.
 An optical disk drive uses a laser beam to read the
data from the disk as it is spinning. It distinguishes
between the pits and lands based on how the light
reflects off the recording material.
 The drive uses the differences in reflectivity to
determine the 0 and 1 bits that represent the data.
Different Kinds of Optical Drives
CD-ROM
 CD-ROM, short for compact disk read-only
memory, was the first disk on the basis of
drives for the latest PCs.
 CD-ROM devices populate Compact Disk Filing
System discs with data encoded in ISO 9660.
 To reduce noise and increase stability, most
CD-ROM drives in computers run at a slower
speed, and if the drive experiences read errors,
it will only speed up for larger data files.
 However, the newest CD-ROM drives have the
potential to achieve read speeds of 60
revolutions in a second (60x).
DVD-ROM
 DVD-ROM drives, which stand for Digital Versatile
Disk Read Only Memory and are a direct evolution
from CD-ROM drives, have significantly more
performance and capacity than their CD
counterparts while maintaining the same physical
dimensions.
 The DVD Forum is a non-profit organization that
establishes several standards for DVD functionality
and construction, as well as overseeing DVD
development.
Blu-ray
 In the commercial market, Blu-ray drives are the
newest drives available as of 2011.
 During the early 2000s, Sony developed the Blu-ray
technology that was one of the founding
proponents
RW Drives
 The rewritable drive types are Blu-ray drives,
DVD-ROMs, and CD-ROMs.
 All the functionalities of read-only
counterparts are available in RW drives.
 Write processes are particularly sensitive to
shock and can ruin the disc beyond repair if
forcibly interrupted; write speeds are slower
to preserve stability than read speeds.
 Writable disks come in multiple-time write
and one-time write variations; however, RW
drives can write multiple times.
Advantages of Optical Disk
 Cost –
The total cost involves when you look at the
manufacturing is low Optical disks since only aluminium
foils and plastics are involved within the production.
Hence, the users in many cases are benefited from the
worth of buying optical disks in bulk. And a lot of
computers include optical disc Drive from its
manufacturer that is respective in that the users don’t
got to purchase them separate.
 Durability –
Optical disks are more durable than both Volatile and
memories that are non-Volatile. It’s not subjected to
wear and now any charged power failures may cause
data losses. Therefore, it should last long for many years.
Nevertheless, it’s not completely protected against
scratching, heat as well as other sorts of physical
damages.
 Simplicity –
The approach to back up is created much simpler
using Optical disks. No matter what the data that
really must be burnt must be placed in the drive
icon. Then in just clicking on ” Burn Disk ” the
users can back up the info
 Portability –
Although Optical disks are fairly large enough, they
truly are still portable. They’ll be placed inside bags
along with other small objects in order that it in
many cases are transported to varied places and
utilized in different computers and devices.
 Stability –
Optical disks usually provides a level that is high of.
This is because unlike magnetic disks, it’s not prone
to electromagnetic fields and other sorts of
environmental influences.
Disadvantages of Optical Disk

 Data access speed of optical disks is

slower than that of magnetic disks
 It requires complex drive mechanism than
magnetic disk
 An optical disk are removable media
hence they are prone to scratches, dust
and sticky prints.