Centrifugal Pumps

Cavitation

Hadi Veyse – Oil and Gas Operation Superintendent

Cavitation

Cavitation is usually divided into two classes of behavior:

• Inertial Cavitation: Inertial cavitation is the process where a void or bubble in a liquid rapidly
collapses, leading a shock wave.
• Non-Inertial Cavitation: Non-inertial cavitation is the process in which a bubble in a fluid is
forced to oscillate in size or shape due to some form of energy input, such as an acoustic field.
Classical Cavitation

As the liquid enters the eye of the impeller, there is a pressure drop due to the increase in velocity
caused by the reduction in the flow area. If this pressure drop reduces the system static pressure
below the vapor pressure of the liquid, vapor (bubbles) will form. As the liquid moves through the
impeller, the velocity and pressure of the liquid are increased. The bubbles will collapse when the
pressure exceeds the vapor pressure.

The energy released is equivalent to the latent heat of vaporization of the liquid. The heat of
vaporization for water is approximately 2300 kJ/kg and 325 kJ/kg for light hydrocarbons. This is one
reason why cavitation with cold water is typically more damaging to the pump than with
hydrocarbons.

Most hydrocarbon liquids have relatively low vapor-volume-to-liquid-volume ratios. This means that
if the liquid should vaporize at or near the pump suction (impeller inlet) , the volume of the resulting
vapor does not choke the impeller inlet passages as severely as does water vapor during cavitation.
Less energy is released when hydrocarbon vapor bubbles collapse (implosion velocity is lower), and
this means less material erosion occurs as a result of cavitation. In addition, hydrocarbon liquids are
often slightly compressible and tend to absorb some of the energy released in the collapse of the
bubbles.
Classical Cavitation
Classical Cavitation

Classical Cavitation:
Classical Cavitation present close to impeller eye, on the low pressure side of the vanes.
Classical Cavitation

Classical Cavitation:
Classical Cavitation present close to impeller eye, on the low pressure side of the vanes.
Classical Cavitation

Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA):

NPSHA = Ha + Hs − Hvp − Hf

Pa Pvp
NPSHA = + Hs − Hf −
specific gravity specific gravity

𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎 Absolute Pressure (Head) in Suction Vessel

𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠 Head of Liquid Column
𝐻𝐻𝑣𝑣𝑝𝑝 Vapor Pressure Head at Pump Inlet
𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 Head Loss

NPSHA shall be calculated assuming the following (Worst Condition):

• The NPSH3 shall not exceed the NPSHA over the range of MCSF to 120% of QBEP (EOC).
• Lowest liquid level in the suction vessel (On vertical vessels, lowest liquid level shall be defined
as the bottom tangent line with pump inlet piping connected at the bottom of the vessel or at
the takeoff level if the inlet line to the pump is not connected to the bottom of the vessel. On
horizontal vessels, lowest liquid level shall be defined as the bottom inside level).
• Operating condition with the lowest NPSHA (For example: highest viscosity, highest
temperature).
Classical Cavitation

Lowest liquid level in the horizontal vessel

Classical Cavitation

Lowest liquid level in the vertical vessel

Classical Cavitation

The Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) shall be checked and compared to the
Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSH3) to prevent classic cavitation.

How to Avoid Cavitation?

• NPSHA should be increased.
• NPSH3 should be decreased.

Ways to Increase NPSHA:

• Increasing the height of the suction vessel or increase the minimum operating liquid level
• Lowering the Pump’s First Stage
• Lowering Pressure Loss in Suction Pipe
• Providing a booster pump
• Increase the suction vessel pressure if it is blanketed with an inert gas (Subcooled liquid)
• Cooling the liquid in the suction line (Subcooled liquid)

NOTE: If the liquid is in equilibrium with gas, which is usually the case in oil and gas applications,
then increasing the suction vessel pressure provides no benefit.
Classical Cavitation

The Yaws Handbook of Vapor Pressure, Antoine Coefficients:

Classical Cavitation

Ways to Decrease NPSH3:

• Decrease N according to suction specific speed formula
• Double entry impeller according to suction specific formula
• By enlarging the impeller inlet diameter (In the past, there was one way to decrease NPSHR by
increase impeller eye diameter [Hallam])
• Inducer

The vendor shall specify the net positive suction head at 3% head loss (NPSH3) based on water at a
temperature of less than 55 °C at the rated flow and rated speed. A reduction or correction factor
for liquids other than water (such as hydrocarbons) shall not be applied. The datum elevations for
NPSH3 shall be the shaft centerline for horizontal pumps and the impeller suction eye for vertical in-
line pumps and vertically suspended pumps.
Classical Cavitation

Inducer:
An inducer is a kind of axial impeller with 2 to 4 long blades upstream of the actual impeller, which
produces little inlet blockage. It increases the pressure upstream of the actual impeller to the extent
that the latter operates without a cavitation-induced head drop (Artificial Increase in Pressure head).
Classical Cavitation

The Process Engineer should consider the suction energy of the pump and NPSH Margin Ratio while
setting the margin. Suction Energy is defined as “the amount of energy in a pumped fluid that
flashes into vapor and then collapses back into the fluid in the higher-pressure area.” It determines
the extent of noise and/or cavitation damage:

Suction Energy = De N NSS SG

𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒 Impeller eye diameter, inches.

N Pump shaft speed, rpm

NSS Suction specific speed, US customary units

SG Specific Gravity

If the impeller eye diameter is not available, it may be approximated by:

De = 0.9 * suction nozzle diameter, for end suction pumps

De = 0.75 * suction nozzle diameter, for radial inlet and horizontally split casing pumps

NOTE Very High suction energy ~ 1.5 * High suction energy.

Classical Cavitation

Pumps with high suction energy level are generally more likely to suffer from cavitation damage.
Classical Cavitation

The chart below shows the NPSH margin required to obtain a certain level of pump reliability.
The suction energy ratio is the calculated SE divided by the high suction energy value for a
particular pump design:

Minimum NPSH margin ratios recommended by the Hydraulic Institute

Classical Cavitation

For Proper Operation of Pump (without Cavitation):

𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻𝐴𝐴 > 𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻𝑅𝑅 + 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛

ANSI HI 9.6.1:
NPSH margin = NPSHA – NPSHR
NPSH margin ratio = NPSHA/NPSHR
Typical NPSH margins for centrifugal pumps on hydrocarbon services are as follows:
For operation within the Allowable Operating Region (AOR), a minimum margin ratio of 1.1 or a
margin of 1 m, whichever is greater, is recommended at each particular rate of flow.

IPS-G-PM-105:
The Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) shall exceed the Net Positive Suction Head
Required (NPSHR) by at least 1 meter throughout the range from minimum continuous stable flow
up to and including the rated capacity. If the suction pressure at the pump is less than atmospheric,
this margin shall be at least 2 meters.

ADNOC AGES-SP-05-001:
For liquids containing dissolved gases, to avoid cavitation damage due to vapor induced flow path
restrictions, NPSHA shall be 1.5 x NPSH3, with a minimum margin of 5 m between NPSHA and
NPSH3. At EOC, margin shall be minimum 0.5 m.
Classical Cavitation

Saudi Aramco SAES-G-005:

The NPSH requirements shall not exceed the specified NPSH available over the range of minimum
continuous stable capacity to 120% of the rated capacity. At rated capacity, the NPSHA shall also
exceed the NPSH3 by a minimum margin of 1 meter. The NPSHA at 120% of rated flow shall be
determined based on suction pressure at pump suction nozzle and pumped product vapor pressure
at maximum pumping temperature.

Shell DEP 31.29.02.30:

• The Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) shall exceed the Net Positive Suction Head
Required (NPSH3) by at least 1 m throughout the range from minimum continuous stable flow up
to and including the rated capacity, and by 0.3 m at the lesser of 120% of rated flow and
maximum system capacity.
• If the suction pressure at the pump is less than atmospheric, then the NPSHA shall exceed the
NPSH3 by at least 2 m.
• For liquids containing dissolved gases, to avoid cavitation damage due to vapor-induced flow path
restrictions, NPSHA shall be 1.5 x NPSH3, with a minimum margin of 5 m between NPSHA and
NPSH3.

Total GS EP MEC 271:

The NPSH3 specified on the data sheets and the performance curve shall correspond to the rated
impeller diameter.
Impellers shall be selected so that:
• NPSHA > 1.2 x NPSH3 throughout the whole operating region,
• Minimum NPSHA = NPSH3 + 1 m throughout the whole operating region,
• For liquids containing dissolved gases, to avoid cavitation damage due to vapor-induced flow path
restrictions, NPSHA shall be 1.5 x NPSH3, with a minimum margin of 5 m between NPSHA and
NPSH3.
Internal Recirculation Cavitation

A pump working significantly below the best efficiency flow rate is said to operate at part-load. At
low specific speeds this can be roughly assumed at Q/QBEP < 0.8, at high nq below Q/QBEP < 0.9.
Since blade inlet angles and channel cross sections are too large for the reduced flow rate, flow
patterns during part-load operation fundamentally change compared with the design point.
Internal Recirculation Cavitation
Internal Recirculation Cavitation

• Suction recirculation is the reversal of flow at the impeller eye.

• Discharge recirculation is the reversal of flow close to the discharge tips of the impeller vanes.

Recirculation cavitation is typically due to operating the pump to the left side of the pump operating
curve (reduced flows) and away from the best efficiency point (BEP). The approach angle of the
incoming flow does not match that of the rotating impeller inlet vane geometry. Consequently, eddy
currents and turbulence are generated in between the vanes.

The eddy currents at the eye have reduced the flow channel size, thereby increasing liquid velocity
for the fixed flow rate. When velocity Increases, pressure drops. This action occurs due to the laws
of conservation of energy as explained by Bernoulli’s equation and the pressure-velocity relationship.
When the local pressure drops below the vapor pressure, the cavitation bubbles are formed.
Recirculation cavitation is typically not caused by insufficient NPSH in the classic sense. You could
have more than adequate NPSH margin and still experience recirculation cavitation because the
pump is being operated away from its BEP.
Internal Recirculation Cavitation
Internal Recirculation Cavitation

Suction specific speed (Nss) is an index describing:

• The suction capabilities of a first stage impeller.
• Pump performance with regard to its range of stable hydraulic operation: If a pump is operating
outside of its stable hydraulic range, the pump can cavitate even though NPSHA exceeds NPSHR.
Nss is used to consider a pump’s ability to operate away from its design point. How far back on its
performance curve a pump can operate without damage is determined by its impellers suction
specific speed.
• Susceptibility to suction recirculation: Suction recirculation is the reversal of flow at the eye of the
impeller. During recirculation, the internal flow is unstable. Stall, backflow, eddy-type circulation,
turbulence, noise, and cavitation are all mechanisms that can take place. The intensity of these
symptoms increases as the flow is further decreased. The higher the Nss value of the pump’s
impeller, the sooner this recirculation occurs.

The NPSHR by a pump is largely dependent on the impeller “eye area” and inlet “vane
angle” design.
Internal Recirculation Cavitation
Internal Recirculation Cavitation

Suction Recirculation Cavitation:

Suction recirculation Cavitation present close to impeller eye, on the high pressure side of the vanes.
Internal Recirculation Cavitation

Suction Recirculation Cavitation:

Suction recirculation Cavitation present close to impeller eye, on the high pressure side of the vanes.
Internal Recirculation Cavitation

Discharge Recirculation Cavitation:

Discharge recirculation Cavitation present close to the vanes tip.
Internal Recirculation Cavitation

Discharge Recirculation Cavitation:

Discharge recirculation Cavitation present close to the vanes tip.
Internal Recirculation Cavitation vs. Classical Cavitation
Vane Passing Cavitation

Vane passing cavitation occurs when the clearance between the outside diameter of the impeller and
the cutwater is too tight. This often is the case when impeller is oversized. Vane passing cavitation
can be illustrated further via Bernoulli principle. Tight clearance gap increases the liquid velocity
which in turns leads to pressure reduction. Bubbles would form if the liquid pressure gets lower than
the vapor pressure.
Vane Passing Cavitation

Vane Passing Cavitation:

Vane passing cavitation happens at the tip of the impeller.
Vane Passing Cavitation

Prevention: For many years pump people have been machining the vane tips to reduce the vane
passing frequency vibrations (Gap "B") while carefully maintaining Gap "A". The pulsating forces
acting on the impeller can be reduced by 80% to 85%.

Avoid modifying Gap "A" in large pumps over 250 hp or pumps pumping heads in excess of 650 ft.
Excessive shroud to casing clearance (Gap "A") and the resultant recirculation to the low pressure
side of the pump will produce "eddy flows" around the impeller, causing low frequency axial
vibrations that can translate to mechanical seal Problems.
Vane Passing Cavitation
Thanks for your attention