Extreme Mechanics Letters 63 (2023) 102050

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Extreme Mechanics Letters

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/eml

Optimization of hydraulically amplified electrostatic actuators based

on an evolutionary strategy and finite element model to match the
performance of the human triceps surae muscle fibres
∗
Zhaozhen Liu, Harrison McAleese, Andrew Weightman, Glen Cooper
School of Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Artificial muscles are required to improve prosthetics, exoskeletons and other industrial robotics
Received 10 May 2023 applications. Compared to other technologies like pneumatic actuators and shape memory alloys, Peano
Received in revised form 8 June 2023 hydraulically amplified self-healing electrostatic (HASEL) actuators have the most similar stress output,
Accepted 5 July 2023
work density and specific energy as biological muscle. This work designs an artificial muscle fibre
Available online 11 July 2023
that simulates human triceps surae muscle fibre using Peano-HASEL actuators. Analytical models are
Keywords: derived to calculate the capacitance and efficiency of the actuator. A three-stage methodology of an
Artificial muscles evolutionary strategy, finite element (FE) model and a severity analysis is proposed to optimize the
Finite element model geometrical parameters of the artificial muscle fibre, evaluate its performance, and identify potential
Evolutionary strategy risks. The finite element model created in this work produces a full multi-physics simulation coupling
Hydraulically amplified electrostatic the electro-mechanical and fluid–solid interactions, which fits any liquid dielectric volume and for
actuator the first time simulates an entire activation cycle. The finite element model further simulates the
Peano-HASEL actuators
force-length and force-velocity relationships not seen in previous work and facilitates understanding
of the dynamics of the Peano-HASEL actuator, including damping characteristics. Plastic deformation
and fluid pocket phenomenon due to materials are found during the simulation, which could give
new insights for the analysis of electrical breakdown and mechanical stress failure. The three-stage
design methodology described in this paper suggested that an artificial muscle with 80 mm width, 0.4
radian initial central angle, 20 um film thickness and 7.6 kV activation voltage would best match the
human triceps surae muscle behaviour. The designed artificial muscle fibre can produce 80% of peak
maximum strain (∼18.8%), have an efficiency of 22%, generate high loads within 5% strain and restore
muscle-like performance beyond 5% strain.
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction muscle technologies and indicated that Peano hydraulically am-

Artificial muscles, refer to intelligent materials or devices that
mimic natural muscle and can reversibly deform due to an exter-
nal stimulus [1]. Hugh et al. [2] noticed the prospects of artificial
muscle technologies and argued that electroactive polymer-based
artificial muscles have the potential to restore natural motion
to the amputees. Nowadays, artificial muscles are widely used
in robotic and medical applications. For instance, shape memory
alloys (SMA) can be used in spinal vertebral spacers and or-
thopaedic staples for bone fractures [3]. Also, pneumatic artificial
muscles can be used for lower body exoskeletons [4] or upper
arm rehabilitation [5]. Liang et al. [1] reviewed recent artificial
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: zhaozhen.liu@manchester.ac.uk (Z. Liu),
harrison.mcaleese@postgrad.manchester.ac.uk (H. McAleese),
andrew.weightman@manchester.ac.uk (A. Weightman),
Glen.Cooper@manchester.ac.uk (G. Cooper).
plified self-healing electrostatic (HASEL) actuators have similar
characteristics as human muscle.
Peano-HASEL actuators (see Fig. 1(a)) proposed by Kellaris
et al. [6] are a promising artificial muscle due to their muscle-
like characteristics. Peano-HASEL actuators are low cost (∼£0.10),
have controllable linear contraction (∼20%), high strain rate (over
2000% per second) and high specific energy (over 10 000 J/Kg).
Compared to other technologies like pneumatic actuators, Peano-
HASEL actuators have the most similar stress output, work den-
sity and specific energy as biological muscle [1,7,8]. The potential
of this novel artificial muscle for robotic and prosthetic devices
has been exploited by Acome et al. [9], who constructed lin-
ear actuators and grippers by stacking plantar HASEL actuators.
Kellaris et al. [10] proposed an analytical model for designing
Peano-HASEL actuators and then investigated the effect of ge-
ometries and materials on actuator performance. Yoder et al. [11]
designed a higher-speed prosthetic finger driven by Peano-HASEL

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eml.2023.102050
2352-4316/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Z. Liu, H. McAleese, A. Weightman et al.
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic diagram of Peano-HASEL actuators. The actuator consists of three main parts, namely the electrode, the membrane, and the fluid dielectric.
a is the central angle. Le is the length of the electrode. Lp is the length of the pouch. t is the thickness of the film. w is the width of the pouch. (b) Diagram
of electrostatic capacitance calculation. (c) 2D finite element model of the Peano-HASEL actuator. The left electrode is set to positive, and the right electrode is
grounded. Loads P were applied at point A in the negative Y direction. Linear triangular element was used for the membrane, linear mapped element was used for
the electrode, and linear triangular-mapped hybrid element was used for the liquid dielectric.
actuators, bring new exploration to the application of Peano-
HASEL actuators.
The implementation of Peano-HASEL actuators for engineering
applications has several barriers which will need to be addressed
to realize their potential. These barriers include insufficient un-
derstanding of dynamics and lack of optimization schemes for
different applications. Rothemund et al. [12] studied the rise and
fall time of Peano-HASEL actuators and concluded that there were
two dynamic regimes, dominated by viscous dissipation and in-
ternal effects, respectively. They further stated that multiphysics
modelling that simulates fluid flow, electric field, and shell defor-
mation would aid actuator characterization and understanding.
Tynan et al. [13] built a 2D static finite element (FE) model
of Peano-HASEL actuator in ANSYS(Pennsylvania, United States),
while Washington et al. [14] developed a multiphysics 2D model
in COMSOL(Cambridge, UK). Although promoting modelling ef-
forts in the area, none of them simulated the entire activation
cycle, modelled the complete physics, and modelled force-length
and force-velocity relationships.
The output force from an actuator is not always constant.
The ability to create force in an actuator is dependent on its
extension/contraction (length) for static load carrying capacity.
The maximum isometric actuator force represents the blocking
force. Also, many actuators need to operate dynamically, and the
rate of extension/contraction (velocity) also affects the ability of
the actuator to develop force. This means that force-length and
force velocity relationships (or characteristics) are important to
determine if an actuator will be able to provide the required
loading for specific applications. The current literature [6,9,12]
describes the force-length relationships but only the response
time for activation and not the full force-velocity relationship
[9,15]. Additionally, the current literature [6,9,12] does not opti-
mize PH actuators for specific applications for static and dynamic
behaviour. Kellaris et al. [6] performed sensitivity analysis by
proportionally adjusting geometrical parameters of the Peano-
HASEL actuator but did not perform parameter optimization. In
their study, the initial central angle, which can greatly affect the
performance of the actuator, remained constant at 0.2415 rad.
They did not justify why this value was used. Acome et al. [9] and
Rothemund et al. [12] also kept the initial central angle at 0.2415
2
Extreme Mechanics Letters 63 (2023) 102050
rad. The volume of the internal fluid is a function of the angle. The
initial central angle affects the strain and force magnitude of the
actuator, as well as the shape of force-length and force-velocity
relationships [6]. There is potential to optimize the fluid volume
and other geometrical parameters for different applications.
An actuator may fail in several modes, such as mechanical
rupture [16], electrical breakdown [17], electromechanical in-
stability and loss of tension [18,19]. Failure mode and effects
analysis (FMEA) is an effective risk assessment tool for mitigating
potential failures in designs and systems and has been imple-
mented in a wide range of industries [20]. The main purpose
of FMEA is to prioritize the failure modes and make corrective
decisions accordingly. Although computational models provide
optimized designs and results, they may not explore causation
and interpretation. Considering the data scale of this study, a
traditional FMEA is not suitable as the probability of failure is
too subjective to determine. Therefore, a severity analysis related
to functional performance will be outworked to determine if the
actuator design is suitable for the final design.
This paper aims to optimize the static and dynamic behaviour
(force-length and force-velocity relationships) of a Peano-HASEL
actuator for use in artificial skeletal muscle fibre design in ap-
plications like limb prosthetics through an evolutionary strategy,
finite element modelling and severity analysis. Artificial mus-
cle fibres should have high efficiency, strain, and force output,
and have similar force-length and force-velocity relationships to
skeletal muscle fibres. A biomimetic approach using an evolution-
ary strategy [21–23] is designed to obtain optimal configurations
for the artificial muscle fibre design. FE models are then con-
structed to assess the performance of artificial muscle fibres in
terms of force-length and force-velocity relationships. The novel
FE model provides comprehensive information on membrane and
shell deformation, fluid flow and electric field throughout the
entire activation cycle. Severity analysis is performed to evaluate
the potential risks based on the results of the FE model. This three
stage-approach enables a comprehensive workflow from design
specifications to performance evaluation, which could be ap-
plied to any parametric design and optimization for Peano-HASEL
actuator application.
Z. Liu, H. McAleese, A. Weightman et al. Extreme Mechanics Letters 63 (2023) 102050

Fig. 2. (a) The process of Peano-HASEL actuator optimization through analytical model, finite element model and severity analysis. (b) Pseudocode of evolutionary
strategy.

2. Methodology Under isotonic concentric (dynamic) conditions, the output

force of muscle is determined by length and contraction velocity
This study aims to match the performance of a PH actuator for a given activation level, given by [26]:
to that of a human triceps surae muscle fibre. The design opti- (Fm + a) · (V + b) = (FL + a) · b (2)
mization was achieved through a three-stage approach involving
an evolutionary strategy, FE model and severity analysis, with This equation applies for / V V≤ 1. Where Fm is the isotonic
L ,0

requirements of maximum load and strain output, maximizing muscle force, V is the shortening velocity, VL,0 is the velocity
at resting length L0 , and FL is the isometric muscle force at the
efficiency, as well as mimicking the skeletal muscle force-length
instantaneous muscle length in Eq. (1). a and b are two constant
and force-velocity characteristics. As shown in Fig. 2(a), the first
dynamics measured experimentally, which vary from species and
stage was to determine the analytical models of the skeletal
fibre type. Previous studies differed in determining the values
muscle and Peano-HASEL actuators, as detailed in Section 2.A. The of the constant dynamics a and b of human muscles. Ralston
analytical models were then used to run the evolutionary strategy et al. [25] took the values of F a and V b to be 0.81 and con-
L,0 L,0
(Section 2.B) to obtain the optimal configuration for the artifi-
cluded that the constant dynamics varied from one experiment
cial muscle fibre design. Section 2.C shows the design method to another. While the values used are 0.41 and 0.12 for triceps
of artificial muscle fibres, including cost function construction, surae in [27,28]. Hof et al. [28] further discussed the use of values
parameter selection range definition, and artificial muscle fibre in the range of 0.2 to 0.5 which were suggested by [29,30]. Hof
evaluation. In the second stage, the optimal configuration se- et al. [28] claimed that 0.12 is the lowest possible value and large
lected by the evolutionary strategy was used to build the FE fluctuations in the mean rectified electromyography (EMG) would
model (Section 2.D). The results from the FE model were com- be the cause of high values measured in other literature. From the
pared with the analytical models. If a deviation greater than above literature, this paper excluded high values like 0.81 and
10% was found, the evolutionary strategy would be modified and used values F a and V b in the range of 0.12 to 0.5 as standards
L,0 L,0
rerun. Finally, a severity analysis based on finite element analysis for artificial muscle designs.
was performed to identify potential risks (Section 2.E). Correc- Isotonic eccentric conditions were not considered in this study
tive action decisions were made according to the failure modes because passive forces in human muscle are relatively low com-
and severity. The design optimization was considered complete pared to active forces when the stretch is small, while the Peano-
once severity analysis and comparison between FE results and HASEL actuator may not stretch too much.
analytical models were satisfied. Kellaris et al. [10] revealed that the force-length relationship
of Peano-HASEL actuators is as follows::
( √ )
2.1. 2D analytical models α0 2A sin (α) − α
ε =1− · 1+ ·√ (3)
sin(α0 ) Lp α − sin (α) · cos (α)
Under isometric (static) contractions, the output force can be cos α εr · ε0 · w
written as a parabolic function of muscle length. The contractile F = · · V2 (4)
1 − cos α 4t
element in the Hill muscle model is dominant. When neglecting
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the pouch. a is the central
series and parallel elements, the force-length relationship is as
angle. ε is the output strain and F is the output force. Le is the
follows [15,24]: length of the electrode. Lp is the length of the pouch. t is the
FL
(
L
)2 (
L
) thickness of the film. w is the width of the pouch.ε0 and εr are
= −13.43 · + 28.23 · − 13.96 (1) vacuum permittivity and dielectric constant of the membrane,
FL,0 L0 L0 respectively.
Where FL,0 is the maximum muscle force corresponding to its It can be shown that the capacitance C of the actuator at any
resting length, L0 , F is the force generated at length L. The central angle can be expressed by Eq. (5), see Appendix S1 and
coefficients used were determined experimentally by Ralston Fig. 1(b):
et al. [25] using the human pectoralis major muscle, which applies le (α) · w K (Kin′ ) ′
K (Kout )
for 0.8 L0 ≤ L ≤ 1.3 L0 . C (α) = ε0 · εr · + ( εr · + ε0 · ) (5)
2t K (Kin ) K (Kout )
3
Z. Liu, H. McAleese, A. Weightman et al.
Four moduli Kin , Kin′ , Kout , and Kout
′
are given by:
√ Eqs. (11)–(14):
2r π /(2α ) · (r + le′ (α ))π /(2α )
Kin =
r π /(2α ) + (r + le′ (α ))π /(2α )
)π /2α
r + le′ (α) − r π /2α
(
Kin′ =
(r + le′ (α))π /2α + r π /2α
√
2(r + le′ (α ))π /(2π −2α )
Kout =
r π /(2α ) + (r + le′ (α ))π /(2π −2α )
′ (r + le (α ))π /(2π −2α ) − r π /(2α )
′
Kout =
(r + le′ (α ))π /(2π −2α ) + r π /(2α )
The efficiency of the actuator can be then expressed by:
F (α ) · ε (α) dα
∫
Output energy
Efficiency = = (10)
C (α ) · V 2 dα
∫
Input energy
2.2. Evolutionary strategy
Evolutionary strategy is an optimization technique inspired
by biological evolution. The general scheme of this technique in-
volves representation (definition of individuals), evaluation (cost
function), population, parent selection, mutation, recombination,
and survivor selection. The pseudocode of the evolutionary strat-
egy is shown in Fig. 2(b). The code was implemented in MATLAB
R2021a academic (California, United States).
In this study, each individual is an artificial muscle fibre design
which is a configuration of the Peano-HASEL actuator, i.e., a 1 × 4
vector describing width, initial central angle, film thickness, and
activation voltage. The representation type in the code is real-
valued as opposed to binary. The desired output is the artificial
muscle fibre design that closely matches the characteristics of
a human triceps surae muscle (force-length and force-velocity
relationships) while the input to the model is actuator architec-
ture parameters (width, initial central angle, film thickness and
activation voltage) spread evenly across the full range of values
to create a population of actuator designs. Their selection ranges
are detailed in Section 2. C.
As shown in Fig. 2(b), for the initialization, the parental pop-
ulation size µ was set to 1000, the offspring population λ was
100, the generation N was 100, and the search space dimension
n was 4. Evaluation functions are detailed in Section 2. C as
they are related to artificial muscle design. During the iteration,
the discrete recombination method was used to recombine pairs
of parents. Uncorrelated mutation with n step sizes (n = 4)
was used to mutate the offspring. (µ + λ) selection scheme was
used for survivor selection. Note that this scheme can be seen
as a generalized GENITOR method (µ > λ) and a round-robin
tournament in evolutionary programming (µ = λ).
2.3. Artificial muscle design
The design space was constructed to find a solution that con-
siders the force output, strain output, efficiency, and skeletal
muscle mimicry. The efficiency of the fibre must be greater than
20%, which is checked using Eq. (10). At below 5% strain, the load
output of Peano-HASEL is far greater than that of human skeletal
muscle which will be functionally beneficial. However, after 5%
strain, the load output of the actuators drops by 80% to levels
similar to that of human skeletal muscle. So, we chose to mimic
skeletal muscle only for strains greater than 5%, which is checked
by Frechet distance method [31]. Overall, the cost function is to
reach 80% of peak maximum strain, mimic skeletal muscle at
over 5% strain, generate maximum load within 5% strain, and
Extreme Mechanics Letters 63 (2023) 102050
ensure efficiency greater than 20%. Cost functions are shown as
(6) Strain = s (t , w, V , α0 ) − 0.8 smax (11)
Mimicry = δF (P (t , w, V , α0 ) , Qmuscle ), w hen s > 5% (12)
(7) Force = F (t , w, V , α0 ) − Fmuscle , w hen s < 5% (13)
Efficiency = η (t , w, V , α0 ) > 20% (14)
The initial optimization spaces for different parameters are
(8) shown as (15)–(18). The range for the initial angle α0 was deter-
mined to achieve 80% of the maximum strain based on Eq. (3).
The range for film thickness t was determined based on the
(9)
datasheet of film material provided by the manufacturer (Multi-
plastics, INC). The range for width w was limited to restrain the
size of the actuator within practical limits. The range for voltage
V was similar to that in other experimental research [6,10–12],
which has a lower and upper limit above that which will enable
activation but below that which will cause dielectric breakdown.
Initial central angle : 0.29 rad ≤ α0 ≤ 1.12 rad (15)
Film thickness : 18 µm ≤ t ≤ 80 µm (16)
Width : 30 mm ≤ w ≤ 200 mm (17)
Voltage : 3000 V ≤ V ≤ 8000 V (18)
The static and dynamic performance of the artificial muscle
fibre was assessed and then extrapolated to create a muscle made
from 80 fibres arranged in parallel (From the literature [10,12],
at strain over 5%, 15 to 100 artificial muscle fibres can create a
force output similar to that of human skeletal muscle. Therefore,
80 muscle fibres were used as an example to form a synthetic
muscle.)
2.4. Finite element modelling of peano HASEL actuator
A 2D FE model of a Peano-HASEL actuator (see Fig. 1(c)) was
built in COMSOL Multiphysics 6.0 (Cambridge, UK). The FE model
can be downloaded from the supplementary material section.
Solid Mechanics, Electrostatic, and Laminar Flow modules were
included to model the full physics. Solid fluid interaction was
present in the model and the fluid was modelled with laminar
behaviour. Full details of the fluid model are shown in Appendix
S4. Electromechanical interaction was also present in the model.
Full details of the electrostatic model are shown in Appendix
S5. Experimental validation data for the model was taken from
work by Kellaris et al. [10] and input data and boundary con-
ditions were taken from this source to ensure the model was a
good match to real-world behaviour. No practical experiments
were performed in this paper. After validation, the FE model was
tuned to simulate artificial muscle fibres according to the design
parameters chosen by the evolutionary strategy (width, initial
central angle, thickness, and activation voltage). The details of
the experimental setup of Kellaris et al. [10]. and workflow are
as follows:
Geometry: The width w was set to 0.12 m. The length of the
actuator Lp was 0.02 m. The length of the electrode Le was 0.01 m.
The initial central angle α0 was 0.2415 rad.
Material: As shown in Table 1, the materials used for the
electrode, the membrane, and the fluid dielectric were Hydro-
gel, Biaxially-oriented polypropylene (BOPP), and FR3 oil. Linear
elastic and hyperelastic solid mechanics material models were
applied to the membrane and the electrode, respectively. The hy-
perelastic material model has been proven effective in modelling
hydrogel by Raheem et al. [20]. A linear electrical model was
applied to all the materials. Full details of material models are
shown in Appendix S2.
4
Z. Liu, H. McAleese, A. Weightman et al. Extreme Mechanics Letters 63 (2023) 102050

Table 1
Material properties and material models.
Material Young’s Poisson’s ratio ν Relative Density (Kg/m3 ) Dynamic Material Model
modulus E (Pa) permittivity Viscosity (Pa s) (Solid mechanics)
Electrode Hydrogel 3 × 105 b 0.49 – 1270 – Neo-Hookean
Hyperelastic modelc .
Membrane BOPP a
2.5 × 10 9
0.33 2.2 910 – Linear elastic model
Liquid FR3 Oil – – 3.2 960 0.06 –
dielectric
a
BOPP-Biaxially-oriented polypropylene.
b
The value of the raw material is about 3 × 103 Pa [32]. However, the hydrogel electrode was cross-linked [1], which increase the Young’s modulus.
c
The Neo-Hookean, Yoeh, Ogden, and Mooney–Rivlin material models using strain energy density functions can be used to model hydrogel behaviour [33] Nearly
ν
incompressibility with Lamé parameter λ = (1−2vE)(1 +ν )
and Bulk modulus κ = 3(1−
E
2ν )
are used in this study.

Table 2
Definition and rating of severity.
Severity
Effect Criteria: severity of effect Rank
Full The primary function, i.e., actuation, is lost. The actuator is inoperable. 3
Partial The primary function is affected. The actuator may achieve partial actuation. 2
None Minor or no effect on the actuator performance. 1

Boundary conditions: As shown in Fig. 1(c), the top end of the
actuator was fixed. The left electrode was set to positive, and
the right electrode was grounded. 8000 V voltage was applied to
the electrodes. A load, P (boundary load), was applied at point
A in the negative Y direction to apply force to the bottom end
of the actuator, which is comparable to the lifted weight in the
experiments of Kellaris et al. [10].
Mesh design: Mesh refinement was achieved by globally in-
creasing the mesh density until convergence was achieved. There
were 24 677 domain elements and 5496 boundary elements in
the model. Linear triangular, mapped, and triangular-mapped
hybrid elements are used for the membrane, the electrode, and
the liquid dielectric, respectively. Winslow smoothing method
was added to the liquid domain.
2.5. Severity analysis
A severity analysis was performed to determine if the actuator
design is suitable for the final design. Corrective action decisions
are then made accordingly to failure modes and severity. The
definition and rating of severity are shown in Table 2. Qualitative
engineering judgement was used to determine if the failure mode
would cause either the primary function to be lost or would allow
partial function.
3. Results
3.1. Evolutionary strategy
To verify the effectiveness of the algorithm, the results for a 2D
optimization problem are presented here. The input parameters
were film thickness, t, and initial central angle, α0 . The cost
function was designed for maximum strain. Fig. 3(a) shows the
start and end of the optimization process. Red markers represent
a design configuration of the Peano-HASEL actuator. The markers
are initially randomly distributed, and after 70 generations, they
are located around the optimal angle α0 = 0.70. This value
has been determined to be optimal from theoretical analysis, see
Appendix S3, showing that the evolutionary strategy is effective.
3.2. Finite element analysis of peano HASEL actuator
Fig. 3(b) shows the displacement-time results from the FE
model under no-load condition and the activation signal. Actuator
5
actuation was achieved through a ramped electrical signal applied
to the electrode from 0–8 kV over 40 ms. The states of the actua-
tor during the simulation are shown, where arrows represent the
fluid flow. The displacement field at the stable position is also
shown. The entire activation cycle details are shown in Appendix
S6.
Rayleigh damping was optionally added to the membrane to
enable quicker calculation of stable displacement position, mass
and stiffness parameters were set to 10 1/s and 1e−7 s. When
evaluating the dynamic behaviour (red curve in Fig.(b)) of the
actuator the Rayleigh damping was excluded. Rayleigh damping
is added directly to the virtual work equation (see Eq. (19)), so
it does not affect the constitutive relation of the FE model. This
stands in contrast to the other damping models.
∂P ∂u
∫
δW = (−δ (∇ u) : βdK − αdM ρδ u · )dv (19)
V ∂t ∂t
where P is the first Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor, αdM is the mass
damping coefficient, and βdK is the stiffness damping coefficient’’.
Fig. 3(c) shows the displacement-time curves obtained from
the FE model under different load conditions, P (see Fig. 1(c)).
The forces and corresponding displacements were recorded and
compared to the theoretical solutions and the experimental data
in [10]. As shown in Fig. 3(d), the derived force-length relation-
ship is consistent with the analytical solutions and experimental
data in [10]. The effectiveness of the FE model is thus validated
through a strong correlation with the experimental data.
The FE model provides information on the static and dynamic
behaviour, fluid flow, electrical properties, and material selection
of the Peano-HASEL actuators. Previous studies explain the static
behaviour, but our study also explains the dynamic behaviour
in the FE model. In Fig. 4(a), the capacitances for two geome-
tries were recorded and compared with Eq. (14). The simulation
results were consistent with Eq. (14). Deviation exists in the
fully activated state because the fluid cannot be fully squeezed
out of the electrode region, which is assumed in the analytical
model. Fig. 4(b) reveals how the stiffness of the membrane affects
the output strain and stress of the actuator, providing a tool
for material selection. The output strain decreases linearly with
increasing the membrane stiffness, while output stress shows
the opposite trend. Fig. 4(c) and (d) show the stress distribu-
tion and the deformation of the actuator, respectively. Peak von
Mises stresses of 1.8 × 108 Pa occurred in the sealing region.
The maximum reaction force was 35 N. A ‘Fluid pocket’ ap-
peared at the tip of the electrode, limiting the deformation of
Z. Liu, H. McAleese, A. Weightman et al.
the actuator as fluid in separate regions during activation will
limit the maximum strain. The electric field was monitored to
avoid electric breakdown. Fig. 4(e) shows the relationship be-
tween damping characteristics and actuator size. The logarithmic
decrement method [34] was used to find the damping ratio of
the actuator while Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) [35] was per-
formed to find the undamped natural frequency. As the size
(length and width) of the actuator increases, the damping ratio
and damped natural frequency first decrease and then increase,
with average values of 0.07 and 425 Hz, respectively. In addition,
force-length and force-velocity relationships were obtained from
the displacement-time plot (Fig. 3(b)) to evaluate the static and
dynamic behaviour of the actuators.
3.3. Severity analysis
Failure modes, effects, causes and corrective action decisions
were analysed and recorded. Failure cases from the FEA were
found related to material selection, geometry, heat seal and elec-
tric field. Material failures were related to force-length relation-
ships. The reaction force in the sealing region was calculated to
be 35 N and the seal strength of the membrane varied from 18 N
to 90 N [36], indicating a risk of membrane peeling failure. The
distortion of the actuator can be directly observed.
Corrective action decisions were made based on failure modes
and severity. Details are given in Table 3. Material failures due
to material properties result in plastic deformation or limited
output force. The material should be flexible enough to allow
bending, but stiff enough to limit tensile strain. This finding is
consistent with the experiments by Washington et al. [14]. If
the material failure causes high severity (rank 2,3), the electrode
is replaced with a stiffer material. If not, no corrective action
is made. The FE model can detect material failures, which is a
significant advantage over previous analytical models that cannot
detect material failure, which were previously only highlighted
during practical actuator experiments. Geometry failure is caused
by actuator sizes where the actuator cannot generate force or
even cannot be activated. If geometry failure happens, the op-
timization spaces are modified to avoid unfunctional geometry.
Heat seal failure causes actuator peeling which can be mitigated
by making notches to aid in bending and relieve stress and strain
concentration. In addition, electrical breakdown would happen if
the electric field density exceeded membrane dielectric strength,
which can be avoided by reducing the activation voltage.
3.4. Artificial muscle fibre
The optimal configuration produced by the three-stage
methodology was [80 mm, 0.40 rad, 20 µm, 7600 V] ([width, ini-
tial central angle, film thickness, activation voltage]). Fig. 5(a)
and (b) demonstrate the dimensionless force-length and force-
velocity relationships of the artificial muscle fibre, respectively.
The two relationships match those of skeletal muscle fibres [15,
24,26,28]. Fig. 5(c) shows that the synthetic muscle consists of 80
fibres can generate a force of 800 N and simulate the performance
of a 200 mm long skeletal muscle. The efficiency of the artificial
fibre calculated from the force-length data is 22%, compared
with 35% for biological muscles and 50% to pneumatic artificial
muscles [1,7]. In addition, the membrane material stiffness, which
affects force output, can be reduced to fully match the force out-
put of skeletal muscle. Fig. 5(d) further compares the similarity
of skeletal muscle, artificial muscle and the unoptimized Peano-
HASEL actuator, showing that the artificial muscle fibre is better
matched to skeletal muscle.
6
Extreme Mechanics Letters 63 (2023) 102050
4. Discussion
This paper created a FE model of Peano-HASEL actuator which
produces a full multi-physics simulation coupling the electro-
mechanical and fluid–solid interactions, for the first time simu-
lating an entire activation cycle and modelling force-length and
force-velocity relationships. Force-length and force-velocity re-
lationships (static and dynamic behaviour) are two of the most
important properties of the skeletal muscle. Analytical models
were derived to calculate the capacitance and the efficiency of the
actuator, and these models were validated by simulation results.
A three-stage methodology of evolutionary strategy, FEA and
severity analysis, was used to optimize the Peano-HASEL actuator
for use as artificial muscle fibre. The optimal configuration for
the artificial muscle fibre design was found to be [ 80 mm,0.40
rad, 20 µm,7600 V] ([width, initial central angle, film thickness,
activation voltage]), which can produce 80% of peak maximum
strain (∼18.8%), have an efficiency of 22%, generate high loads
within 5% strain and restore muscle-like performance beyond 5%
strain.
Kellaris et al. [10] predicted the static properties of Peano-
HASEL actuator, and their foundational work in this area excel-
lently demonstrated the feasibility and potential of these actua-
tors for artificial muscle and robotic applications. However, they
did not explain the dynamic performance. They also pointed out
that more research must be done on the solid–liquid dielectric
structures (both the fluid inertia effects and fluid cavitation)
to fully understand the potential performance and limitations
of Peano-HASEL actuators. This was supported by Rothemund
et al. [12] who indicated that for more accurate theoretical predi-
cations of the dynamics of Peano-HASEL actuators, multi-physics
simulations of fluid flow, electric field, and shell deformation
are required. Our FE model addresses some of these issues by
modelling full dynamic behaviour in Peano-HASEL actuators con-
structed with the same materials as Kellaris et al. and Rothe-
mund et al. [10,12], which is an essential advancement to design
real-world dynamic systems. Geometry failures occurred when
increasing the amount of fluid, which explained why 0.2415 rad
was used in their experiments.
Tynan et al. [13] built a 2D static FE model of Peano-HASEL
actuator in ANSYS to evaluate drive mechanism designs. But their
study is static rather than time dependent. The electrodes were
replaced with TRANS 126 elements. ‘Capacitance versus stroke’
data needs to be determined to couple electrostatic forces and
displacement, which may limit the real deformation. Washington
et al. [14] developed a multiphysics 2D model in COMSOL. In
their model, calculated surface traction was applied to replace
the electrodes and couple solid mechanics and electrostatics. The
electrical characteristics of the actuator were therefore ignored.
They reported for the first time ‘fluid pocket’ phenomenon that
was also observed in our simulations, which brings new insights.
However, their model simulated geometry with less fluid inside.
This may lead to incompatibility when adjusting their model
to configurations used by other researchers [10–12], where the
actuator can be fully activated into a circle, as more fluid allows
for greater contraction and transient dynamic effects. Their simu-
lation ended after initial activation so transient dynamic response
could not be simulated. Our work builds on the work of [14]
by extending it to model larger fluid volumes of and to entire
activation cycles. The model was validated by comparing the
force-length relationship obtained from the FE model to the the-
oretical solutions and experimental data in [10]. We also consider
the transient dynamic response reflecting the damping ratio and
damped natural frequency.
Klute et al. [24] used pneumatic artificial muscle to mimic a
muscle–tendon system. This design was based on static and dy-
namic properties of vertebrate skeletal muscle and tendon, which
Z. Liu, H. McAleese, A. Weightman et al. Extreme Mechanics Letters 63 (2023) 102050

Fig. 3. (a) Verification of the evolutionary strategy. Red markers represent a design configuration of the Peano-HASEL actuator, i.e., a 1 × 4 vector of [width, initial
central angle, film thickness, activation voltage]. Colours represent the logarithmic cost function values. The convergence on the optimum angle a = 0.70 rad for
all film thicknesses is shown in the final generation. (b) Displacement-time results and fluid states under no-load condition. The blue line is the Rayleigh damping
curve and the red line is the natural curve. The state of the actuator at different times is shown. Red arrows are fluid flow vectors. Coloured displacement field from
the finite element model at the stable position under no-load condition. The black wireframe represents the undeformed geometry. (c) Displacement-time curves
obtained from the FE model under different load conditions. (d) Validation of the finite element model. Force-length relationship obtained from Fig. 3(c) is compared
with the analytical models and experimental data in [10]. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

mathematically describes the required force, length, and velocity
characteristics of the muscle–tendon actuator. Similarly, our de-
sign derived a mathematical model of the Peano-HASEL actuator
and utilized it to replicate the muscle model. The main difference
lies in the method of determining the coefficients of isometric
contractions, which is due to the difference in application. They
used ranges obtained from mammals, including humans and cats,
for locomotion artificial muscle designs, while we used definite
values for prosthetic designs. Compared to their experimental
approach, our workflow is done virtually, thus saving time and
cost. Furthermore, the force-velocity relationship of Peano-HASEL
7
actuator has a convex shape similar to that of skeletal muscle,
rather than the unideal concave shape shown in [24].
To the author’s knowledge, our paper models for the first
time, all components and all multiphysics of Peano-HASEL actu-
ators and produced force-length and force-velocity relationships
to help understand the static and dynamic performance of the
actuators and benefit the actuator design. The shape of these
two relationships has significant implications for actuator per-
formance such as efficiency, which will be important in fields
such as robotics and prosthetic applications which require nat-
ural muscle-like performance [37]. The multiphysics model also
Z. Liu, H. McAleese, A. Weightman et al. Extreme Mechanics Letters 63 (2023) 102050

Fig. 4. (a) Capacitance data. Two geometries are studied. Capacitance data obtained from the finite element model is compared with the theoretical solution. (b)
Strain-material stiffness curve and stress-material stiffness curve. (c) Stress distribution of the finite element model under no-load condition. (d) Distorted electrode
during simulation. (e) Relationship between damping characteristics and actuator size.

Fig. 5. (a) Dimensionless force-length relationship (fibre level). (b) Dimensionless force-velocity relationship (fibre level). (c). Force-length relationship (muscle level).
Synthetic muscle produced up to 800 N in the ‘high load’ region and simulated the performance of a 200 mm long skeletal muscle in the ‘muscle-like performance’
region. The membrane material can be tuned (reduce stiffness) to fully match the skeletal muscle force output. (d). Frechet distance between skeletal muscle (curve1),
artificial muscle design (curve2) and unoptimized actuator (curve3).

8
Z. Liu, H. McAleese, A. Weightman et al. Extreme Mechanics Letters 63 (2023) 102050

Table 3
Failure mode, effects, causes and corrective decisions.
Failure mode Effects Causes Severity Corrective action
decisions
Geometry Limited output force. Unfunctional geometrical 3 Change the optimization
failure Even blocked actuation. parameters. Excessive space to avoid
fluid in the actuator. unfunctional geometry.
Material 1. Plastic deformation. 1. The electrode material 2 1. Change the material.
failure 2. Limited output strain. is too soft. 2. Change the material
2. The membrane or cross-linking.
material is too stiff.

Decreased blocking force. The membrane is too 1 No action.

soft.
Heat seal The sealed membranes Stress concentration in 3 Make notches along the
failure of the actuator can be the sealing region. edges to avoid stress
separated. and strain concentrations
in the sealing region. Or
use a more robust
fabrication method.
Electrical Electrical breakdown The electric field norm 3 Decrease the activation
breakdown would happen. density in the electrode voltage or thicken the
region exceeds the membrane.
dielectric strength of the
material.

improves the understanding of Peano-HASEL actuators. Plastic Declaration of competing interest

deformation, failures, and fluid pocket phenomenon are detected
during the simulation. Previous studies did not consider mate-
rial issues, whereas the FE model provides a tool for material
selection. The parameterized FE model also fits in the iterative
optimization process and provides data for severity analysis. Fu-
ture work will focus on the design of multiple actuators and the
activation strategy, as well as the design of actuation mechanisms
that consider mimicking passive muscle forces.
A limitation of the FE model in this paper is that it is a 2D
model and does not consider width-wise details. The current
model may not be able to perform fatigue analysis since high
cycles will generate heat and film polymer material properties
are sensitive to temperature change. Heat transfer physics has not
been considered in our model and would need to be added to the
model to account for temperature effects. In addition, the severity
analysis performed in this study did not consider the probability
of failure. A full FMEA based on three risk factors (Occurrence,
Severity, Detection) may be required.
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, the model in this paper produced, for the first
time, a dynamic FE model of a Peano-HASEL actuator for an
entire activation cycle, modelling both force-length and force-
velocity relationships by accounting for the mechanical stress,
fluid mechanics and electrical behaviour. The model provides
the first tool to investigate force-velocity relationship of Peano-
HASEL actuators, which is crucial for biomimetic synthetic muscle
simulation and prosthetic design. The FE model also improves
the understanding of the dynamics of Peano-HASEL actuators,
including damping and frequency characteristics. Plastic defor-
mation and fluid pocket phenomenon due to materials observed
during the simulation, these material factors are not included
in analytical models published before. This work also proposed
a novel three-stage design methodology of evolutionary strat-
egy, FEA and severity analysis. The artificial muscle fibre de-
signed by this methodology can produce 80% of peak maximum
strain (∼18.8%), have an efficiency of 22%, generate high loads
within 5% strain and restore muscle-like performance beyond 5%
strain.
The Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found
online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eml.2023.102050.
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