IPSA User Manual

IPSA SOFTWARE
Simply powerful.
User Manual
Version: IPSA 2.10.2
Document Reference: UG001
IPSA Power, Bainbridge House, 86-90 London Road, Manchester, M1 2PW

Phone : +44 (0)161 233 4800 | Email : support@ipsa-power.com
Table of Contents
1 Diagrams and Drawing Networks .......................................................... 1
1.1 The Main Window ...........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Terminology and Drawing Order Rules.................................................................................2
1.3 The Drawing Toolbar .....................................................................................................................3
1.3.1 Select Tool ......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Zoom and Pan .................................................................................................................................. 4
1.3.3 Drawing Busbars .............................................................................................................................. 4
1.3.4 Drawing Radials ................................................................................................................................ 5
1.3.5 Drawing Branches ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.3.6 Drawing Circuit Breakers................................................................................................................. 9
1.3.7 Adding Annotations ...................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.8 Drawing Infeed Transformers and Lines .................................................................................... 10
1.4 Moving Items.................................................................................................................................. 11

1.5 Deleting Items ................................................................................................................................ 12
1.6 Locate Items .................................................................................................................................... 12
1.7 Context-Sensitive Menus .......................................................................................................... 13
1.8 Diagram Properties ...................................................................................................................... 13
1.9 Drawing Templates ...................................................................................................................... 16
1.10 Drawing Embedded Scenes ..................................................................................................... 18
1.11 Drawing the existing components........................................................................................ 19
1.12 Grouping the components....................................................................................................... 20
1.13 Printing from IPSA and Saving Diagrams to File ............................................................ 21
2 Working with Data ................................................................................. 23

2.1 Using Property Pages and Dialogs ....................................................................................... 23
2.2 Using Data Tables......................................................................................................................... 25
2.2.1 Editing Data ..................................................................................................................................... 25
2.2.2 Context Menus, Copying and Pasting........................................................................................ 26
2.3 Data Conversion Tools - Importing...................................................................................... 28

2.3.1 Importing IPSA 1 Networks.......................................................................................................... 28
2.3.2 Importing from an SQL Database ............................................................................................... 28
2.3.3 Importing from Trandat ................................................................................................................ 29
2.3.4 Importing from PSS/E ................................................................................................................... 29
2.3.5 Importing from DINIS.................................................................................................................... 29
2.3.6 Importing from PowerFactory ..................................................................................................... 30
2.3.7 Importing from CIM ...................................................................................................................... 30
2.3.8 Importing from an IPSA Database .............................................................................................. 30
2.4 Data Conversion Tools – Exporting ...................................................................................... 31

2.4.1 Exporting to IPSA 1 ........................................................................................................................ 31
2.4.2 Exporting to CIM ............................................................................................................................ 32
3 The Per-unit System ............................................................................... 33

3.1 Per-unit Definitions...................................................................................................................... 33
3.1.1 Core Definitions .............................................................................................................................. 33
3.1.2 Other Definitions ............................................................................................................................ 34
3.2 Per-unit Conversion..................................................................................................................... 35

3.3 The Per-unit System in IPSA .................................................................................................... 36
4 Load Flow................................................................................................. 37
4.1 Data Requirements ...................................................................................................................... 38
4.2 Types of Busbar ............................................................................................................................. 39
4.2.1 Slack Busbars................................................................................................................................... 39
4.2.2 Voltage-controlled (PV) Busbars ................................................................................................. 40
4.2.3 Non Voltage-controlled (PQ) Busbars ....................................................................................... 41
4.3 Running a Load Flow .................................................................................................................. 41

4.4 Load Flow Properties .................................................................................................................. 43
4.4.1 Convergence Accuracy and Iteration Limits ............................................................................. 44
4.4.2 Transformer Taps and Phase Shifting ........................................................................................ 45

4.4.3 Load Scaling .................................................................................................................................... 45
4.4.4 Flat Start ........................................................................................................................................... 45
4.4.5 Energy Storage Flip ........................................................................................................................ 46
4.5 DC Load Flow Properties ........................................................................................................... 46

4.5.1 Branch loss estimation and nodal transmission ....................................................................... 47
4.5.2 Transformer Phase Shifting .......................................................................................................... 47
4.5.3 Load Scaling .................................................................................................................................... 47
4.6 Load Flow Results ......................................................................................................................... 48

4.6.1 Tables and Reports ........................................................................................................................ 48
4.6.2 Results Fed Back into Data ........................................................................................................... 49
4.7 Islands and Isolated Busbars ................................................................................................... 51

4.7.1 Islands ............................................................................................................................................... 51
4.7.2 Isolated Busbars ............................................................................................................................. 52
4.8 Unbalanced Networks ................................................................................................................ 53

4.9 D.C. Networks................................................................................................................................. 53
5 Fault Level................................................................................................ 55
5.1 Fault Level Calculation Methods............................................................................................ 56
5.1.1 Standard IPSA ................................................................................................................................. 56
5.1.2 IEC 60909 ......................................................................................................................................... 56
5.2 Fault Level Calculation Models (Standard IPSA Method)........................................... 57

5.2.1 Synchronous Machine Models (Standard IPSA Method)....................................................... 57
5.2.2 Induction Machine Models (Standard IPSA Method) ............................................................. 58
5.2.3 AC / DC Converter Models (Standard IPSA Method) ............................................................. 59
5.2.4 Converter Driven Plant Models (Standard IPSA Method) ...................................................... 59
5.3 Data Requirements ...................................................................................................................... 60

5.3.1 Minimum Data................................................................................................................................ 60
5.3.2 IEC 60909 Data ............................................................................................................................... 60
5.4 Running the Fault Level Calculation..................................................................................... 61

5.4.1 Selecting the Method Used ......................................................................................................... 61
5.4.2 Starting a Calculation .................................................................................................................... 61
5.4.3 Standard IPSA Fault Level Dialog ................................................................................................ 62
5.4.4 IEC 60909 Fault Level Dialog ........................................................................................................ 63
5.5 Results................................................................................................................................................ 63
5.6 Fault Level Waveform ................................................................................................................. 64
6 Breaker Duty ........................................................................................... 67

6.1 Breaker Duty Data ........................................................................................................................ 67
6.1.1 Data Required ................................................................................................................................. 67
6.2 Running a Breaker Duty Calculation .................................................................................... 68

6.3 Breaker Duty Results ................................................................................................................... 69
6.3.1 On the Diagram .............................................................................................................................. 69
6.3.2 In the Report ................................................................................................................................... 69
7 Transient Stability................................................................................... 70
7.1 Transient Stability Data .............................................................................................................. 70
7.1.1 Data Required ................................................................................................................................. 70
7.2 Transient Stability Built-in Models ........................................................................................ 70

7.2.1 Synchronous machine models .................................................................................................... 70
7.2.2 Induction Machine Models .......................................................................................................... 72
7.2.3 Controller Models .......................................................................................................................... 72
7.3 Transient Stability UDM and Plug-ins ................................................................................. 75

7.3.1 User-defined Models..................................................................................................................... 75
7.3.2 Plug-in Models ............................................................................................................................... 76
7.4 Transient Stability Switching Operations ........................................................................... 77

7.4.1 Switching Operations .................................................................................................................... 77
7.5 Running a Transient Stability Study ..................................................................................... 78

7.5.1 The Transient Stability Dialogs .................................................................................................... 78
7.5.2 Parameters....................................................................................................................................... 80
7.5.3 Graphs and Plots ............................................................................................................................ 80
7.5.4 Storing Results ................................................................................................................................ 80

7.6 Transient Stability Calculation ................................................................................................. 81
7.6.1 Initial Conditions............................................................................................................................. 81
7.6.2 Step Simulation .............................................................................................................................. 81
7.7 Transient Stability Results ......................................................................................................... 81

7.7.1 Graphs .............................................................................................................................................. 81
7.7.2 Storing the Results in a File .......................................................................................................... 82
7.7.3 Reports ............................................................................................................................................. 82
8 Harmonics................................................................................................ 84
8.1 Harmonics Data ............................................................................................................................. 84
8.1.1 Data................................................................................................................................................... 84
8.1.2 Sources ............................................................................................................................................. 85
8.2 Running Harmonics ..................................................................................................................... 85

8.3 Harmonics Results ........................................................................................................................ 87
8.4 Harmonic Voltage Waveform ................................................................................................. 87
8.5 Harmonic Impedance Scans .................................................................................................... 90
9 Overcurrent Protection Co-ordination ................................................ 92

9.1 Protection Databases .................................................................................................................. 92
9.2 Placing and Setting Protection Devices.............................................................................. 92
9.3 Saving a Network with Protection Devices ....................................................................... 95
9.4 Time-current Grading ................................................................................................................. 95
10 Reliability ................................................................................................. 98
10.1 Reliability Data and Assumptions.......................................................................................... 98
10.1.1 Data required .................................................................................................................................. 98
10.1.2 Assumptions.................................................................................................................................... 99
10.2 Running a Reliability Calculation .........................................................................................100

10.3 Reliability Results and Indices ...............................................................................................101
10.3.1 Overview and Primary Indices ................................................................................................... 101
10.3.2 Customer-based Indices ............................................................................................................. 101
10.3.3 Load and Energy-based Indices ................................................................................................ 102

I P S A U S E R M A N U A L V 2 . 1 0 . 2
Chapter
1
1 Diagrams and Drawing Networks
In IPSA, the power system network to be analysed is usually entered by drawing the network in
the Drawing Window. Alternatively, IPSA network items can simply be added to a network using
the data tables and drawn later, if at all. However, it is generally easier to visualize a network and
calculation results by using a diagram.
IPSA also has the extra option of drawing a Geographic Diagram. This allows the user to enter
network components such as busbars, loads and cables as schematic symbols directly onto a map
or building layout drawing.
1.1 The Main Window

The main window in IPSA is divided into several areas:
The main toolbars for filing, drawing and diagram navigation along the top
•
The Drawing Canvas, where circuit diagrams are drawn. Multiple diagrams and data
•
tables can be displayed simultaneously.
• The Stack Bar, which allows user to select a particular canvas, view network data or other
system databases, access available templates, use versions and changes.
• The Progress Bar, which displays messages such as warnings or error in the entered
data.
• The Watch Window, which allows the user to have constant supervision of a particular
Busbar, Branch or Radial
Windows 2-5 may be moved around (floating) or docked, to a vertical or horizontal position.
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Figure 1.1:The main window
1.2 Terminology and Drawing Order Rules

Item Description
These are connection points for the network, generally symbolising
Busbars
real busbars, or connection points on the network.
These are items that connect to only one busbar, such as generators
Radials
and loads. These are the inputs and outputs of the network.
These are items that connect to more than one busbar, such as
Branches
conductors or transformers.
Table 1.1: Items and description
Connected item Drawing Order

Busbars Can be created at any time and in any order.
Connected items, such as Loads, Generators, Machines, etc. can only
Radials
be created after their respective busbar.
Connected items such as Lines, Transformers, etc. can only be drawn
Branches
after all their busbars.
Protection devices such as circuit breakers, isolators etc can be
Circuit breakers
added to a branch after it has been drawn.
Table 1.2: Connected items and drawing order
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Figure 1.2: Sample network
1.3 The Drawing Toolbar

The IPSA drawing toolbar contains buttons for diagram drawing and editing. To draw an item,
simply click on the button corresponding to the item you want to draw, and then click on the
place in the diagram where you want to draw it. Depending upon the type of item you are trying
to draw you may also have to select one or more busbars to connect the item to:
Figure 1.3: Drawing toolbar
1.3.1 Select Tool

The select tool may now be operated in two different modes, Normal select and Interactive select.
Normal select allows the user to create, delete and move items on the diagram, as well as edit
their electrical properties. Interactive select allows the user to only change item properties.
Figure 1.4: Select tool
3 IPSA USER MANUAL

1.3.1.1 Selecting items

Items can be selected individually or in groups. Each selected item on the diagram is indicated by
placing "handles" around it. By default, these handles are either green or red squares. The colour
of the handle indicates whether the item can be moved; green handles can, red handles can't.
To select a single item, click the select button on the draw toolbar and move the mouse
cursor over the item on the drawing. When the cursor is over the item the item name will change
colour, usually becoming darker in appearance. Next, click the left mouse button. The item will be
selected, and handles will then be drawn around the drawing symbol.
To add individual items to a selection, hold down the [SHIFT] key at the same time as selecting
the item. Any new selections made in this way will be added to the currently selected items. If you
do not hold down the [SHIFT] key, then each mouse click will clear the selection before selecting
the current item.
It is also possible to select everything in an area of the diagram by drawing a selection rectangle.
To do this click and hold down the left-hand mouse button at one corner of the desired area, then
drag the mouse while still holding down the mouse button to increase the selection rectangle to
the desired size. On releasing the mouse button all items within the rectangle will be selected.
Note that handles can be drawn in two colours, by default green for moveable and red for non-
moveable. Unless the diagram is locked (in which case they are all non-moveable), non-moveable
handles will only exist in branches and radials where knee points have been automatically added.
1.3.2 Zoom and Pan
To adjust the view of the canvas area, you can use the Zoom In and Zoom Out tools to
change the magnification level. You can also use the pan tool to move the canvas area in any
direction. To pan, press and hold the control button and drag the mouse.
1.3.3 Drawing Busbars

Busbars can be drawn in one of four styles, using the drop-down menu. Horizontal Busbar, Vertical
Busbar, Junction Busbar and Circular Busbar.
• To draw a Busbar:
1. Click the desired Busbar type from the dropdown menu on the Drawing Toolbar,
the cursor will change to show the busbar type selected.
2. Move the cursor to the point on the canvas where you wish to place the busbar.
3. Click mouse to drop the Busbar in the desired location.
Once a busbar drawing button has been selected, every mouse click on the canvas will
draw a busbar until the drawing tool selection is changed.
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The size of the busbar is adjusted using the select tool by hovering over the handles and
resizing when the cursor changes shape.
Figure 1.5: Busbar drawing options
1.3.4 Drawing Radials

A radial item is defined as a plant item that is connected to a single busbar, such as loads,
generators, induction motors, and so on.
• To draw a Radial:
1. Click on the relevant radial item button on the Drawing Toolbar

2. Click on the busbar to where the item will be connected
3. Click on the canvas away from the busbar to draw the item
4. The item may then be aligned and resized using the Normal Select tool
• Infeed lines and transformers
Infeed lines and transformers are special cases of items that are drawn as being connected
to a single busbar but are in fact connected to two busbars (like normal lines and
transformers). This is purely a means of reducing the number of lines and transformers
crossing a diagram; for example, an infeed symbol can be used instead of drawing a
transformer from an HV busbar at the top left of the diagram to an LV busbar at the bottom
right and having to put in multiple bends avoid drawing on top of other drawing
components.
Infeed lines and transformers are drawn in the same way as other radial items. They have
the same behaviour and characteristics as normally drawn lines and transformers.
1.3.5 Drawing Branches

Branches are connected between two busbars, so both busbars need to be drawn before the
branch can be placed on the diagram. In IPSA lines (cables and overhead lines), transformers, and
more "exotic" devices like AC/DC converters are drawn as branches.
To draw a Branch:
5 IPSA USER MANUAL

1. Click on the relevant branch item button on the Drawing Toolbar.

2. Click on the busbar from where the item will be connected.
3. Before clicking on the busbar to which the branch will be connected, if the diagram is
clicked between the busbars, then a point is added where the branch changes direction.
This is called a knee point. Any number of these knee points can be added but the
branch must end on a busbar.
Click on the busbar to where the item will be connected.
Figure 1.6: Branch elements
Figure 1.7: Transformer as an element in branch
6 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 1.8: Drawing branch (line) from busbar 1
Figure 1.9: Making a knee point in-between
Figure 1.10: Connecting branch to busbar 2
1.3.5.1 Drawing Orthogonal Branches

An "orthogonal" branch is a branch drawn so that all its sections are connected at right angles.
If, when drawing a branch, you click on the from busbar followed by the to busbar, then IPSA will
automatically draw a straight branch between the two selected busbars. If the busbars are not
directly above or below (or left and right) of each other, then the branch will connect to the
busbars at an angle.
7 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 1.11: Drawing an orthogonal branch
To draw branches such that all sections of the branch are straight horizontal or vertical lines,
simply hold the [SHIFT] key down while drawing the branch. When sections of the branch are
placed on the diagram by clicking the left mouse button, the branch point added will be moved
to the closest position to ensure the added section is either a horizontal line or a vertical one.
1.3.5.2 Adding and Removing Knee Points on Branches

Knee points are turning points along a branch. They can be created when the branch is drawn, or
later added or removed to an existing branch. These user-controlled knee points are coloured in
green.
Note that some knee points are automatically added by IPSA, usually close to where a drawing
line connects to the edge of a busbar or item. These knee points are coloured in red and cannot
be moved or deleted by the user.
To add knee points to an existing branch:
1. Select the Add Knee Point button from the Drawing toolbar.
2. Select the point on the branch to add the knee point.
3. Use the Normal Select Tool to adjust the green knee point.
8 IPSA USER MANUAL

Green knee points may be deleted using the Delete Knee point button from the Drawing
toolbar.
Figure 1.12: A sample network
Figure 1.13: Toolbar icon to select a knee point
Figure 1.14: Dragging the branch from knee point
1.3.6 Drawing Circuit Breakers

There are 4 different drawing symbols for circuit breakers in IPSA.
• Square
• Cross
• Tee
• Enclosed
Breakers are attached to branches at either, or both, the sending ('connected from' busbar) or
receiving ('connected to' busbar) end of a branch.
9 IPSA USER MANUAL

To draw a circuit breaker:
Select the Circuit Breaker button from the Drawing toolbar.

Select the point on the branch to add the Circuit Breaker.
Use the Normal Select Tool to adjust the Breaker position along the branch.
Figure 1.15: Circuit breaker options
If a circuit breaker is part of the network but undrawn yet, it needs to be drawn in conjunction
with its line and not afterwards. This means that all items attached to that busbar need to be
drawn at the same time with the draw attached undrawn items option that can be found right-
clicking on the specific busbar.
1.3.7 Adding Annotations

Annotations are simply text boxes or labels that are added to the canvas and are created as
follows:
Selecting the Annotation button from the Drawing toolbar.

Select the position on the canvas to add the Annotation.
Enter the text, then deselect the Annotation button.
After the annotation has been created use the Normal Select Tool to edit the text or adjust the
position on the canvas.
1.3.8 Drawing Infeed Transformers and Lines

The only function of infeed transformers and lines is to simplify network diagrams, for example
an infeed line can be used instead of drawing a very long line from one corner of the diagram to
another, while infeed transformers can be used to separate out different voltage levels on the
drawing.
The disadvantage of using infeed transformers and lines is that it can be unclear which busbars
are connected since there is no indication of a connected branch on the start or 'from' busbar.
10 IPSA USER MANUAL

Infeed transformers and lines are branch items (i.e., they connect two busbars) that are drawn as if they
were attached to only one busbar. This means they are drawn in the same way as radial items, with
the selected busbar being the "end" busbar of the branch. The "start" busbar is chosen automatically
by the program and its name is displayed in brackets next to the infeed item. The start or from busbar
can be changed by the user in the infeed transformer or line property page (opened by double clicking
on the infeed transformer).
Figure 1.16: Infeed transformer options
1.4 Moving Items

In general, to move an item or group of items they must be selected, then the left mouse button
is clicked and held down while the mouse cursor is dragged to the new position on the diagram.
Upon releasing the button, the item(s) are moved to the new location. Different drawing objects
may be moved in different ways depending on how many items have been selected and what is
being moved.
Connected item Moving these items
These can be moved anywhere. The text label will also move keeping a
constant relative position to the busbar. Radial items will be kept in the
Busbars same position relative to the busbar, i.e. they will move with the busbar.
Branches and transformers will stretch and move between the busbar
and the first knee point.
These may be moved anywhere. The connection to the busbar will
Radials move accordingly but be constrained within the connected busbar.
Radial labels will keep a constant relative position.
Branches may not be moved as a single item; only their knee points
may be moved, and not all knee points are moveable. To move a knee
point, put the mouse cursor over the handle of the knee point and click
Branches and drag it to the new position. Note that the handle drawn on the
busbars themselves may be used to change the connectivity of the
branch. To do this, drag the handle to a new busbar and then release
the button.
11 IPSA USER MANUAL

Text Labels showing results and Annotations may be moved anywhere.

They will also be moved when the associated component moves. The
Labels and Annotations label position may be reset by right clicking on the component symbol
or the label and selecting 'Reset label position'. This can be useful if the
label has been moved previously and is now "lost" on the diagram.
Table 1.3: Table for moving items
1.5 Deleting Items

To delete an item, select that item by clicking on it first. If multiple items are selected then multiple
items will be deleted, if possible. When an item has been deleted it is deleted both from the
diagram and from the network model. If you wish to just remove it from the diagram it should be
undrawn instead, using the diagram context menu.
To delete selected items, either press the [DELETE] key, or the delete button on the File toolbar,
or use the Delete option on the diagram context menu.
An item will not be deleted if it has something else attached to it and the attached item is not also
being deleted. Less commonly an item will also not be deleted if it has something else referring
to it, for example a busbar whose voltage is being controlled by another busbar in the network.
When items are not deleted the cause of the failure is listed in the progress window.
1.6 Locate Items
If you want to find an item, you can use the Locate option . You can access it from the File
toolbar or from the view menu. Then, type the name of the item in the search box.
Figure 1.17: Locate Items options
12 IPSA USER MANUAL

1.7 Context-Sensitive Menus

A context sensitive menu is a special menu whose options are dependent on the area or item that
is selected. This menu is opened by 'right clicking' on an area within the IPSA window or on a
specific item. For example, right clicking on the canvas will bring up the Canvas Menu:
Figure 1.18: Right click on canvas board
Similarly, right clicking on an Item in a circuit will bring up the Circuit Menu:
Figure 1.19: Right click on any item in a circuit
1.8 Diagram Properties

The diagram View Properties dialog appears when the user right clicks on 'Properties' from the
context menu.
13 IPSA USER MANUAL

The View Properties dialog allows various drawing and result options to be configured.
1. Use anti-aliasing
2. Head Up Display (HUD)
3. Gridlines
4. Zoom Settings
Figure 1.20: Diagram properties

Use anti-aliasing
When anti-aliasing is enabled the diagram symbols and texts have smoothed edges at all zoom
levels. Without anti-aliasing the symbols and text appear jagged or pixelated. Anti-aliasing should
be enabled unless the network is large, and the graphics are slow to update.
The Head Up Display (HUD)
The head up display (HUD) is the status bar that can be configured to appear at the bottom of
each diagram. The HUD displays the network status (Modified, Solved etc), current zoom level and
units for any results. The HUD settings allow the colour of the bar, its transparency and text colour
14 IPSA USER MANUAL

to be changed. The HUD tick box turns the HUD display on or off. The following settings are
available:
• Base
This sets the colour of the HUD bar when displayed. The colour can be set to any colour
desired by clicking on the 'Other...' button.
• Opacity
This alters the transparency of the HUD bar and affects whether the diagram can be seen
through the bar. A setting of 0% makes the bar completely transparent while 99% makes
it opaque. This only affects the HUD bar itself, not the text in the bar. Therefore, setting
the bar to be transparent (0%) results in only the HUD text being visible.
• Text
This sets the colour of the text in the HUD bar. The colour can be set to any colour
desired by clicking on the 'Other...' button.
• Gridlines
The following options can be used to display grid lines on the network diagrams. In IPSA
the grid lines are aligned to the network components, not to specific intervals. In this way
components can be aligned horizontally or vertically in relation to each other, but not
locked to a specific grid interval.
By default, grid lines are drawn for all busbars. Each busbar will have a horizontal and
vertical busbar drawn. The grid snap feature then allows the user to move components so
that they snap to the busbar grid lines. Grid lines can also be drawn for radial items.
Therefore, any existing component can be aligned with any other component on the
diagram. The only items that cannot be aligned are branches, including transformers, and
their knee points.
The grid lines are turned on and off using the 'Gridlines' tick box. The following options can be
set when the grid lines are enabled:
1. Snap to grid at distance
Enabling this setting allows components to snap to other grid lines. The number sets the
number of pixels at which the snap occurs. Larger numbers will make components snap
together at larger distances.
2. Lines
This sets the colour of the grid lines. The colour can be set to any colour desired by
clicking on the 'Other...' button.
3. Opacity
This alters the transparency of the grid lines and affects whether the diagram can be
seen through the lines. A setting of 0% makes the grid lines completely transparent while
99% makes them opaque.
4. Show gridlines on radials
When enabled grid lines are also shown on all radial components such as loads and
generators.
15 IPSA USER MANUAL

Zoom Settings:
1. Zoom in/out by
This sets the percentage of zoom applied each time the zoom in/out control is clicked.
2. Intermediate steps
To provide the smooth zoom effect several intermediate zooms are displayed. This
control sets the number of intermediate steps.
3. Time step
The time delay between each intermediate can be specified up to 30 ms.
4. Locate step interval
This controls the zoom step size when using the View Locate action to find a network
item on the diagram.
1.9 Drawing Templates

Templates are another new feature in IPSA and allow the user to add several common items to a
network in a single operation, such as a standard substation layout, or a generator and transformer
combination.
The templates that are available to use are usually found on a tab to the right of the diagram.
Templates are stored in a single IPSA network file, and can be altered, added to, or deleted by the
user.
Templates are not just drawing items; they include all the network data for those items, and so
can be set up to have the correct nominal voltages, impedances and so on for the items they
represent.
Figure 1.21: Templates window
16 IPSA USER MANUAL

To add a Template to an existing diagram:

Open the Template selection by clicking on the Template tab.
Select the template to place in your diagram by clicking on it with the mouse. The mouse cursor
will change to have a small '+' symbol added to it.
Simply click inside your main diagram to add the template items to the diagram.
The template items just added will all be drawn as selected, allowing them to be moved about.
Note that further clicks inside the diagram will add more copies of the template to the diagram.
To 'lose' the template simply the Select Item pointer from the drawing toolbar (or choose another
item to draw, such as a busbar).
Figure 1.22: Add template to a diagram

To edit Templates
Go to the Edit menu and select the Edit Templates... option.
The currently selected Template file will be opened and can be edited.
Each Template is created in its own Embedded scene. The name of the embedded scene is the
name of the Template.
When you have finished making changes to the diagram, save the Template file. It is strongly
recommended that you save the file to a different filename, to preserve your original Templates.
Be aware that depending upon how IPSA has been set up on your PC, you may not have
permission to write to the same location as your original Templates file.
Go to the Edit menu and select the Preferences... option.
On the Directories tab, go to the Template option and point to your new Templates file.
17 IPSA USER MANUAL

1.10 Drawing Embedded Scenes

This is a new feature in IPSA and allows the user to essentially create a diagram within a diagram.
This can make the main network appear much simpler, with a link to the description of the
embedded scene stored in the stack bar.
Figure 1.23: Embedded diagram options

To create an Embedded Scene:
1. Selecting the embedded scene button from the drawing toolbar.
2. Select the position on the canvas to add the embedded scene.
3. Then create the embedded scene in the Internal Scene window from the stack bar.
To create a branch linking the embedded scene to the main drawing, a window will automatically
appear prompting the user to select a busbar from the embedded scene.
Figure 1.24: Main single line: Inline representation
18 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 1.25: Embedded scene representation
1.11 Drawing the existing components
To draw the items that exist on another diagram, you can use the Set Draw Graphics Mode
option from the toolbar menu. You can use this mode to draw objects that are already in another
diagram, instead of creating new ones. This way, you can draw the same equipment in different
diagrams. To exit this mode, click the Set Draw graphics mode button on the toolbar.
1.12 Automatic drawing tools

From IPSA 2.10.1 onwards, there are now automatic drawing tools that enable the user to build up the
networks without having to manually place the components. IPSA owns a bespoke drawing algorithm
known as PolyDraw which constructs the network using regular polygons based on the connectivity
order of the given graph (set of connected busbars). More details on this algorithm can be found in
the paper recently published in CIRED 2023. There are specifically two automatic draw tools available
for users
1. PolyDraw: Bespoke polygon based drawing tool
2. RecDraw: Tool to recursively draw the networks based on a given number of required busbars
(order) past the first selected busbar
Both drawing tools can be accessed via the Drawing Tools option on the main toolbar of the User
Interface. There are many different user specified options for both tools included. For more details on
each, please hover over the respective parameter for the Tooltip provided by the user interface.
19 IPSA USER MANUAL

1.13 Grouping the components

A group in IPSA is simply a collection of network items. The components in a network can be
grouped by selecting the multiple items and then click on Create Group option from the
context menu or from the toolbar.
Figure 1.26: Right click on any item in a circuit
20 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 1.27: Group Properties

In the Group Properties, there are several types of group, each of which has an intended purpose
(except the General group which is a catch-all) and most of which limit the kind of network items
that can belong to them. The groups can be deleted using the Delete Group option from the
toolbar.
Figure 1.28: Group Type Options
Once one or more groups have been defined, a couple of group actions become available on the
group toolbar. The members of the group can all be switched in or out of service by pressing the
Group Switch button . Note that some network items like busbars do not have a switch "state"
and so cannot be switched.
Results tables can be filtered by a group to only show results for the members of the selected
group. Press the Filter by group button to set (or remove) a filter.
1.14 Printing from IPSA and Saving Diagrams to File

To open the print dialogue box, select from the File menu, or press the Print button on the File
toolbar.
The diagram can also be copied to the clipboard or saved as graphics file, as described below.
• Copy to Clipboard
Select the 'Copy' option from the 'Window' menu. Two options are available, either copy
the window or copy the diagram. Copying the window copies just the visible portion of
the diagram. Copying the diagram copies the full network.
The 'Copy to window' option is also available by right clicking on an empty part of the diagram.
• Save Diagram to File
The 'Save diagram to file...' option is in the 'Window' menu. This allows the network
diagram to be saved in several different graphical formats. Selecting this displays a dialog
21 IPSA USER MANUAL

prompting the user to enter a filename for the image file. A drop-down box allows the file
type to be selected. The following file types are currently supported:
1. JPEG (*.jpg)
2. PNG (*.plg)
3. Bitmap (*.bmp)
4. Scalable Vector Graphics
22 IPSA USER MANUAL

C H A P T E R 2 – W O R K I N G W I T H D A T A
Chapter
2
2 Working with Data
In order to perform studies on a power system, data must be provided for the items in the network,
such as their resistance and reactance, and the amount of power that they produce or consume.
Network data may be added to IPSA in several ways:
• Property sheets
These are accessed from the diagram by double-clicking the left mouse button while
over the symbol, or by clicking the right mouse button over the item and selecting
Properties... from the context menu.
• Data Tables
Tables are accessed from either the Network menu, or by double-clicking the left mouse
button while over the list of items shown in the Stack bar. There is one set of tables for
each plant type.
Note that data tables can be used to enter and edit data for network items without
diagram.
• Importing Data
Data can be read in from other file formats, including IPSA 1 files. The import of CIM, IPSA
1, PowerFactory, PSS/E, DINIS files and SQL data (database) are available from the Import
from option under the File menu. Other file formats, such as Trandat, are available by
running Python scripts provided under PyIPSA Examples.
• Exporting data
Data can be written out to CIM or IPSA 1.6.
2.1 Using Property Pages and Dialogs

The simplest way to enter data into an IPSA file is by using the Property sheet or dialog for each
item. The item must be drawn first. Position the mouse pointer over the item's symbol on the
diagram and either double-click the left mouse button, or by click the right mouse button and
select Properties... from the context menu.
23 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 2.1: Generator properties
A property page or dialog contains several different types of control:

• Numeric and Text fields
Data can be simple be typed or pasted into these fields as required. Most data fields accept
only numeric data, with the notable exception of names. New or edited data is highlighted
in blue whilst existing data is black.
Data checking is performed automatically on some fields. If the data entered is outside
typical limits then a small orange exclamation mark appears next to the field.
• Pull down lists
These allow a setting or parameter to be selected from a list of options. An example of this
is the transformer winding or vector group selection.
• Check boxes
Check boxes (small squares) are used for true or false values, such as whether a name is
case-sensitive or not.
• Radio buttons
Radio buttons (small circles) are used for selecting one from a limited choice of options,
such as whether a network item is in or out of service.
24 IPSA USER MANUAL

• Push buttons
Push buttons are provided to enable additional parameters to be entered. Pressing the
button either expands the existing dialog or opens a new dialog. Examples of this are the
Add AVR... button for generators.
• Fixed or read-only fields
These fields are either locked or greyed out to indicate that they cannot be edited. In many
cases these controls can become active by selecting an option setting on the property
page, for example the profile name for a generator will be disabled unless the Has
generation profile box on the property page is checked. Some fields will always be non-
editable, such as the per-unit voltage magnitude field for busbars (in this case because it
is showing a result value).
2.2 Using Data Tables
2.2.1 Editing Data

The parameters for each type of network item can be viewed, entered, and edited in tables. While
property pages are often easier to use when changing the data for one individual item, tables
allow the data for multiple items to be changed at once, especially when pasting in values that
have been copied from another source (such as a spreadsheet).
Tables are accessed from either the Network menu, or by double-clicking the left mouse button
while over the list of items shown in the Stack Bar. Unlike property pages, a diagram is not needed
in order to use tables.
There is one set of tables for each plant type. Each table shows the data fields as columns, with
each row representing one network item. Generally, network items have so much data that it is
not reasonable to put all of it in a single table. Instead, the data is divided up amongst a set of
tables, with each table displaying fields that belong in the same category, such as Database values.
The first table in a set is usually labelled Main and contains commonly used data. Each table can
be accessed by selecting one of the tabs at the top of the data sheet.
Figure 2.2: Data table structure
25 IPSA USER MANUAL

In general, most entries in a table can be edited. Simply click the left mouse button when over a
table entry to begin changing it. Some values may not be changed, however, in which case their
entries will be disabled.
Values that are changed will have their text shown in blue. Each row in the table corresponds to
one network item. When the cursor focus moves off one row, for example by clicking inside a
table entry for a different item, all the changes made for that row are committed, and the
background colour for the row will change to green. If any errors are found in the data when
committing it then the invalid entries will be shown in red.
2.2.2 Context Menus, Copying and Pasting

Right-clicking in a table entry, or on the row number for a particular component, or on the column
name, displays a Context menu. These context menus have the following options:
• Copy
Copies data from the selected row to the clipboard.
• Paste
Pastes previously copied data into the selected row. If this entry is disabled, then no copied
data is available to paste. If there is more copied data than there are rows in the table,
then more rows will be added. Usually this means extra network items will be created.
These new items will not be drawn on any diagram but can be added to a diagram later.
• Fill cells
Fills the selected cells with the entered value.
• Clear
Deletes data from the selected rows.
Figure 2.3: Editing data table
The context menu for the rows displays the following additional options:
• Copy row and title
Copies the entire row, including the row number, to the clipboard. The data can then be
pasted into other applications.
• Copy row without title
Copies the entire row without the row number. The data can then be pasted into another
row in the IPSA table, or into other applications.
• Delete item
26 IPSA USER MANUAL

Deletes the selected component from the network. If there are items attached to this
component, then this may not be allowed; for example, you cannot delete a busbar while
there is still a load attached to it.
• Find item
Locates the items on the diagram (if drawn).
• Create group
Creates a new group and adds the item as its first member.
• Add to group
Adds the item to an existing group.
Figure 2.4: Editing data table entries
The context menu for the columns displays the following additional options:
• Copy column and title
Copies the entire column, including the column name, to the clipboard. The data can then
be pasted into other applications.
• Sort column (ascending order)
Sorts the rows in the table by the values in the selected column, in ascending order (for
text this will be A to Z order).
• Sort column (descending order)
Sorts the rows in the table by the values in the selected column, in descending order (for
text this will be Z to A order).
27 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 2.5:Column display in data table
2.3 Data Conversion Tools - Importing
2.3.1 Importing IPSA 1 Networks

To import an IPSA 1 network into IPSA, go to the File menu and select the Import from... option.
A dialog is displayed which allows an IPSA 1 network to be selected.
Networks created with all versions of IPSA 1, from 1.0 to 1.6, can be imported, including all the
network data and the diagram.
2.3.2 Importing from an SQL Database

The ability to import data from an SQL database is provided to allow an existing network to be
updated with values read in from other applications, such as SCADA data. It is not intended to
allow the creation of a new network or new network items.
To import data from a database, go to the File menu and select the Import from... option. A dialog
is displayed which allows the database to be selected.
28 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 2.6: Importing data from SQL database
Enter the name of the database, and any SQL parameters required to access it, such as a username
and password.
Only certain kinds of data for a few types of network item can be imported from an SQL database:
• Loads - Status, real and reactive power can be imported.
• Generators - Status, voltage setting, real and reactive power can be imported.
• Grid infeeds - Status, voltage setting, real and reactive power can be imported.
• Lines - Status can be imported.
• Transformers - Status and tap setting can be imported.
2.3.3 Importing from Trandat

Scripts are provided to import data from Trandat files (a file format used to import data into
previous versions of IPSA).
To run one of these scripts, go to the Analysis menu and select the Run Script... option, or press
the Run Script button on the Analysis toolbar. A dialog will appear to select the script file to
be run. The script is available under Help > Examples > PyIPSA. To add new script, select the Add
Script button on the Analysis toolbar.
2.3.4 Importing from PSS/E

To run this tool (File > Import > PSS/E), you will need at least a PSS/E RAW data file, written by
PSS/E versions 26 to 33. This is a plain text output of the (generally) positive sequence data of the
PSS/E network. Note that RAW files have tend to have limited numbers of decimal places for data
so you may find some truncation occurs.
If you have any issues with the tool, email support@ipsa-power.com with details and a patch
will be released for the tool if required.
2.3.5 Importing from DINIS

To run this tool (File > Import > DINIS), you will first need to generate a DINIS export csv file. You
will also need a csv or txt file that contains information on the LINECODE types in the DINIS file.
It is highly likely that the export file made by DINIS will contain extra bits of network you don't
really need or want, so after importing the data into IPSA there will be some manual modifications
involved.
29 IPSA USER MANUAL

2.3.6 Importing from PowerFactory

To run this tool (File > Import > PowerFactory), you will first need to generate a DGS export file
from DIgSILENT. The file name needs to be set as *_dgs.xlsx. A technical note is available which
details the fields of the elements that are required to be exported from PowerFactory in the DGS
format. Please contact support@ipsa-power.com if you would like to access the PowerFactory
Converter Tool technical note.
2.3.7 Importing from CIM

To run this tool (File > Import > CIM), you will first need a folder comprising of all four key profiles
based on the CIM 16 standards – State Variable (SV), Steady State Hypothesis (SSH), Topology
(TP) and Equipment (EQ). Select the folder directory when prompted and import the file.
2.3.8 Importing from an IPSA Database

IPSA allows to import data from IPSA databases where standard values for various components,
like lines and cables, can be stored.
To import data from a database, go to the Database menu and select the Open database... option.
Figure 2.7: Importing data from IPSA database
To import, for instance, a standard cable from the database, it needs to be selected from the
database area of the line properties window, as showed below.
30 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 2.8: Line properties to select data from the database
Each cable in the database can be assigned up to 9 different ratings. They can be imported based
on the following procedure. First, the database rating names must be specified, and the database
needs to be saved. Then the same names need to be set in network properties window as rating
names. If this procedure is successful when a cable is selected, as described in the previous section,
the rating values will be imported as well.
2.4 Data Conversion Tools – Exporting
2.4.1 Exporting to IPSA 1

IPSA networks can be exported to IPSA 1. Only IPSA 1 version 1.6.9 is supported.
Please note that IPSA networks contain more features, more data and more graphics than
IPSA 1.
This means that IPSA 1 networks will not contain all the information in an IPSA network, and the
diagram may not look the same. IPSA networks can be considerably larger than IPSA 1 allows,
both in diagram size and in the number of network items (depending upon the kind of license).
IPSA networks can also have more than one diagram, whereas IPSA 1 networks cannot.
31 IPSA USER MANUAL

To export an IPSA network into IPSA 1, go to the File menu and select the Export to... option. A
dialog is displayed which allows the file name of the exported IPSA 1 network to be selected.
2.4.2 Exporting to CIM

To run this tool (File > Export > CIM), select the folder directory when prompted and export the
zip file to the specified location. The CIM (based on CIM 16) currently exports the following key
profiles – State Variable (SV), Steady State Hypothesis (SSH), Topology (TP), Equipment (EQ) and
Diagram Layout (DL).
32 IPSA USER MANUAL

C H A P T E R 3 T H E P E R - U N I T S Y S T E M
Chapter
3
3 The Per-unit System
The per-unit system represents electrical quantities as a fraction of their nominal values. Electrical
systems, expressed in per-unit, have a base value, which defines base currents and impedances at
different voltage levels and provides a common platform for the simple addition of network
elements at different voltages. The industry standard base value used in transmission and
distribution power systems analysis is 100 MVA, although any value can be used. Most data in
IPSA is in per-unit.
3.1 Per-unit Definitions

3.1.1 Core Definitions
The core per-unit definitions are as follows:
𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑝𝑢 . 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 . √3
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 . 𝑘𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 . √3
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 in kV 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 in Ω
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 in kA 𝑌𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 in Ω−1
The power base, MVAbase, is an arbitrary figure and is the same throughout the entire system.
Typically, a value of 100 MVA is used.
For some equipment, data is specified by the manufacturer in per-unit on its equipment rating. In
these cases, the data will need to be converted to the system base before being entered into IPSA.
33 IPSA USER MANUAL

3.1.2 Other Definitions

per-unit Voltage
The per unit voltage, kVbase, is usually the system nominal kV (line-line). This can be different for
different voltage levels in a large network.
𝑘𝑉
𝑉𝑝𝑢 =
𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
per-unit Current
The per unit current, Ibase, is derived from MVAbase and kVbase.
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑘𝐴
√3 . 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑘𝑎
𝐼𝑝𝑢 =
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
per-unit Impedance
The per unit impedance, Zbase, is derived from MVAbase and kVbase.
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
√3 . 𝑘𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
2
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝑍𝛺
𝑍𝑝𝑢 =
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
per-unit Admittance
The admittance, Y, is the inverse of the impendence, with units of siemens, S, or mhos. This is a
measure of how easily a circuit or device will allow current to flow.
𝑌 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵
1
𝑌𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
34 IPSA USER MANUAL

𝑌𝑠
𝑌𝑝𝑢 = = 𝑌𝑠 . 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑌𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
per-unit Susceptance
The susceptance, B, is the reciprocal of reactance and can be capacitive or inductive (Bc, Bl). It has
units in siemens, S.
2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
𝐵𝑝𝑢 =
𝑌𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
per-unit Real Power
𝑀𝑊
𝑃𝑝𝑢 =
per-unit Reactive Power

𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑟
𝑄𝑝𝑢 =
3.2 Per-unit Conversion

Equipment data may be provided in per-unit values to its own rated base. In these circumstances
it can be converted to the system base using the following formulae:
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑍𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑍𝑝𝑢𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑤
If 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑑 ,
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑍𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑍𝑝𝑢𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑑
Most power networks contain more than one transformer and more than one voltage level. The
base voltages on different sides of a transformer must be related by the turns ratio of the
transformer.
If 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑤 =𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑑 ,
2
𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑍𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑍𝑝𝑢𝑜𝑙𝑑 ( )
𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑤
35 IPSA USER MANUAL

If 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑤 and 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑑 are different and 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑤 and 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑑 are different,
2
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑍𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑍𝑝𝑢𝑜𝑙𝑑 ( ).( )
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑤
3.3 The Per-unit System in IPSA

When entering or editing data for a network item directly into a property page or table, the values
are expected to be in per-unit on the system base. Manufacturers often provide per-unit
impedances for their equipment, but these values are on the rated base of the machine, and so it
must be converted to the system base if entered directly into IPSA.
The exception to the above is the IPSA database. Items in the database are entered in per-unit on
their own rated bases (which are also entered into the database). When a network item is selected
to be of a particular type from the database, IPSA will automatically convert the per-unit values
from the equipment base to the system base.
Note that the system base of a network can be changed from inside the program
(Network>Properties). Doing so will cause IPSA to automatically recalculate impedance values.
Figure 3.1: Network Properties Window
36 IPSA USER MANUAL

C H A P T E R 4 – L O A D F L O W
Chapter
4
4 Load Flow
A load-flow is a steady-state solution for an electrical network, which calculates the voltage profile
and branch flows in a system for any specified loading and generation conditions. A load flow
study normally looks at normal operating conditions on a network, where a fault level study looks
at abnormal operating conditions.
The overall objective of a load flow study is to calculate the voltage magnitude and angle of each
busbar in the network. Using this information, the real and reactive power flow through the entire
network can then be calculated. In order to solve a load flow, the following parameters must be
calculated at each busbar:
• Voltage, Vi
• Phase, θi
• Real Power, Pi
• Reactive power Qi
The load flow method used in the IPSA package is the fast-decoupled load-flow method. The
principle of decoupling is associated with an inherent characteristic in any practical power system
of the close dependence of active power flow on voltage angle (P - θ) and the reactive power
flow on voltage magnitude (Q-V).
37 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 4.1: Load flow solution for a network
4.1 Data Requirements

The minimum data required to perform a load flow calculation is as follows:
• Network Size
At least two busbars, one generator (or grid infeed) and one branch are required.
• Branch Impedance
For A.C. networks, one branch must have a reactance value, and all branches must have
an impedance, unless their zero-impedance flag is set.
For D.C. networks, branches must have resistance values.
• Generators and Grid Infeeds
A combination of real and/or reactive powers and potentially a voltage are required,
depending on the generation scheme:
1. A generator or grid infeed with real output power specified and a target voltage
will adjust its reactive power output (within the limits specified) to keep the
busbar voltage at the target value.
2. A generator or grid infeed with real and reactive output power specified will not
adjust its power output regardless of the busbar voltage.
3. A single generator or grid infeed on a slack busbar only needs a target voltage
specified. It will adjust both its real and reactive power output to keep the busbar
voltage at the target value.
Note that a generator with only a target voltage specified that is not on a slack
busbar will behave as per case (1) above, with a real output power of zero.
38 IPSA USER MANUAL

A generator with no voltage specified and no real or reactive power output and
that is not on a slack busbar will behave as per case (2) above, with real and
reactive output set to zero, and the busbar voltage not controlled by the
generator.
• Induction Machines
Mechanical power is required, otherwise the machine is ignored in load flow studies. For
double fed machines slip and potentially power factor are also required, depending on
the machine controller.
4.2 Types of Busbar

In a load flow, the busbars in a network fall into one of three categories:
1. Slack busbars
2. Voltage-controlled, or PV, busbars
3. Non voltage-controlled, or PQ, busbars
Figure 4.2: Network containing all the three bus types
4.2.1 Slack Busbars

The load flow calculation determines the voltage profile and branch flows in a system for any
specified loading and generation conditions. As the system losses are not known when the
generator powers have to be specified, it is necessary to allow the power generated by one of the
machines in the system to be adjusted by IPSA so that the total generation balances the load and
losses. This adjustment is done at the slack busbar.
For the slack:
• Vi and θi are given
• Pi and Qi are calculated
39 IPSA USER MANUAL

This means that the slack busbar needs to have a target voltage specified, but no power needs to
be entered for an attached slack generator or grid infeed, as those values will be overwritten. Any
reactive power limits on a slack generator will be ignored.
Slack busbars are specified by the user by selecting the option Network>Slack Properties. A good
choice for a slack busbar is a node with just one generator or grid infeed connected to it. The
target voltage on that connected device should be specified. Poor choices for slack busbars
include busbars with more than one generator attached, busbars whose voltage is already being
controlled by another device (especially if the target voltage does not match that given for the
slack), and busbars with no suitable generator or grid infeed.
4.2.2 Voltage-controlled (PV) Busbars

A voltage-controlled or PV busbar is a busbar where the injected real power and a target voltage
magnitude are specified. The voltage will be maintained by reactive power injection, typically from
a synchronous generator with the real power (3) and target voltage (1) specified for the machine.
In this case the real power setting of the generator remains fixed, while the load flow algorithm
will adjust the reactive power output of the generator in order to achieve the target voltage.
For synchronous generators, limits can be set for the maximum amount of reactive power that
can be imported or exported (4). If no limits are entered for these parameters, then the generator
reactive power can be any value required to achieve the target voltage.
If a target voltage is specified for a synchronous generator then by default it controls the busbar
to which it is attached. Alternatively, the voltage at a remote busbar (2) can be controlled, although
this option should be used with care.
40 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 4.3: Generator properties
4.2.3 Non Voltage-controlled (PQ) Busbars

A non-voltage-controlled or PQ busbar is a busbar where the injected real and reactive powers
are specified. Typically, this will be a load on the system (so rather than injecting power, the load
will be absorbing it from the network). The load flow algorithm will calculate the voltage
magnitude and angle at these busbars.
4.3 Running a Load Flow
To start the load flow calculation, click on the load flow icon in the Toolbar, or the Load
Flow option in the Analysis menu. This will open the Load Flow properties dialog box.
To bypass the load flow dialog box and run a load flow with the same settings as before, select
the "no option" load flow icon in the Toolbar.
41 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 4.4: Load Flow Options
The load flow calculation starts by checking the network parameters. If any essential data is found
to be missing, an appropriate error message is displayed in the progress window and the solution
process terminated. If these checks are passed, a load flow solution is then found by using an
iterative numerical technique. The results of the calculations are displayed on the diagram and are
also available in tabular or report form.
Both the precision to which the results are displayed, and the quantities shown on the diagram
can be adjusted using the Results Settings dialog, by View>Results Display Style or it can be
accessed from the canvas menu.
Figure 4.5: Right Click on the Canvas
42 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 4.6: Display Styles and Results Properties
4.4 Load Flow Properties

The parameters used to control the load flow calculation are detailed in the reference guide. The
following sections discuss how the parameters affect the load flow in practice.
43 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 4.7: Load flow properties window
4.4.1 Convergence Accuracy and Iteration Limits

Two parameters are available to guide the time taken by the load flow solution process.
The first control parameter sets the tolerance for load flow convergence. When the largest power
mismatch at a busbar falls below this value the network is taken as being solved. The default
setting is 0.01 MVA, which is generally sufficient for most studies. Reducing the convergence
tolerance will increase the accuracy of the calculation but will also increase the number of
iterations required to find a solution.
The second control parameter is the maximum number of iterations. If an answer has not been
found after this number of iterations, a dialog box gives the option to either stop the calculations,
or to continue for a further set of iterations to seek a solution.
If a solution is not found, the maximum power mismatch is displayed in the Progress Window. If the
mismatch values are decreasing, then the calculations are moving towards a solution.
The load flow usually converges within 5 to 15 iterations, or less if the network has not changed
much since the last solution. Networks containing lines with very high resistance to reactance ratio
44 IPSA USER MANUAL

circuits, which sometimes occur in distribution systems, may require more iterations to solve.
Large numbers of on-load controllers, or complex controls that involve additional adjustments
(such as adjustment of phase-shifting transformers controlling real power flow), may also increase
the number of iterations.
4.4.2 Transformer Taps and Phase Shifting

During the load flow calculation the tap position of transformers may be adjusted, depending
upon the global settings for tap adjustment specified in load flow properties and the individual
tap control settings of the transformer.
Locking all the transformer taps in load flow properties overrides any individual transformer tap
controls. An option is given to lock transformer taps but only when performing Analysis
Automations or Outages. Not allowing transformer taps to move speeds up the load flow
considerably, and for certain types of study finding the "new" tap position is not important.
A setting is also provided to ignore phase shifts through the transformer during load flow analysis.
Generally, it is better not to ignore phase shifts, as this allows fault level studies to model more
types of fault, such as single-phase line to ground. However, when IPSA performs transient
stability analysis, it first runs load flow calculation to initialise the network. This initialisation load
flow ignores phase shifts through transformers. In rare cases a network that was solved in load
flow with phase shifts included may then not solve in transient stability when they are ignored. In
these situations, the network should first be solved in load flow with phase shifts ignored. A flat
start may be required.
4.4.3 Load Scaling

Before a load flow calculation is performed, all the static loads in the network can be scaled by
the values specified in load flow properties. These global values are applied after any scaling
values specified for load groups. Blank entries count as zero, so selecting the load scaling option
and clearing both scaling parameters will effectively set all static loads in the network to zero
demand.
A common cause of networks failing to solve in load flow is that the demand is too high. An
indication of this is if a network fails to solve initially but solves when the loads are scaled to zero.
In such a case, slowly increase the load scaling factor from 0.0 to 1.0, and pay attention to the
busbar voltages, looking for any that start to drop significantly as the load increases. If the voltage
gets too low, then the network will fail to solve in load flow.
4.4.4 Flat Start
An option is provided on the load flow properties to always perform a flat start before
running a load flow calculation. The most recent settings provided under flat start properties are
used. Flat starts may be preferred as they increase the likelihood of repeatable load flow solutions,
as the busbar voltages, transformer taps and so on, will start from the same values each time.
45 IPSA USER MANUAL

4.4.5 Energy Storage Flip

An option is provided on the generator properties to set the generator as energy storage. The
import/export ratio can also be set if the import is different to the export. The local flip option can
be accessed by right-clicking the generator or opening the generator and clicking ‘Flip’.
Figure 4.8: Right Click on any items
There is also a global flip available under Analysis>Storage which allows you to ‘flip all storage’
, ‘flip all to import’ or ‘flip all to export’ .
4.5 DC Load Flow Properties

The parameters used to control the DC load flow calculation are detailed in the reference guide.
The following sections discuss how the parameters affect the load flow in practice.
46 IPSA USER MANUAL

Figure 4.9: DC load flow properties window
4.5.1 Branch loss estimation and nodal transmission

There are two options for estimating the Branch Loss. The first option is to not estimate it at all.
The second option is to use the Series RL model estimation, which allows to calculate the losses
according to the short transmission line series RL model.
4.5.2 Transformer Phase Shifting

A setting is provided to ignore phase shifts through the transformer during load flow analysis.
Generally, it is better not to ignore phase shifts, as this allows fault level studies to model more
types of fault, such as single-phase line to ground. However, when IPSA performs transient
stability analysis, it first runs load flow calculation to initialise the network. This initialisation load
flow ignores phase shifts through transformers. In rare cases a network that was solved in load
flow with phase shifts included may then not solve in transient stability when they are ignored. In
these situations, the network should first be solved in load flow with phase shifts ignored. A flat
start may be required.
4.5.3 Load Scaling

Before a load flow calculation is performed, all the static loads in the network can be scaled by
the values specified in load flow properties. These global values are applied after any scaling
values specified for load groups. Blank entries count as zero, so selecting the load scaling option
and clearing both scaling parameters will effectively set all static loads in the network to zero
demand.
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4.6 Load Flow Results
4.6.1 Tables and Reports

The results of the load flow can be displayed in reports and tables or exported to a third-party
application such as Microsoft Excel. Select the Load Flow option in the Report menu and choose
one of the options to generate the appropriate set of results.
An example of a load flow summary report.
Figure 4.10: Load flow summary report
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An example of a load flow results table.
Figure 4.11: Load flow results table
Note that the values displayed in results tables cannot be changed by editing the table. Various
options are available to manipulate the results by right-clicking on the table and selecting one of
the context menu options. For example, all or part of the table can be copied and pasted into a
third-party application, such as a word processor or spreadsheet, or by right-clicking on the top
of a column the results table can be sorted.
One of the entries in the Load Flow section of the Report menu will export all the load flow
results to Microsoft Excel. For this to work Excel must be installed on your computer. Selecting
this option will also start Excel. If Excel fails to start then messages will appear in the Progress
window.
4.6.2 Results Fed Back into Data

After a successful load flow calculation some of the results are passed back to the network items.
In particular, busbar voltages and angles are adjusted, as well as induction machine slips. This can
be important because these values are used as the starting point for subsequent calculations. If
you split your network in two by opening a breaker on a line, for example, and run a load flow,
then both parts of the network will solve independently of one another. If you then close the
breaker the voltages and angles just calculated may not be a good starting point for the new
network configuration. In these circumstances performing a flat start is a good option.
AC results
• Busbars
Voltage magnitude and angle are returned and used as the initial values for the next load
flow calculation.
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Slip is returned and used as an initial value for the next load flow. For doubly-fed induction
generators slip is specified and not calculated.
Note that if an induction machine fails to solve in load flow then its slip is set to -2.0 p.u.
• Generators and Grid Infeeds
For slack machines real and reactive power output are returned, but they are not used as
initial values for the next load flow.
For PV machines reactive power output is returned. Note that if the generator reactive
power limits are exceeded then the busbar voltage may not reach its target value.
• Transformers
For tap-changing transformers, the tap position is returned and used as the starting point
for the next load flow.
• Mechanically-switched capacitors (MSCs)
The setting position is returned and used as the starting point for the next load flow.
• Voltage regulators
The tap position is returned and used as the starting point for the next load flow.
DC results
• DC Machines
For generators, initial mechanical power is specified as a negative value, mechanical power
is then returned by the load flow and used as the starting point for the next load flow.
For motors mechanical power is specified as a positive value and is not returned by the
load flow as a result.
• AC / DC Converters
If the DC side of the converter is a slack busbar:
o The DC side busbar voltage is specified, and the DC power is returned as a result,
but is not used as an initial value in the next load flow.
o The AC side busbar voltage will be returned as normal (note the AC and DC sides
of a converter cannot both be slack busbars).
o The AC side real power is returned and is used as a starting point for the next
load flow.
o For PWM converters the AC side reactive power and the transformer tap position
are returned and are used as initial values for the next calculation.
In the calculation of the transformer tap is adjusted, first to try to meet the specified AC side
reactive power. If the tap reaches a limit, then the AC side reactive power is adjusted to meet the
DC side busbar voltage specified.
• Line commutated converters cannot be placed on a slack busbar (either AC or DC).
If the DC side of the converter is not a slack busbar:
50 IPSA USER MANUAL

• The DC power is specified. The DC side busbar voltage will be returned as a result.
• The AC side busbar voltage will be returned as normal.
• The AC side real power is returned and is used as a starting point for the next load flow.
• For PWM converters the AC side reactive power and the transformer tap position are
returned and are used as initial values for the next calculation.
In the calculation the transformer tap is adjusted first to try to meet the specified AC side reactive
power. If the tap reaches a limit, then the AC side reactive power is adjusted to meet the DC side
busbar voltage specified.
For line commutated converters, the AC side reactive power is returned, and it is not used as an
initial value in the next calculation.
4.7 Islands and Isolated Busbars
4.7.1 Islands
Figure 4.12: Slack busbar prompt for an island network
51 IPSA USER MANUAL

The load flow calculation engine used in IPSA can handle networks which are split into several
electrically separate areas, known as islands. One slack busbar is required in each island. If an
island is found that does not have a slack busbar, then a dialog box will ask for a busbar to be
selected as a slack for that island before the load flow can continue. Note that when selecting a
busbar to be a slack it is good practice to choose the busbar which has the largest generator.
Pressing the Cancel button on the slack selection dialog will stop the load flow calculation.
If the selected slack busbar in the island does not have a voltage controlling generator or grid
infeed, then load flow results may not be created for the island depending upon the load flow
options.
IPSA can study networks with up to 1078 separate islands.
Islands are often created when a line or transformer is switched out of service. Occasionally, when
the branch item is switched back in service, it may be necessary to perform a flat start before
solving the load flow. This is because the busbar voltage angles (and sometimes the voltage
magnitudes) in the island can be very different from the main network they are being re-attached
to.
Note that when IPSA is performing load flows in a "batch" mode, such as running contingency
studies, or when under the control of a script, it is not possible to bring up dialog boxes to ask for a
slack busbar to be selected when an island is found. In these cases, the program will automatically
select a busbar to be the slack.
4.7.2 Isolated Busbars
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Figure 4.13: :Load Flow Warning for an isolated busbar
Isolated busbars are a special case of islands. An isolated busbar is an island that consists of just
one busbar (and any network components attached to it).
If one or more isolated busbars are found in the network, a dialog box will ask whether the load
flow calculation should be continued or not. If the program proceeds with the study then the
isolated bus is set as a slack automatically. If no suitable generator or grid infeed is on the isolated
busbar then the busbar voltage will be set to 1.0 p.u.
The same comment applies for isolated busbars as for islands when IPSA is performing load flows in
a "batch" mode. It is not possible to bring up a dialog box in those circumstances, so the program
will assume isolated busbars are to be ignored and carry on with the calculation.
4.8 Unbalanced Networks

IPSA's load flow algorithm can solve unbalanced networks and circuits. There are constraints as
to how the unbalanced and balanced networks can co-exist:
1. Each unbalanced section of network can connect to no more than one balanced A.C.
area.
2. A pure unbalanced area, that connects to nothing else, is allowed.
3. An unbalanced load may be directly placed on a balanced network busbar.
In the first case, the unbalanced section of network is solved and applied as an equivalent balanced
load to the A.C. area. If, for some reason, the equivalent load for the unbalanced network cannot
be determined, then an error message will be displayed stating that loads cannot be added to the
network, and the load flow will be terminated.
In general, the unbalanced network solution is much more sensitive to bad data than the balanced
network and takes longer to solve. Care should be taken with the connectivity of the unbalanced
network, so that all phases can be supplied with power where necessary.
4.9 D.C. Networks

IPSA's load flow algorithm can solve D.C. networks and circuits. These may form totally separate
islanded systems, or they may be connected to one or more A.C. areas by static converters or
rotary motor-generator links. Each A.C. and D.C. area is treated as an electrically separate system,
and each must have its own slack busbar.
53 IPSA USER MANUAL

There are power transfer constraints across each link between an A.C. and D.C. system that need
to be satisfied:
• Either the sending or receiving end of a converter, but not both, may be specified as
slack.
• If different powers are specified on each side of a converter, these values have to be
adjusted.
In these cases, powers on the other side of the converter will be adjusted to match the conditions
imposed on the slack busbar.
54 IPSA USER MANUAL

C H A P T E R 5 – F A U L T L E V E L
Chapter
5
5 Fault Level
Fault level analysis simulates the effects of various types of short circuits on the A.C. busbars of
the system. The results of the calculations can be displayed on the diagram and in tables.
Figure 5.1: Fault analysis with IEC 60909:2001 standard methodology
55 IPSA USER MANUAL

5.1 Fault Level Calculation Methods

IPSA provides two methods for calculating the fault levels on a network.
• The standard IPSA method provides the most detailed fault level calculations.
This method can be used to calculate fault flows down branches, or to display fault
waveforms.
• The IEC 60909 method calculates fault levels in strict accordance with the IEC
60909:2001 standard.
The standard does not specify how to calculate fault flows and hence with this method
no flow results will be produced.
The method used to calculate fault levels is selected just before the calculations are run.
5.1.1 Standard IPSA

The standard IPSA fault option is the IPSA tried and tested fault level calculation method. It is a
full machine-based methodology that takes into account the effects of external network
impedances and other neighbouring machines to adjust the fault contributions and decay time-
constants. The calculation technique is in fact similar to IEC 61363 although it has significantly
more detail in the calculations.
The standard IPSA fault methodology can calculate all types of balanced and unbalanced faults,
and fault current components including 2nd harmonic contribution from salient pole synchronous
machines for LLL-type faults. It can also calculate fault flows and waveform plots of the fault
currents.
The IPSA fault calculation also includes the effects of load current in the network which affects the
pre-fault voltage, and therefore the fault contribution of machines. Transformer tap-changer
positions and transformer impedance adjustments are also considered if represented in the
network.
5.1.2 IEC 60909

The IEC 60909 fault option is the IPSA implementation of the IEC 60909:2001 standard
methodology for short-circuit currents in three-phase ac systems. It is a strict interpretation of the
applied standard although in some cases it is necessary to derive the equivalent IEC parameters
from the data in the IPSA data model. It is applicable to the calculation of short-circuit currents in
low-voltage three-phase AC systems and high-voltage three-phase ac systems operating at a
nominal frequency of 50Hz or 60Hz.
"IEC 60909 establishes a general, practicable and concise procedure leading to results, which are
generally of acceptable accuracy."
IEC 60909 is an unloaded calculation method which does not include off-nominal transformer
taps. It considers the calculation of short-circuit currents in the case of balanced to unbalanced
56 IPSA USER MANUAL

short-circuits. It does not deal with the calculation of short-circuit currents in installations on
board ships and aeroplanes.
The DC calculation method is based on the R/X ratio at the point of fault which can be calculated
using one of three different methods. The Equivalent Frequency method "C" is generally
considered to be the most appropriate for transmission and distribution networks:
where
Ik" = initial symmetrical current (time set to 0.0s)
Idc = DC component of the fault current at the time and point of fault
Ip = Peak short-circuit current
The same initial symmetrical current can be obtained with the IEC 60909 and the standard IPSA
calculation method, if the following conditions are met:
• An unloaded network with a flat voltage profile
• No shunt components or branch susceptance
• Set transformer tap-changers to their nominal tap-position
• Set the fault type L-L-L at time 0.0s
• Ignore voltage correction factors
• Ignore impedance correction factors
IEC 60909 uses the concept of voltage correction factors and impedance correction factors to
account for pre-fault network loading and off-nominal transformer tap-positions. All line
capacitances, shunt admittances and non-rotating loads are neglected. Despite these assumptions
being not strictly true for power systems, the results meet the objective of providing results that
are generally of acceptable accuracy.
For further detail it is recommended to review the standard itself which can be obtained directly
from the IEC website or from your company library.
5.2 Fault Level Calculation Models (Standard IPSA Method)

The standard IPSA fault level method uses detailed machine models in its calculations.
Note that these models and equations do not apply to IEC 60909 calculations.
5.2.1 Synchronous Machine Models (Standard IPSA Method)

The most detailed representation of synchronous machines in fault level studies requires the
synchronous, transient, and sub-transient data to be entered. This permits peak, asymmetric RMS
and symmetric RMS values to be calculated.
Machine contributions are calculated using the following equations:
1 1 1 1 1
𝑌𝑎𝑐 = 𝑋 + [(𝑋 ′ ) − (𝑋)] 𝑒−𝑡/𝑇′ + [(𝑋 ′′ ) − (𝑋 ′ )] 𝑒−𝑡/𝑇′′ …for the A.C. component where
57 IPSA USER MANUAL

𝑋 = 𝑋𝑑 + 𝑋𝑒
𝑋′ = 𝑋′𝑑 + 𝑋𝑒
𝑋′′ = 𝑋′′𝑑 + 𝑋𝑒
𝑋′
𝑇 ′ = 𝑇 ′ 𝑑𝑜 ( 𝑋 )
𝑋 ′′
𝑇′′ = 𝑇 ′′ 𝑑𝑜 ( 𝑋 ′ )
1
𝑌𝑑𝑐 = (𝑋 ) 𝑒−𝑡/𝑇 ...for the D.C. component where
𝑛
(𝑋 ′′ . 𝑋 ′′ 𝑞 )
𝑋𝑛 = 𝑋𝑒 + 2 (𝑋 ′′ 𝑑 . 𝑋 ′′
𝑑 𝑞)
𝑋𝑛
𝑇 = 𝜔 (𝑅 + 𝑅𝑒)
𝑎
(𝑋 ′′ . 𝑋 ′′ 𝑞 )
𝑋2ℎ = 2 (𝑋 ′′ 𝑑− 𝑋 ′′ ) + 𝑋𝑒 ...for the initial second harmonic
𝑞 𝑑
machine admittance
𝑋𝑛
𝑇2ℎ = 𝜔 (𝑅 …for the initial second harmonic
𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒)
machine time constant))
Notes
1. When no entry is made for X" q then X" q is assumed to be equal to X" d.
2. When no entries are made for sub-transient components then sub-transient components
are neglected.
3. If only positive sequence reactance is entered, then the machine's fault contribution has
no time dependence.
4. The D.C. time constant is (pessimistically) used to calculate the decay of the second
harmonic current.
5.2.2 Induction Machine Models (Standard IPSA Method)

The calculation of the fault level contribution of induction machines depends upon the rotor
impedances entered. Either the winding data will be used to calculate the transient and sub-
transient parameters, or the running characteristic of the rotor will be used to calculate the sub-
transient time constant.
Machine contributions are calculated using the following equations:
1
𝑌𝑎𝑐 = [(𝑋 ′′ )] 𝑒−𝑡/𝑇′ ...for the A.C. component
1
𝑌𝑑𝑐 = (𝑋 ′′ ) 𝑒−𝑡/𝑇𝑎 ...for the D.C. component where
58 IPSA USER MANUAL

𝑋 ′′
𝑇′′ =
ω R𝑟
𝑋 ′′
𝑇𝑎 =
ω (R𝑠 + R𝑒 )
[𝑋𝑠𝑡 𝑋𝑚 ]
𝑋 ′′ = 𝑋𝑒 + 𝑋𝑠 +
[𝑋𝑠𝑡 + 𝑋𝑚 ]
𝑍𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒
Notes
1. Z e is the system impedance between the machine terminals and the fault point. This is a
function of the fault path and the operating conditions and is calculated iteratively.
2. Z e has a significant effect on the D.C. component decay but only a marginal effect on the
A.C. component decay, therefore a full correction is made for Z e for D.C. components,
but only one iteration is performed for A.C. components.
5.2.3 AC / DC Converter Models (Standard IPSA Method)

The fault level performance of static converters is a function of their controllers and the D.C.
system behind the converter and at present can only be determined by a full transient analysis. In
fault levels it is currently assumed that the A.C. contribution of converters is negligible.
5.2.4 Converter Driven Plant Models (Standard IPSA Method)

The current contributions from converter driven plants (CDPs) are required for very modern fault
modelling (e.g., G74/2, inverters on PV modules and wind turbine generators). Given that these are
typically thought to be small contributions to the overall fault, these are added in a Taylor-expansion
like fashion
𝐼𝑖,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑖,𝐺 + 𝑓(𝑍𝑖 ) ∑ Δ𝐼𝑗 (𝑢𝑖,𝑅 ) 𝑍𝑖𝑗

𝑗
Δ𝐼𝑗 = 𝐾Δ𝑢𝑖,𝑅 (simple)
Notes
1. 𝐼𝑖,𝐺 is the fault current arising from synchronous and asynchronous plants.
2. The injected current from the CDP Δ𝐼𝑗 is a function of the retained voltage
3. This also requires impedances from the busbars based on the fault type and the mutual
impedances between the faulted busbars and the CDP nodes.
4. The advanced option includes a bespoke interpolation routine that interpolates as a
function of retained voltage but also smoothing between the sub-regions (synchronous,
transient and sub-transient)
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5.3 Data Requirements

5.3.1 Minimum Data
The minimum data required to perform a fault level calculation is as follows:
• Network Size
At least two busbars, one generator (or grid infeed) and one branch are required.
• Busbars
A nominal voltage is required to calculate fault current.
For A.C. networks one branch must have a reactance value, and all branches must have
an impedance, unless their zero-impedance flag is set. Zero sequence impedances are
required if earth fault calculations are to be performed.
• Generators
A synchronous machine must have at least a synchronous reactance value. As more
impedance values are specified, the representation of the synchronous machine
becomes more detailed in fault level studies. When using the standard IPSA fault level
method, the precise details of how synchronous machines are modelled and which
parameters are used are described in the reference guide.
An induction machine must have at least a stator reactance value. When using the
standard IPSA fault level method, the precise details of how induction machines are
modelled, and which parameters are used are described in the reference guide.
Note that induction machines with zero mechanical power will still contribute to a fault.
• Converter Driven Plants (Universal Machines)
Converter driven plants need to have all the specified parameters for the simple method
or at least 1 table for the advanced method. Maxima for all three regions have to be
entered and the transient/sub durations have to be entered for both modes.
If steady state is entered, then the transient and sub-transient will mimic steady state. If
the transient is supplied, then sub-transient will mimic that respectively.
5.3.2 IEC 60909 Data

Some parameters for network items are only used for the IEC 60909 fault calculation method:
• Generators
Voltage factor Pg.
• Transformers
Range of transformer voltage adjustment pT.
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5.4 Running the Fault Level Calculation

5.4.1 Selecting the Method Used
IPSA provides two method for calculating fault levels. The method to be used can be selected
from the Analysis toolbar. Next to the fault level image is a pull-down arrow. Click on the arrow
to display the choice of which method to use, either standard IPSA or IEC 60909. After the selection
is made, the image in the Analysis toolbar will represent the choice made, as will the text of the
fault level option in the Analysis menu.
Figure 5.2: Fault level options in toolbar
5.4.2 Starting a Calculation

Having selected a method, a fault calculation is started simply by pressing the fault level button
in the Toolbar, or by selecting the appropriate option from the Analysis menu.
Depending upon the method chosen, one of two fault level parameter dialogs will appear. After
choosing the type of fault and setting the parameters for it, simply press the OK button on the
dialog to begin the calculations.
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5.4.3 Standard IPSA Fault Level Dialog
Figure 5.3: Fault level properties window
The standard IPSA fault level allows fault to be calculated on all or just selected busbars, or a fault
level to be calculated at a single busbar with all the flows, or a fault to be placed along a line.
The available options are described in detail in the reference guide for the fault level settings
(IPSA).
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5.4.4 IEC 60909 Fault Level Dialog
Figure 5.4: Fault level dialog for IEC 60909
The IEC 60909 fault level allows fault to be calculated on all or just selected busbars.
The available options are described in detail in the reference guide for the fault level settings
(IPSA).
5.5 Results
The results of the fault level can be displayed in read-only tables. Select the Fault Level option in
the Results menu to view the available tables.
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Note that the types of results available will depend upon the type of fault calculation performed.
If the option to calculate the fault level at all busbars was selected, for example, then there will
not be any flow results. Similarly, the IEC 60909 calculation method produces a more restricted
set of results than the standard IPSA fault calculation method, because the standard itself is limited
to providing certain answers.
An example of a busbar fault level results table.
Figure 5.5: Busbar fault level results
5.6 Fault Level Waveform

IPSA can display the fault level currents in terms of their waveforms using the waveform plot
option. This is only available under the standard IPSA fault calculation method when a single
busbar is selected on the fault level dialog.
After pressing the OK button, a fault current waveform graph will be produced:
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Figure 5.6: Fault current waveform
An example of a fault current waveform.

Various combinations of current waveform can be plotted:
• Red phase
• Yellow phase
• Blue phase
• DC decrement
• RMS current
• Second harmonic current
Clicking the right mouse button over the graph will display a set of options, including:
• Showing the plot legend.
• Showing grid lines.
• Setting axis limits.
• Setting and clearing the zoom option for the graph.
• Printing the graph.
• Saving the plot points to a (CSV or comma-separated value) file.
• Saving the graph as an image file.
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A description of all the options is provided in the entry for the fault level waveform dialog in the
reference guide.
Figure 5.7: Options in fault level waveform plot window
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C H A P T E R 6 – B R E A K E R D U T Y
Chapter
6
6 Breaker Duty
Breaker duty analysis checks the fault level ratings of circuit breakers against the actual fault levels
at each busbar. The results of the calculations can be displayed on the diagram, in tables, and in
reports.
6.1 Breaker Duty Data

6.1.1 Data Required
There are two ways of specifying the breaker ratings to be checked:
• Any circuit breakers in the network can obviously be given ratings.
• Fault ratings can be specified for busbars, the assumption being that all (or most) of the
circuit breakers attached to the busbar will have the same ratings - those breakers that
are different can be added individually. Using busbar fault ratings can avoid the need to
place circuit breakers all around a network just to check their ratings.
The minimum network data required to perform a breaker duty calculation is essentially the same
as for an IPSA fault level calculation:
• Network Size
At least two busbars, one generator (or grid infeed) and one branch are required. At least
one circuit breaker, or one set of fault ratings for a busbar, will be needed.
• Busbars
Nominal voltages are required to calculate fault currents, as circuit breaker ratings are
typically given in kA. Fault ratings (peak make current, break current, etc.) should be
specified for those busbars where breaker duty calculations are to be performed.
For A.C. networks one branch must have a reactance value, and all branches must have
an impedance, unless their zero-impedance flag is set.
Zero sequence impedances are required if earth fault calculations are to be performed.
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• Generators
Any synchronous machine in the network must have at least a synchronous reactance
value.
As more impedance values are specified, the representation of the synchronous machine
becomes more detailed in fault level studies.
Any induction machine in the network must have at least a stator reactance value.
The precise details of how induction machines are modelled and which parameters are
used are described in the reference guide.
Note that induction machines with zero mechanical power will still contribute to a fault.
6.2 Running a Breaker Duty Calculation

A breaker duty calculation is started by selecting the Run Breaker Duty analysis option from the
Analysis menu.
The breaker duty dialog will be displayed, fault level parameters to be specified for the
calculation, and optionally which busbars and circuit breakers are to be included. Unlike a fault
level calculation, several types of fault can be checked at the same time e.g., line-line-line and
line-ground fault levels can be checked in a single run. When the OK button is pressed the
calculations will begin.
Figure 6.1: Circuit breaker duty properties
Breaker duty calculation settings

Note that fault levels will be calculated twice..
• The first time is at half a cycle (10 ms for a 50 Hz system) to check the fault make rating.
• The second time is at whatever value has been entered for the busbar or circuit breaker
fault break rating.
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6.3 Breaker Duty Results

6.3.1 On the Diagram
After a successful study, the calculated make and break values for the given type of fault will be
displayed on the diagram next to the selected busbars and circuit breakers. The corresponding
rated make and break values will also be displayed in brackets.
Figure 6.2: Breaker duty results
6.3.2 In the Report

After a breaker duty calculation has been completed, a detailed overview of the results is available
from the Breaker duty option on the Reports menu. This report lists whether the breaker passes
or fails, and if it fails which value it fails on.
Breaker duty report (truncated)
Figure 6.3: Breaker duty report (truncated)
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C H A P T E R 7 – T R A N S I E N T S T A B I L I T Y
Chapter
7
7 Transient Stability
The transient stability section of IPSA enables the user to simulate the dynamic response of an
electrical power system to fault, machine and branch switching disturbances, using the step-by-
step method, and starting from a specific balanced operating condition.
A predictor-corrector method is used for solving the machine differential equations with the
numerical integration, at each time step performed by the implicit trapezoidal method which is
numerically stable. The optimally ordered, sparsity-programmed elimination is used for the
solution of the network equations at each step.
7.1 Transient Stability Data

7.1.1 Data Required
The data required to perform transient stability calculations is as follows:
• Sufficient data to run a load flow study
A load flow calculation is performed automatically before the transient simulation begins.
The results of this calculation are used to set up the initial system conditions.
• Synchronous machine data
The more transient parameters are entered the more detailed the modelling of the
synchronous machine will be. As an absolute minimum, enter direct axis transient
reactance.
• Specify one or more switching operations
At least one switching operation should be specified, otherwise the study will run but will
produce constant results, as the network will remain in its initial state.
7.2 Transient Stability Built-in Models

7.2.1 Synchronous machine models
Four different synchronous machine models are available, and the best model is selected for each
machine depending on the data entered. The most complete model considers saliency, saturation,
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transient and sub transient modes and different excitation and speed governor control system
arrangements. These provisions can accommodate the representation of round rotor or salient
pole machines with slipping or brushless excitation systems, driven by steam or hydro turbine
prime movers with flyball or electronic speed governors.
The synchronous machine models are based on the following equations in which the standard
notation is used:
When only the Xd' value is entered, the model is based on (8.4) and (8.5), with Xq' = Xd'. Machines
with appropriate d-axis transient data are modelled on (8.2), (8.4) and (8.5), with Xq' = Xq. Equation
(8.3) is included when the q-axis values are available, with one default: Xq' = Xd'.
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Finally, equations (8.6) to (8.9) are also included when the subtransient data are available, with
two possible defaults: Xq"= Xd" and Tqo"= Tdo"
Modelling of the excitation system is based on the standard IEEE AVR models, details of which
can be found in "Computer Representation of Excitation Systems", IEEE Committee Report, Paper
31, IEEE Summer Power Meeting, 1967.
7.2.2 Induction Machine Models

Induction motors are represented by models which can include sub transient effects due to double
cage rotors and driving loads with different torque-speed characteristics. Other loads may be
represented either as fixed impedance or constant power loads.
For the induction motor loads the torque-slip relationship is:
T = T0 (A + BN + CN2)
where A = 1 - B - C
The relationships for the induction motor models are:
where s is slip and 𝝎 is radial frequency.

Equality between transient and subtransient parameters is assumed when data for one cage only
is entered.
7.2.3 Controller Models

IPSA contains four built-in or "fixed" controller models in the basic transient stability simulation
calculation. The block diagram representations of the standard AVR and Governor models are
shown below:
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Figure 7.1: AVR IEEE - stage 1 model
Figure 7.2: AVR IEEE - stage 2 model
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Figure 7.3: AVR IEEE Type 1 model
Figure 7.4: AVR IEEE Type 2 model
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Figure 7.5: Combined Thermal/Hydro Governor model
7.3 Transient Stability UDM and Plug-ins

7.3.1 User-defined Models
The User Defined Modelling tool (UDM) is an IPSA module that enables users to build controller
models that may be used in transient stability analysis instead of the built-in models. UDM models
are constructed graphically by adding and linking control blocks, and then specifying their
parameters. Input and output elements are available that connect to the IPSA transient analysis
calculations, allowing the controller to read and write values such as voltage, power, slip and so
on.
Figure 7.6: Example of an user defined controller model
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UDM models can be created for:

• synchronous machine AVRs and exciters
• synchronous machine governors
• induction machine D and Q axis voltage regulators
• induction machine speed governors
• Controller for Voltage Source Converters for battery energy storage system, solar PV,
type 4 wind turbines, HVDC links
The following pre-generated UDM models are provided with the program:
Figure 7.7: Pre-generated UDM models in IPSA
As UDM models are basically control block diagrams they are relatively easy to create. However,
each UDM model in a network is interpreted at every step of a transient stability calculation, which
can significantly increase the time taken to perform the analysis. It can also be difficult to set an
initial stable state for a complicated UDM model.
7.3.2 Plug-in Models

Plug-in models are user-created controllers that, like the UDM models, can be used instead of
built-in controllers. Unlike the UDM, plug-in models are not created graphically with an IPSA
module. They are program library files, and as such they have to be coded and compiled with an
appropriate program, such as Microsoft Visual Studio.
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Similar input and output elements to the UDM are available that connect to the IPSA transient
analysis calculations, allowing the plug-in to read and write values such as voltage, power, slip
and so on. Plug-in models can also operate in other analysis modes, such as load flow.
Plug-in models can be created for:
• synchronous machine AVRs and exciters
• synchronous machine governors
• universal machine controllers
• network-wide controllers
The following plug-in models are provided with the program:

• Transformer inrush
• Constant current load
• ZIP model load
• Transformer reverse power rating
• IEEE hydro governor
• Dynamic cable rating
• Dynamic transformer rating
• Battery
Note that many of the above plug-ins operate in load flow rather than transient stability analysis
Plug-in models have the advantages of speed, power, and flexibility over UDM models. That power
and flexibility can, however, make them problematic if they are coded incorrectly, or if the wrong
parameters are entered. Creating plug-in models also requires some understanding of computer
programming. Sample plug-in source code is provided with the program.
7.4 Transient Stability Switching Operations

7.4.1 Switching Operations
Every line, transformer or shunt in the network can be switched up to twice during a transient
stability study. Two switching times are allowed for each such item.
• The first switching time for a shunt is generally used to switch in an item that represents
a fault on the network. The second switching time for the shunt then represents when
the fault is removed.
• The first switching time for a line or transformer is generally used to switch out the
branch item when a fault occurs. The second switching time can then be used to
reconnect the branch after the fault is cleared.
• Timed switching operations are not permitted on branches with circuit breakers or
protection groups, or on multi-section lines.
Induction machines can have up to four pre-set switching operations (including motor starting)
as well as automatic undervoltage, under speed and re-acceleration switching at the levels set on
induction motor property pages.
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• The first switching time should only be entered for induction machines that begin the
transient study in an in-service state. This is therefore the time at which the machine will
be switched out. If the machine is already out of service, then this entry should be left
blank.
• The second switching time is the time when an out-of-service machine is switched in. If
entered, this value should be larger than any entry for the first switching time. For a
transient analysis of motor starting, this second value is typically set to 0.1 seconds.
• The third switching time represents the machine being switched out. If entered, this
value should be larger than any entry for the second switching time. Generally, this value
is left blank.
• The fourth switching time represents the machine being switched in. If entered, this value
should be larger than any entry for the third switching time. Generally, this value is left
blank.
Induction machines can also have automatic undervoltage, under speed, overspeed and re-
acceleration switching values set on induction motor property pages.
• The drop-off voltage is the value of terminal voltage below which the induction machine
will be automatically switched off.
• The drop-off to pick-up delay is the time taken to switch off the machine once drop-off
voltage is reached. If values are given for drop-off voltage, under speed or overspeed
settings, then the drop-off to pick-up delay has a minimum value of 0.1 seconds.
• The pick-up voltage is the value of terminal voltage above which a previously
disconnected induction machine will be automatically switched back in-service. If the
pick-up voltage is not given or is greater than 2.0 pu, then the pick-up voltage is set to
be twice the drop-off voltage, or 0.8 pu, whichever is smaller.
• The pick-up time is the time taken to switch the machine in-service once the pick-up
voltage is reached. If values are given for drop-off voltage, under speed or overspeed
settings, then the pick-up time has a minimum value of 0.1 seconds.
• The lock-out time is the time limit past which the machine will not be switched back in,
even if the terminal voltage rises above the pick-up value.
• The maximum switch operations value sets the limit for the number of drop-off and pick-
up switching operations allowed. If no value is provided, then 10 operations are allowed
by default.
If the machine speed falls below the under-speed value, or rises above the overspeed value,
then the machine will be automatically switched out of service.
7.5 Running a Transient Stability Study

7.5.1 The Transient Stability Dialogs
To start the transient stability calculation, click on the transient study icon in the toolbar, or
the Run Transient Analysis option in the Analysis menu.
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The Transient Stability dialog is then displayed to enable the study parameters to be specified.
Figure 7.8: Transient stability window
There are three sections to the transient study run parameters:

• Study control parameters, which specify timing values, what messages to report, and
advanced features.
• Graph and plot selections, which specify which values are plotted in graphs as the study
runs.
• Results storage, which optionally copies the transient calculation output to a file.
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7.5.2 Parameters
The control parameters generally govern timing and reporting, as well as more advanced options.
• The timing parameters give the overall length of the study, the initial and maximum step
lengths to take when the study is run, and how often (in study time) a result should be
written out.
• The message parameters specify what kind of reports from the calculations should be
displayed.
The more advanced parameters can usually be left at their default values. The most important
advanced parameter specifies what should be used as the reference by which other angles are
reported.
7.5.3 Graphs and Plots

The graphs section show what values will be plotted as the study progresses, in the form of two
lists.
• The left-hand list shows the values to be plotted, such as busbar voltage.
• The right-hand list shows the network items for which those values will be plotted.
In between the two lists is a column of buttons for adding, editing and removing graph selections.
Figure 7.9: Options for graphs and plots
7.5.4 Storing Results

During a transient study system variables and values will be plotted as the study progresses. In
general, this removes any requirement to store the results directly to disk, especially as the values
plotted on a graph can be saved to file by right-clicking on the graph. However, it remains possible
to store transient results, just as in previous versions of IPSA. Simply check the Store Results box
in the transient stability dialog, specify a file name to store the results to, and then select which
network items for which you wish to store results.
Stored results can subsequently be displayed in tabular form in a transient report.
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7.6 Transient Stability Calculation

7.6.1 Initial Conditions
Data checks are performed prior to any calculations. The results of these checks are shown in the
Progress display.
The starting point of a transient study is determined from the steady state conditions set by the
load flow. The initial conditions setup recalculates the initial powers of the machines and compares
the results with those stored at the last load flow calculation. Provided there is no power mismatch
between the load flow and initial conditions, the initial state of the dynamic components
(controllers etc) is then set, and the simulation then enters the sequence of time step simulations.
Note that the initial load flow used by the transient stability ignores phase shift angles through
transformer star-delta windings, exactly as if the "No phase shifting" option had been selected on
the load flow dialog.
After the power mismatch is checked, any UDM controllers in the network are then initialised.
7.6.2 Step Simulation

A predictor-corrector method is used for solving machine differential equations with numerical
integration, at each time step performed by the implicit trapezoidal method which is numerically
stable.
IPSA uses a variable time step length, beginning at the initial length specified.
• The step length is reduced after switching operations, or when machine conditions are
changing rapidly.
• The step length is increased when the rates of change are slow, to minimise the solution
time. It will never exceed the maximum step length specified by the user.
To ensure appropriate entries in the results file the step length is adjusted to relate to the results
interval specified by the user. This means that in some cases the results interval can become the
effective maximum step length.
7.7 Transient Stability Results

7.7.1 Graphs
The user will have already specified which values and which network items they wish to view results
for. The results will be plotted on graphs, with the graphs arranged in tiles to fit the screen size.
Results are plotted immediately as the transient stability analysis runs. A progress indicator is
shown on the status bar (at the bottom of the program window) to allow the calculations to be
stopped if an issue is already apparent.
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Figure 7.10: Transient stability results window
A timeline is drawn across the screen just below the graphs. Marks on the timeline indicate when
switching actions have occurred.
• Green marks indicate one or more items were switched in-service.
• Red marks indicate items were switched out of service
Moving the mouse over the mark will display a tooltip listing the items that changed status at that
time. Left-clicking the mouse on the mark will temporarily draw a vertical line on each graph
corresponding to that time.
7.7.2 Storing the Results in a File

To store results during the transient study, select the items to store values for on the transient
study dialog prior to running the study. The default is to store nothing.
Note that right-clicking on a graph will display a context menu that gives the option to save the
plotted graph points to a file. This is often more convenient than storing the results directly.
Stored results can be viewed in tabular form from within IPSA in a report.
7.7.3 Reports
Transient stability results that were saved to a file can be opened in a transient report. The
transient report is available by opening the Reports menu, selecting the Transient Stability option
and then View transient stability report.
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Figure 7.11: Report for transient stability analysis
Please note that transient reports may take a significant amount of time to create, depending upon
the amount of results stored in the file.
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C H A P T E R 8 - H A R M O N I C S
Chapter
8
8 Harmonics
Harmonic analysis predicts the voltage distortion and power quality impact of power electronics
and non-linear devices on a power network. The results of the calculations can be displayed on
the diagram, on graphs, in tables, and in reports.
8.1 Harmonics Data

8.1.1 Data
The data required to run harmonic calculations is slightly more extensive than that required by
the load flow. The data required additional to that for load flow is:
• Branches
Each branch should have a resistance or reactance value.
• Synchronous machines
Enough information to determine the negative sequence of the machine, as follows:
• The negative sequence reactance is taken as the sum of the direct and quadrature
sub transient reactance.
• If either of these values is omitted, then the omitted value is assumed to be equal to
the other.
• If both are omitted, then the direct axis transient reactance is used.
• If the direct axis transient reactance is also omitted, then the quadrature axis
transient reactance is used.
• If the direct axis transient reactance is also omitted, then the synchronous reactance
is used.
• Induction machines
Each induction machine should have at least a stator reactance value. Assumptions will be
made about reactance values not provided based upon the values that are given.
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8.1.2 Sources
In order to perform harmonic analysis one or more sources of harmonics are required. There are
two sources of harmonics:
1. Simple harmonic sources
A shunt "device" placed on a busbar where the user can specify up to 24 different
harmonics, each with their own order, magnitude, and angle.
2. Static AC/DC converters
For each converter, the user can specify up to 24 different harmonics, each with their
own order, magnitude, and angle.
Optionally the user can also allow IPSA to calculate "characteristic" harmonics produced by the
converter, although in that case some converter parameters and a DC network will be required.
Calculated harmonics are overridden by any user-specified harmonics of the same order.
Finally, an option is given not to produce any harmonics at all from the converter. This is useful
when several sources of harmonics are present in the network and each needs to be tested in
turn.
Note that it is not necessary to specify a DC network or any of the converter parameters to perform
harmonic studies.
Warnings and error messages will be produced if insufficient information is provided or
assumptions have to be made.
8.2 Running Harmonics
To start the harmonics calculation, click on the harmonics icon in the Toolbar, or the
Harmonics option in the Analysis menu. This will open the Harmonic Analysis dialog box.
The harmonics dialog is used to select the type of harmonics calculation to be performed, which
models to use for network items, and which sequence networks to use in the calculation.
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Figure 8.1: Harmonic analysis properties window
All the harmonics calculations perform a load flow before checking that there is enough
information for the study to continue. If any essential data is found to be missing, an appropriate
error message is displayed in the progress window and the solution process terminated.
If these checks are passed a harmonics solution is then found. The basic results available are:
• total harmonic distortion
• voltage arithmetic summation
• maximum harmonic
• individual harmonic
Depending upon the type of harmonics calculation performed, the results of the calculations can
be displayed on the diagram, or as a graph. Again, depending upon the type of calculation, they
may also be available in tabular form.
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8.3 Harmonics Results

The results of most harmonic studies can be viewed in tables. Select the Harmonics option in the
Report menu and choose one of the options to generate the appropriate set of results.
• For harmonic penetration calculations the tables will show voltage and current results.
Busbar impedance results will be empty or zero.
For harmonic impedance calculations the tables will show impedance results. Voltage and current
results will be empty or zero.
Figure 8.2: Harmonic analysis results
8.4 Harmonic Voltage Waveform

The Voltage waveform option in the Harmonics analysis dialog produces a plot of the harmonic
voltages at up to six specified busbars.
The voltages can be viewed either as a bar chart, or a waveform. For the waveform, the harmonic
and fundamental waveforms can be combined or plotted separately.
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Figure 8.3: Harmonic analysis results plot
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Figure 8.4: Options in harmonics plot window
A description of all the options is provided in the entry for the harmonic waveform plot dialog in
the reference guide.
Figure 8.5: Harmonics voltage waveform window
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8.5 Harmonic Impedance Scans

The Impedance scan option in the Harmonics analysis dialog calculates the harmonic impedances
seen by each busbar in the network, and any resonance points in the frequency range.
A plot is produced of impedance versus harmonic for up to six specified busbars. Options are
given to plot combinations of resistance, reactance, and total impedance on the same graph.
Alternatively, the harmonic reactance can be plotted against the harmonic resistance.
Note that after performing an impedance scan the harmonic impedances seen by each busbar at
integer harmonic orders are also available in tabular form.
Figure 8.6: Harmonics impedance plot window:
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Figure 8.7: Options in harmonics plot window
A description of all the options is provided in the entry for the harmonic impedance plot dialog
in the reference guide.
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C H A P T E R 9 - O V E R C U R R E N T P R O T E C T I O N C O - O R D I N A T I O N
Chapter
9
9 Overcurrent Protection Co-ordination
Overcurrent protection co-ordination assesses the ability of protection devices in the network to
operate to isolate only the faulted part of the network, while providing back-up protection in case
the main protection devices fail to operate.
9.1 Protection Databases

In IPSA protection devices such as fuses and overcurrent relays are stored in protection databases.
A database of some common protection devices is provided with the program.
If you are unable to find the required protection device in the supplied database, then
please contact IPSA support at the following email address: support@IPSA-power.com
To open a protection database, go to the Database menu and select the Open Protection...
option. A file browse dialog will appear. Use the dialog to navigate to the location on your
computer where the protection database is stored, then select the database and then press the
Open button. When you open a protection database all the devices in the database are read into
the computer memory. The progress window will display a summary of the devices read.
Whenever you start IPSA, the program will open the last protection database you opened.
The protection "database" is in fact a folder on your computer's hard disk. Each device within the
database is stored as a small text file. These files are also available to download from the support
area of the IPSA website (www.IPSA-power.com, for commercial users only).
As more devices are added to the database, they will be placed in the support area, and added to
future releases of the program.
9.2 Placing and Setting Protection Devices

Protection devices can be placed at either end of an A.C. branch, such as a line or transformer.
They cannot be placed on radial items such as loads or machines.
Devices are placed in protection containers, as several devices can be placed on each end of a
branch and displaying every device individually would clutter the diagram.
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To place a protection container on a branch, click on the protection container button on the
Toolbar. and then click on the end of the branch where you want to add protection devices to
the network.
Once a protection container has been positioned, double-click on the group (or right-click and
select Properties... from the context menu) to bring up the Protection Container properties dialog.
The initial display of a protection container shows the existing devices in a simplified protection
single-line diagram.
Figure 9.1: Protection container
From this dialog you can add, delete, and adjust the settings of the protection devices in the
container. Note that before adding a relay you must first add a current transformer (CT). The
secondary current of the CT will determine which relays are capable of being connected to that
CT.
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Figure 9.2: Protection container displayed across two pages
In general, the settings for protection devices are displayed across two pages.
• The first page shows the basic information about the device, such as its type and
manufacturer.
• Subsequent pages show the detailed settings for the device, together with the allowed
ranges of values for those settings. For relatively simple devices such as fuses there will
be no user-defined parameters.
Many modern relays have a large number of settings and features. In practice many settings will
be de-activated, as they are simply not required for the task in hand. In the device settings display,
each feature will have a checkbox displayed to indicate whether that feature is active.
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Figure 9.3: Protection container displayed across two pages with settings
9.3 Saving a Network with Protection Devices

When a network containing protection devices is saved to disk, the devices themselves are saved
with the file like other network items.
Each saved device is self-contained in that it does not need the protection database for its settings
to be adjusted, or to be used for overcurrent protection co-ordination.
This allows users to exchange network files without having to exchange protection databases as
well. It also allows networks containing protection devices to be used "on the road" where access
to a protection database might not be available.
9.4 Time-current Grading

With protection devices placed and set in the network, the co-ordination of those devices can be
checked to ensure discrimination, i.e., that each relay only isolates the faulted part of the network
leaving the rest operational, and that back-up protection only operates after waiting an
appropriate time for the main protection to operate for the given fault level.
95 IPSA USER MANUAL

Note that every busbar in the network must have a nominal voltage before overcurrent analysis can
be performed. This is because the program needs base voltages to calculate fault currents.
Figure 9.4: Overcurrent selection window
To begin overcurrent analysis, select the Analysis menu and choose the Overcurrent... option, or
press the overcurrent analysis button on the Toolbar. This will display the overcurrent
protection co-ordination dialog.

The protection devices to be studied are selected using the standard select item dialog, which in
this case also allows devices to be added via protection groups. The parameters of a selected
device can be adjusted by pressing the Device Settings... button.
To choose the fault to grade against two options are provided. Either a fault can be applied to a
particular busbar, or a fault current can be entered directly
• If a fault is calculated at a busbar then all the fault flows through the network are also
calculated, and hence all the fault currents seen by the devices in the list. Depending
upon the network configuration (e.g., multiple infeeds to a fault) different protection
devices may see different fault currents.
• For a busbar fault each fault current seen by a device will be plotted (unless the scale
curves to fault current option is selected under Advanced settings).
• If a fault current is entered rather than calculated, then all protection devices in the list
are taken as seeing that fault current (allowing for different voltage levels)
96 IPSA USER MANUAL

Pressing the OK button will start overcurrent analysis. Upon completion a report will be displayed:
Figure 9.5: Overcurrent analysis results
The report shows a time-current plot for the devices, simple protection single-line diagram(s) for
the devices, and a table of operating times. The size of the graph can be expanded (or contracted)
by clicking on its right-hand edge and dragging it right or left.
• The time - current plot shows the selected devices and the fault current, scaled as
appropriate for the different voltage levels involved.
Right-clicking on the graph allows its parameters to be adjusted, such as whether to
show curve labels in a single legend table, or to change the axes limits. An option is also
provided to print the graph.
Note that if IPSA has been used to calculate the fault flows in the network, then the fault
current seen by each device will be plotted on the graph. If there are multiple infeeds to
the fault, then the devices may detect different currents depending upon their location in
the network.
• The table shows operating times for devices, and the discrimination between them. It
also shows the current that the device sees.
If the current and time entries are blank, then the device does not operate.
The table can be copied by right-clicking on it and selecting the appropriate option.
Refer to the technical note for Arc Flash to learn more about it.
97 IPSA USER MANUAL

C H A P T E R 1 1 – F R E Q U E N T L Y A S K E D Q U E S T I O N S
Chapter
10
10 Reliability
Power systems are designed to provide a reliable source of electricity to their customers. Reliability
analysis provides a measure of just how reliable a power system is, in the form of indices indicating
the average length of interruptions in supply, the number of such interruptions, and so on. Further
indices can be derived which show the impact of such interruptions on customers, and how much
load and energy may be lost.
10.1 Reliability Data and Assumptions

10.1.1 Data required
The data required to perform reliability calculations is as follows:
• Loads
The number of customers represented by the load. If left blank the number of customers
is taken to be zero.
• Lines
The mean time to fail, or the failure rate can be entered - changing one value changes the
other. Failure values are per unit length, so the length of the line can be specified, either
in the reliability section or the database section (they are the same value). If left blank the
failure rate is zero, i.e., the line can never fail.
The repair time, or the repair rate can be entered, and changing one value changes the
other. If left blank the repair time is zero, i.e., the line is instantly repaired if it fails, and
there is therefore no interruption to supply.
• Transformers
The mean time to fail, or the failure rate can be entered - changing one value changes the
other. If left blank the failure rate is zero, i.e., the transformer can never fail.
The repair time, or the repair rate can be entered, and changing one value changes the
other. If left blank the repair time is zero, i.e., the transformer is instantly repaired if it fails,
and there is therefore no interruption to supply.
98 IPSA USER MANUAL

• Circuit breakers
When a line or transformer fails, the faulted component will be isolated while being
repaired. To isolate the component the nearest circuit breakers to the faulted item will be
opened (if they are not open already). If there are no circuit breakers in the network, then
the whole network will be "isolated" until the component is repaired.
A time value can be entered for a circuit breaker. For most types of breaker this is the time
to close the breaker after an item has been repaired. An option is given on the reliability
analysis dialog for breakers that are designated as Isolators to close immediately after an
item has been repaired. For fuses the time value is the time taken to replace the fuse after
an item has been repaired. If left blank, this time is taken to be zero.
10.1.2 Assumptions
The following assumptions are made for the reliability calculations:
1. Only one component can fail at a time.
This excludes common mode failures. Bear in mind note (3) that follows.
2. While a component is being repaired, no other failures occur.
This means that busbars with more than one source of power supply may never lose supply
altogether but bear in mind note (3) that follows.
3. When a component fails, the nearest circuit breakers to the component are opened (if
they are not open already) to isolate the fault.
If there are no breakers in the network, then the whole network will lose power until the component is
repaired.
Figure 10.1: Reliability analysis
99 IPSA USER MANUAL

Notes:
1. Once the fault is isolated repairs on the component begin.
2. Once repairs are complete, the nearest circuit breakers are closed in order of their
switching time (shortest to longest) until all customers are supplied.
3. Sources of supply are Slack, and optionally PV busbars.
PV busbars are treated as a source of power if the option to do so is selected on the reliability
analysis dialog. Otherwise only slack busbars are treated as a source of power
Slack and PV busbars that are within a section of network that has been isolated to repair a fault
do not count as a source of supply.
No check is made as to whether the generation is capable of supplying the load, or whether all
line or transformer ratings are sufficient.
No load flows are performed during reliability analysis.
10.2 Running a Reliability Calculation
A reliability calculation is started by pressing the reliability button in the Toolbar, or by

selecting the appropriate option from the Analysis menu.
The reliability analysis dialog will be displayed, allowing options to be specified for the calculation.
When the OK button is pressed the calculations will begin.
Figure 10.2: Reliability analysis properties window
While the calculations are running, messages may appear in the Progress display. If the calculation
ends and no values are visible on the diagram, check these messages for a report on what has
gone wrong.
Following a successful study, primary reliability indices will be displayed on the diagram, while
customer and load-based indices for the system as a whole will be available from the Reports
menu.
100 IPSA USER MANUAL

10.3 Reliability Results and Indices

10.3.1 Overview and Primary Indices
Reliability results and indices are long-term average values; from one year to the next the actual
measured reliability of a system will vary, especially as interruptions are (hopefully) rare events.
Figure 10.3: Reliability indices
The primary reliability indices are as follows:

• Average length of an interruption in supply, in hours
• Annual total length of interruptions, in hours
• Annual frequency of interruptions
The primary indices are displayed next to each busbar on the diagram following a successful
reliability analysis.
The reliability of the system as a whole is represented by additional indices, available on the
reliability report.
10.3.2 Customer-based Indices

The following are customer-based indices:
• CI (Customers interrupted per year)
The number of customers interrupted per year. This is the number of customers whose
supplies have been interrupted per 100 customers per year over all incidents, excluding
re-interruptions to the supply of customers previously interrupted during the same
incident.

Technically interruptions of less than 3 minutes should not be counted for CI, but the IPSA
reliability calculations will count all interruptions.
• CML (Customer minutes lost)
The duration of interruptions to supply per year. This is the average customer minutes lost
per customer per year.
Technically interruptions of less than 3 minutes should not be counted for CML, but the IPSA
reliability calculations will count all interruptions.
• SAIFI (System average interruption frequency index)
The total number of customer interruptions divided by the total number of customers.
• SAIDI (System average interruption duration index)
The sum of customer interruption durations divided by the total number of customers.
• CAIDI (Customer average interruption duration index)
The sum of customer interruption durations divided by the total number of customer
interruptions.
• ASAI (Average service availability index)
The customer hours of availability divided by the total number of hours demanded.
• ASUI (Average service unavailability index)
The customer hours of unavailability divided by the total number of hours demanded.
10.3.3 Load and Energy-based Indices

The following are load and energy-based indices:
• ASIFI (Average service interruption frequency index)
The sum over all events of the load interrupted by each event, divided by the total load.
• ASIDI (Average service interruption duration index)
The sum over all events of the duration of the interruption multiplied by the load interrupted,
divided by the total load.
Please visit the Knowledge Hub on the IPSA website for more information such as videos, FAQs,
insights, case studies and training.

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IPSA SOFTWARE

IPSA Power, Bainbridge House, 86-90 London Road, Manchester, M1 2PW

1.3.2 Zoom and Pan .................................................................................................................................. 4

1.3.3 Drawing Busbars .............................................................................................................................. 4

1.3.4 Drawing Radials ................................................................................................................................ 5

1.3.5 Drawing Branches ............................................................................................................................ 5

1.3.6 Drawing Circuit Breakers................................................................................................................. 9

1.3.7 Adding Annotations ...................................................................................................................... 10

1.3.8 Drawing Infeed Transformers and Lines .................................................................................... 10

1.4 Moving Items.................................................................................................................................. 11

2 Working with Data ................................................................................. 23

2.3 Data Conversion Tools - Importing...................................................................................... 28

2.3.2 Importing from an SQL Database ............................................................................................... 28

2.3.3 Importing from Trandat ................................................................................................................ 29

2.3.4 Importing from PSS/E ................................................................................................................... 29

2.3.5 Importing from DINIS.................................................................................................................... 29

2.3.6 Importing from PowerFactory ..................................................................................................... 30

2.3.7 Importing from CIM ...................................................................................................................... 30

2.3.8 Importing from an IPSA Database .............................................................................................. 30

2.4 Data Conversion Tools – Exporting ...................................................................................... 31

2.4.2 Exporting to CIM ............................................................................................................................ 32

3 The Per-unit System ............................................................................... 33

3.1.2 Other Definitions ............................................................................................................................ 34

3.2 Per-unit Conversion..................................................................................................................... 35

4.2.2 Voltage-controlled (PV) Busbars ................................................................................................. 40

4.2.3 Non Voltage-controlled (PQ) Busbars ....................................................................................... 41

4.3 Running a Load Flow .................................................................................................................. 41

4.4.2 Transformer Taps and Phase Shifting ........................................................................................ 45

4.4.4 Flat Start ........................................................................................................................................... 45

4.4.5 Energy Storage Flip ........................................................................................................................ 46

4.5 DC Load Flow Properties ........................................................................................................... 46

4.5.2 Transformer Phase Shifting .......................................................................................................... 47

4.5.3 Load Scaling .................................................................................................................................... 47

4.6 Load Flow Results ......................................................................................................................... 48

4.6.2 Results Fed Back into Data ........................................................................................................... 49

4.7 Islands and Isolated Busbars ................................................................................................... 51

4.7.2 Isolated Busbars ............................................................................................................................. 52

4.8 Unbalanced Networks ................................................................................................................ 53

5.1.2 IEC 60909 ......................................................................................................................................... 56

5.2 Fault Level Calculation Models (Standard IPSA Method)........................................... 57

5.2.2 Induction Machine Models (Standard IPSA Method) ............................................................. 58

5.2.3 AC / DC Converter Models (Standard IPSA Method) ............................................................. 59

5.2.4 Converter Driven Plant Models (Standard IPSA Method) ...................................................... 59

5.3 Data Requirements ...................................................................................................................... 60

5.3.2 IEC 60909 Data ............................................................................................................................... 60

5.4 Running the Fault Level Calculation..................................................................................... 61

5.4.3 Standard IPSA Fault Level Dialog ................................................................................................ 62

5.4.4 IEC 60909 Fault Level Dialog ........................................................................................................ 63

6 Breaker Duty ........................................................................................... 67

6.2 Running a Breaker Duty Calculation .................................................................................... 68

6.3.2 In the Report ................................................................................................................................... 69

7.2 Transient Stability Built-in Models ........................................................................................ 70

7.2.2 Induction Machine Models .......................................................................................................... 72

7.2.3 Controller Models .......................................................................................................................... 72

7.3 Transient Stability UDM and Plug-ins ................................................................................. 75

7.3.2 Plug-in Models ............................................................................................................................... 76

7.4 Transient Stability Switching Operations ........................................................................... 77

7.5 Running a Transient Stability Study ..................................................................................... 78

7.5.3 Graphs and Plots ............................................................................................................................ 80

7.5.4 Storing Results ................................................................................................................................ 80

7.6.2 Step Simulation .............................................................................................................................. 81

7.7 Transient Stability Results ......................................................................................................... 81

7.7.2 Storing the Results in a File .......................................................................................................... 82