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i DEBRE BIRHAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE: COMPUTING DEPARTMENT: INFORMATION

SYSTEMS Papaya leaf and fruit Diseases classification model Using Digital Image
Processing and Machine Learning BY EPHREM TADESSE DEBRE BERHAN, ETHIOPIA June
16, 2023 ii DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF COMPUTING DEPARTMENT OF
INFORMATION SYSTEMS A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
INFORMATION SYSTEMS OF DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN INFORMATION
SYSTEMS BY EPHREM TADESSE DEBRE BERHAN, ETHIOPIA June 16, 2023 iii DEBRE
BERHAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF COMPUTING DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION
SYSTEMS BY EPHREM TADESSE Name and signature of members of the examining
board Title Name Signature Date Advisor Michael Melese (PhD) _______________
_____________ Chair Person ____________________ _______________ ____________ External
Examiner ___________________ ________________ ______________ Internal Examiner
___________________ _________________ ______________ DEBRE BERHAN, ETHIOPIA June, 2023
iv DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF COMPUTING DEPARTMENT OF
INFORMATION SYSTEMS This is to declare that the thesis prepared by Ephrem Tadesse,
titled: Papaya leaf and fruit Diseases classification model Using Digital Image Processing
and Machine Learning and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of Master of Science in Information Systems fulfills with the regulations of the
University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.

___________________________ EPHREM TADESSE DEKEBA June, 2023 This thesis has been
submitted for examination with our approval as university advisor.
__________________________ Advisor: Michael Melese (PhD) JUNE 2023 v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Dr.
Michael Melese for his guidance, caring, and patience during the thesis and also I would
like to extend my special gratitude to Endriyas Gabrekiristos (PhD Candidate and plant
pathologist at Awash Melkassa agricultural Research institute), and to Awash Melkassa
agricultural Research institute staff for their help in obtaining samples and provide me
with information about the disease.

vi ABSTRACT The papaya is a popular fruit crop in Ethiopia, grown on a large scale for
various purposes, including consumption and use in food and beverages mainly found
in tropical and subtropical regions. However, the papaya crops are susceptible to several
diseases, including black spot, anthracnose, and powdery mildew, which significantly
reduce the crop's yield and quality, thereby affecting the fruit marketability.

The early detection of papaya diseases is one of the main reasons that can reduce the
yield production loss, and this requires a huge amount of effort, money, and time. To
address this problem, agricultural research has leveraged artificial intelligence and
image processing techniques to develop a system that classifies the types of diseases
affecting papaya crops accurately. To do so, the experimental research design
methodology was followed.

To conduct this study, a total of 5122 images were collected from Awash Melkassa
agricultural Research institute. After collecting the necessary images, the researcher
applies image preprocessing techniques such as image resizing, normalizing images,
and noise removing were performed. Data augmentation techniques have also been
employed to enhance the models' performance further.

This research work focuses on classifying four types of papaya diseases: anthracnose
fruit disease, black spot fruit disease, black spot leaf disease and powdery mildew leaf
disease. In this study, transfer learning a pre-trained network model has been employed
to train papaya image datasets. The validity of our proposed model has been validated
through experiments using deep learning algorithms pre-trained models namely VGG16,
VGG19 and ResNet50.

These models achieved high accuracy rates of 98%, 97%, and 99%. This research
contributes to the development of a reliable system for Papaya disease classification. By
leveraging deep learning techniques and optimization approaches, we address the
limitations of previous study, such as small datasets, limited number of disease and
lower classification accuracy.

Overall, this study demonstrates how transfer learning and deep learning techniques can
assist in developing an accurate model for classifying papaya disease. Keywords: Papaya
Disease, Deep-learning, pre-trained models, Transfer Learning, Classification 1 Table of
Contents ABSTRACT ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................
........... vi LIST OF FIGURES ................................ ................................

................................ ................................ . 4 LIST OF TABLES ................................ ................................

................................ ................................ .. 6 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................
................................ ................................ . 7 CHAPTER ONE ................................ ................................
................................ ................................ .....

8 INTRODUCTION ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 8

1.1 Background of the study ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 8
1.2 Motivation ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 10 1.3
Statements of the problem ................................

................................ ................................ ...... 11 1.4 Objective of the study ................................

................................ ................................ ............ 12 1.4.1 General Objective ................................
................................ ................................ ........... 12 1.4.2 Specific Objective ................................
................................ ................................ .......... 12 1.5

Scope and limitation of study ................................ ................................ ................................ . 12 1.6

Significance of the study ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 13 1.7
Methodology ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 14 1.7.1
Literature Review ................................ ................................

................................ ........... 14 1.7.2 Research Design ................................ ................................

................................ ............. 14 1.7.3 Data Preparation ................................ ................................
................................ ............. 15 1.7.4 Implementation Tools ................................ ................................
................................ ..... 15 1.7.5 Evaluation Methods ................................

................................ ................................ ........ 15 1.8 Organization of the Thesis ................................

................................ ................................ ...... 16 CHAPTER TWO ................................ ................................
................................ ................................ .. 17 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................
................................ ................................ ...................... 17 2.1.

Plant Diseases ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 17 2.2.

Overview of Papaya ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 17 2.3.
Papaya Diseases ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................... 18 2.4.
Machine Learning ................................ ................................

................................ .................. 21 2.5. Deep Learning Approach ................................

................................ ................................ ....... 23 2.5.1. Recurrent Neural Network (RNN)
................................ ................................ .................. 24 2 2.5.2. Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)
Neural Network ................................ ...................... 25 2.5.3. Convolutional Neural Networks
................................

................................ ...................... 26 2.6. Loss Functions ................................ ................................

................................ ....................... 31 2.7. Optimization Techniques................................
................................ ................................ ........ 32 2.8. Regularization in Convolutional Neural
Network ................................ ................................ ... 33 2.9.

Convolutional Neural Network Architectures ................................ ................................ ......... 34

2.10. Evaluation technique ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 38
2.11. Digital Image Processing ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 38
2.12. Related Work ................................ ................................ ................................ .....................

41 2.13. Research Gap ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................... 44

CHAPTER THREE ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 45
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 45
3.1. Overview ................................ ................................ ................................

............................... 45 3.2. Research Design................................ ................................ ................................

..................... 45 3.3. Data Preparation................................ ................................ ................................
..................... 46 3.4. Data Partitioning ................................ ................................ ................................
.................... 47 3.5.

Image Preprocessing ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 47 3.7.

Pre-Trained CNN ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 49 3.7.1.
Components of VGG16 Model ................................ ................................ ....................... 49 3.7.2.
Components of VGG19 Model ................................ ................................ ....................... 52 3.7.3.

Components of ResNet50 Model ................................ ................................ .................... 54 3.8.

Implementation Tools ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 56 3.9.
Evaluation Methods ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 57
CHAPTER FOUR ................................ ................................ ................................

................................ . 58 DESIGN, EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

................................ ............................ 58 4.1. Overview ................................ ................................
................................ ............................... 58 4.2. The Proposed Architecture ................................
................................ ................................ ..... 58 4.3.

Description and Preparation of Dataset ................................ ................................ ................... 59

4.5. Feature Extraction using proposed Model ................................ ................................ ...............
60 4.7. Experimental Result ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 63
4.7.1. Result Analysis of VGG16 ................................ ................................

............................. 63 4.7.2. VGG19 Result Analysis ................................ ................................

................................ . 67 3 4.7.3. Result Analysis of ResNet50 ................................
................................ .......................... 70 4.8. Discussion of the Result ................................
................................ ................................ ......... 74 CHAPTER FIVE ................................

................................ ................................ ................................ ... 76 CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS ................................ ................................ .................. 76 5.1. Conclusion
................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 76 5.2. Summary
................................ ................................ ................................ ...............................

77 5.3. Recommendation ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 77

5.4. Contribution ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................... 78 5.5.
Future works ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 78
REFERENCES................................

................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 79 4 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1

Sample image of Papaya farm Figure 2.2 Samples of Powdery Mildew Leaf Diseases
Figure 2.3 Samples of Anthracnose Fruit Diseases Figure 2.4 Samples of Papaya Black
Spot Leaf Disease Figure 2.5 Samples of Black Spot Fruit Diseases Figure2.6. Samples of
ANN Architecture Figure 2.7

diagrams which describes deep learning Figure 2.8 sample of Recurrent Neural Network
Structure Figure 2.9 Long Short-Term Memories (LSTM) Neural Network Figure 2.10:
Convolutional Neural Network Architecture Figure 2.11 convolutional layer Figure 2.12
Example of Max pooling Figure 2.13 ALexNet Architecture Figure 2.14VGG16 network
architecture Figure 3.1 Research Flow Process Figure 3.2 sample of Papaya Disease
Image Figure 4.1 System Architecture for the proposed model Figure 4.2

Feature Extraction of the proposed Model Figure 4.3.Training and validation Loss for
VGG16 Pre-trained model Figure 4.4 Training and validation accuracy for VGG16
Pre-trained model Figure 4.5.Classification report of the proposed model of VGG16
Figure 4.6.Confusion Matrix of VGG16 Figure 4.7 Training data Figure 4.8 Training and
validation loss for the VGG19 pre-trained model 5 Figure 4.9.Training and validation
accuracy for the VGG19 pre-trained model Figure 4.10.Classification report of the
proposed model of VGG19 Figure 4.11.Confusion Matrix of VGG19 Figure 4.12.Training
data Figure 4.13.Training and validation loss for the ResNet50 pre-trained model Figure
4.14 Training and validation Accuracy for the ResNet50 pre-trained model Figure
4.15.Confusion Matrix of ResNet50 Figure 4.16.Classification report of the proposed
model of ResNet50 6 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Summary of related works Table 3.1

Number of Samples per Class of the Papaya Disease Images Dataset Table 4.1 Summary
of hyper Parameters used during training Table 4.2.Comparison of all experiment Table
4.3 Comparison of the Proposed System with other researchers' work 7 ABBREVIATIONS
AND ACRONYMS ANN: ………………………. Artificial Neural Network CNN: ……………………….
Convolutional Neural Network CSA: ………………………. Central Statistical Authority DL:
…………………………. .Deep learning FC layer: …………………….

Fully connected GLCM: ……………………… Grey Level Co-occurrence Matrix ILSVRC:

…………………….. ImageNet large-scale visual recognition challenge KNN: ……………………….
K-Nearest Neighbors ML: …………………………. Machine learning ReLU: ……………………….
Rectified Linear Unit RF: …………………………. Random Forest RGB: ………………………. Red
Green Blue: RESNET-50: ………………. Residential Energy Services Network SGD:
………………………… Stochastic Gradient Descent SVM: ………………………. Support vector
machine VGG: .l

Geometry Group YCbCr………………………Grn Y) (b) () digl eocorspace) 8 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study In recent times, the significance of plants
has increased tremendously compared to years ago, where their primary use was
feeding both humans and animals. Plants are currently utilized for the purpose of soil
preservation and wind reduction [1].

Additionally, one-fourth of all prescribed medications are derived from or sourced

directly from plants to enhance the quality of life for humans. Furthermore, plants
generate oxygen through photosynthesis and act as natural carbon storage,
contributing to avoiding the release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from burning
fossil fuels. Plants also experience illnesses [2].

The culprits that cause plant diseases are much the same as those causing disease in
humans and animals and can include pathogenic microorganisms like viruses, bacteria,
fungi, protozoa, and nematodes. Environmental factors like inadequate or excessive
nutrient supply, moisture, or light, as well as airborne or soil-borne toxic chemical
agents, also contribute to plant disease. For this research, the researchers chose papaya.

As one of the most important fruit crops in the family Caricaceae, papaya is widely
cultivated for fresh consumption, and also for use in drinks, jams, candies, dried and
crystallized. Fruits provide a good source of calcium, iron, salt, potassium, beta-carotene,
vitamin B2, niacin, and vitamin C, as well as a lot of protein, fat, carbs, and calories [2][3].
The report [4] indicates that global papaya production increased from about 13.24
million metric tons in 2018 to around 13.74 million metric tons in 2019.Because of its
high palatability, early fruiting, highest productivity in the unit area and multifarious
uses such as food, medicine or industrial inputs, papaya has become more important.
One of Ethiopia's most common fruits, papaya is grown commercially on approximately
5096 hectares of land, producing 79,374 tons [10].

However, a number of biotic and abiotic factors result in a significant loss of papaya. In
Ethiopia, diseases such as anthracnose fruit and leaf disease, Phytophthora, powdery
mildew, 9 black spot fruit and leaf disease and papaya ring spot virus are seriously
affecting the production and productivity of papaya [5]. Black spot, caused by A.

caricae, is currently the most deadly disease among the newly emerging papaya
diseases. Both papaya fruits and leaves are vulnerable to several diseases. An
infection-causing disease on the leaves and fruits of papaya has been reported in
Ethiopia [2]. Based on the fact that photosynthesis uses the majority of plant leaves as a
source of fuel for the growth of a plant, illness in leaves impacts the process of
photosynthesis which results in plant mortality. Early and effective diagnosis of plant
diseases is crucial to reducing the loss of agricultural product yield.

Image processing has emerged as a powerful analytical tool across numerous fields and
applications [7]. The agriculture industry relies heavily on key parameters such as
product quantity and quality to meet the needs of farmers. For this reason, it is crucial to
identify crop diseases in a timely and accurate manner, which forms the basis for
effective farm management.

Traditionally, plant disease recognition is commonly achieved through manual visual

inspection which may be subject to personal bias. However, automated disease
identification by machine inspection can greatly benefit users who lack prior knowledge
about their crop, such as farmers, gardeners, and homemakers without the resources to
hire an expert agronomist.

The development of soft computing and image processing technologies has

significantly altered our way of living. Soft computing comprises artificial intelligence
techniques such as neural networks, fuzzy logic, and genetic algorithms. Artificial
intelligence aims to simulate human intelligence in machines by enabling them to
reason, learn, and perceive [7].

Additionally, image processing involves manipulating images to extract useful

information or improve their quality. The implementation of AI technology has
revolutionized various industries, including agriculture and farming, which is one of the
oldest and vital professions in the world, contributing significantly to the economy.

The industry is increasingly leveraging AI to enhance crop health, manage pests,

monitor soil and growing conditions, organize data for farmers, alleviate workloads, and
improve an array of agriculture-related tasks across the entire food supply chain [8]. 10
Artificial intelligence is aiding farmers not only in early disease detection, but also in
automating their farming practices and transitioning to precise cultivation, resulting in
superior crop yields.

Companies that enhance AI-based agricultural products or services such as agriculture

training data, drones, and automated machines will benefit from future technological
advancements, which will provide more practical applications in the industry. The
combination of various AI technologies can create a highly efficient system, facilitating
high-performing agriculture.

In this study, the researcher endeavors to build a system for Papaya leaf and fruit
Diseases classification model Using Digital Image Processing and Machine Learning. 1.2
Motivation Papaya is an important crop worldwide, but it is often affected by various
diseases that can lead to significant yield loss. By studying and developing a
classification model, researchers can contribute to effective disease management by
accurately identifying different diseases in papaya leaves and fruits. This model can aid
farmers in timely and targeted treatments, reducing crop losses, and improving overall
crop health.

Traditional methods of disease diagnosis in papaya rely on visual inspection by human

experts, which can be subjective and prone to errors. By implementing digital image
processing techniques and machine learning algorithms, researchers can develop a
model that provides objective and accurate disease classification based on image
analysis.

This approach can help overcome limitations in human visual perception, ensuring more
precise identification and classification of papaya leaf and fruit diseases. Early detection
is crucial for effective disease management. By studying papaya leaf and fruit diseases
using digital image processing and machine learning, researchers can develop models
that enable early detection of diseases before significant damage occurs.

The study of papaya leaf and fruit diseases using digital image processing and machine
learning represents the integration of advanced technologies into the field of
agriculture. By exploring this interdisciplinary approach, researchers can contribute to
the advancement of agricultural technology, paving the way for potential applications in
disease management for other crops as well. This research can stimulate further
innovation and facilitate the development of smart agricultural systems.

In summary, studying papaya leaf and fruit diseases classification model using digital
image processing and machine learning holds the potential to enhance disease
management, improve diagnostic accuracy, facilitate early detection, promote
sustainable farming practices, and advance 11 technology in agriculture. This research
can contribute to improving papaya cultivation and potentially revolutionize disease
management in other crops too. 1.3

Statements of the problem The primary economic sector in Ethiopia is agriculture;

however, outdated farming techniques lead to various structural problems [13]. One of
the major challenges is detecting and classifying diseases in crops which are an
important issue in agricultural management. Currently, papaya diseases are identified by
experts using the naked eye.

These experts and farmers address any disease observed during growth in accordance
with a set procedure [2]. However, when uncertainty surrounding disease type arises, a
sample is collected and sent for laboratory testing. The process is time-consuming and
prone to errors, representing significant inefficiency that severely impacts papaya
production.

This inefficiency threatens the productivity of papaya cultivation in Ethiopia and may
impact its foreign currency earnings. Based on the insights obtained from an expert in
papaya cultivation, various diseases tend to impact papaya production in different
seasons in different production locations.

Particularly, anthracnose, Phytophthora, powdery mildew, black spot, and papaya ring
spot virus are among the primary diseases greatly affecting papaya production and
reducing its overall productivity [2]. Both local and foreign scholars have conducted
research focused on exploring the issue of papaya diseases. One study by [9] proposed
utilizing digital image processing and artificial neural networks for the classification of
papaya Calina IPB-9 into three quality classes: Super, A, and B classes. Although the
researcher achieved favorable results in classifying size, the research was exclusively
limited to size classification.

Another study by [12] proposed a deep learning- based approach for the identification
and classification of two papaya leaf diseases, specifically Leaf Curl and Papaya Mosaic,
using the ResNet50 architecture as a convolutional neural network. However, this
research was also limited to classification of only these two diseases related to papaya
leaves.

Another study by [11], developed an intelligent system using machine learning to

identify papaya diseases. The system utilized random forest, k-means clustering, SVC
and CNN, 12 ultimately achieving promising results with the CNN model. Unlike the
present study, the research focused on the disease that occurred on fruit.

This research aims to develop a deep learning-based model that can detect and identify
papaya diseases using input images of papaya leaves and fruit. While past research has
utilized image processing techniques to distinguish healthy and infected papaya leaves
in images, this study seeks to go a step further by constructing a model that can classify
various papaya diseases based on fruit and leaf images, leveraging both image
processing and deep learning.

Research Questions 1. Which deep learning algorithm is used for classification of Papaya
disease? 2. Which hyperparameters is used for better classification of Papaya diseases?
3. To what level does the model effectively classify Papaya leaf and fruit Diseases? 1.4
Objective of the study 1.4.1

General Objective The general objective of this study is to Propose Papaya leaf and fruit
Diseases classification model Using Digital Image Processing and Machine Learning.
1.4.2 Specific Objective In order to accomplish the general objective of the study, the
following specific objectives are identified:- ? To conduct a review of existing literature
to understand the area of study. ? To collect required image data from Awash Melkassa
agricultural Research institute.

? To apply various image preprocessing method. ? To design the architecture of the

proposed system. ? To build CNN model which detect and classify class of Papaya
disease? ? To evaluate the performance of the developed model using the test data set.
1.5 Scope and limitation of study In order to improve outcomes, it is important to define
the task area for the vital study of papaya disease detection and classification.

The study was conducted using data from Awash Melkassa agricultural Research
institute, and pre-processing techniques were employed to clean and 13 smooth the
data. The objective of the study was to create a model for classifying papaya diseases
using a deep learning based approach through transfer learning. These methods allow
for automatic feature extraction and identification using a convolutional neural network
classifier. However, the study also has some limitations.
This research work is limited to the classification of papaya leaf and fruit images into six
separate classes: Healthy Leaf (Uninfected Leaf), Healthy Fruit (Uninfected Fruit),
Anthracnose Fruit Disease, Powdery Mildew Leaf Disease, Black Spot Leaf Disease, and
Black Spot Fruit Disease. The research does not cover classification of stem or root
diseases or other types of diseases.

This research work does not encompass the recommendation of proper treatment for
the identified disease and estimation of the severity of the detected disease. The extent
of this research is limited to the classification and detection of the disease only. The
development of a classifier model for papaya disease was limited to the use of three
pre-trained models, ResNet50, VGG-16 and VGG-19, due to time and resource
constraints. However, it is possible that other pre-trained models could provide better
accuracy. 1.6

Significance of the study Artificial intelligence has made people's lives easier and assists
in determining the raw materials required for a specific yield while predicting consumer
demand and supply. It is therefore up to the user to use them wisely to enhance their
quality of life. The primary beneficiaries of this research will be pathologists and farmers,
who will be able to better understand the value of machine learning and artificial
intelligence in general. This research has various advantages for different stakeholders
and other researchers. After evaluating the results, it can be used in different fields.

The study benefits farmers, investors, as well as public and private companies involved
in agriculture. This study will be useful for agricultural research institutions It reduces
need for experts in that area. 14 ? This work will be used as a resource for other
academics who seek to undertake more research on topics related to papaya disease
detection and classification.

1.7 Methodology Methodology refers to the systematic process adopted for conducting
research, and selecting the appropriate methods is crucial for the success of the study.

This section discusses various methods employed for literature review, research design,
data collection, model development, and evaluation to conduct the current research
project. By using these methods, the study aims to achieve its research objectives in a
structured and thorough manner. 1.7.1 Literature Review Various literature covering
topics such as papaya plant diseases; pests, image processing, and machine learning
were evaluated to gain a better understanding of the subject matter. This provided a
helpful overview of the relevant research in these areas and facilitated the synthesis of
key findings.
The researcher assesses relevant topics that deal with agricultural disease identification
and detection techniques through computer vision because this study is on creating a
model that can identify and classify papaya disease. The researcher carried out an
interview with a plant pathologist with expertise in papaya diseases to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the types of ailments and pests that impact papaya
plants in Ethiopia. This facilitated a clearer comprehension of the subject matter and
supported the research objective. 1.7.2

Research Design This study focuses on Digital Image Processing (DIP) research and
utilizes an experimental research approach. Experimental research is a systematic
scientific research method that involves measurable and comparability variables. It is
conducted in a controlled environment, where the researcher collects data and performs
experiments to determine the most suitable algorithms to develop an optimal model.
Experimental research aims to establish a correlation between two variables.

In the realm of digital image processing, which encompasses techniques in digital signal
processing as well as picture-specific approaches, a picture can be viewed as a function
of two continuous variables: x 15 and y, denoted as f(x, y). In this research, the variable
of interest is applied to papaya leaf and fruit images. Once the experimental study is
completed, it is necessary to gather a dataset, choose appropriate implementation tools
and algorithms, and assess the performance of the proposed prototype. Evaluation of
the dependent variable, such as measuring model accuracy, is a crucial part of
conducting the study. 1.7.3

Data Preparation The Awash Melkassa agricultural Research institute collaborated with
experts in the field to gather a dataset of images. The dataset was then labeled by these
experts and comprised 5112 data sets containing both healthy and infected samples.
The researcher categorized the datasets into six classes: anthracnose fruit disease, black
spot fruit disease, black spot leaf disease, powdery mildew leaf disease, healthy fruit,
and healthy leaf. 1.7.4

Implementation Tools This research utilizes the Python programming language and
Anaconda Jupyter notebook and Colaboratory, often referred to as Colab. Colab is a
Jupyter notebook service hosted by Google search, eliminating the need for any setup.
Additionally, it grants users free access to computing resources, including GPUs.

Python is chosen as it is currently considered a prominent programming language for

image processing, offering the latest technology and advancements compared to tools
like Weka and MATLAB. Python provides robust capabilities for image preprocessing
and analysis, making it a powerful choice. Commonly used libraries such as OpenCV and
TensorFlow are employed in this research. 1.7.5

Evaluation Methods Accuracy is a popular performance evaluation metric, particularly in

classification tasks. It provides an overall measure of a model's performance, as it
assesses the system proposed by the study through a confusion matrix [22]. In the
context of this particular study, where there are varied sample sizes in each class,
accuracy serves as a valuable statistic.

When dealing with imbalanced datasets, relying solely on accuracy can be misleading.
Hence, it is essential to consider alternative metrics based on the confusion matrix for
evaluating performance. Several evaluation metrics are available for classifiers; including
precision, recall, and the F-1 score [23].

Precision measures the correct predictions relative to the defined classes. Conversely,
recall focuses on the accuracy of predictions based on true values. The F-Score, a 16
weighted average of the true positive rate (recall) and precision provides a
comprehensive evaluation of the model's performance. 1.8 Organization of the Thesis
This article is composed of five sections, beginning with an introduction that provides
the background and problem statement for the research.

It also outlines the motivation and aims of the study, as well as the research
methodology and its limitations. The article then explores the significance of the study
before concluding with an overview of the organization of the thesis. Chapter two
focuses on literature review, providing a brief explanation of various papaya diseases,
general knowledge regarding machine learning, deep learning methods used in the
study, and convolutional neural networks.

The chapter also summarizes related works conducted by other researchers, using
information gathered from books, magazines, and collected works to aid in carrying out
the study. Chapter three is dedicated to the research design, data collection, and
preparation process; including image preprocessing, feature extraction methods, and
implementation tools.

Chapter four focuses on an overview of the proposed architecture and the feature
extraction process using the proposed model, with descriptions of hyperparameter
settings, pre-training CNN, training components of the proposed VGG16, VGG19, and
ResNet50 models, and experimental results of these models. This chapter also includes
the process of selecting the best performing model.
Finally, Chapter five provides a summary of the investigation, including findings
obtained, conclusions drawn, and recommendations for future work. 17 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter narrows down on papaya plants, addressing the
diseases that commonly affect them and the digital image processing techniques used
to detect these diseases. The chapter delves deeper into the specific diseases that
impact papaya leaves and fruits, covering various symptoms.

Furthermore, it discusses image processing techniques used to identify these diseases

and provides an overview of existing literature related to the topic. 2.1. Plant Diseases
Plant sickness occurs when pathogens continuously disrupt normal plant functions and
processes, leading to abnormal physiological processes and growth disruption. Plant
diseases can be classified according to their primary causative agent, which may be
infectious or noninfectious [14].

Infectious plant diseases are caused by various pathogens including fungi, bacteria,
mycoplasma, viruses, viroids, nematodes, or parasitic flowering plants. These agents can
be produced in or on the host and can spread to other susceptible hosts. In the natural
setting, plants may face multiple pathogens attacking them simultaneously.

This may be more prevalent in plants that have nutrient deficiencies or suffer from
imbalanced soil moisture and oxygen, rendering them susceptible to pathogenic attacks.
When plants are already affected by pathogens, they become more vulnerable to being
attacked by secondary pathogens. Various types of diseases can affect papaya plants,
including those caused by fungi, bacteria, and pests.

This article will focus on discussing some of the diseases that commonly affect papaya
leaves and fruit in the area surrounding Awash Melkassa Agricultural Research Institute.
2.2. Overview of Papaya Papaya is a valuable fruit crop that thrives in tropical and
subtropical lowland areas [15]. This fruit is consumed as a dessert when fully ripe, while
the unripe green fruit can be used in salads.

Additionally, papain, a helpful enzyme, is extracted from the latex of the green fruit. The
plant is commonly grown in home gardens since it can easily propagate from seeds.
Furthermore, it yields fruits after only nine months of sowing, and produces fruit
throughout the entire year.

Despite being rich in vitamins A and C, and having a pleasant taste, the fruit is quite
delicate, which limits its exportation to temperate regions [15]. 18 Papaya belongs to the
Carica family, which consists of six genera: Carica, Jalilla, Horowitzia, Jacaratia,
Vasconcella, and Silicomorpha, encompassing a total of 35 species. Carica is the genus
to which papaya belongs and is the only species in this genus.

However, other genera such as Vasconcellea (also referred to as mountain papaya),

Jarilla, and Jacaratia, are also edible fruits commonly consumed in Central America [16].
Figure 2.1 Sample image of Papaya farm 2.3. Papaya Diseases This research addresses
the various diseases that afflict papaya plants, caused by fungi, bacteria, and pests.

Specifically, it focuses on the most common diseases affecting papaya grown in Awash
Melkassa Agricultural Research Institute Farm. 19 2.3.1. Powdery Mildew Disease Papaya
powdery mildew is caused by high humidity and temperatures of 24-26°C. It affects
leaves and pods, initially appearing as small, dark spots that turn into white powder. The
disease can cause leaves to wilt and fruit to be small [36].

Control mechanism: Sulfur (at a concentration of 30 g per 10 liters of water) or Calixin 75

EC (at a concentration of 5 ml per 10 liters of water) can be used to control papaya
powdery mildew when symptoms of the disease are noticed. Treatment should be
administered every 15 days. Figure 2.2 Samples of Powdery Mildew Leaf Diseases 2.3.2.
Anthracnose Disease Papaya Anthracnose mainly affects young, green fruits, causing
brown to black pitting.

The first symptom is dimpled spots with a water-soaked appearance, which later turn
black and pink as the fungus produces spores. The surrounding pulp becomes soft and
watery and the disease can spread throughout the fruit. Additionally, small irregularly
shaped water-soaked spots can be seen on the leaves, eventually turning brown.

[36] The symptoms of this disease can only be seen when the fruit is ripe and may be
difficult to notice during harvesting. As the disease progresses, brown depressions
emerge on the fruit's surface, which eventually grow larger to form moist lesions. The
flesh underneath the affected area becomes soft and begins to decay [36].

Control Mechanism: To control the disease, it is important to remove and destroy any
affected papaya fruit. Papaya fruits should also be harvested promptly upon ripening.
Spraying with 20 copper oxychloride (3g), carbendazim (1g), or thiophanate-methyl (1g)
mixed with a liter of water every 15 days can be an effective means of controlling the
disease. For papaya destined for export, hydrothermal treatment is necessary [36].
Figure 2.3 Samples of Anthracnose Fruit Diseases 2.3.3.

Black spot Papaya black spot is caused by a fungus called Asperisporium caricae and is
found worldwide where papaya trees grow. While it is usually a minor concern, severe
infection can affect tree growth and fruit yield. To prevent this, it is important to treat
papaya black spots. The disease is most severe during the rainy season and affects both
leaves and fruits, with small water-soaked lesions appearing on the upper surfaces of
leaves.

As the disease progresses, small black spots can be seen on the underside of leaves,
which turn brown and die if damaged. The black spots can also occur on the fruit, and
the disease is more intense on the lower leaves. [2] [36] Control Mechanism: To limit the
spread of black spot disease in papaya trees, it is recommended to remove leaves and
fruits with symptoms of the disease.

This helps to reduce the initial inoculum, as well as the number of spores that can
spread the disease. Removing infected leaves also improves air circulation and allows for
better penetration of fungicide sprays through the fruit column. Early treatment with
protective or systemic fungicides that contain copper when initial symptoms appear is
the best way to prevent the disease from spreading.

Additionally, 21 immersing the fruit in boiling water at 48°C for 20 minutes can reduce
the incidence of the disease. [2] [36] Figure 2.4 Samples of Papaya Black Spot Leaf
Disease Figure 2.5 Samples of Black Spot Fruit Diseases 2.4. Machine Learning The
subfield of artificial intelligence known as Machine Learning (ML) is founded on the
belief that machines can learn, discern patterns, and make decisions with minimal
guidance from humans [42].

These models are trained automatically by integrating prior data or experience with 22
new information to acquire knowledge. This approach is frequently employed to
forecast future events or classify data, aiding individuals in making important decisions.
As stated in [38], the primary aim of machine learning (ML) is to create systems that are
capable of autonomously adjusting their behavior based on experience.

ML strategies utilize training data to generate a comprehensive model that can identify
whether or not certain patterns exist in test data. Various fields such as hospitals,
manufacturing industries, robotics, computer games, pattern recognition, natural
language processing, image processing and classification, data mining, traffic prediction,
product recommendation, marketing, medical diagnosis, agriculture advisory, email
spam filtering, among others, employ machine learning techniques [42]. 2.4.1.

Artificial Neural Network Artificial Neural Networks, or ANNs, are advanced algorithms
that are designed to model complex patterns and make accurate predictions. These
networks have their roots in the biological neural network concept found in the human
brain. While ANNs have been around since the 1940s, their development has been
marked by fluctuations [38].

Basically, ANNs work by using weights as intermediate parameters to pass computed

values from input neurons to output neurons [43]. This process allows them to uncover
patterns in data, which is achieved by altering the weights connecting the neurons. The
neural network is structured into three layers: input neurons, hidden neurons, and
output neurons.

The neurons are connected by weighted links that represent the strength of the
relationship between them. Overall, ANNs are capable of performing complex
computations and finding key patterns in large datasets [38]. Figure2.6. Samples of ANN
Architecture 23 2.5. Deep Learning Approach According to a referenced article, deep
learning is a form of machine learning that is particularly effective at managing
unstructured data.

This type of learning outperforms traditional machine learning techniques, as it allows

computational models to gradually learn different elements from data at various levels,
through the use of deep neural networks [17]. Deep learning approaches have become
popular due to the increasing availability of high-performance computing resources.

These algorithms are particularly effective when dealing with unstructured data, as they
can analyze a vast number of features. Deep learning processes data through layers,
with each layer extracting features progressively and passing them to the next one. The
first layer identifies low-level features, while subsequent layers combine them to create a
comprehensive representation [17].

A referenced article [42], explains that the primary aim of deep learning is to replicate
the way humans learn using their brains. To create deep learning neural networks,
multiple neural network architectures are utilized, and models are built that learn
through deep learning techniques. Various popular deep learning methods are widely
used, including Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Denoising Autoencoders (DAEs),
Deep Belief Networks (DBNs), Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), and Denoising
Autoencoder (DAE). Figure 2.7

deep learning diagrams When to Use Deep Learning? As the volume of data and
computing power increases, deep learning becomes increasingly effective. It surpasses
alternative methods in tackling intricate issues such as classification of images, language
understanding, and speech perception. The key to success in deep learning lies in two
critical components: a large data set for model training and robust computational 24
capabilities.
Deep learning techniques learn from millions of parameters in a model, thus
necessitating powerful computing tools to overcome this challenge. Deep learning is
composed of numerous features that offer several advantages when compared to
conventional machine learning techniques. These features include the ability to perform
automatic feature learning, manage large and complex data, improve performance,
handle non- linear relationships, deal with structured and unstructured data, allow for
predictive modeling, and handle missing and sequential data.

Additionally, deep learning exhibits scalability and generalization, which other

competing approaches like kernel machines struggle with when it comes to processing
vast data sets and domain transfers. As a result, deep learning models can be used for
related tasks, and the learned function can handle different jobs with sparse data,
meaning that it can handle a broader spectrum of tasks [40]. 2.5.1.

Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) According to the author of the article, recurrent neural
networks (RNNs) differ from traditional neural networks as they take into account the
previous step's results as input for the current step. In predicting the next word in a
sentence, for example, the preceding word is essential, illustrating the necessity of RNNs
and their hidden layers, which are responsible for memorizing part of the sequence [44].

While feed-forward neural networks can process data from the initial input to final
output, RNNs can feed information back to the network during the process by using
feedback loops such as backpropagation over time which helps it to combine inputs and
process sequential and temporal data. This feature allows it to learn the sequence, and
Figure 2.8 illustrates the sequential structure of RNNs.

The use of deep learning algorithms is widespread in language translation, NLP, speech
recognition, and captioning [44]. Sequential information is employed by RNNs, setting
them apart from traditional neural networks, which is crucial in scenarios where the
embedded structure of the data sequence provides valuable insights. To grasp the
meaning of a word in a sentence, knowledge of the preceding word is necessary by
examining the context.

Figure 2.8 clarifies how a specific section of a neural network (A), receives input (xt) and
outputs a value (ht), and the loop enables the passage of information from one network
step to the next. 25 Figure 2.8 sample of Recurrent Neural Network Structure The
diagram in Figure 2.8

depicts a basic RNN with a three-word sentence, which can be unrolled into a
three-layer neural network where each word represents a layer. The input at each time
step is represented by the variable Xt and the output is represented by variable ht.
During training, the RNN uses an algorithm called back-propagation which computes
gradients and adjusts weight matrices.

However, adjusting weightings can lead to problems with vanishing and exploding
gradients, where gradients decay or explode exponentially due to multiplication of small
or large derivatives [45]. This problem can be solved using Long Short-Term Memory
(LSTM) which provides blocks of memory for repeated connections. 2.5.2. Long
Short-Term Memory (LSTM) Neural Network Hochreiter and Schmidhuber introduced
the long-short-term memory, which addresses the limitations of conventional RNNs and
machine learning algorithms.

This specialized neural network can tackle the issue of vanishing gradients in RNNs and
effectively remembers past information to process current input. While RNNs struggle
with retaining long-term dependencies, LSTMs are designed to overcome these
challenges [45]. Figure 2.9 Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) Neural Network 26 The
"cell state" in the LSTM model, which is responsible for retaining its state over time, is
crucial as shown in figure 2.9. The notations used are C,X,h, representing the cell state,
input value, and output values, respectively.

Additionally, t represents the time step value, where the input of each LSTM cycle is the
previous memory state Ct-1 and hidden layer units ht-1 as output. The first cycle begins
with either zero or randomized values [45]. 2.5.3. Convolutional Neural Networks The
use of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) has demonstrated success in detecting
patterns in unprocessed image data.

In the past, the field of image modeling has relied heavily on preprocessing techniques
to align input images and transform them into formats more easily managed by
modeling techniques. However, even slightly different rotations and scales can make
image processing difficult. CNNs allow the network to process raw image data, allowing
practitioners to focus on modifying the network architecture [18].

The objective of a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is to acquire advanced features

in the data by means of convolutions. They are particularly suitable for identifying
objects in images and have consistently ranked high in image classification
competitions. These networks are capable of recognizing faces, individuals, street signs,
platypuses, and other visual data aspects.

While CNNs are commonly associated with optical character recognition in text analysis,
they are also valuable in analyzing words as independent textual units. CNNs have
proven to be proficient in sound analysis. The effectiveness of CNNs in identifying
images has become a testament to the capabilities of deep learning. CNNs are built on
basic neural networks, as explained previously.

However, CNNs differ in their layer architecture, including Convolutional, Pooling, and
Fully-Connected Layers. The Fully-Connected Layer functions similarly to a neural
network, as previously discussed. The CNN algorithm consists of two primary processes:
27 convolution and sampling, which occur on convolutional and max pooling layers [20].
Figure 2.10: Convolutional neural network Architecture [20] The purpose of this thesis is
to utilize a CNN model to identify and categorize diseases present in papaya images.

This is achieved by feeding the model both healthy and infected images as input. The
classification process uses a CNN consisting of several consecutive layers, each layer of
the algorithm transforming the activation volume into another volume with different
features. Convolutional neural networks are very popular artificial neural networks with
wide applications in image and video recognition.

The mathematical principles and convolutions involved in its operation are very similar
to those of multilayer perceptrons, with the only difference being the incorporation of
multiple convolutional and pooling layers before a fully connected hidden neuron layer.
There are three layers to it [21]. ? Convolution layer: The convolution function serves as
the foundation for computation and performs essential computational tasks.

Pooling layer: This is an adjacent convolutional layer and is used to reduce the spatial
size of the representation, thus reducing the amount of computation and weighting
required. Aggregate functions are processed separately for each section of the
presentation. 28 ? Fully connected layer: The input is classified into different categories
by a series of convolution and pooling layers arranged in sequence. 2.5.4.

Convolution Layer Convolutional neural network (CNN) architectures, which are used to
extract features from images, require convolutions as a key component. This is done
using small arrays of integers called kernels and is often done through a combination of
linear and nonlinear processes. The image, represented as a tensor (a series of numbers),
is then kernelized.

To obtain the output value at the correct point of the output tensor, the computation
involves finding the element-wise product between each element of the kernel and the
input tensor, and then adding it to each position of the tensor. A feature map is what
we're dealing with here [21]. Layers act as feature extractors and this is how they learn
feature representations from input images.

To create as many feature maps as needed to reflect the input tensor's various
characteristics, this procedure is repeated with more kernel applications. In this sense,
different kernels may be thought of as various feature extractors. [21]. In order to
produce distinct feature maps, CNN, as illustrated in figure 2.11 below, convolves the
whole image as well as intermediate feature maps with various kernels[22]. Figure 2.11
convolutional layer A convolution layer operation in CNN with a kernel size of 3 by 3, no
padding, and a step size of 1 is demonstrated in Figure 2.11 above.

The kernel is applied to the element-wise product of the input tensor and each element.
To determine and obtain the output value at the relevant location in the output tensor is
computed at each position and summed. This is referred to as an activation map or
feature map. 29 2.5.4.1.

Pooling Layer Pooling layers play a crucial role in convolutional neural networks (CNNs)
by minimizing computational burden. This is achieved by shrinking the spatial size of the
representation and decreasing the necessary computations and weights [21] [22], and
also Create a single neuron from each group of outputs of the previous layer. There are
two primary pooling methods: maximum pooling and average polling.

The Max Polling filter selects the input pixel that has the highest value while progressing
across the input, and forwards it to the output array. This method is commonly used
compared to the Average Pooling technique. The Average Pooling method calculates
the average value within the receptive field as the filter progresses over the input, and
then sends it to the output array.

A lot of information is lost during the pooling layer, however there are several benefits
for the CNN. In addition to reducing complexity and raising efficacy, they also reduce
the chance of overfitting. Although average polling is solely used for dimensionality
reduction, it also conducts de-noising.

As a result, maximum polling is superior to average pooling [21] [22]. The illustrated in
Figure 2. 2 is an instance of a maximum sum function. It uses a filter size of 2 × 2, no
padding, and a degree of 2. This function selects a 2 × 2 bit from the input tensor, prints
the highest value at each location, and discards all other values.

The discarded values are determined by subtracting the level measure of the input
tensor by a factor of 2. Figure 2.12 Example of Max pooling 2.5.4.2. Fully Connected
Layer The FC layer is an integral part of the CNN architecture and is responsible for
connecting neurons between two different layers. Typically located before the output
layer, it consists of weights, biases, and neurons.

The input image is smoothed from the previous layer before being 30 fed to the FC
layer, where mathematical operations are performed in a series of additional FC layers.
This phase marks the beginning of the classification process. [22]. 2.5.4.3. Dropout In
most cases, connecting all features to the Fully Connected layer can lead to over fitting
in the training dataset.

Over fitting is a scenario where a model performs exceptionally well on the training data
but underperforms when applied to new data. To address this issue, a dropout layer is
employed, which involves dropping a few neurons from the neural network during the
training process, thus reducing the model size [22]. 2.5.4.4.

Activation Functions Activation functions are important elements in CNN models

because they facilitate learning and approximation of complex relationships between
network variables. This function determines which information is forward enabled or
disabled in the model, adding nonlinearity to the network. Commonly used activation
functions include ReLU, Softmax, tanH, and sigmoid functions [40], each with specific
uses.

ReLU (Rectified Linear Unit) Function Sigmoid and soft max functions are commonly
used in CNN models developed for binary classification. On the other hand, the ReLU
function for classifying multiple classes is the most commonly used activation function
in modern networks. The ReLU function has an advantage over other activation
functions in that not all neurons are triggered simultaneously.

Negative input results in the neuron's inactivation and conversion to zero. However, if
the input is positive, the neuron becomes active and returns a positive value of x. As a
result, only a few neurons are activated at a time, forming a sparse and highly efficient
network.

Moreover, the ReLU function has greatly improved deep learning by overcoming the
vanishing gradient problem. ?? ( ?? ) = ?????? ( ?? , ?? ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
… … … … … . ( 2 . 1 ) 31 Softmax The sigmoid function, which depicts a likelihood
distribution over a discrete variable with n potential values, is generalized into the
softmax function of z. The softmax function generally used to treat the output of each
unit as the probability belonging to each class and described as Eq. [42].

?? ( ?? ) = ?? ?? ? ?? ?? ?? ?? = ?? … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ( 2 . 2 ) 2.5.4.5. Hyper
parameters Stride: is a feature of a neural network filter that affects how much
movement there is in an image or video. For instance, the filter advances one pixel or
unit at a time if the neural network stride is set to 1. [46].

Filter size: A filter is a matrix of weights used to convolve the input. A convolution filter
measures how similar an input field is to a feature [46]. Padding: Padding is usually used
to add zero columns and rows to keep the spatial size constant after convolution. This
improves performance by preserving information around edges. The most common
value for the Padding Hyper parameter is same.

The output size will be the same as the input size by evenly padding left and right.
However, if the number of additional columns is odd, the additional columns are added
to the right [46]. Batch size: The batch size is a hyper parameter that determines the
quantity of data samples that are processed prior to updating the samples.

Epoch: In machine learning, an epoch refers to the complete set of iterations required to
train a model using all the available training data in a single cycle. A hyper parameter,
on the other hand, is a specific parameter that determines the number of epochs
needed for the training process. 2.6. Loss Functions In the field of neural networks, a loss
function is a type of function that evaluates the effectiveness of a network's predictions
by comparing them to the target output values. The goal 32 during training is to
minimize the discrepancy between the predicted output and the target output.

Depending on our research, CNN models have several classification loss functions. Some
of them are binary cross-entropy class, categorical cross-entropy class, sparse
categorical cross- entropy class, and Poisson class binary cross-entropy function. Based
on this, we used the categorical cross-entropy to calculate the loss function for this
study.

Categorical cross-entropy This function is widely used when the number of classes is
more than two, we use categorical cross-entropy. (i.e., in this study there are six label
classes namely: Anthracnose fruit disease, healthy fruit, healthy leaf, black spot fruit
disease, black spot leaf disease and powdery mildew leaf disease), and also Categorical
Cross entropy is also used in softmax regression.

For every class, the cross-entropy computes a value representing the typical difference
between the actual and expected probability distributions [47]. 2.7. Optimization
Techniques A deep learning optimizer model must have its weights adjusted and its loss
function minimized at each training period. An optimizer is in charge of changing a
neural network's properties, such as its weights and learning rate. Therefore, it helps
reduce overall loss and improve accuracy.

Since deep learning models typically consist of millions of parameters, the problem of
choosing appropriate weights for a model is a daunting task. This increases the need to
choose the right optimization algorithm for application [47]. There are different sets of
parameters for each optimizer, but they all have one in common: the Learning Rate.

The weights' degree of adjustment following each epoch is determined by this

parameter. A higher learning rate than a lower learning rate will cause a larger shift in
weights after each epoch. Another crucial parameter is weight decay, which is an extra
term in the weight update process that gradually diminishes the weights to zero if no
further updates are planned.

various deep-learning optimizers, such as Gradient Descent, Stochastic Gradient

Descent, Stochastic Gradient descent with momentum, Mini-Batch Gradient Descent,
Adagrad, RMSProp, AdaDelta, and Adam. 33 Adam Deep Learning Optimizer (Adam) For
updating network weights during training, this optimization strategy is an extension of
stochastic gradient descent.

Unlike SGD, Adam optimizer alters the learning rate for each network weight
individually, rather than maintaining a single learning rate throughout the training. Both
Adagrad and RMS prop algorithm properties are inherited by Adam optimizers. Instead
of using the first moment (mean) as in RMS Prop, Adam modifies learning rates using
the second moment of the gradients.

Adaptive Moment Estimation (ADAM) makes it easier to compute learning rates for each
parameter by utilizing the first and second moments of gradient. [48]. rates of the
gradient average. 2.8. Regularization in Convolutional Neural Network Regularization is
a model complexity management technique that adjusts a machine learning model to
minimize the loss of fit function and avoid overfitting or underfitting.

When a model learns information and noise from training data, overfitting takes place,
which has a detrimental impact on the model's performance on fresh data. Any noise or
random deviations in this training data are considered concepts and trained in the
model. Moreover A model is said to be under fitted if it is unable to generalize to new
data or model the training data.

The regularization technique is employed to address this issue. Regularization refers to a

collection of strategies that reduce the complexity of a neural network model during
training and hence prevent overfitting. According to studies in [49] [16], collecting more
training data is a superior approach for avoiding overfitting; thus, a model trained with
huge data often generalizes better. Other techniques for overfitting include batch
normalization, data augmentation, early stopping, dropout, and so on.

34 Early stopping Early stopping is one of the most widely used regularization
techniques in machine learning to deal with the problem of overfitting. If the model no
longer performs better in the validation dataset, early stopping enables you to choose a
training epoch count that is as high as you like and then cease training.

This requires that in order to determine the performance measure which will be
monitored when validation split is used, fit () and EarlyStopping Callback are provided
with a validation split. Dropout Dropout is a regularization technique that simulates
parallel training of several neural networks with various topologies. Some number of
outputs from layers are overlooked or deleted at the time of training.

It does this by making the layer look like and treated as an interchangeable layer with
different number of nodes connected to a previous layer. To put it simply, all updates to
a layer for training are performed with another view of the Layer that is configured. Data
augmentation Data augmentation is the technique of artificially increasing the training
set by creating duplicate copies of the dataset based on existing data.

To do this, some data in the dataset must be changed by applying some techniques
such as Geometric transformations, color space transformations, kernel filters, random
removal, image blending, or deep learning integration to generate new data points. The
network will be able to perform better on test data, if it is able to generate more data.

We can apply all the enhancement techniques, to create more training data. 2.9.
Convolutional Neural Network Architectures 2.9.1.1. AlexNet In 2012, AlexNet was the
winner of an Imagenet Largescale Visual Recognition Competition. Alex Krizhevsky and
his colleagues had proposed the model for a research paper, "Imagenet Classification
with Deep Convolution Neural Network," in 2012[50].

In comparison to Lenet-5, the network's depth was increased in this model, which results
in a significantly greater number of tunable parameters and regularization techniques
[43]. 35 They have discovered that using a relu as an activation mechanism significantly
increased the speed of training by nearly six times. They have also made use of dropout
layers to prevent the deformation of their model. Additionally, the model is trained
using the imagenet dataset.

Almost fourteen million images from thousands of classes are in the Imagenet database
[51]. Dropout is used in the first two fully connected layers, which makes it easier to
generalize to unobserved examples and reduces overfitting. The use of ReLU
nonlinearity after each convolutional and fully connected layer is another distinctive
feature of AlexNet.

Compared to the tanh function, which is commonly used, this nonlinearity significantly
boosts training efficiency. Most of the time the input size to use AlexNet is 224x224x3,
but because of some padding, it ends up being 227x227x3. Figure 2.13 ALexNet
Architecture 2.9.1.2. GoogLeNet In the ImageNet Large-Scale Visual Recognition
Challenge 2014 (ILSVRC14), the GoogLeNet architecture was used to solve computer
vision problems like object detection and image classification. [35]. There are 22 layers
in the GoogLeNet architecture and It had a top-5 error rate of 6.67 percent.

This was exceptionally near human level execution which the coordinators of the test
were presently compelled to assess. With three different filter sizes, the GoogleNet
convolution operation is carried out on the inputs: (3 × 3), and (5 × 5). Additionally, the
convolutions undergo a max-pooling operation before being transmitted to the
subsequent inception module.

To make up for the extra computational 36 complexity brought about by extra

convolutional activities, 1x1 convolution is utilized, bringing about less calculations
before costly 3x3 and 5x5 convolutions are performed. There are 2 convolution layers, 4
maxpooling layers, 9 inception layers, and a softmax layer in the GoogleNet model.

GoogLeNet has 12 times fewer parameters than AlexNet because it uses this special
inception architecture [18]. 2.9.1.3. Inception V3 In order to make model adaptation
simpler, a number of methods for optimizing the network in an Inception v3 model have
been proposed. The strategies incorporate factorized convolutions, regularization,
aspect decrease, and parallelized calculations. It has been demonstrated that more than
78.1

% of the ImageNet dataset's image recognition model is Inception v3. The model comes
full circle in different thoughts which have been produced throughout the long term by
a few researchers. Turrets, average bundling, maximum bundling, concates,
abandonment pads, and completely connected layers are among the model's
symmetrical and asymmetrical components.

Batch norm is ordinarily utilized and applies to dynamic contributions to the model.
Softmax is used to measure losses [34]. So, the first version of this design was named
GoogLeNet, but after that, Google has just been numbering the versions as Inception
vN, where N is the version number. 2.9.1.4. VGG16 and VGG19 A convolutional neural
network (CNN) architecture called VGG (Visual Geometry Group) was used to win the
2014 ILSVR (Image Net) competition.

The main feature of this architecture is that it focuses on 3x3 size kernels for
convolutional layers and 2x2 size kernels for layers with max-pooling instead of a large
number of hyper parameters. Finally, there are two fully connected layers followed by a
soft-max for output. The two most popular VGG models with 16 and 19 layers are
VGG16 and VGG19.

VGG-19 and VGG-16 differ in that each of the three convolutional blocks in VGG-19
contains an additional one layer [31]. The VGG-16 network is a useful tool for extracting
features with high accuracy. When using this network, the input image must be of a
fixed size, specifically 3x224x224. The image is then run through a series of
convolutional layers with different receptive fields.

The stride rate is consistent throughout the network, with the convolutional layers being
3x3 with a stride of 1, and 37 the pooling layers being 2x2 with a stride of 2. The
convolution's initial two layers each have 64 and 128 filters, while the remaining layers
have 256, 512, and 512 filters. Edge pixels are padded before each convolution
operation to maintain the feature map size.

The VGG-16 ends with three fully connected layers, with the first two having 4096
neurons and the final layer compressing the features to 1000 dimensions. [32] Figure
2.14.VGG16 network architecture 2.9.1.5. ResNet50 ILSVRC 2015 winner is ResNet50. The
main innovation is the implementation of a new network-in-network design using
residual layers.

ResNet50 consists of five stages, each containing a convolution block and an identity
block. Each unit block has three convolutional layers, and each convolutional block has
three convolutional layers. Resnet50 takes a 224 x 224- pixel image and has 50 residual
networks [31]. 2.9.1.6.

Feature Extraction The first step in papaya disease detection and classification is feature
extraction, which attempts to translate human perception into a numerical description
that computers can use [28]. In this method, image content is described using attributes
such as shape, texture, and color. Other classifications of features include low-level
features and high-level features.

At this stage, the visual data of the image are extracted and stored as feature vectors in
the feature database. Feature extraction allows you to extract an image description for
each pixel in the form of a feature value (or a set of values called a feature vector).
Queries are compared with other images and retrieved using these feature vectors [29].

Feature extraction is a technique for extracting a 38 small amount of semantically

meaningful data from an image. This data is used as the image signature. The signatures
of related images should be similar [30]. The suggested feature extraction uses CNN
image feature extractors such as VGG16, VGG19, and RESNET-50 to extract features and
choose the best one for classification.

2.10. Evaluation technique Confusion matrix is a measure of how well a machine

learning classification task performed, and the output may contain more than one class.
This matrix is used to compare machine learning model predictions to actual target
values. The table showing number of correct and incorrect predictions by the classifier is
called the confusion matrix.

In this study, performance measures such as accuracy, precision, recall, F- measure, and
F1-score were used to evaluate the performance of classifier models. Accuracy: is used
to evaluate model performance. It measures how many accurate forecasts there were
compared to all the others. The calculation formula is shown below.

Accuracy = ???? ???? ???? ???? + ???? + ???? Precision: A measurement of how accurate
the model's optimistic predictions are. It is expressed as the ratio of positive predictions
across the model to the actual positive predictions. Precision = ???? ???? ???? … … … … …
… … … … … … ( 2 . 5 ) Recall: the capacity of a classification model to find all pertinent
occurrences in a dataset.

Recall = ???? ???? ???? F-measure: A classification model's overall performance is

evaluated using the F1-score. It is the precision-recall harmonic mean. F-measure = 2.11.
Digital Image Processing Image processing is the mathematical manipulation of images
using any form processing signals, whether the input is a single image, a collection of
images, or a video. The output of image 39 processing can be a single image or a
collection of image-related properties and parameters.

Most image processing methods isolate each color plane in the image, treat it as a two-
dimensional signal, and process that signals using standard signal processing methods.
When processing an image as a 3D signal, the dimension used is the Z axis or time.
[23][24]. Optical and analog imaging are other options, but digital imaging is the most
commonly thought of when discussing imaging.
For a long time, only a few professionals with access to expensive technology were
allowed to use computers to manipulate digital images (also known as digital imaging).
But with the introduction of powerful computers into every desktop and, as a result,
almost everyone owning a camera, scanner, or cell phone camera, digital imaging
proliferated. Therefore, for some people, digital image processing is as natural as data
processing [25].

The manipulation of multi-dimensional signals has become possible thanks to modern

digital technology, employing a variety of technologies, from cutting-edge parallel
computers to basic digital circuits [26]. The three areas of interest for this operation are
image processing, image analysis, and image understanding. Image processing serves a
variety of purposes. Contrast is usually increased to improve perceived image quality.
This is image enhancement.

It accurately represents an image with a minimum number of bits while maintaining

quality. This means image compression. Improves the image objectively, such as by
reducing blur. That's what image recovery is all about here. We need to recognize the
main image elements that can be used to determine the content of the image. This
process is called feature extraction.

Image processing has become a popular scientific tool since it was first used in a few
applications that are specific. The image processing technology is used in almost every
scientific field today. [27]. Basic steps of digital image processing Image processing
involves several steps. We are able to differentiate the set of processes that has to be
done to extract the desired data from the scene we are looking at.

40 Image Acquisition The process of obtaining an image from a different source

(typically hardware-based) is known as image acquisition. The captured image has not
been processed in any way and represents the result of the technology used to create it,
which is very important in certain areas to have a constant starting point for work.

One of the main objectives of this technology is to have an input source that operates
within regulated and measured parameters so that the same image can be reproduced
virtually error-free on demand under the same circumstances. It's about facilitating the
detection and elimination of anomalous variables. [28]. Image Preprocessing Image
preprocessing is a term used to describe many basic image enhancement methods used
to capture raw images.

This is among the basic operations of image processing. When taking pictures, we could
run across noisy pictures. There are many things that can cause image noise. It is
necessary to first move the collected images to a computer and turn them into digital
images. A digital image is basically a number that a computer can interpret and turn
into tiny dots or bits of an image that represent a real object.

, but look like pictures on a screen [29]. The purpose of pre-processing is to enhance
certain image characteristics that are crucial for later processing or to improve image
data by reducing unwanted distortions. Prior to analysis and processing operations, a
number of image pre-processing techniques are utilized to enhance image quality and
prevent distortion [29] Scaling, Adjusting the intensity and contrast, background
removal, etc. are pre-processing methods available for RAW images.

An image can be scaled up or down using geometric transformations known as scaling

operators. Image reduction is done by interpolating between adjacent pixel values or by
changing a set of pixels with randomly selected pixel values from that group. A process
of pixel duplication or interpolation is used to zoom the image.

Scaling can be used as a low-level pre-processor in a multi-level image processing

chain, manipulating the scaled features to change the appearance of the image, modify
the amount of feature contained in the scene representation, or both can be done [31].
41 2.12. Related Work In previous studies, various machine learning applications,
including traditional machine learning and deep learning approaches, have been used to
solve agricultural problems using image processing techniques.

Machine learning applications in these areas have advanced, but efficiency remains an
issue from multiple perspectives. According to [6], they proposed an image-based
method for identifying flower disease using ANN. The proposed framework consists of
two main phases. The first step is to build a knowledge base with images of healthy and
diseased flowers.

When creating a knowledge base, images are preprocessed and segmented to identify
area of interest. Then, the researcher extracted seven different image texture features
using the technic of Gabor texture feature extraction. In the final step, an artificial neural
network trained with 8 disease-specific output vectors and 7 image-specific input
features represents the knowledge base.

The second stage uses the knowledge base to identify flower diseases. To develop the
knowledge base and evaluate the efficiency of the system, the researchers used 40
images of flowers corresponding to eight different classes of flower diseases. There are
a total of 320 flower images. His 85% of the images in the dataset are used for training
and 15% for testing.
Experimental results support the validity of the proposed methodology for detecting
flower diseases. The generated model has an 83.3% success rate in identifying diseased
flowers. Abrham.D [7] proposed a machine learning approach to identify the coffee
plant diseases coffee leaf rust (CLR), coffee berry disease (CBD), and coffee wilt (CWD).

A total of 9,100 coffee leaf datasets were used in the study, of which 6,370 were used for
model training and 2,730 for testing. The data sets are gathered from Jimma and Zegie
zones, Ethiopian Southern Nations, and Nationalities. Eleven coffee leaf features, five
GLCM features, and six color features were employed in the study.

In this study, four different classifiers, ANN, KNN, Naive, and a combination of RBF and
SOM, were tested for their ability to detect diseases of Ethiopian coffee plants in coffee
leaves. In accordance with this, when RBF and SOM join, RBF computes and passes the
results to SOM. The performance of RBF and SOM is superior to that of the other
classifiers.

Extremely Randomized 90% of accuracy from RBF and SOM algorithms was found after
evaluating four distinct classifiers [7]. 42 Abnet.k [8] has done his research in the area of
automatically detecting coffee disease and pest damage. A segmentation technique was
suggested by the researcher that uses the L*a*b*, YCbCr, and texture filters to
distinguish between healthy and damaged coffee leaf/berry areas. He discovered a total
of 28 characteristics, including 22 colors and 6 textures, to simulate the various coffee
pest and disease classes.

Coffee disease and pest classification was done using a feed-forward artificial neural
network and a back-propagation learning technique. 28 input and 5 output nodes make
up the network's architecture. A total of 2,400 sample images of coffee berries and
leaves were used to train the model. The images were collected at the Sheko and Limmu
coffee plantations, as well as the Jimma Agricultural Research Centre, Tepi Agricultural
Research Centre, and Mechara Agricultural Research Centre. 20% is used for testing and
80% for training. The results of the SVM classifier and KNN classifier were compared.

The overall classification accuracy was 91.9% and the trained classifier model performed
well. The classification accuracies for the following diseases are 89.6%, 91.5%, 93.3%,
96.6%, and 89.0% respectively. Coffee berry disease, coffee leaf rust, coffee leaf miner,
brown eye spot disease, and green scales. As [9] States that three quality classes (Super,
A, and B classes) have been proposed for Papaya Calina IPB-9 using digital image
processing and artificial neural networks. It is characterized by compactness and
roundness.
Another extracted texture feature consists of energy, entropy, homogeneity, inverse
difference moment, variance, and dissimilarity values collected by GLCM, another
texture feature searched by LBP. The average red, green, and blue values are combined
into a color feature along with hue, saturation, and value. These properties or features
are used as inputs to train a backpropagation neural network.

According to the results of the detection method, the energy and entropy characteristics
can identify the papaya quality group with 87% accuracy. Nonetheless, this study is only
concerned with categorizing papaya sizes by to their shape and roundness. Additionally,
a previous study by [11] proposed a method to detect papaya disease based on image
classification using machine learning.

The study used a variety of feature extraction and classification approaches for
identifying and recognizing different disease types. The Researcher used histogram
equalization to enhancing the image quality. Many segmentation techniques, including
K-means clustering, are among those suggested in the study as a way to identify the 43
affected region.

The feature was afterward extracted from the segmented region and computed using
GLCM. Diseases can be classified after feature extraction using RF (random forest), K-
means clustering, SVC (support vector machine), and CNN. And they had good accuracy
in CNN.

The main drawbacks of using K-means clustering to segment the images were that the
user had to manually select the clusters containing the diseased regions and that only
the diseases that affected the papaya fruit were studied in the study. Therefore the
method they used in the study is semi-automated. A paper presented in [12] developed
a Deep Learning-Based Method for Classifying and Identifying Papaya Leaf Diseases.

Additionally, they conducted their investigation using ResNet50 CNN architectures. The
two papaya leaf diseases Papaya mosaic and Leaf Curl of Papaya were employed in the
investigation. 8900 papaya leaf curls and 570 papaya mosaics are present in the dataset.

Even under challenging circumstances such as image size, position, various resolutions,
lighting, complicated backgrounds, and alignment of actual photographs, the suggested
model`s generated results demonstrate its high usefulness. The research is limited to the
classification of papaya Leaf Curl disease and Papaya mosaic disease. Table 2.1

Summary of related works NO Author Title Algorithm used performance Research Gap
1. [9] The Classification of Papaya using Digital Image Processing and Artificial Neural
Networks ANN 87% ? The study focusses only on classification of papaya fruit size 2.
[11] Machine Learning based Image Classification of Papaya Disease Recognition
RF,K-means clustering ,SVC AND CNN CNN =98.04% The research proposed K- Means
clustering for segmentation which is semi- automated The research focused on the
disease occurred on fruit 44 3.

[12] Deep Learning Based Approach for Classification and Detection of Papaya Leaf
Diseases CNN(ResNet50) 85.1% ? The research was limited on classification of Papaya
mosaic and Leaf Curl of Papaya 2.13. Research Gap A research gap refers to a topic or
area within a field of study that lacks sufficient research or has not been adequately
addressed by previous research .The research gap in papaya leaf and fruit diseases
classification model using digital image processing and machine learning lies in the
need for more comprehensive and accurate classification models.

While there have been studies on using digital image processing and machine learning
techniques for papaya disease classification, there is still room for improvement in terms
of accuracy, robustness, and scalability of the models. One of the key research gaps is
the limited representation of different disease types in the dataset. Most existing studies
focus on a few common fruit diseases such as powdery mildew, black spot and papaya
ring spot virus.

However, there are numerous other diseases that affect papaya fruit and leaf, such as
anthracnose fruit disease, powdery mildew leaf and black spot leaf fruit and leaf disease.
Another research gap is Papaya diseases can exhibit varying symptoms and severity at
different stages of development. Therefore, it is important to have a dataset that
captures the diverse range of symptoms and disease progression stages.

This would enable researchers to develop models that can accurately classify diseases at
different stages. In addition to this the exploration of advanced machine learning
algorithms and techniques specifically tailored for papaya disease classification. While
traditional machine learning models such as Support Vector Machines (SVM), RF,
K-means clustering and Random Forests have been used, there is a need for exploring
more advanced algorithms such as Deep Learning architectures which is pre-trained
model.

These algorithms have shown promising results in image classification tasks and can
potentially improve the accuracy and efficiency of papaya disease classification models.
By addressing these gaps, researchers can contribute to the development of more
comprehensive and accurate models for classification of various papaya diseases. 45
CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1.

Overview The methodologies used to complete this thesis are covered in this chapter,
including the sources from which the image dataset was gathered, the methods used to
prepare and analyze the image for the purpose of developing a classification model, the
tools used for implementation, and the metrics employed to measure the effectiveness
of the developed model. In this thesis, the experimental research methodology is used.
3.2.

Research Design This study uses an experimental study design to achieve the goals of
the paper. Experimental research is research conducted based on a scientific research
plan. The purpose of experimental studies is to establish relationships between
dependent and independent variables.

Links between specific properties of the entity and the variables under study are
confirmed or disproved upon completion of experimental research studies. Therefore, in
this study, an investigation is conducted to detect and classify papaya diseases based on
the images provided. This thesis is conducted with three basic components. The first
step is to browse various references and select them for a deeper understanding of the
problem area.

And then the general objectives of the study and specific objective are established.
Phase 1 of the thesis design addresses data preparation, whereas phase 2 focuses on
developing a research prototype. The data is collected from Awash Melkasa Agricultural
research institute, and labeled by experts, and divided into subsets for training,
validation, and testing.

The model is developed following the data preparation. The application of the thesis is
the last phase. In this phase, the suggested model is put into practice utilizing the right
tools and procedures. Using the required data, the created model is trained and
assessed. While the model is being trained, its performance is evaluated. When
evaluating a model, test data are used to identify and validate the ideal model.

The model is then contrasted with other previously trained models after that. 46 Figure
3.1 Research Flow Process 3.3. Data Preparation An accurate and effective machine
learning model must be trained using the right dataset. The first step in creating any
machine learning model is hence data preparation.

We must first gather the data required to train the neural network model before we can
use neural networks or deep learning algorithms in our research. The key input for the
model in this thesis is a collection of papaya images. However, there is no publicly
available database of papaya disease dataset. As a result, with the assistance of
specialists in the field, we gathered all papaya images, both healthy and diseased, from
the Awash Melkasa Agricultural research institute.

Images were manually labeled to anthracnose fruit disease, black spot fruit disease,
black spot leaf disease, powdery mildew leaf disease, healthy fruit and healthy leaf with
the help of domain experts. Table 3.1 shows the total number of samples gathered for
this research. Table 3.1 Number of Samples per Class of the Papaya Disease Images
Dataset No Labeled Name Number of dataset 1 Anthracnose fruit Disease 720 2 Healthy
leaf 727 3 Black spot fruit Disease 684 4 Black spot leaf disease 811 5 Powdery mildew
disease 785 6 Healthy fruit 819 Total 4546 47 The total number of samples gathered for
this research is shown in Table 3.1.As a result, 720 photos were obtained for
Anthracnose fruit disease, 727 for healthy, 811 for Black spot disease, 785 for powdery
mildew disease, 684 for black spot fruit disease, and 819 for healthy fruit. As a result,
4546 photos were gathered and used in this study. The following Figure 3.1

shows the sample of Papaya Disease Image that is collected from the Awash Melkasa
Agricultural research institute. Figure 3.2 sample of Papaya Disease Image 3.4. Data
Partitioning The dataset used in this study is divided into three parts: training, testing,
and validation. The training split is used to train the model, the testing split is used to
evaluate the model's performance after training, and the validation split is used to select
the best-performing model. The original dataset consisted of 5122 images collected
from the Awash Melkasa agricultural institute.

For the experiments conducted in this thesis, an 80:20 ratio was used, with 80 percent of
the dataset allocated for training and 20 percent for testing. Within the training split, 20
percent of the images were further set aside for validation purposes. As a result, the
training dataset comprises 4546 images, while the validation dataset consists of 476
images. 3.5.

Image Preprocessing In image processing, preprocessing has been the most important
step. Raw data is transformed before being input into a deep learning system. However,
CNNs can learn features from the raw pixels of an image, eliminating the need for
manual dataset preparation. However, the created dataset's images have various sizes;
as a result size normalization is done in the dataset to 48 achieve equal size of all
images for the CNN algorithm and to shorten computational time of training, because
the model is trained with constrained hardware resources, such as CPU and memory.
3.5.1.
Noise Removal Noise can occur during image acquisition or transmission. Different
kinds of noises exist in an image such as camera flash, change in brightness and noisy
background. There are varieties of noise reduction techniques that are available to
reduce the noise. In this research, we considered Median filters techniques.

Median Filtering replaces each pixel value with the median value of the neighboring
pixels. It is effective in removing impulse or salt-and-pepper noise while preserving
edges. 3.5.2. Normalization Normalizing is a preprocessing technique that is used to
ensure consistent data distribution or adjust the range of pixel intensity values in
images, before further processing.

This enhances network efficiency and effectiveness during training, since un-normalized
data can cause the network's shared weights to have varying calibrations for different
features, leading to slow and inefficient convergence of the cost function. While image
pixel values usually fall between 0 and 255, they are converted to decimal values
between 0 and 1 by dividing them by 255, in order to avoid overflow and improve
training time. 3.5.3. Image resizing Resizing images can be done by adjusting their
dimensions, either increasing or decreasing size.

As images become larger, computing power consumption also increases. Resizing is

useful for reducing file size, but there are no established standards for resizing images.
In this study, images are resized to 224 x 224 by interpolating the number of pixels in
the digital image, and a NumPy array is created to feed into the model.

Interpolation is used to preserve detail in the input image, and inter_linear or inter_cubic
can be used to smoothen images during enlargement. While inter_linear is faster,
inter_cubic is more expensive and produces better results. Shrinking images can be
done with inter_area interpolation, which preserves important features, reduces noise,
and produces sharper results than other methods.

Inter_area interpolation is used for resizing images in this study. 49 3.6. Image
Augmentation To enhance the training dataset, the study utilized the data
augmentation approach on the gathered images. This was achieved through the use of
the Keras deep learning neural network library, which provided capabilities for
transforming, rotating, shifting, and scaling the images. To perform this, the
ImageDataGenerator class was utilized, which allowed models to be fitted.

The Python library's built-in ImageDataGenerator function was used to test the data
augmentation method. The input image was enhanced using the algorithm below.
Additional training examples are generated using various geometric transformations. ?
Rescale: It normalizes the Red Green Blue (RGB) values, which is always in the range
between 0-255, to values between 0-1.

? width_shift_range: Shifts the image on the horizontal axis. ? height_shift_range: Shifts

the image on the vertical axis. ? Rotation range: Rotates the entire image based on the
degree of angle specified. ? Horizontal flip: Flips the image horizontally. ? fill_mode: It is
the method of filling in newly created pixels after applying the above transformations.
3.7.

Pre-Trained CNN In order to analyze the accuracy of the classification process, we

utilized three pre-trained CNN models: VGG 16, VGG 19 and ResNet50. These powerful
architectures are often employed in ImageNet since they have been precisely
fine-tuned. In particular, the VGG model is chosen for its simplicity, while ResNet50 was
selected for its intricate features.

Hence, experiments were performed with both complex and relatively simpler models in
the same dataset to determine the performance of the model. 3.7.1. Components of
VGG16 Model The VGG model utilizes 3 × 3 convolution layers with increasing depth to
achieve simplicity. To produce six classes of output in our dataset, we used a fine-tuned
VGG16 model with a sampled RGB image input size of 224× 224 pixel.

Although the original model has a massive 138 million parameters, our trained model
only involved 15,246,150 parameters due to our smaller image's spatial dimension and
training only specific parts of the model. As we have discussed previously, we
thoroughly fine-tuned the VGG16 model by utilizing only its Convolutional Base. To
identify 50 the most ideal pre-trained model, we trialed various convblocks of the
model.

All the Convbase components were trained while the fully connected layers remained
unchanged but the outcome suggested a serious overfitting issue. This happen due to
the model weights were trained with millions of dissimilar images of distinct images
from our dataset and thousands of classes compared to merely 4546 original ones
utilized during training.

It is imperative that certain weights in the network are updated and a data
augmentation technique is used to increase the number of images. As a result, we
concluded that to lock some of the layers (convex blocks) within the model. Having
conducted multiple experiments, it was observed that freezing the first three convex
blocks was ideal compared to locking the first two or four convex blocks.
Figure 3.3 Proposed VGG16 classifier model Thirteen convolutional sets and three dense
layers constitute in VGG16.The outputs are delivered once the sets of steps are finished,
and the hidden layer is given the resulting values. 51 After a number of convolution and
pooling operations, the initial sizes of stride S and filter F change to 3x3x3 and 2
respectively.

The input volume's initial spatial dimensions are 224x224x3. And following several
convolution operations, it is altered. The network has the same padding P, and the value
of P stays the same across the model. We assumed that this parameter value was
appropriate for resizing the images in our dataset.

Input layer: The model's input layer accept an RGB image with 6 distinct classes and a
size of 224x224x3, such as anthracnose fruit disease, black spot fruit disease, black spot
leaf disease, powdery mildew leaf disease, healthy fruit and healthy leaf. The input is
sent to the first convolution layer by this layer, and it doesn't do anything else.

Because of this, neither parameters nor learnable features exist in this layer.
Convolutional layer: There are thirteen convolutional layers in the VGG16 model. Using
64 kernels with a 3x3 pixel size, the model's first convolutional layer filters an input
image with 224x224x3 pixels. This layer is characterized by having a depth of K=64 and
provides a resulting volume with dimensions 224 x 224 x 64.

The total number of neurons in the layer (the first conv layer) is 1792 when the output
volume is added together. Each convolutional layer in the VGG16 model has the ReLU
non-linearity as its activation function. ReLU is chosen because it can train deep CNNs
using gradient descent more quickly than other non-linearity like tanh.

Pooling layers: The second, fourth, seventh, tenth, and thirteenth convolutional layers
are among the five max-pooling layers in the proposed model, respectively. The output
of the second convolutional layer is decreased for a 5*5 sized filter by the first max
pooling layer. The fourth convolution layer's output is sent into the second max-pooling
layer, which pools the data using 5 X 5 filters.

The third max-pooling layer takes its input from the output of the seventh convolutional
layer. Fully Connected (FC) layer: The output layer is one of three two connected layers
in the VGG 16 model. The first and second fully connected layers include 1024 neurons,
but the output layer's second and final fully connected layer has just four neurons.

The first fully connected layer receives the output of the 13 convolutional layers after the
3D data volume has been flattened onto a vector form value. This component of the
layer computes the class core and the total number of the layer's pre-determined
neurons. As its 52 name suggests, it is comparable to a typical neural network (NN), and
every neuron in this layer is linked to every number in the layer above it.

Output layer: The final fully connected layer in the model, the output layer, contains four
neurons with softmax activation functions. The model is called Categorical Classification
because it was built to classify into six different categories. Deep learning models are
believed to possess numerous parameters, which are significantly high in number, as a
result, they demand a very big amount of data and very powerful computing resources
to train them from scratch. Despite utilizing limited resources and data during training,
the proposed model performs very well.

3.7.2. Components of VGG19 Model In this thesis, a sort of CNN model called VGG-19 is
utilized. It has 19 weight layers, 16 convolutional layers, 3 fully connected layers, and the
same 5 layers for pooling. A VGG-based convNet with an input of 224 * 224 RGB pixels
is used.

The pre-processing layer subtracts the mean image values calculated for the whole
ImageNet training dataset from the RGB picture with pixel values in the range of 0-255.
The input images undergo preprocessing before being run through layers of weight. A
stack of convolutional layers is used to process the training images. In this study, the
model is fine-tuned to produce 6 classes of output in our dataset from an RGB image
with a size of 224 * 224 pixels that is provided as an input.

With 138 million total parameters, the original VGG19 model is quite large. Given that
our model's spatial dimension of the image is less and we only trained a portion of the
model, we trained the model using 20,290,118 parameters. We have improved the
VGG19 model by simply employing the network's conv basis, as was stated in previous
portions.

By training several conv blocks of the model, we have run a number of tests to identify
the best pre-trained model. The model is trained by utilizing the whole network's conv
base and modifying just the fully connected layers; the outcome demonstrates a
significant degree of overfitting. As a result of the model weights being trained on
millions of images that are not part of our dataset and thousands of classes, overfitting
occurs.

We attempted to train the model using just 4546 original images. 53 Figure 3.4
Proposed VGG19 classifier model 54 Input layer: Our VGG19 model's input layer
supports RGB photos with a size of 224x224x3 and six different classes, including
anthracnose fruit disease, black spot fruit disease, black spot leaf disease, powdery
mildew leaf disease, healthy fruit, and healthy.

The only thing this layer does is send the input to the first convolution layer without
doing anything else. As a result, there are no learnable features in this layer, and there
are no parameters. Convolutional layer: There are 16 convolutional layers in the VGG19
model. The model`s first convolutional layer applies 64 kernels with 3x3x3 pixel sizes to
filter the 224x224x3 input image.

This layer has an output volume of 224x224x64 and a depth of K=64. The output
volume multiplied by the number of neurons in the first convolutional layer results in a
total of 1792 neurons. Pooling layer: the second, fourth, seventh, tenth, and thirteenth
convolutional layers of the proposed model are among its five max-pooling layers.

With a filter of size 5x5, the first max-pooling layer decreases the output of the second
convolutional layer. The fourth convolutional layer's output is fed into the second
max-pooling layer, which pools the data using 5 x 5 filters. Fully Connected (FC) layer:
There are two fully connected layers, including the output layer, in this VGG19 model.

The output layer of the model, which is the second and final fully connected layer, has
four neurons, while the first fully connected layer has 512 neurons. After flattening the
3D data volume to vector values, the first fully connected layer accepts the outputs of
the four convolutional layers. This layer computes the number of class kernels and
neurons in the layer predefined during model development.

It is similar to a standard NN and, as the name suggests, each neuron in that layer is
linked to all the numbers in the layer before it. Output layer: It has four neurons with a
softmax activation function and is the model's last layer (second FC layer). It is called
categorical classification since the model is built to categorize six different categories.
3.7.3.

Components of ResNet50 Model There is a notable dissimilarity between Resnet50 and

VGG, even though the former derives from the fundamental model. For this particular
instance, the building block was modified into a 55 bottleneck design to reduce the time
required for layer training. The architecture of ResNet34 was modified to now have an
additional layer, resulting in the new ResNet50 format through replacing all 2-layer
structures with 3-layer bottleneck blocks. The 50-layer ResNet model provides a
performance rate of 3.8 billion FLOPS, which is significantly better than that of the
34-layer ResNet counterpart.
A ResNet-50 convolutional neural network that is fifty layers deep can be loaded. This
pre- trained version of the network was trained with over a million images from the
ImageNet database. Images may be classified into a thousand object categories by the
pre-trained network.

As a result, the Network has been able to recognize rich features for many types of
images. The image input size for this network is 224 pixels by224 pixels. Input layer: This
layer of our ResNet50 model accepts RGB images with six distinct classes such as,
anthracnose fruit disease, black spot fruit disease, black spot leaf disease, powdery
mildew leaf disease, healthy fruit, and healthy leaf with a resolution of 224x224x3 pixels.

The only thing this layer does is send the input to the first convolution layer without
doing anything else. As a result, there are no learnable features in this layer, and there
are no parameters. Convolutional layer: in the ResNet50 model there are 4convolutional
layers. The first convolutional layer of the model filters the 224× 224×3 input image by
using 64 kernels with a size of 3× 3×3pixels.

This layer has a depth of K=64, the output volume of this layer is 224×224×64. The
product of the output volume gives a total number of neurons the initial convolution
layer holds 1,792 units. All the convolutional layers adopt ReLU nonlinearity as the
activation function in the ResNet50 model due to its efficiency in training deep CNNs
with gradient descent compared to other nonlinearities like tanh.

Pooling Layer: the second, fourth, seventh, tenth, and thirteenth convolutional layers of
the proposed model are among its five max-pooling layers. With a filter of size 5x5, the
output of the second convolutional layer is reduced by the initial max-pooling layer. The
second max-pooling layer takes 5 x 5 filtered data by receiving the output of the fourth
convolutional layer.

Fully Connected (FC) layer: The ResNet 50 model has three FC layers and one output
layer. The first and second FC layers contain a total of 1024 neurons; the second and 56
last FC layers contain 4 neurons, and form the output layer of this model. After a 3D
data volume is converted into vector values, the first FC layer accepts input of 13
convolutional layers.

During model building, this layer computes the class core and quantity of neurons to be
established within a specified layer. It's basically a normal NN, and as suggested by its
name, each neuron in this layer is associated with every number from the former layer.
Output layer: The output layer has four neurons with softmax activation functions in it,
as the last FC layer of the model.
Because the model is designed to classify six groups of classes as a categorical
classification. 3.8. Implementation Tools In order to process, analyze, and recognize
papaya images for this research, we employed the Python programming language,
Colaboratory, or "Colab," and Anaconda platform with Jupyter notebook.

Python has been a popular image processing tool in recent years and is the cutting-
edge higher level programming language for image processing, machine learning, and
deep learning. It is an effective language for preparing and analyzing images. The CNN
algorithm was written in Python using the TensorFlow and Keras packages on the
Anaconda and Google Colab environments.

Before deciding on the tools, we considered a number of aspects in order to choose the
best software tools and libraries. The selection of the programming language used to
implement the algorithm is the most important consideration. 1. Anaconda3: a
collection of tools for data science, such as Jupyter Notebook and RStudio, as well as
Python, R, and other languages.

Additionally, it offers conda, a different package manager. It seeks to make deployment

and package management simpler. It comes with a variety of IDEs for creating code,
including Spyder and Jupyter Notebook. We used a Jupyter notebook to carry out the
coding part. It is easy to use and runs through a web browser. 2.

: is a product from Google Research, Machine learning, data analysis, and teaching are
three areas where Colab excels since it enables us to create and run arbitrary Python
code through the browser. Technically speaking, Colab is a hosted Jupyter notebook
service that can be used instantly and is free of charge, including access to GPUs. 57 3.

Keras: is a Python-based neural network (NN) module that is free source. It is created to
make it possible to quickly experiment with deep neural networks. [51]. 4. Tensor Flow:
is a software library that is available as open-source and used for scripting dataflow
across many activities. It is a symbolic math library that is utilized by neural network
applications in machine learning. [51]. 5.

JPEGCrops: - is a Windows application designed to prepare a group of pictures for

printing. Using jpegtran, it offers fixed-aspect lossless cropping. 6. Microsoft Visio: The
research methodology and system architecture of the proposed system are designed
using this tool. 3.9. Evaluation Methods When used with test data for which actual
values are known, a matrix of confusion is shown in order to describe the performance
of classification algorithms or models [52].
Machine learning algorithms' effectiveness is evaluated largely on prediction accuracy,
which is frequently unsuitable when the data is unbalanced and the cost of an error
varies greatly. Evaluations of machine learning performance require some degree of
trade-off between recall and accuracy as well as between true positive and true negative
rate.

A method for summarizing the performance of a classification algorithm or the outcome

of a prediction is the confusion matrix [52]. With the help of the confusion matrix, we
can compute a number of model parameters, including accuracy, precision; recall, the
F-measure, and the F1 score [52]. 58 CHAPTER FOUR DESIGN, EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1. Overview The suggested system's design and architecture are
covered in this chapter.

The various components of the proposed system architecture are presented, along with
key techniques and algorithms. The suggested technique often involves several phases,
such as feature extraction and classification. We must use several CNN feature extractors
to extract truly useful information from images in order to classify images of papaya
disease from the dataset.

Below are described in-depth implementation processes, experimentation, results

analysis, and an explanation of how features are retrieved and classified from the image
of the infected papaya. 4.2. The Proposed Architecture The proposed system
architecture for papaya disease detection and classification consists of different
components: image pre-processing, feature extraction, classification and data
augmentation. Figure 4.1 shows schematic representation of the proposed model`s
system architecture.

Image preprocessing is the first part of the proposed model. Normalization, image
resizing, and cropping are all performed by this component, which also removes noise.
The second component then uses the CNN algorithm to extract features from the given
input image.

The loading of the CNN pre-trained model is the third element of the proposed
structure. VGG19, VGG16, and Resnet50 were the three CNN models employed in this
research. Then data augmentation was performed. This technique is applied during
training to prevent model overfitting and allow the system to perceive a given image in
new dimensions.

After training, the model is created by a convolutional neural network classifier.

Therefore, the developed model can classify papaya into anthracnose fruit disease, black
spot fruit disease, black spot leaf disease, powdery mildew leaf disease, healthy fruit and
healthy leaf. 59 Figure 4.1 System Architecture for the proposed model 4.3.

Description and Preparation of Dataset Images of papaya leaves and fruit were gathered
from papaya growing regions in Oromia. Sampling resulted in a total of 5122 image
samples from the Awash Melkasa Agricultural research institute. A digital camera and a
Samsung Mobile phone were used to capture images with varying dimensionalities of
sample leaves and fruits.

The dataset was split into three subsets: training, validation, and test at 80%, 10%, and
10% respectively, to train the model. The training set was utilized to build the model
while the validation set was utilized to fairly evaluate the model, fine-tune its
parameters, and make improvements. Finally, the test set was used to assess model
performance. 4.4.

Experimental setup SW and HW Tools Used for Experiment During the experiment, we
used the following hardware and software tools. We used the HP Laptop for Image
preparation and preprocessing, for writing the thesis report. The Colab, a Google cloud
tools, is used as the main laboratory environment for training the proposed model.

60 NO Hardware Software Purpose 1 HP laptop with Intel(R) Core(TM) i7- 7500U CPU @
2.70GHz 2.90 GHz, x64-based processor. 8.00 GB RAM Windows 10OS, Jupyter
Notebook with Python 3.7 For image preparation and preprocessing, for writing the
thesis report, and accessing Colab. 2 GPU enabled 25 GB RAM (Colab50, a cloud
resource provided by Google) Colab Jupyter Notebook with Python 3.7 For coding and
experiment 4.5.

Feature Extraction using proposed Model Feature extraction attempts to extract details
from the input image to provide data for standard machine learning processes.
According to [53], feature extraction is a unique type of dimensionality reduction. If the
input data set is too huge for the algorithm to process and is considered particularly
redundant (more data but less information), the input image is adjusted into a reduced
representation set of feature vectors.

If the features extracted are carefully chosen, it is expected that the features set will
perform the desired task using the reduced representation instead of the full-size input.
For an image, a feature can be defined as measures describing dataset properties and
characteristics. These features play a fundamental role in classification. The features are
necessary for differentiating one category from another.
If the identified features are appropriately selected, it is anticipated that the features set
will carry out the required job utilizing the reduced representation as opposed to the
original input. A measure expressing dataset characteristics and properties may be
thought of as a feature for an image. In classification, these features are vital. For a
particular category to be distinguished from another, features are required. 61 Figure 4.2

Feature Extraction of the proposed Model Convolution layers in CNN are used to extract
features, and this layer's primary goal is feature extraction. The filters or learnable
kernels in these layers are designed to acquire feature from the input images (see figure
4.2). The convolution layer's filters go through the input image's entry from left to right
in order to find features.

In order to create the feature map during feature extraction, the convolution layer
multiplies and adds the pixel values from the source image with the values of the filter
which is set of weights. The extracted feature from the image that was entered is called
a feature map, and it contains patterns that are used to distinguish between the images
that are shown. The features in this instance comprise a variety of color patterns from
the provided image.

The network's nonlinearity is then added by processing each feature map value through
activation functions. The feature map was sent back into the pooling layer after
nonlinearity to lower the feature map's resolution and the computational cost of the
network. There are multiple related phases involved in the process of extracting
meaningful features from an input image. 4.6.

Hyper Parameter Settings Before the training process starts, settings known as
hyperparameters are set up and are independent of the deep learning algorithm. There
is no general guideline for choosing the best hyper parameters in a given circumstance
[55]. In order to choose the hyper parameters, several tests are being conducted. In the
sections that follow, hyperparameters for the model are described.

62 ? Optimization algorithms: In order to reduce the error, the suggested model is

trained using the gradient descent optimization approach, and the weights are revised
by the backpropagation of errors technique The most well-liked and frequently
employed optimization method in deep learning research is gradient descent
[55].Additionally; Each advanced deep learning package contains versions of gradient
descent optimization methods like Keras, which is employed in this thesis.

To minimize the loss function, it modifies the model's weight and changes its
parameters. The gradient descent is improved by using Adam optimizer [56].For each
parameter, Adam determines the adaptive learning rate and adjusts the learning rate
using squared gradients and the gradient's moving average. Learning rate: Since
backpropagation was used to train the model, the learning rate of the proposed model
is used during the weight update.

It regulates the degree of weight that will be updated during back propagation [54]. It
was challenging to determine the ideal learning rate for our experiment. Our research
demonstrates that training a learning rate with a small value takes longer than training a
rate with a larger value. However, when we input a lower number, the model performs
better than one with a higher learning rate. To conduct the experiment, a learning rate
of 0.001 was used.

Loss function: The loss function we select is directly influenced by the activation function
employed in the output layer of the model as well as the type of problem we're
attempting to address whether regression or classification. Softmax is included in the
last fully connected layer of the suggested model as an activation function. It is a
classification issue, more precisely a categorical classification problem that we are trying
to solve.

As the loss function in our model, categorical cross entropy (CCE) loss has been
employed. Although there are other loss functions, such as mean Squared Error (MSE)
and Binary Cross-Entropy (BCE). [57]. It measures the discrepancy between the desired
and actual output for models that provide output for many classes. The experiment was
done using CCE loss.

Activation function: There are various activation functions. In this study the SoftMax
activation function is used in multiclass classification experiments. The softmax
activation function is an ideal option for multiclass classification problems, so it is used
in the output layer of the model [57]. 63 ? Number of epochs: is a parameter that
specifies how many times the training dataset will be processed by the learning
algorithm.

The model in our research was trained for several epochs ranging from 5 to 20. Finally,
we settle on 20 epochs to discuss the experimental results. We found that choosing too
small or too large epochs resulted a large discrepancy between training and validation
model errors. After a number of tests, the model reaches the ideal state at epoch 20.
Batch size: is the quantity of input data we send to the network at a time.

We need to split the input into many smaller batches since it would be difficult to
provide the computer with all the data in a single epoch. Minimizing machine
calculation time is preferred while training models. In our experiment, a batch size of 32
is chosen for model training. Parameter No of Epoch Batch Size Activation Loss
Optimization LR Value 20 32 Softmax CCE Adam 0.001 Table 4.1 Summary of hyper
Parameters used during training 4.7.

Experimental Result In this section, we try to build a papaya disease detection and
classification model by comparing them all using deep learning algorithms such as
VGG16, VGG19 and ResNet50. The experimentation, analysis, and result discussion are
all described in detail below in this section. 4.7.1. Result Analysis of VGG16 Here we
illustrate the performance of a VGG16 pre-trained model resulting from our experiments
by plotting of its classification accuracy and loss against epochs. For evaluation, we use
such metrics as training and validation accuracy, training and validation loss.

Some modifications to the initial model were necessary in order for it to effectively
classify within our dataset. During the initial phase of training, the model's accuracy is
around 81%, but it enhances and exceeds 96% in epoch 5. Subsequently, from epoch 5
to 10, the accuracy continues to increase and exceeds 96%. After the sixteenth epoch, it
even surpasses 98%.

Visible image patterns make dataset differentiation easy for both human eyes and the
VGG16 model, thereby improving the accuracies. Figure 4.7 visibly shows higher levels
of precision during the first few epochs. 64 Validation loss closely follows training error
(see figure 4.3), we perceive that the validation accuracy replicates the output of the
training accuracy (see figure 4.4) Figure 4.3.Training and validation Loss for VGG16
Pre-trained model Figure 4.4

Training and validation accuracy for VGG16 Pre-trained model The evaluation result of
VGG16 in terms of accuracy, F1-score, recall and precision based on the confusion
matrix for the 6 classes, such as anthracnose fruit, black spot fruit, black spot leaf,
powdery mildew leaf, healthy fruit and healthy leaf are shown below in figure 4.5 and
reveals that the developed classifier model can classify the anthracnose fruit disease
100% correctly.

Besides the model correctly classified 99% as Healthy Fruit, Healthy 65 Leaf, Powdery
mildew Disease and the remaining 1 % was incorrectly classified as, black spot fruit
disease, Powdery mildew Disease and black spot leaf disease. Finally, in the model, 95%
and 97% were correctly classified as black spot fruit disease and black spot leaf disease,
but 5% and 3% were incorrectly classified as anthracnose fruit disease and powdery
mildew leaf disease. As a result, the classifier model has a 98% accuracy rate. Figure
4.5.Classification report of the proposed model of VGG16 The VGG16 model's confusion
matrix revealed the following classification accuracy for various instances: anthracnose
fruit, black spot fruit, black spot leaf, healthy fruit, healthy leaf and powdery mildew leaf
were correctly classified 91, 83, 99, 102, 91, and 98 times respectively.

Healthy fruit was misclassified to black spot fruit (1), black spot fruit was misclassified
more to anthracnose fruit (4), powdery mildew leaf was misclassified to black spot leaf
(1), healthy leaf was misclassified to powdery mildew leaf (1),black spot leaf was
misclassified more to powdery mildew leaf (3 respectively). 66 Figure 4.6.Confusion
Matrix of VGG16 Figure 4.7

shows that the maximum training accuracy is reached on the final 20 epochs, which is
99%, while the test accuracy is 98%. Even the graph has some validation accuracy, with
the loss line moving up and down. The interesting thing about this experiment is that it
shows that the training graph grows with little variation from epoch to epoch.

In the end, the trained model was tested on 574 sample images with 98% results. Figure
4.7 Training data 67 4.7.2. VGG19 Result Analysis The graphs illustrate how VGG19's
accuracy and loss change over time, measured using classification accuracy metrics like
training and validation. We experimented on the pre-trained model, making
modifications to enable better classification of our dataset, resulting in changes in both
training and validation loss. Examining the accuracy achieved during the first epoch, we
can see that it is around 82% and slowly gets better until it reaches 96% in epoch 5.

The model's training accuracy surpasses 96% between epoch 5 and 10, reaching around
98% in the following 20 epochs. As visualized in the graph below, the accuracy rate
initially advanced rapidly; this may be attributed to the variation in the images within
our datasets. The validation accuracy line closely follows the training accuracy line (refer
to figure 4.9) while the validation loss shows corresponding results for the training loss
(check figure 4.8).

Although both the validation accuracy and validation loss lines are not produced in a
linear format, they still denote that the model is avoiding overfitting due to the fact that
the validation loss is decreasing rather than increasing, and the validation accuracy is
increasing rather than decreasing. Figure 4.8 Training and validation loss for the VGG19
pre-trained model 68 Figure 4.9.Training and validation accuracy for the VGG19
pre-trained model The performance of VGG19 in respect to accuracy, recall and
precision based on the confusion matrix for 6 classes like anthracnose fruit, black spot
fruit, black spot leaf, powdery mildew leaf, healthy fruit and healthy leaf is illustrated in
figure 4.10 below.
The developed classifier model correctly classified 99% of anthracnose fruit disease,
while the remaining 1% was incorrectly classified as Black spot fruit disease, as shown in
Figure 4.10. In addition, the model correctly identified Black spot Fruit Disease, Black
Spot Leaf Disease, Healthy Fruit, and Healthy Leaf in 94%, 95%, and 100% of cases,
respectively.

Lastly, the model correctly identified 97% of cases as powdery mildew leaf disease.
However, 3% were incorrectly identified as healthy leaf and Black Spot leaf disease. As a
result, the classifier model has a classification accuracy of 97%. 69 Figure
4.10.Classification report of the proposed model of VGG19 Based upon the results
obtained from VGG19 model, the number of accurately classified instances for
anthracnose fruit disease, black spot fruit disease, black spot leaf disease, healthy fruit,
healthy leaf, and powdery mildew leaf diseases was 90, 82, 97, 102, 92, and 96
respectively.

anthracnose fruit disease was misclassified to black spot fruit (1), black spot fruit disease
was misclassified to anthracnose fruit and healthy fruit (4, 1), healthy fruit was
misclassified to black spot fruit disease (1), black spot leaf disease was misclassified to
healthy leaf and powdery mildew leaf disease (3, 2), powdery mildew leaf disease more
misclassified as black spot leaf disease and healthy leaf (2, 1 respectively). Figure
4.11.Confusion Matrix of VGG19 Figure 4.12 shows that the test accuracy is 97% and the
training accuracy is 98% for the last 20 epochs.

Even the graph has some validation accuracy, with the loss line moving up and down. 70
The interesting aspect of this experiment is that the training graph shows a slight
increase from epoch to epoch. After testing the trained model on 574 sample images,
we obtained a 97.39% accuracy rate. Figure 4.12.Training data 4.7.3.

Result Analysis of ResNet50 The following two charts show the classification accuracy
and classification loss of the pre- trained ResNet50 model with respect to epochs using
classification accuracy metrics like training and validation accuracy, training loss, and
validation loss. We experimented by making a few changes to the initial pre-trained
model in order to get the model to classify correctly in our dataset.

71 In the initial epoch, the training accuracy was more than 87% and gradually rose to
reach 97% by the 5th. During epochs five to ten, the model's training accuracy
receptively improved and hovered around 98%. After the completion of the 16th epoch,
this rate increased over 98%.
As seen in Figure 15, due to the dataset, the accuracy elevated sharply in the earlier
phases of the process. In general, as seen in Figures 4.13 and 4.14, there is a close
correspondence between both the validation accuracy and the training accuracy lines;
similarly, a harmony exists between the validation loss line and the training loss one.
Figure 4.13.Training and validation loss for the ResNet50 pre-trained model Figure 4.14
Training and validation Accuracy for the ResNet50 pre-trained model 72 Based on the
confusion matrix, the ResNet50 model's classification results demonstrate that correctly
classified instances for class anthracnose fruit, black spot fruit, black spot leaf, healthy
fruit, healthy leaf and powdery mildew leaf are 89, 87, 102, 102, 92, and 98 respectively.
In the figure 4.15, 89 images have been correctly identified as anthracnose fruit disease,
whereas 2 images have been incorrectly identified as Black Spot Fruit disease.

Besides, 87,102 and 92 images were correctly classified as Black Spot Fruit Disease, Black
Spot Leaf Disease and Healthy leaf. Additionally, 1 image is incorrectly classified as
having Black Spot Fruit disease, whereas the other 102 images were correctly classified
as having Healthy Fruit. Lastly, 98 of the images are correctly identified as having
Powdery Mildew leaf disease, whereas the remaining 1 image is incorrectly identified as
having Black Spot leaf disease. Figure 4.15.Confusion Matrix of ResNet50 The evaluation
result of ResNet50 is shown in figure 4.15 below in terms of accuracy, F1-score, recall,
and precision.

Based on the confusion matrix for the 6 classes, such as anthracnose fruit disease, black
spot fruit disease, black spot leaf disease, healthy fruit, healthy leaf and powdery mildew
leaf disease. The developed classifier model correctly classified 98% of anthracnose fruit
disease, while the remaining 2% were incorrectly classified as Black spot fruit disease, as
shown in Figure 4.15. In addition, the model correctly identified Black spot Leaf Disease,
Healthy Leaf Disease, and Black spot Fruit Disease at a 100% rate.

In the model, 99 % were correctly classified as healthy 73 fruit but 1 % was misclassified
as black spot disease. As a result, the classifier model has an accuracy of 99% when
correctly classifying the disease. Figure 4.16.Classification report of the proposed model
of ResNet50 In this instance, the training dataset is 4546, while the testing dataset is
574.

All parameters were adjusted prior to the experiment without the pre-trained network
being modified. Finally, we achieved training accuracy of 98.70% and test accuracy of
99.30%, with a training loss of 0.033%. 74 4.7.4. Comparison of Performing Model The
accuracy of pre-trained models, specifically VGG16, VGG19, and ResNet50, in detecting
and classifying various types of fruit and leaf diseases. The models were initially trained
on a dataset and achieved high accuracy rates of 98%, 97%, and 99%.
These indicate that the models perform well on the training dataset. According to the
test's findings, ResNet50 model can correctly detect and classify the provided image as
anthracnose fruit disease, black spot fruit disease, black spot leaf disease, healthy fruit,
healthy leaf and powdery mildew leaf disease and classify with greater accuracy than the
VGG19 and VGG16 pre-trained models.

For each experiment, the model is trained using an 80:10:10 test option across 20
epochs. In the VGG16 and VGG19 models the variation in training accuracy and
validation accuracy is extremely tiny and nearly identical. These demonstrate that the
models are not overfitted, and we may conclude that the ResNet50 model has a high
degree of generalization ability.

Based on these results, the ResNet50 model was selected to be used for detection and
classification of papaya disease. Performance metrics Transfer learning VGG19 VGG16
ResNet50 Tested images 574 574 574 Accuracy (%) 97.39 98.26 99.30 Precision (%) 97.5
98.33 99.33 Recall (%) 97.33 98.16 99.33 F-score (%) 97.33 98.33 99.33 Table
4.2.Comparison of all experiment 4.8.

Discussion of the Result In this section, the previous published studies have compared
with our current proposed study. In particular, three studies on the classification of
papaya diseases have been presented in scientific literature as we discussed in Chapter 2
Section 2.13. In order to examine the results of this study, the discussions focused on
significant findings from previous works.

For this reason, the details of the comparison are presented in Table 4.3. In our study,
we achieved an impressive accuracy rate of 99.33% in detecting and classifying Papaya
disease using the ResNe50 model. The simplicity of human photo classification in our
dataset greatly contributed to the improved performance of the model.

By customizing the 75 model's parameters and incorporating smaller-sized filters in the

convolution layer, we were able to achieve better results in disease classification. Unlike
other deep learning techniques that rely on large amounts of data, numerous
parameters, and high-performance computing equipment, our approach involved
smaller networks, fewer parameters, less hardware, and less data. Despite these
differences, our method proved to be easier to train and yielded superior outcomes.

Table 4.3 shows that the proposed method has better performance than the related
works method which presented a system that done with machine learning techniques to
create a model that can classify Papaya disease.
The overall evaluation of the experiment was done by measuring the efficiency of
papaya disease classification with good results. Our classification algorithm has been
tested using selected data samples from the dataset. Additionally, when compared to
the manual system, the suggested automated technique has outperformed it. The
papaya disease classification model performed at 99.3% accuracy, as shown in Table 4.3,
which is an encouraging result. Table 4.3

The Proposed System is compared to Other Researchers' Work NO AutrNa Title

Proposed method Accuracy 4. [9] The Classification of Papaya using Digital Image
Processing and Artificial Neural Networks ANN 87% 5. [11] Machine Learning based
Image Classification of Papaya Disease Recognition RF,K-means clustering ,SVC AND
CNN CNN =98.04% 6.

[12] Deep Learning Based Approach for Classification and Detection of Papaya Leaf
Diseases CNN(ResNet50) 85.1% Proposed Method 99.3% 76 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1. Conclusion The papaya is a large fruit
crop that is widely cultivated for use in drinks, jams, sweets, and crystallized fruit in
addition to being eaten fresh.

The fruits, which also have a high nutritional value, include a wide range of nutrients,
including beta-carotene, vitamin B2, niacin, and vitamin C, as well as protein, fat, carbs,
calcium, iron, salt, and potassium. The most widely grown fruit in Ethiopia is papaya,
which is grown commercially on approximately 5096 ha of land and yields 79374t/year.

The diseases, like Anthracnose, powdery mildew and black spots, have caused a
tremendous loss of life on the part of Papaya. Black spot, anthracnose, and powdery
mildew are the most fatal papaya diseases emerging in Ethiopia; they reduce
photosynthetic area. The fruits' quality is impacted by the disease, which decreases their
marketability.

In Ethiopia's main papaya-growing regions, black spot, anthracnose, and powdery

mildew are all very common. Therefore, using a system to identify these diseases is
crucial. Artificial intelligence and image processing techniques therefore have a big
impact on agricultural research.

We have demonstrated the utilization of transfer learning using papaya datasets.

Compared to the quantity of data typically needed to train VGG16, VGG19, and
ResNet50, with only a small amount of data, a model might be built. The images from
the Awash Melkassa Agricultural Research Center were used to train the model and the
success rates for classifying anthracnose, healthy, black spot, and powdery mildew
disease using those pre-trained model are 98.26 %, 97.39 % and 99.30 % accuracy
respectively.

This demonstrates the capability of VGG16, VGG19, and ResNet50 to extract essential
features necessary for classification from the papaya image. We have also shown that,
even with a very little dataset, the network performs better when data augmentation is
used on the training set. The use of regularization and dropout to combat over fitting
also proved effective.

It was possible to create a pre-trained CNN model utilizing only a very small collection
of papaya picture data by using transfer learning to the same model. Additionally,
Model 80:10:10 percentage split test options, a confusion matrix and classification
reports have been used to visualize the model performance in order to develop a
classification.

77 The technique includes gathering images, pre-processing them, and using ResNet50,
VGG16, and VGG19 for classification and feature extraction. All input images go through
an image preprocessing step before proceeding to feature extraction to deep learning
network methods, but for deep learning, all input images go through image
preprocessing before being passed to VGG16, VGG19 and ResNet50.

The method of this study is one of the simplest ways to classify papaya disease images.
As a result, it is also one of the best in terms of accuracy, working with VGG16, VGG19
and ResNet50 models and providing results with 98.26 %, 97.39 % and 99.30 % accuracy
respectively. 5.2. Summary In our study, we focused on Papaya and its diseases affecting
both the leaves and fruits.

We utilized image processing techniques and employed deep learning, specifically

transfer learning, for the detection and classification of these diseases. The study
provides a detailed explanation of the methodology, including the research design,
detection rates, and results obtained from a pre- trained model on a custom dataset of
locally collected Papaya images.

The testing phase demonstrated the effectiveness of deep learning in accurately

detecting and classifying diseases in Papaya fruits and leaves. Additionally, the thesis
highlights the characteristics of the displayed parameters and hyperparameters of the
model. 5.3. Recommendation The researcher suggests that the study's results can be
further enhanced by applying them to a wide range of agricultural crops, pests, and
diseases that exist in complex and extensive real- world settings.
To achieve this, collaboration is recommended among farmers, pathologists, agricultural
extension workers, and both governmental and non-governmental institutions involved
in the agricultural sector. This collaboration is crucial in advancing the development of
smart agricultural and farming systems, particularly in Ethiopia. Additionally, the
researcher advises agricultural colleges and institutes to compile comprehensive crop
datasets that include symptoms of both single and dual diseases.

These datasets would serve as valuable resources for researchers in the fields of
Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Deep Learning, assisting farmers in
transitioning from traditional farming methods to smart ones. 78 5.4. Contribution This
research makes a significant contribution to both the scientific community and the
general population by introducing a novel model that utilizes a deep learning algorithm
for improved detection of papaya fruit and leaf diseases.

Through our experiments with pre-trained models and the newly proposed model, we
successfully achieved our objectives. The study's outcomes have valuable implications
for farmers, researchers, and experts in the following ways: ? Farmers: The developed
model can assist farmers in accurately identifying and managing diseases affecting
papaya fruits and leaves, leading to improved crop health and productivity.

? Researchers: This research provides a foundation for further studies in the field of deep
learning and its application in disease detection for other agricultural crops. ? Experts:
The findings of this study offer insights and potential solutions for experts in the field of
agriculture, enabling them to develop smarter and more effective strategies for disease
management and crop protection. 5.5.

Future works In our future work, we will focus on the extensive task of detecting and
classifying diseases in various parts of the Papaya plant. Given the wide range of leaf
types and plant components, this study will place significant emphasis on accurately
identifying and categorizing the diseases that affect Papaya.

The key aspects of our upcoming research will include: ? The papaya plant's leaf and
fruit are used in this investigation to extract feature from the image. However, papaya
plant stems are also susceptible to diseases that reduce papaya production. Extracting
features from papaya plant stems is a challenge and a potential for future work.

Papaya ring spot disease, Phytophthora disease, and leaf curl disease were not included
in this study due to insufficient data sets. Future studies may therefore extend this work
by adding this disease and other classes. In the future, the researcher intends to develop
a real-time application that utilizes deep learning for embedded devices, mobile devices,
and web applications.

The goal is to create a practical and accessible solution that can be used on various
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