Theory and Practices

of

Marine
Pilotage

Capt. Santosha K. Nayak

ISBN 9781648998379

This book has been published with all reasonable efforts taken to make the material error-free after the consent of the author.
No part of this book shall be used, reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author, except
in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

Edition-2 (2021)
Copyright Santosha Kumar Nayak (2020-2021)

All rights reserved

 Dedication
This book is dedicated to my wife Swarnika, without whose constant
support, the desire to write this book would not have been materialised
into reality. Thank you so much for understanding and supporting me in
difficult times.
 Table of Contents

Introduction to Marine Pilotage ................................................................................................................ 17

Who are Marine Pilots?......................................................................................................................... 17
Duties and Responsibility of Marine Pilots............................................................................................. 18
Maritime History of World and Role of Marine Pilots ............................................................................ 19
Present Day Marine Pilotage ................................................................................................................. 21
Essential Services provided to World Trade and Economy ..................................................................... 22
Changing role of Pilots in Marine Safety and Accident Prevention ......................................................... 23

PART –A (Produres Related to Marine Pilotage)

Pilotage Services in Ports .......................................................................................................................... 27

Use of Port’s Pilotage Services by Ships ................................................................................................. 27
IMO Resolutions encouraging the use of pilots on board ships in certain areas ..................................... 28
Pilotage Directions ................................................................................................................................ 28
Harbour Master’s Role in Pilotage – Marine Administration .................................................................. 29
Role of VTMS or Port Control Centre in Pilotage .................................................................................... 31
Pilotage Techniques in Manoeuvring of Ships........................................................................................ 32
Booking and Cancellation of Pilotage Services ....................................................................................... 35
Signals Associated with Marine Pilots .................................................................................................... 35
Pilot Transfer Procedures .......................................................................................................................... 38
Some Statistics Related Reasons that lead to Accidents: Significant Deficiencies ................................... 40
Risks Involved during Pilot Transfer Procedures .................................................................................... 43
Regulations in respect of Pilotage Access and Egress ............................................................................. 45
Safe Procedures for Boarding and Disembarkation ................................................................................ 48
2nd Most Prevalent Method of Pilot Transfer – Using Helicopters .......................................................... 51
Pilot Embarkation Platform System (Dangerous Trap-Door Mechanism) ............................................... 52
Novelty Methods to Develop Full-proof Boarding Mechanism ............................................................... 53
A Case for Additional Safety: Mechanical Fall protection Systems ......................................................... 54
Master - Pilot Info Exchange (MPiX) .......................................................................................................... 57
Pre-boarding Information Exchange and preparations .......................................................................... 57
 Information from Master in MPiX ......................................................................................................... 58
Information from the Pilot in MPiX ....................................................................................................... 61
Paramount Duties of Pilot before Commencement of Pilotage ............................................................. 63
Various Plans drawn up by the Pilot for the Vessel’s Movement ........................................................... 64
Conduct of Passage in Pilotage Waters ................................................................................................. 68

PART – B (Manoeuvring Techniques)

Entering Pilotage Waters ........................................................................................................................... 71

What is Confined Waters? .................................................................................................................... 71
Dangers associated with Confined Waters ............................................................................................ 72
Key Factors in Handling Vessels in Confined Waters.............................................................................. 75
Checks Prior Entry into Harbour Approach Channel .............................................................................. 77
Entering the Approach Channel to harbour ........................................................................................... 82
Safe Positioning of a Vessel in the Channel ................................................................................................ 87
2D- Configuration of Channel................................................................................................................ 87
Determining the Course to Steer (CTS).................................................................................................. 89
Position of the Vessel w.r.t Centreline of Channel ................................................................................. 89
Effective Set (dash) in the Prevailing Circumstances.............................................................................. 96
Tolerable Set in the Channel ................................................................................................................. 98
Phenomenon of “Bow Kissing the Buoys” ........................................................................................... 100
Some Points on Bridge procedures for safe keeping of vessel in the channel ...................................... 101
Shallow Water Effects & Channel Dynamics ............................................................................................. 103
What is Shallow Water Conditions? .................................................................................................... 103
Vertical Aspects of Vessel in relation to Depth in Shallow Water ......................................................... 104
Shallow water Effects on the Vessel’s Manoeuvrability ....................................................................... 109
Channel Dynamics during Manoeuvring of Ships ................................................................................. 112
Break Water & Water Dynamics in Proximity ........................................................................................... 114
Breakwaters and their Significance ..................................................................................................... 114
Types of Break water .......................................................................................................................... 115
Hydrodynamics near Breakwaters ...................................................................................................... 118
Precautions to be taken while passing Breakwater ............................................................................. 123
Tugs and Their Role in Manoeuvring ........................................................................................................ 125
 General Requirements for the Tugs ..................................................................................................... 125
Types of Tugs According to Design of Tugs .......................................................................................... 126
Operational Types of Tugs ................................................................................................................... 130
Understanding the Power of Tugs ....................................................................................................... 133
Number of Tugs to be used in Manoeuvring ........................................................................................ 134
Safe Operational Procedures for Using Tugs in Manoeuvring .............................................................. 134
Right Fairlead Position for Making Fast Position of Tugs ...................................................................... 136
Making Fast the Tug ............................................................................................................................ 137
Correct Use of Tug Combinations at Various Legs of Passage............................................................... 139
Casting off the Tug .............................................................................................................................. 140
Speed Control ......................................................................................................................................... 141
Rule 6: Safe Speed............................................................................................................................... 141
Essence of Speed Control .................................................................................................................... 142
Making a Speed Reduction Plan .......................................................................................................... 143
Options for Speed Reduction .............................................................................................................. 144
Understanding Stopping Distance, Vessel Weight, and Acceleration.................................................... 146
Concept of Balancing Rudder Angle (BRA) and Rudder Giveaway (RG) Point........................................ 151
Main Engine Types and their Optimum Usage.......................................................................................... 154
The Ship Drive Train ............................................................................................................................ 154
Basic Characteristics Features of a Main Engine .................................................................................. 156
Types of engines and their Manoeuvring Potentials ............................................................................ 157
Optimal usage of engines in Various Scenarios: ................................................................................... 159
Transverse Thrusters (At the Bow and/or Stern).................................................................................. 161
Azimuthal Podded Drive or Azipods .................................................................................................... 162
Alteration of Courses .............................................................................................................................. 164
Understanding the Characteristics of a Rudder.................................................................................... 164
Pivot Point and Its Position.................................................................................................................. 166
How the vessel Turns - Controlling Forces ........................................................................................... 168
Directional Stability & Turning Ability .................................................................................................. 168
Wheel Over Point (WOP) While Altering Courses ................................................................................ 169
Concepts associated with Execution of a Turn ..................................................................................... 171
Execution of Large but Unaided Alteration of Courses in Limited Sea rooms ....................................... 178
Amalgamated Turn – (Turning + Reduction of Speed together) ........................................................... 181
Manoeuvring Inside Harbour Limits ......................................................................................................... 185
What is special inside harbours? ......................................................................................................... 185
What are the keys in handling vessels in harbour? .............................................................................. 188
Managing Sudden Onset of External Disturbances .............................................................................. 191
Handling Different Types of Crafts ...................................................................................................... 193
Contingency Plans - Plan for the Unexpected Situations...................................................................... 195
Slow Speed Manoeuvres ......................................................................................................................... 199
What is Slow Speed Manoeuvring? ..................................................................................................... 199
When a Vessel Resort to Slow Speed Manoeuvring? ........................................................................... 200
Why slow Speed manoeuvring is Critical? ........................................................................................... 200
Thumb Rules of Slow Speed Manoeuvring .......................................................................................... 203
Various Options Available to Control the Ship at Slow Speed .............................................................. 203
Some Extreme Manoeuvres at Very Slow Speed ................................................................................. 212
Approaching Berths................................................................................................................................. 217
Checks before Approaching to Berth................................................................................................... 217
Checks while approaching the Berth ................................................................................................... 219
Vessel’s Approach Speed to the Berth ................................................................................................ 221
Near-Berth Manoeuvres ..................................................................................................................... 222
Berthing & Moorings ............................................................................................................................... 228
Safe Berth........................................................................................................................................... 228
Significance of moorings ..................................................................................................................... 229
Mooring Procedure at the Berth ......................................................................................................... 230
Special Situations................................................................................................................................ 231
Mooring with the Buoys ..................................................................................................................... 233
Mooring with Anchors ........................................................................................................................ 234
Un-berthing and Outward Manoeuvre ..................................................................................................... 237
Outward Paperwork & Information Exchange ..................................................................................... 237
Un-berthing Plan ................................................................................................................................ 238
Outward Near-Berth Manoeuvres....................................................................................................... 240
Casting off Tugs .................................................................................................................................. 243
Pilot Disembarkation .......................................................................................................................... 244
Emergency Manoeuvring Options ............................................................................................................ 245
Emergency Scenarios while Manoeuvring in Port Limits ...................................................................... 245
 Vessel’s Manoeuvring Characteristics.................................................................................................. 246
Understanding Stopping Ability of a Vessel ......................................................................................... 247
How the Crash Stop or Astern is executed? ......................................................................................... 251
Telegraph Failure - Emergency Operation of Engines from E/Room ..................................................... 252
Reduction of Speed on Engine Failure ................................................................................................. 252
Emergency Methods of Killing the Speed to Avoid a Disaster .............................................................. 254
Turning Ability at Max Rudder Angle in Open and Shallow Waters ...................................................... 255
Comparison between Effects of Crash Astern vs. Full Ahead and Hard Over Wheel ............................. 257
Special Operations .................................................................................................................................. 258
A. STS Operations ............................................................................................................................ 258
B. Single Buoy Mooring Operation....................................................................................................... 263
C. Customary Towing Operation .......................................................................................................... 264

PART – C (Legal Aspects of Pilotage)

Statutory Aspects of Pilotage .................................................................................................................. 275

History of Regulations related to Marine Pilots ................................................................................... 276
Designated Authorities that Regulate Pilotage Matters ....................................................................... 276
Pilotage Regulations............................................................................................................................ 277
Present Status of Pilotage Regulations in Various Parts of World......................................................... 278
Pilotage Exemption certificates (PEC) .................................................................................................. 289
Qualification, Certification and Standardisation of Marine Pilots ......................................................... 290
Administration by Harbour Master ...................................................................................................... 293
Legal Standing of a Marine Pilot in Various Situations .............................................................................. 294
Pilot-Master Relationship Related to Responsibility ............................................................................ 294
Legally Speaking, Who is a Pilot? ......................................................................................................... 295
Pilot – An Integral Part of the Bridge Team or An Outsiders? ............................................................... 296
Risks of having an Adviser – Risks While Pilot is On Board a Vessel ...................................................... 298
Accidents and the Aftermath during pilotage ...................................................................................... 299

Appendices
Pilotage Laws.......................................................................................................................................... 305
Recommendations related to Pilotage Access and Egress ......................................................................... 311
 Preface
It has been a great pleasure to convert the unspoken and unexplained theories came up to my mind during my
pilotage experiences of handling a wide range of ships in very restrictive environments. The immense mental
challenges a marine pilot goes through in optimising the vessels safe positioning at every seconds of time with the
available scarce resources is really commendable. This doesn’t mean anything to a non-mariner; but for a mariner,
it really means something that needs excellent reflexes imbibed with knowledge and courage.

Within a limited fraternity of seafarers, there exists another smaller fraternity of the Marine Pilots. The problems,
the challenges, the intensity of demands on the job of those marine pilots may be understood by none other than
fellow Marine pilots. And this limited fraternity barely ever meet and talks about the technicalities of the job they
do almost every day. Thus the treasure of experience they gain in manoeuvring the ships- large and small, deep or
light, streamlined or unusual, remains largely with themselves and barely disseminated among the seafaring
community. Thus even masters with long experiences sometimes get afraid to carry out manoeuvring in confined
waters. When we talk about questioning the pilot’s intentions by the master or the bridge team, it seldom happens
in practice. That’s why I think there is a need to disseminate the knowledge gained by a pilot among the seafaring
community for the better understanding of the pilot’s action by a bridge team.

In the present state of knowledge on manoeuvring, there are practically no books available in the market which
explains the nitty-gritties of manoeuvring to any interested reader. There few books available which repeat few
old and repeated theories of ship handling. With that minimum knowledge, how can we expect a present day deck
cadet would be a diligent master in future to question the pilot’s intention on the bridge?

This book investigates the science behind each component of manoeuvring a ship in confined waters, especially in
port limits and the art to master it. I have been analysing each manoeuvring situations of each incident and
accidents published in public domain since the day one when I decided to take up the job of a Marine Pilot. I have
been analysing each manoeuvring situations I faced and I am continuously trying on how to improve the pilotage
techniques on manoeuvring of ships. Based on my steady observation, analysis and experience on each major and
minor aspect of the manoeuvring of different types of vessels in different types of situations, I tried to put all the
relevant knowledge together for reference of all concerned with pilotage and ship handling.

I hope the book will be appreciated and will be of some use for all the stake holders in the Marine industry around
the world especially for fellow pilots, for masters and deck officers, for competent port authorities dealing with
pilotage, for the cadets learning in the marine training institutes, trainers of ship handling in various shipping
companies etc.

Thank you Very Much

Capt. Santosha K. Nayak

 Author's Note to 2nd Edition (2021)
It has been more than one year after the first edition of this book was published. There was a fairly a
feeling among the pilots especially the trainee pilots, junior pilots and the aspiring pilots of need of a
book that talks the practical aspects of Marine Pilotage. There was no reference book where a pilot may
look into at the time of need. I personally felt the same during my training days as pilot. I scribbled
down everything that I observed during my experience. Later on I critically analysed and drew
conclusions based on observations. Same conclusions were put back for testing and later validated. I
have discussed many topics with my senior pilots, colleagues and peers.

Through a long process of observation- analysis – deliberation – drawing conclusions and further testing
and validation techniques, and finally writing down everything on various sheets are a tedious task I
went through. Further the scribbled texts were compiled and edited multiple times to make them
presentable to the readers. I tried all my best to give a shape to the book while doing the pilotage duties
on roaster. I was a difficult phase in my life.

Why I’m sharing all this after one year? Not on the first edition of the book. Because in 2020 I dint
know how the book will be received by the readers. Now in 2021 after 1 year of circulation, I’m
confident that the book was well received by the readers. The readers from world over welcome the
book with a great positive feedback. It was quite encouraging for me. I would heartily thank all the
readers of the book and for their nice feedback.

I would declare here that the readership has been ever increasing positively. Now I felt the need to revise
the book. There were some errors in the texts. There were some critical texts missing in some pages.
There were some important topics missing. I would again that the readers to bear with the
inconsistencies while focusing mainly on the knowledge.

I tried to remove all the inconsistencies as far as possible in this edition of the book. Still I believe there
must be some minor mistakes still exist in the text. If you find any error that need to be corrected, or if
you have any suggestions to add ay left out topic, please feel free to contact me on my mail id given
below.

In this edition, following are added:

Chapter: 1. Pilotage Services in Ports

2. Statutory Aspects of Pilotage

Sections: 1. Controlling speed while maintaining steerage, in the chapter Speed Control
2. Concept of Balancing Rudder Angle (BRA) and Rudder Giveaway (RG) Point
3. Directional stability with engine stopped in the chapter Alteration of courses
4. Operational tug types
5. Amalgamated Turn – (Turning + Reduction of Speed together)
6. Turning stages while reducing speed.

Restructured: Besides above additions, many of the chapters are restructured in a better manner. Some of the
paragraphs were rewritten and edited substantially.

I hope this edition of the book surely help the readers in enhancing their knowledge and help maritime industry in
preventing disastrous accidents in future. I reemphasize again, I hope that the book will be appreciated and be of
some use for all the stake holders in the Marine industry around the world especially for fellow pilots, for masters
and deck officers, for competent port authorities dealing with pilotage, for the cadets learning in the marine
training institutes, trainers of ship handling in various shipping companies etc.

Thank you Very Much

Capt. Santosha K. Nayak

nayaksk.books@gmail.com
 Introduction to Marine Pilotage
Who are Marine Pilots?
Duties and Responsibilities of Marine Pilots
Maritime History of World and Role of Marine Pilots
Present Day Marine Pilotage
Essential Services Provided to the World Trade and Economy
Role of Pilots in Marine Safety and Accident Prevention

Share of maritime trade in the total composite value of world trade is ever increasing. More than 90% of trade is
estimated to be transported by sea. With the growth of world economy there is constant growth in world shipping
activities in a globalised world. In the maritime history of world, the story of the evolution of ships and shipping
practices is quite interesting and worth knowing. The shipping practices of past shaped the nature and
characteristics of the world trade today and would continue to shape the future of the world trade. With the advent
of new technology in shipbuilding, navigation and control systems, shipping in the world has become more secure
and efficient. Technology though brings efficiency, the objectives, basic principles and practices in shipping
remain same over decades, centuries and eons!!!

Seafarers around the world put all their efforts to accomplish the task of marine trade overseas. However their
efforts mostly go unnoticed to the general public. The role of seafarers is indispensible to the growth of world
economy. The brightness in the glorious tales of world trade and economy hails from the hard sacrifices and
commitment of the world’s seafarers!!!

Who are Marine Pilots?

Marine pilot is a navigational expert who manoeuvres ships through dangerous water ways including narrow
channels, canals, straits, anchorages and within harbour limits and guides the ships along the safest route to their
safe berth inside harbour. They have expertise in complex manoeuvring of ships- small and large, light or heavy,
propelled or un-propelled, assisted or unassisted. They have knowledge on the features of specific waterways –
above and below the sea surfaces, depth and heights, winds and currents, tides – surge and streams. They have
experience in handling the ships in extreme hazardous conditions. They are avid readers of weather by observing
the sea surface, the sky colour and texture, the smell and temperatures of the wind.

In English law, Section 742 of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894 defines a pilot as "any person not belonging to a
ship who has the conduct thereof." Thus Pilot is someone other than a member of the crew who has control over
the speed, direction, and movement of the ship.

Armed with knowledge – in and out of a specific waterway, Marine pilots manoeuvre ships from dangerous
waters to safe berths so as to facilitate the loading and discharging of cargo and or other marine services in the
seaports. In addition to local knowledge and expertise, Marine Pilots are able to provide effective communication
with the managers of navigational aids, personnel of other water crafts, port authorities, flag states, if need be.

Though marine pilot profession is relatively unknown, it happens to be one of the oldest professions of the world.
Pilotage, as a profession, was developed thousands of years ago. Earliest records of the use of locally experienced
harbour captains to guide trading ships into port safely date back to ancient Indus Valley, Greek and Roman
times. Seafarers around the world very well understand who a marine pilot is. A master of a vessel best
understands what a Marine Pilot stands for. And without their invaluable services, probably the world trade would
come to a standstill. For a person from outside maritime world, anybody can gauge the importance of Marine
Pilots from amount of chaos it created to the world trade in the recent incident of Suez Canal blockage by a giant
Container vessel in the month of March 2021. So, in short I can say, Marine Pilots act as facilitator of maritime
trade.

As per the local port regulations, most of the vessels are required to employ pilots compulsorily except in some
cases to manoeuvre the vessels into the approach channels and subsequently into the harbour limits in most of the
sea ports of the world. There are some exceptions do exist, especially for regular vessels, when port authorities
provide Pilot Exemption Certificates to the masters of such vessels.

Duties and Responsibility of Marine Pilots

Marine Pilotage is one of the oldest and least-known professions of world. Though it is least-known, it is one of
the most important links in maritime commercial trade. The actual economic and environmental risks involving in
large ships make the role of the pilots extremely essential providing safety to ship passages, safety of life at sea
and protection of the marine environment. Any mistake in ship’s navigation has potential to reach situations
which lead to disastrous consequences. Thus shipmasters along with marine pilots are important and inevitable
contributors to the safety of ships and lives on board and existence of shipping activities. They also help in
protection of the marine environment including marine life and their habitats.

The masters being seasoned navigators with many sailing years of experience under their belt have all the
knowledge about the ship, her manoeuvring characteristics and peculiar behaviour etc. They are the sole handler
of the ships when vessel is out at sea. But there are situations and places which demands greater skill and
experience in the manoeuvring of ships in hazardous waters, or in limited sea-rooms, or in extreme traffic
densities. In such situations and places, Ship master needs assistance- of the Mates, shore authorities and Pilots
for the safe navigation of ships and trade as the situation demands.

Although captains are experts at navigating their vessels, they are not experts on the specific navigational
peculiarities of each port around the world. Moreover due to various geographical, geological and hydrodynamic
factors, the navigational features of ports are changing regularly. The information on these real-time changes in
navigational features is relatively unknown to the Ship masters. Therefore masters need the local expertise of a
marine pilot to ensure that their vessel and her crew, passengers and cargo arrive at the port in a safe condition.
Furthermore the inexperience of masters in approaching a particular port adds to the fact that Marine Pilots are
inevitable for execution of maritime commercial trades around the world.

The duties of maritime pilots are quite different from that of the ship’s Masters. When vessel transits in pilotage
waters, or navigates with pilots on board, legally speaking, the master has full responsibility for safe navigation of
their vessel even if a pilot is on board the vessel. Pilot is employed as an adviser to the master in safe
manoeuvring of ships. Pilots never give any order to the members of the bridge team, He advises the master on
the engine and helm orders. The master consequently gives order to the D/O or the helms man to execute specific
commands or himself executes the commands.

Only in transit of the Panama Canal and in Canada does the pilot have the full responsibility for the navigation of
the vessel and master is relieved of all accountability from navigation of vessel. However in some countries,
Master who have strong local knowledge and experience of navigation in the specific ports, may be issued with a
pilotage exemption certificate, which relieves them of the need to take a pilot on board.

The role of the pilot increases when the size of the ship is large as well as when she is fully laden. The difficulty
level further increases when depth below keel of ship is reduced. Many a time the depth reduces to very low level
and vessel has to navigate in or out of the port in very less time window. Large and laden ships need the expertise
and experience of pilots in manoeuvring in restricted waters as they are quite heavy and difficult to manoeuvre.

Ship’s Master develops a good rapport with the marine pilots and makes them feel comfortable while on board.

If there is any miscommunication between them, it could lead to potentially disastrous consequences.
Bridge procedures and bridge resource management principles still apply when a pilot is on board. The bridge
team must conduct a pre-passage briefing with the pilot to ensure a common understanding of the Passage Plan
prior to its execution. Pilot, master and watch keepers must all participate fully, and in a mutually supportive
manner.

The master and bridge team have a duty to support the pilot and monitor his/her actions. This includes querying
any actions or omissions by the pilot or any members of the bridge team, if inconsistent with the passage plan, or
if the safety of the ship is in any doubt. If master, in his opinion, have grounds that the pilot may jeopardize the
safety of navigation; the master may not follow pilot’s advice and may relieve the pilot from his duties.

But practically nowadays ship masters ignore pilot’s advice as master himself is inexperienced in navigation in
heavily restricted waters and unaware of the local conditions of the waterway but to rely completely on the Pilots.
Even if master relieves the pilot at any instance, the vessel has to wait till another pilot boards the vessel to start
approaching to the harbour as pilotage is mostly compulsory affair. Waiting means delay in time. Nowadays
“Delay” is highly scary word for the master to listen as it means loss of time and money heavily for the ship
owner. Thus masters are tied with commercial pressures. Further the vessel would be charged with pilot
cancellation charges and book for another pilot at another differed time.

Maritime History of World and Role of Marine Pilots

The present work-status of the maritime pilots has been developed around a long legacy of the maritime history of
the world. Maritime history traces its roots to 3000 BCE Indus Valley Civilization when its inhabitants initiated
maritime trading contact with Mesopotamia. Lothal was a flourishing port in the Indus valley civilization on the
west coast of India in the present day Gujurat, its topography and geology reflects its maritime past. The use of
pilots in the maritime trade has a long legacy since those days of Indus Valley Civilization. The work functions of
the pilot go back to ancient civilizations of Indus Valley, Greece and Romans, when locally experienced harbour
captains, mainly local fishermen, were employed by incoming ships' captains to bring their trading vessels into
port safely.

There is a mention of local pilots being employed by the traders in the maritime history of Odisha, known as
Kalinga in ancient times, in as early as 350 BC. The traders of Kalinga sailed up and down the Indian coast, and
travelled to Southeast Asian countries and China, introducing elements of their culture to the people with whom
they traded with. In Java, Sumatera and Borneo, they introduced Indian culture. The introduction of Indian culture
created a demand for aromatics. The 6th century book “Manjusrimulakalpa” mentions the Bay of Bengal as
'Kalingodra'. Historically the Bay of Bengal has been called 'Kalinga Sagara' means Kalinga Sea. This indicates
the importance of Kalinga in the maritime trade. The old traditions are still celebrated in the annual Boita-
Bandana festival held for five days in October / November.

The term “pilot” appeared very early, in the 6th century BC, in Ezekiel’s book, where the term “pilot”, as “guide”
of the ship, had already been frequently used. For as long as ships have been sailing the seas, there have been
maritime pilots to assist them in their most treacherous passages. There are references to pilots, expert ship
handlers with unrivalled local knowledge who assist or take over from ship’s masters to guide vessels through
dangerous or congested waters, in ancient texts such as the Bible and Homer’s Iliad. Existence of the ancestor of
the maritime pilot may also be found in the book of Homère and Virgile: speaking about “Thestor the pilot”.
Homère wrote in the first book of Iliad: “the person who guided the ships from Achaens to Llion”. The genesis of
the word pilot may be traced to the Ancient Greek word πηδόν (pēdón, "blade of an oar, oar"). The word pilot
probably came from Middle French pilot, pillot, or from Italian ‘piloto’, Late Latin ‘pillottus’.

The ancestral remarks on maritime pilots were found in the travel literatures, specifically in a Greek maritime
book called “Periplus of Erythrean Sea” written in the 1st century AD. It names several Indian ports from where
large ships sailed in an easterly direction. This Greek maritime book which describes sailing and trading
opportunities from Roman-Egyptian ports along the coast of the Red Sea and along East Africa and India. This
book may be the ancestor of the current day Sailing Directions. Although the authors are unknown, these sailors
were undoubtedly very familiar with the currents and the dangers of the area. In other words, they can be
considered the origin of contemporary maritime pilot.

The Roman historian Strabo mentions an increase in Roman trade with India following the Roman annexation of
Egypt. Strabo reports that during the time when Aelius Gallus was Prefect of Egypt (26-24 BCE), he saw 120
ships ready to leave for India at the Red Sea port of Myos Hormos. Textiles from India were in demand in Egypt,
East Africa, and the Mediterranean between the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, and these regions became overseas
markets for Indian exports. As trade between India and the Greco-Roman world increased, spices became the
main import from India to the Western world in exchange of silk and other commodities. Indication such large
scale trade between Indian and Greek-Roman world, must have been incomplete without marine pilots of those
days.

Quilon or Kollam in Kerala coast had a high commercial reputation since the days of the Phoenicians and
Romans. Fed by the Chinese trade, it was mentioned by Ibn Battuta in the 14th century as one of the five Indian
ports he had seen in the course of his travels during twenty-four years. The Kollam Port was used to exchange the
embassies with Chinese rulers and there was flourishing Chinese settlement at Quilon. The Indian commercial
connection with Southeast Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia between the 7th and 8th
centuries CE. The Chinese trade with Kollam must have been impossible without the contribution of local Pilots.
The Arabs were very active in the domain of pilotage. In 1275, the first voyage of Marco Polo, the Venician
traveller, was carried out with the help of Arab pilots. Marco Polo was in Chinese service under Kublakhan in
1275, visited Kollam and other towns on the west coast.

The Chola dynasty (200-1279) reached the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period. Emperors
Rajaraja Chola I (985-1014) and Rajendra Chola I (1012-1044) extended the Chola kingdom beyond the
traditional limits. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya and Srivijaya was the largest empire in Maritime
Southeast Asia. Goods and ideas from India began to play a major role in the "Indianization" of the wider world
from this period. The Tang dynasty (618–907) of China, the Srivijaya Empire in Maritime Southeast Asia under
the Sailendras, and the Abbasid caliphate at Baghdad were the main trading partners. The Cholas excelled in
foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. The use of
pilots in the maritime trades with South East Asia has been recorded in many accounts. Towards the end of the
9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The contribution of the
Emporer Rajendra Chola in the maritime history of India has been substantial. The Training Ship of India,
T.S.Rajendra (1972-1993) has been named after him.

On orders of Manuel I of Portugal, four vessels under the command of navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the
Cape of Good Hope, continuing to the eastern coast of Africa to sail across the Indian Ocean to Calicut. The
Portuguese Empire was the first European empire to grow from spice trade. Vasco De Gama employed Arabs
Pilots during his trip from the Cape of Good Hope to Calicut (India): “When Vasco de Gama had reached
Malindi, on the east coast of Africa, in 1498, he was able to find a maritime adviser (Pilot), which led his
expeditions straight to Calicut.” The fact is briefly reported in logbooks written by seafarers involved in the
venture, some of them, also giving the name of the maritime advisers used, adding the need for their expertise.

Because of the insufficient familiarity of the ship masters with areas they had to frequent for the trade it was
recognized that the ship’s passage and handling in shallow waters required the local knowledge of pilots. Also
because of the opening of new markets asks for international shipments to new and unexplored areas by ships
demands local guides in the form of pilots.

According to A. Marcantetti, the first tracks of maritime pilot’s presence in England can be found in the 15th
century in Scotland and England: “It is around group of sailors, with semi-religious vocation in a purpose of
mutual protection that the embryo of the pilotage was set up in UK”.

In the North of Europe, the Dutch are considered as the leaders in the development of the pilotage. In 1633, the
Dutch East Indian Company deployed her own pilots to Balasore, in Odisha Coast, 60 miles south of the entrance
of the river Hugli. At that time, the pilot was either a crew member, or already a member of an organization of
pilotage. Their tasks were not only limit to pilot ships, but very often, pilots were publishing sea charts and
recording the soundings.

Before harbour boards were established, pilots known as hobblers would compete with one another. The first to
reach an incoming ship would navigate it to the docks and receive payment. In Dún Laoghaire, Ireland, there is a
monument to the hobblers who lost their lives. In Kent they were known as "hovellers" and worked alongside and
in competition with the licensed pilots, but were sometimes blamed as wreckers. George Byng Gattie defends the
hovellers or "hobilers" as lifesavers in his 1890 book about the Goodwin Sands.

Since olden days, pilots had to have quick transport to get from the port to the incoming ships. They initially used
their own fishing boats to reach the incoming vessels, but these were heavy working boats, which led to the
development of the specialised pilot boat.

Used for centuries, maritime pilots are charged with the tricky task of manoeuvring ships through dangerous and
congested passages.

Present Day Marine Pilotage

With a long history of Marine Pilots, we can well understand their importance in execution of maritime trade as
well as the safety of ships and cargo as well as marine environment. Professional pilotage has been around almost
as long as ships have been commercially transiting the seas. The importance of pilotage to the maritime industry
has not diminished with time. This is demonstrated by the fact that, unlike many other professions, modern
technology has not threatened the pivotal role of the pilot with redundancy. The physical and economic realities
of today’s shipping industry make pilots more vital than ever for the delicate task of manoeuvring ships of
increasing size and advancing technology through risky and ever-changing territorial waters. The International
Maritime Organization (IMO) has acknowledged that as skills and labour shortages become more pronounced
throughout the maritime industry, seafaring standards are slipping and existing crews are becoming more reliant
on the experience and local knowledge that local pilots provide.

As along as human civilization exists, they will trade. And execution of a successful trade needs pilots to play
their roles. There was a demand in the past for their services. There also exist compulsory pilotage services in
contemporary maritime age. Hopefully still the importance of marine pilots will prevail in future even with the
advent of cutting edge technologies.

In the age of artificial intelligence, big data and machine learning, you never know, in future gadgets would take
over the duties of a pilot – many people say. But in my opinion, given the amount of potential risks and
consequential costs would not allow technologies to take over the role of pilots in near future. Compared to the
counterparts of the aviation industry, the low power-to-weight ratio of large ships creates completely different
challenges to the maritime pilots.

With ever increasing introduction of new technologies, the complex nature of ships and their characteristics
pilotage needs more interface with technologies and hence better technical knowledge. With increasing ship sizes
and draft limitations, handling ships are becoming increasingly difficult. Pilots, not only have to deal with the
weather (winds, currents and tides) alone, but also additional challenges from shallow water conditions, very high
momentum and use of external forces in the form of tugs.

Development of new ports, expansion of harbours, building of new berths and positioning of million dollar
equipment on berths all lead to heavy stakes in the form of infrastructure as well as cargo and logistics. Handling
ships in proximity to these high value stakes, needs expertise as well as greater alertness to prevent hazardous
situations.

Along with being extreme alertness to ship handling, pilots has to divert their attention to essential
communication with many factors on real time basis. Successful communication between the port control, tugs,
jetty officers and ship’s bridge team all together plays a significant role in carrying out a successful berthing or
un-berthing of a ship. Furthermore, good communication is critical factor for pilots who dealing with new bridge
teams on every movement every day.

In olden days the sizes of ships are smaller compared to modern day ships. And the trades were also not so
extensive compared to today’s. The growing size of modern cargo ships has made pilots' jobs more challenging
than ever. This complex nature of trades, cargo and harbours has led to development of specialised pilots
attending specific areas of pilotage. Though there is no clear cut division on the types of marine pilots, but
depending upon their working area, there are some types developed in modern era. These types include following
self-explanatory terms:

• Canal pilotage
• River pilotage
• Deep Sea Pilotage
• Offshore Pilotage
• Harbour and Dock Pilotage
• Special operations Pilotage Services

With the increase in number of accidents and heavy loss to port infrastructure, now a days there is increasing
technology interface while ship handling by pilots. But a word of caution to the administrators – gadgets so
developed don’t carry out manoeuvres; they only provide information to pilots who actually carry out
manoeuvring of ships. And pilots carry out manoeuvres by their reflexes! So there is a need to strengthen their
reflexes by periodical trainings as well as technical analyses of successful manoeuvres.

Trying to replace the human sense of reflexes in pilots with information from gadgets will not prevent accidents.
But the strengthening of reflexes through technical analyses does.

Essential Services provided to World Trade and Economy

Given the dependence of the world trade and economy on the shipping and carriage of goods by water transport,
the role of pilots has been very crucial in keeping the world trade up and running on its toes. Pilots provide one
essential link of the long supply chain of manufacturing the goods at the factories in one country to the delivery of
the goods at the door steps of the consumer sitting another country. From ships arriving to unload at the ports to
trucks delivering much needed food and goods to the people is an unbroken supply chain.

Moreover the world economy has been dependant on the export and import of goods like never before. The
growth of the economies around the world is basically by the demands created at home and foreign lands. This
demand in foreign lands is met by the shipping services. As ships carry cargo and reach foreign land after
traversing thousands of miles on the sea. The last leg of the sea voyages i.e. the entry of the ships into harbours
for loading or discharging the goods to port facilities cannot be completed without the help of pilots.

Looking at the services provided by the marine pilots to the ports and harbours, the national governments have
declared the port and pilotage services as essential services. Without the completed jobs of pilots, the essential
goods and services would not be able to reach the door steps of the consumers. The physical and economic
realities of today’s shipping industry make pilots more important than ever for the delicate task of manoeuvring
huge ships into and out of port.

In the wake of the COVID’19 pandemic scenario when the governments closed down non-essential services
around the country in early 2020, many governments reassessed the role of the ports and recognised the ports and
their personnel as essential services. As the necessary safety measures ramped up around the nation, their essential
services keep country running with medical staff, emergency services. The consideration of how critical supply
chain staff are able to travel to and from their job and perform their regular duties in a way that is safe and
hygienic but not disruptive to the provision of supplying the nation, is of the utmost importance.
The outbreak of the COVID’19 bared many of the weaknesses the present economic structures and people
dependant on the globalised economy. When ships were coming from China in the month of January and
February 2020, the pilots felt the heat of compulsorily going on board the vessels to provide their services even
when major people of the world did not know anything about the COVID’19. Due to the threat of infection when
pilots started refusing or emphasised on deliberate checking procedures, there was a hue and cry in the
administration of the ports. The little delays in the berthing of the vessels made them understand what the
importance of marine pilots is. Along with seafarers, the pilots are all declared as frontline workers in the fight
against the pandemic.

Ports also provide jobs to millions of people directly or indirectly in all types of economies. There are many
countries like Singapore where the mainstay of the economy is providing services to shipping and marine
industry. Without the services of pilots the ports simply cannot run and there are no alternatives for the pilotage
services. Thus the pilotage services contribute significantly to millions of the users to their direct or indirect
source of income.

Ports maintains that its supply chains are critical to ensure fuel, food and other much needed essential
commodities in the hinterlands of any nation, making it imperative that ports stay open and their personnel
allowed to keep working.

Changing role of Pilots in Marine Safety and Accident Prevention

Marine pilotage plays a vital role in marine safety and accident prevention and consequently in protection of the
marine environment. Marine pilots work manoeuvres the ships in the areas generally hazardous, treacherous and
filled with extreme challenges. The pressure is too high with almost no margins of tolerance. Any small error on
the part of the pilots would lead to serious consequences to the vessels, the port, the coastal state, the communities
near the port and the port itself. The stakes are too high. But the marine pilots are the best persons to manage and
take care of the situations given the training and prior marine experience.

Marine pilots save many accidents that they do. Without the services by the pilots, the number of accidents and
disasters would have been so large that shipping could not continue in its present easiness and economies of scale.

Besides the basic duties of advisory role of the any marine pilot to the master of the vessel related to safe
navigation and safe manoeuvring of the vessel from pilot station to the berth, every pilot has a paramount duty
towards the safety, security and protection of environment as well as obligation to national and international
requirements. Thus the pilot has following paramount duties all the time when on duty:
• Pilot must commit to safety of navigation, safety of life at sea, safety of the port infrastructure and
prevention of pollution at all times.
• Pilot should report to the appropriate authority anything observed which may affect safety of navigation
or pollution prevention, including any incident that may have occurred to the piloted ship.
• Pilot may refuse pilotage when the ship to be piloted is believed to pose a danger to the safety of
navigation or to the environment.
• Any refusal of pilot, together with the reason, should immediately be reported to the appropriate authority
for further action.
• The pilot should assist interested parties such as port authorities, national authorities and flag
administrations in reporting and investigating incidents involving ships whilst under pilotage, subject to
the laws and regulations of the relevant authorities.
• Pilots should meet or exceed the requirements set down in IMO Assembly Resolution A.485(XII) and its
annexes

The steadily expanding tonnage of merchant vessels that is making pilots’ jobs trickier and more crucial than
ever. There is a quantum shift in expansion of tonnage and the size of ships in decades after decades. The size of
the new container and bulk carriers has already put strains on the dimensions of even the largest ports and canals
developed 30 years before. We have mega vessels now plying in the world’s oceans. Pilots are called upon to deal
with greatly reduced turning basin clearance, very little under keel clearances. Thus the pilots have to be better
and sharper than they used to be.

Pilotage is a dynamic business. The pilot plans the passage after a master-pilot exchange. In pilotage, certain
things may be planned based on tide, wind and so on but cannot plan passing traffic to the nearest second. But it’s
enormously satisfying for pilots; you can have all sorts of protocols, but at the end of the day he has to deliver the
ship safely to the berth or take it out to sea.

A pilot’s primary duty is to use his skill and knowledge to protect ships from collision or grounding by safely
conducting their navigation and manoeuvring whilst in pilotage waters. Nonetheless, the master and bridge team
are always responsible for the safe navigation of the ship.

The fact as acknowledged at IMO - declining standards of manpower on ships poses further challenges to the
pilots. The role of the pilots with experience and local know-how has been more important than before as
seafaring standards are slipping and existing crews are becoming more exhausted due to the skills and labour
shortages. Marine Pilotage is a tough job – there is no illusion about it. It is made further difficult by the
prevailing labour conditions in the industry. Crewing levels and skills shortages represent an industry-wide
labour issue that might only be resolved with long-term reform and a shift in the economics of shipping.

It requires pilots to board unfamiliar vessels while they’re still in motion, quickly take stock of the situation and
start making decisions almost immediately. There are personal characteristics like good communication and
calmness are highly required. The ability to think on one’s feet is also a must. Travel of pilots from the shore to an
incoming ship or from the outgoing vessel back to shore is carried out by a pilot boat and hence by climbing a
simple pilot ladder, occasionally done by helicopter. It’s a hazardous endeavour even on good weather conditions.

Pilots regularly tell that it’s the unpredictability of the job, the fact that you’ll never know what might happen on
any given day that provides one of its biggest thrills. When it comes to the best route into the pilotage profession,
there is no substitute for hard-earned experience. Master’s experience and certification is the ultimate standard for
making the transition into pilotage.

***
 PART –A
Procedures Related to Marine Pilotage
 Chapter -2

Pilotage Services in Ports

Use of Port’s Pilotage Services by Ships
IMO Resolutions encouraging the use of pilots on board ships
Pilotage Directions
Harbour Master’s Role in Pilotage – Marine Administration
Role of VTMS or Port Control Centre in Pilotage
Marine Pilotage Techniques in Manoeuvring of Ships.
Booking and Cancellation of Pilotage Services
Signals Associated with Marine Pilots

Incoming ships usually go through some standard procedures before they enter port limits. These procedures
include formalities related to immigrations, customs, and boarder safety departments and so…on. Discussing all
these procedures are out of the scope of this book. Here we are concerned only about pilotage. Thus the ship’s
agent has to confirm the ship’s ETA to the port operation centre and hence issue the pilot memo to book pilots so
as to keep the vessel ready in all respect to carry out the inward movement. As pilotage is compulsory in most of
the ports, as per the guidelines of the harbour master of port, pilot has to board on the incoming ship to guide the
vessel into the harbour and hence to the safe berth. And for this this service of the pilot, the port charges a certain
amount to each vessel. This charge sometimes is included in the along with the tug hire charges; so it become
pilot and tug hire charge. Nevertheless different terminologies and way of charging are used in different ports
around the world.

Basically ports and harbours provide pilotage services to the incoming ships during their inward and outward
manoeuvres. Pilotage services are provided through different channels in different regions of world. In India each
port has separate pilots and they are affiliated to that port only. Some countries, there are national pilotage
organisations that look after pilotage services for all ports of the nation. There are also private pilot bodies or
companies that provide pilotage services in some areas.

Though the primary employer of the pilots may vary, generally pilots working in a port works under the
supervision of the respective harbour masters. Harbour master too are usually senior pilots and usually have a
fairly long experience of pilotage.

Use of Port’s Pilotage Services by Ships

As I mentioned earlier, generally pilotage is compulsory for ships before entering the approach channels and also
to anchorages at some places especially when anchorages are too crowded and proximate to navigational hazards.
There are places like canals e.g. Suez Canal, Panama Canal etc., narrow straits e.g. Magellan straits, Torres straits,
where local peculiarities led the national authorities to impose compulsory pilotage while transiting such places.

There are also places where optional pilotage is available. It means when the masters are confident to take care of
the navigation of the vessel in such transits, the may choose not to take pilot to assist them. Usually masters when
frequently transit such passages and have experience in such transits opt out for pilotage services.

Due to extreme levels of traffic density and local weather condition as well as the vulnerabilities of coastal
communities, there are some places around the world where coastal state mandates some types of ships to use
deep-sea pilots, for example, in the North Sea, English Channel and Skagerrak. This is recommended by IMO
under resolution A.486(XII) (adopted 1981).
Whatever the case may be – may it be compulsory pilotage or optional, may it be harbour pilotage or canal, all the
places except in Canada and Panama Canal, master of the vessel has the sole responsibility of navigation and pilot
only acts as an advisor. Master has the full responsibility as well as the authority to command the vessel and give
orders to his crew and bridge team. Whatever the case may be, pilotage service when used by the ships, the vessel
has to pay the pilotage charges to the local authorities in exchange of the pilot’s expert services.

Famous for their specialised skills in manoeuvring ships, armed with specific detailed local knowledge, and with
long experiences of ship handling almost every day, pilotage services are inevitable reality of today’s shipping
and logistics sector. In the complete chain of Multimodal transport system, use of pilotage service is a highly
critical link.

IMO Resolutions encouraging the use of pilots on board ships in certain areas

The inevitability of Pilotage services has been recognised by masters, shipping companies, industry leaders and
the IMO itself. IMO has passed some resolutions that recommend usage of pilotage services in certain critical
areas of the world. These resolutions are listed as below.

• Resolution A. 480(IX) (adopted in 1975) recommends the use of qualified deep-sea pilots in the Baltic.

• A.620(15) (adopted 1987) recommends that ships with a draught of 13 metres or more should use the
pilotage services established by Coastal States in the entrances to the Baltic Sea
• A.486(XII) (adopted 1981) recommends the use of deep-sea pilots in the North Sea, English Channel and
Skagerrak
• A.579(14) (adopted 1985) recommends that certain oil tankers, all chemical carriers and gas carriers and
ships carrying radioactive material using the Sound (which separates Sweden and Denmark) should use
pilotage services
• A.668(16) (adopted 1989) recommends the use of pilotage services in the Euro-Channel and IJ-Channel
(in the Netherlands)
• A.710(17) (adopted 1991) recommends ships of over 70 metres in length and all loaded oil tankers,
chemical tankers or liquefied gas carriers, irrespective of size, in the area of the Torres Strait and Great
North East Channel, off Australia, to use pilotage services
• A.827(19) (adopted 1995) on Ships' Routeing includes in Annex 2 Rules and Recommendations on
Navigation through the Strait of Istanbul, the Strait of Canakkale and the Marmara Sea the
recommendation that "Masters of vessels passing through the Straits are strongly recommended to avail
themselves of the services of a qualified pilot in order to comply with the requirements of safe
navigation."

Pilotage Directions

Pilotage directions are passed by the relevant authorities to define the broad structure of a pilotage service, and in
particular to define where, and for whom, compulsory pilotage applies. If a harbour authority decides in the
interests of safety that pilotage should be compulsory in the harbour or any part thereof, it must issue pilotage
directions. An authority might decide to provide a service without making pilotage compulsory in some or all
circumstances. Vessels are subjected to pilotage directions where the authority has decided that the management
of safety so requires.

Pilotage directions describe

• how pilotage applies to vessels using the port.

• specify vessel types and size - length, draught, tonnage, beam etc.
• must define the geographic area within which pilotage is compulsory; and
• in any circumstances in which an assistant pilot must accompany a pilot.
The directions also include the provisions for exemptions. Usually the provisions for compulsory usage of pilots
in ports does not apply to the following classes of vessels:

• warships and patrol boats;

• commercial vessels commanded by an exempt master;
• commercial and pleasure vessels of less than 300 gross tons.

There are also provisions for application of Force Majeure conditions. Where it is necessary for a vessel to be
brought into, moved, or taken out of a pilotage area in an emergency situation where:

• the vessel is in grave or imminent danger, or

• the life of a person on board a vessel is in danger,
• there is any immediate accepted peril of the sea.

The content of the directions should be driven principally by the results of the risk assessment. Risk assessments
need to be carried out to consider the relevance of such criteria and whether they are the right way of deciding
which vessels present a risk that is appropriately managed by compulsory pilotage. Relevant authorities need to
appropriately manage the risks relating to vessels that are not subject to compulsory pilotage. This applies both to
vessels which the authority decides to exclude under its pilotage directions, as well as those excepted by statute.

Risk assessments so carried out must indicate the limits of the geographical area. If risk is identified in an area
just outside the statutory limits of a port, then efforts must be carried out to formally extended the port limits by
harbour revision order, so that the risk may be managed.

Harbour Master’s Role in Pilotage – Marine Administration

Generally Harbour Master is the head of the marine department of a port. It’s a generic term used to indicate the
role of the person in charge of all matters related to a harbour. However this role has different names in different
ports around the world, like Head of Marine Services, or Head of Marine Operations, or Deputy Conservator, or
General Manager of Marine Ops. etc. Whatever the name may be given, the generic duties and responsibilities are
always same. Harbour Masters are the executor-in-head of all relevant safety, environmental and health laws in
the respective port limits. They are familiar with all such laws at the international, national and local level. Sea
ports are busy places and, by the very nature of their business activities, may be hazardous places to work. The
Harbour Master has a key role in ensuring that people living and working in or close to the port e.g. the port’s
staff, customers or visitors to the ports can go about their business safely.

Though in some developing or smaller ports, the same person holds many additional yet manageable
responsibilities. In the similar lines of duties of a Ship master, sometimes harbour master of smaller ports holds
the additional duties of a HR department, General Administration, Security, Commercial or Marketing,
Construction or development, procurement etc. The generalist experience of a Master Mariner who handles a
horizon of responsibilities while serving on ships from navigation to cargo handling to ship management to
commercial issues to managing weather to ship repair and construction to crew management to communication
with many stake holders and so on, helps a master mariner to fit in any roles of a port operations. Among many
other roles, the role of harbour master handling many other additional responsibilities is just similar nature.

The Harbour Master has to make advanced plans for many things like: a suitable and safe berth; provision of
pilotage and tugs; confirmation of mooring resources such as linemen, line boats, mooring teams etc; liaison with
stevedores on the ETA/ETD of the vessel to enable them to plan their resources for loading/discharge effectively;
key loading/discharge plant and equipment availability and reliability; security requirements and liaison with
statutory authorities where necessary. Another key element is a good relationship with the ship's agent who will
have first-hand knowledge of the ship's requirements.
Nevertheless in a well-developed port where all other departments are well developed and fully functional, the
harbour masters usually do their generic roles only. These roles include following:

• The safety of navigation for any vessel utilising the port and its approaches is the Harbour Master's
primary concern.
• Harbour Masters regulate the manner in which vessels conduct their navigation in port.
• Harbour master sets out the regulatory requirements in the form of port by-laws, general directions,
Pilotage Directions etc. and these clearly define what the “rules of the road” are in terms of safe
navigation.
• From initial information provided by the ship on draft, length overall and displacement, the Harbour
Master will allocate a suitable berth and apply any restrictions he may feel necessary for the safe passage
of that particular vessel in his port.
• Vessels arriving at a port will normally contact the port control or VTS station to receive instructions on
the plan for their arrival and stay in the port. This exchange usually involves confirmation of the time the
pilot will board and the berth to which the vessel is proceeding.
• Harbour Masters normally designate a safe pilot-boarding area where the vessel boards her pilot who then
subsequently communicates with the port authority shipping control office or VTS whilst proceeding
towards the intended berth.
• If the vessel is exempt from pilotage, in compliance with port regulations, then clear instructions on the
manner of entry and navigation will be given and the vessel will be asked to confirm its passage plan. The
passage plan is the detailed confirmation of the ship’s intention at every stage of its passage from the pilot
station till arriving alongside the berth.
• The Harbour Master has a duty to inform vessels about any hazards or problems that may affect safe
navigation, for example - any obstructions in channels or alongside berths, limitations of tugs, weather
restrictions in the harbour or at berths, any failure of any aids to navigation such as lights or buoys, Any
specific mooring arrangement requirement at a certain berth etc.
• The Harbour Master has a role to play in the control of the front quay or ship-shore interface. This
includes: the removal or segregation of dangerous goods, control of accessibility to the ship-shore
interface by unauthorised persons, the measures to be taken by stevedores and dockworkers to prevent
safety or environmental irregularities etc.
• All pilot boats are approved and licensed by the pilotage authority.
• The Harbour Master’s expertise is also essential for the management of any incidents and in the timely
implementation of response and emergency plans.
• The harbour master also determines the eligibility criteria of new entrants to the marine departments in
respect of age, medical fitness standards, time of service, local knowledge, and skill, character and
otherwise. It should establish proper arrangements for assessing competence, in accordance with the
National labour laws while keeping fitness under review. They decide using appropriate procedures to
determine that a pilot is appropriately qualified and fit to pilot any ship on any occasion. Harbour master
is accountable for these decisions.
• The Harbour Master has to co-operate with a number of authorities including representatives of port state
control, customs, veterinary agencies, health agencies, environmental agencies, local government and
utilities.

Ports handle a huge variety of ship types like super-tankers, cruise ships, large container vessels, bulk carriers,
general cargo ships, Ro-Ro vessels and ferries, Naval ships, patrolling crafts, right down to smaller fishing vessels
and pleasure crafts. Different types of vessel require different port facilities to enable then to be handled
efficiently and safely. Harbour Master's role is to be fully conversant with the types of vessel that represent the
port's main business and to have a thorough knowledge of their requirements whilst they are in port. The role of
the Harbour Master in terminal and cargo operations will vary according to the governance of the port. The
Harbour Master's advice is regularly sought during a ship’s stay in the port by stakeholders of such activities as
fuel bunkering, tank cleaning and the delivery of stores, water and crew.
In addition to the technical and statutory responsibilities of the role, today’s harbour master is increasingly
involved in the day-to-day management of port operations. Increased involvement and greater responsibility for
the commercial business of a port is a growing area of activity for many harbour masters. If they are to remain
competitive, ports must move with the times in response to global shifts in maritime trade. Strategic-level
business plans must be developed. Harbour Masters may contribute to the development of a long-term master plan
for the port.

Working in the port environment inevitably brings the Harbour Master into contact with the wider community.
Although Harbour Masters may exercise jurisdiction over the water frontage or waterway of their port, they are
also expected to consider the requirements or concerns of the community on the use of the port’s navigable area
and its impact on the community. The harbour master has an important role in engaging with interest groups,
resolving such issues and ensuring the safety of all harbour users.

The preceding view of Harbour Master’s role shows his key functionalities. It also clears what a key role he plays
in the development as well as maintenance of a port in general. With respect to pilotage services, specifically he is
the sole administrator on a port. He manages all the information, activities, planning process for all harbour
activities. He also looks after the commercial feasibility of each decision and activities so carried out in the
harbour. Thus pilotage service of a port is mainly managed by the Harbour Master.

Role of VTMS or Port Control Centre in Pilotage

From the time to vessel passes ETA during inward passage till the pilot away time during outward passage, the
VTMS or the Port Control Centre has a very important role to communicate between the pilots and the vessel.
Usually there is a communication chain always exist in every department across the hierarchies, that’s true for a
marine department of a port as well. But here in case of the VTMS, Pilots and Ship masters, there exists a
Communication Tripod.

Why I used the word, tripod is because failure of any one leg of this critical tripod would make the other two legs
dysfunctional. And any two legs, without the help of the 3rd one cannot carry out a successful berthing or un-
berthing of a vessel. These communications are real-time and are critical too. Any failure in proper
communication between the pilots, VTMS and the ships would create disastrous consequences.

From the above point of view of a Communication Tripod, we can easily understand what role of a VTMS in day-
to-day operations of a port.

Vessel passes the ETA to VTMS; it in turn is passed to the attending Pilot. The pilot starts well in advance to
reach the pilot boarding point as agreed between the vessel and the VTMS. On the way pilot communicates with
the vessel to make arrangements for boarding and all another necessary requirements.

Pilot informs the VTMS how many tugs are required and which type, if any, to carry out the manoeuvre. The
VTMS informs the tugs to cast off well in advance accordingly and reach the locations where the pilots expect
them to make fast to the vessel.

During manoeuvring if any sudden additional assistance is required the pilot tell the VTMS to arrange them as
early as possible. The VTMS without any delay executes the pilot’s orders.

Above are few examples which show the communication tripod works among the pilots, VTMS and the ships.
Besides above important role, there are some other roles a VTMS has as listed below:

• Provide real time weather update

• Reporting to relevant authorities
• Assisting ships while at berth,
• Assisting pilots while manoeuvring,
• Arrange mooring crew well in advance,
 • Arrange jetty officers to take jetty round and make sure all resources are ready to receive the vessel,
• Ensure that the berth space is clear.

VTMS has an inevitable role during pilotage in harbour limits providing assistance as well as communication
among the relevant players.

Pilotage Techniques in Manoeuvring of Ships

Pilotage technique to manoeuvre large ships in highly restricted environment with abundant navigational hazards
in proximity is a Science as well as an Art.

Its science because the handler needs to understand the existing forces and calculate their effect and at the same
time apply correction in such a way that the manoeuvre is smooth without any overshoot and landing in danger.
It’s a science as the understanding of the various forces acting on the vessel and best use of them is necessary to
carry out a perfect manoeuvre. It’s an art as it is perfected with experience to carry out a tight but smooth
manoeuvre without any stress on the vessel and with avoiding the navigational hazards in proximity.

With advent of larger ships and change in technologically driven resources of manoeuvring, the manoeuvring
techniques have been changed with the changing times, though the basic principles behind it remain the same
throughout the history of pilotage and ship handling. Earlier times, there was no tugs, no powerful engines, no
electronic indicators, no thrusters, and the ship handlers had only the anchors, the mooring lines, the wind and the
currents, though the size and displacement of the vessels are smaller and lesser. With the changing times, many
factors have been refined, many factors have been added, many factors have been declined in their usage and
importance, but the basic principles of ship handling and pilotage remains all the same over the years.

The rule of Safe Speed is applicable to ships at all times including when under pilotage and operating in harbour
limits. It is advisable to keep the optimum speed with regards to the prevailing circumstances. Incidents of failing
to control a ship’s speed while entering harbour, with the vessel consequently colliding with the pier causing
major damage to the pier, shore cranes, and the vessel itself, never cease. Ships differ from motor vehicles in that
they are not fitted with a braking mechanism of reducing speed. Control of speed must therefore rely on the RPM
of the main engine, reverse power of the main engine, or external assistance of tugs. In order to ensure that the
vessel stops precisely at the scheduled point, the pilot is required to consider its type, size, loading condition,
inertia, and manoeuvrability, and the effects of external forces etc.

The power of engines or the propulsion Machinery is the most powerful weapon on the hands of a Pilot any
manoeuvring situations. When engines are running, helm is effective to its full potential and can carry out an
effective turn. The combination of engines and helm is the best option to carry out any manoeuvring. Usage of
tugs for assistance and usage of external forces to her advantage are the part of secondary and tertiary nature.
Using engines is the primary method of doing a manoeuvre. In any adverse situation the best use of engines is the
key to averse any disaster and is the key to perform a smooth and good manoeuvre. Thus understanding of the
manoeuvring characteristics and potential of main engines is highly essential and vital for any ship handler.

Tugs are an important resource in modern ports. These are of assistance to ships being manoeuvred under pilotage
especially when manoeuvring while entering and leaving harbour. These provide critical assistance to ships when
at very slow speed and vessel’s own manoeuvring capabilities are severely restricted. Tugs are usually employed
by the port authorities after taking into account the type and size of vessels, prevailing weather conditions, tug
capabilities and types of tugs. Availability of tugs gives more resources and greater flexibility to the ship handlers.
However the number and size and type of tugs to be used can be determined after analysing various factors.

When a vessel alters her course while turning, there are various forces that act on the vessel to cause her to turn.
To understand the dynamics of the turning the ship, the ship handler need to understand the rudder and its
functions, the concept of pivot point and the forces acting around it to create a couple and many other factors.
Making large alterations of larger vessels around shallow waters inside harbour limits in the presence of wind and
current is as tricky as dangerous. Situations in such alterations have been creating numerous disasters in the
harbours since times immemorial till date and would continue to haunt in the future as well.

After the pilot boards the vessel, the relevant information regarding the internal and external factors is exchanged
between master and pilot. A consolidated plan for approach, manoeuvring, tugs to be used, speed control, berthing
and mooring arrangements etc. Aare decided upon during this exchange of information. Once they are
comfortable, the master and the pilot are ready to commence the conduct of the passage from pilot boarding point
towards the berth. The vessel is ready in all respect to enter the confined waters under pilotage. Taking all the
relevant factors into account, the ship enters the confined waters under the guidance of the pilot.

When inside the confined waters- waterways, harbour approach channels, canals, straits etc. the main objective of
the pilot is to keep the vessel position near to centre of channel and maintain the vessel position well within the
safe margins of the channel. In presence of any active external forces causing any set and drift, Pilot ensures that
the vessel’s bow and stern both are within channel limits. In confined waters, vessel’s movement in various
directions are restricted. Depending on the degree of restriction, the pilots controls the vessel’s speed and course
at various locations to achieve paramount objective of safe positioning of the vessel at all times.

In approach channels vessel’s movement along 2 axes are restricted – Athwartship and Underwater. However the
Longitudinal (L) sea-room and Headroom (H) are relatively abundant. Thus the main objective of the bridge team,
while in approach channels, is to keep sufficient lateral clearance as well as under keel clearance. Contrary to this,
when vessel approaches close to the berth, all the 3 dimensions of sea-room as well as the Head-room become
restricted. Thus when close to berth, besides managing the lateral and vertical positioning of the vessel, vessel has
to resort to extreme speed control measures.

Breakwaters are built on the seaward entrances of the harbours in such a way that it prevents free run of the
mostly prevalent swell and seas into the harbour. Usually sea swells get generated in the high seas and travel
thousands of miles till it finds shallow waters where they break and unleash their kinetic energy. If unrestricted
offshore, the dissipated energy brings the breaking waves on the shore. When breakwater is present, the free-
running oncoming swells breaks over the breakwaters and releases its kinetic energy. This effectively prevents the
swells to freely ride over the berthed vessels inside the harbours and create any emergency scenarios. In most of
the modern and developed ports of the world, breakwaters are one of its prominent identifying features.

Breakwaters help the harbours to maintain safe berths and safety of vessels in their berths. When vessel crosses
the breakwaters to enter the harbours, they face change in direction and strength of the currents around it. But
after entering into the breakwater limits, vessels usually face relatively calm harbours with minimum effect of
seas and swells.

Having completed her transit through the inbound channel, as the vessel passes breakwaters, vessel enters inside
the harbour limits; vessel is posed with highest degree of external restriction. Further, manoeuvring is marked
with slow speed, wheel hard over when used, and commands to tugs. This may also call for use of anchors and
other emergency manoeuvres. While the manoeuvring of vessels with sufficient speed and full availability of
engines and helm is relatively easier, the manoeuvring of the ships at slow and very slow speed is quite different
and critical too. Such manoeuvres are required within harbour limits at very close range from other vessels and
shallow patches. The objective of these manoeuvres is to carry out safe berthing or un-berthing of the vessel with
a good control on her movements. Though higher speed has a good control on the vessel manoeuvring, but vessel
cannot maintain a higher speed in the harbour limits due to various reasons such as – proximity to the harbour
crafts and infrastructures, the tugs would be ineffective when required, additional challenges due to shallow water
effects and less time for assessment etc. That’s the reason why every ship handler must be conversant and
comfortable with the slow speed manoeuvring of vessels especially in harbour limits.

Ships approach to the berth in the final leg of the manoeuvring before they are finally positioned alongside a safe
berth. Approaching a berth is marked with very slow speed in order of 1kts or less. Quick engine movements may
be required followed by reverse orders to maintain her position. During this period the ship handler must proceed
to control both ahead speed as well as the lateral speed of the vessel.

Judicious use of tugs made so as not to deviate from the planned position. Making the final push to the vessel
laterally causes the vessel to fall on the fender (fof) parallel yet smoothly so that full load of vessel is spread
equally on all fenders. It is a very precise exercise. As the vessel finally touches the fenders, she keeps
maintaining her position with tugs pushing continuously while mooring lines are passed on to the jetty. Jetty
officers supervising the mooring crew in communication with pilot completes the mooring operation on jetty.
Similarly the master in discussion with the pilot supervises the mooring operation both at the bow and stern. A
good berthing needs the team work between ship staff, tug staff, Pilot and the jetty staff. Its co-ordinated exercise
leads by the pilot.

On the outbound passage, as soon as the loading or discharging or any other purpose of the vessel’s call is
finished, the crew makes her ready for un-berthing and outward procedures. Vessel takes the designated minimum
time to prepare herself for sailing. Besides all the paperwork, crew secures the vessel for sailing out to sea. All
controls including the main engine and steering are tested for their good working condition. As vessel is ready for
sailing in all respect pilot boards the vessel through gangway or the seaside pilot ladder. As the pilot boards the
vessel, he assesses the circumstances and conditions of weather and her suitability for sailing in all respects. The
basic thumb rule of un-berthing sequence is exactly opposite to berthing sequence, if mostly the prevailing
circumstances are same. However the sequence may not be the same if the all the prevailing conditions are
changed from what at times of berthing. The basic idea is to prevent or minimize unwanted vessel movements
before vessel is clear of all the lines and moorings components.

Pilotage operations include many special operations in special circumstances besides relatively simpler berthing
and un-berthing procedures. Though the basic principles of pilotage and ship handling techniques are similar,
some operations pose relatively higher challenges to the pilot. Such operations may include but not limited to –
Towing, cold move, trans-shipment, STS operations, handling laden cape size bulk carriers or VLCCs, handling
large unusual dimension un-propelled objects etc. Such operations if carried out regularly by the pilot, then the
experience of the pilot makes it relatively easier and doesn’t pose much challenge to the pilot. But there are times
when a pilot has to carry out such special operations once a while due to some compulsions. In such case the pilot
doesn’t have much experience in handling such special operations. All the responsible persons involved in
carrying out such operation must carry out a meeting to discuss the issues and draw upon a risk assessment of the
operation. All the hazards so enlisted must be addressed by putting control measures to reduce risk level to trivial.
Once everybody involved are comfortable and risk management controls are in place, such special operations
should be taken on hand.

Emergency do occur in life so also in handling ships or in pilotage. Like we stay prepared all the time to face and
handle emergency situations in life, when it occurs without any notice, during pilotage also the pilot should stay
prepared at all times to face and handle emergencies. Doing the same job everyday makes people complacent.
That is the time when people become complacent, emergencies strike. So I can say, complacency is the mother of
emergencies. Thus pilots must learn about the emergency handling options available at their disposal to save the
vessel from emergency situations. Emergency manoeuvring options are the last resorts, after the handler
consumed all other options and he has to take these actions to prevent an actual emergency situation from
happening.

Booking and Cancellation of Pilotage Services

As discussed earlier, generally vessel’s local agent applies to the port operation centre to book for a pilot for an
inward ship well in advance. Similarly for every instance when a vessel needs a pilot, during her stay in the port,
and for the outward movement, the agent has to book for pilot well in advance.

Cancellation of pilots after booking is an interesting topic for both the masters as well as pilots. When a pilot
cancels? Usually in some special circumstances, when a vessel books a pilot for a particular time but is unable to
become ready in all respect to carry out the intended movement at the intended time of POB. There are also
instances when the pilot boards the vessel and finds that vessel is not ready to carry out the movement. There are
also instances when the pilot boards the vessel and he is not satisfied with the condition of the vessel or master or
the bridge team to carry out a safe movement; and pilot choose to cancel and disembark off the vessel.

Whatever the circumstances may be, when a pilot is cancelled due to fault from the vessel, the vessel has to pay
“Pilot Cancellation Charges”. Further the vessel’s agent again has to apply for pilot booking for a later time
keeping in mind that all the faults or deficiencies from the vessel’s part has been removed by the next pilot
boarding time.

There are circumstances when a movement is started assuming vessel is ready in all respects to carry out an
intended manoeuvre, but sooner or later during the movement it is found that vessel has a serious defect like –
main engine not working or steering failure or black out etc. In such cases pilot cannot leave the vessel in between
just because something is not working but to complete the movement using his skills and additional resources if
need be. Depending upon the gravity of the situation, such movements with defects from the vessel are declared
as cold moves or partial clod moves. Partial cold moves are when the engine is working and some other critical
defect is present or when engine is partially functional. Pilot carries out the movement with additional caution and
with or without additional resources like additional tugs. Cold moves are when the main engine is totally not
working thus steering is also not working. Such movements are also called as dead-ship operations.

In such case of cold moves or partial cold moves, vessel has to pay additional charges to the port beside the usual
pilotage and tug charges. The charges vary depending upon the gravity of situation and the amount of additional
resources used. This is finally decided by the harbour master as per port’s general guidelines.

Signals Associated with Marine Pilots

There are signals specific sound and light signals being used by the pilot boast and the vessels under pilotage as
per the International Collision Avoidance Regulations. Those signals are given below.

Signals used by Pilot Vessels

Rule 29 - Pilot Vessels

(a) A vessel engaged on pilotage duty shall exhibit:

(i) at or near the masthead, two all-round lights in a vertical line, the upper being white and the lower red;
(ii) when underway, in addition, sidelights and a stern light;
(iii) when at anchor, in addition to the lights prescribed in subparagraph (i), the light, lights or shape
prescribed in Rule 30 for vessels at anchor.
(b) A pilot vessel when not engaged on pilotage duty shall exhibit the lights or shapes prescribed for a similar
vessel of her length.

Rule 35 - Sound Signals in Restricted Visibility

In or near an area of restricted visibility, whether by day or night, the signals prescribed in this Rule shall be used
as follows:

(k) A pilot vessel when engaged on pilotage duty may in addition to the signals prescribed in paragraphs (a), (b)
or (g) of this Rule sound an identity signal consisting of four short blasts.

Paragraphs – a, b, g are as follows:

(a) A power-driven vessel making way through the water shall sound at intervals of not more than 2 minutes one
prolonged blast.

(b) A power-driven vessel underway but stopped and making no way through the water shall sound at intervals
of not more than 2 minutes two prolonged blasts in succession with an interval of about 2 seconds between them.

(g) A vessel at anchor shall at intervals of not more than one minute ring the bell rapidly for about 5 seconds. In
a vessel of 100 meters or more in length the bell shall be sounded in the forepart of the vessel and immediately
after the ringing of the bell the gong shall be sounded rapidly for about 5 seconds in the after part of the vessel. A
vessel at anchor may in addition sound three blasts in succession, namely one short, one prolonged and one short
blast, to give warning of her position and of the possibility of collision to an approaching vessel.

Signals used by Other Vessels under Pilotage

Signal flag H (Hotel) is used to signal "Pilot on board"

Morse Code:

Signal flag G (Golf) is used to signal "I require a pilot"

Morse Code:

Rule 34 - Manoeuvring and Warning Signals

(a) When power-driven vessels are in sight of one another and meeting or crossing at a distance within half a mile
of each other, each vessel underway, when manoeuvring as authorized or required by these Rules:
(i) Shall indicate that manoeuvre by the following signals on her whistle: one short blast to mean “I intend to
leave you on my port side”; two short blasts to mean “I intend to leave you on my starboard side”; and three
short blasts to mean “I am operating astern propulsion”.
(ii) Upon hearing the one or two blast signal of the other shall, if in agreement, sound the same whistle signal
and take the steps necessary to effect a safe passing. If, however, from any cause, the vessel doubts the safety
 of the proposed manoeuvre, she shall sound the danger signal specified in paragraph (d) of this Rule and each
vessel shall take appropriate precautionary action until a safe passing agreement is made.

(b) A vessel may supplement the whistle signals prescribed in paragraph (a) of this Rule by light signals:
(i) These signals shall have the following significance: one flash to mean “I intend to leave you on my port
side”; two flashes to mean “I intend to leave you on my starboard side”; three flashes to mean “I am
operating astern propulsion”;
(ii) The duration of each flash shall be about 1 second; and
(iii) The light used for this signal shall, if fitted, be one all-round white or yellow light, visible at a minimum
range of 2 miles, synchronized with the whistle, and shall comply with the provisions of Annex I to these
Rules.

(c) When in sight of one another in a narrow channel or fairway:

(i) a vessel intending to overtake another shall in compliance with Rule 9(e)(i) indicate her intention by the
following signals on her whistle:
− two prolonged blasts followed by one short blast to mean “I intend to overtake you on your starboard
side”;
− two prolonged blasts followed by two short blasts to mean “I intend to overtake you on your port side”.
(ii) the vessel about to be overtaken when acting in accordance with Rule 9(e)(i) shall indicate her agreement
by the following signal on her whistle:
− one prolonged, one short, one prolonged and one short blast, in that order.

(d) When vessels in sight of one another are approaching each other and from any cause either vessel fails to
understand the intentions or actions of the other, or is in doubt whether sufficient action is being taken by the
other to avoid collision, the vessel in doubt shall immediately indicate such doubt by giving at least five short and
rapid blasts on the whistle. Such signal may be supplemented by a light signal of at least five short and rapid
flashes.

(e) A vessel nearing a bend or an area of a channel or fairway where other vessels may be obscured by an
intervening obstruction shall sound one prolonged blast. Such signal shall be answered with a prolonged blast by
any approaching vessel that may be within hearing around the bend or behind the intervening obstruction.

(f) If whistles are fitted on a vessel at a distance apart of more than 100 meters, one whistle only shall be used
for giving manoeuvring and warning signals.

(g) When a power-driven vessel is leaving a dock or berth, she shall sound one prolonged blast.

Rule 36- Signals to Attract Attention

If necessary to attract the attention of another vessel, any vessel may make light or sound signals that cannot be
mistaken for any signal authorized elsewhere in these Rules, or may direct the beam of her searchlight in the
direction of the danger, in such a way as not to embarrass any vessel. Any light to attract the attention of another
vessel shall be such that it cannot be mistaken for any aid to navigation. For the purpose of this Rule the use of
high intensity intermittent or revolving lights, such as strobe lights, shall be avoided.

***
 Chapter -3

Pilot Transfer Procedures

Regulations in respect of Pilotage Access and Egress
Safe Procedures for Boarding and Disembarkation
Risks Involved during Pilot transfer procedures
Significant Deficiencies those lead to Accidents
Other methods of Pilot Transfer: Embarkation Platform System (PEPS) & Helicopters
Novelty methods to Develop Full-proof Boarding Mechanism

Pilots normally boards the incoming vessels at designated pilot boarding points by existing pilot transfer
arrangement on board the ship or as arranged by the arbour authorities depending upon the prevailing weather
conditions or circumstances. Pilot transfer arrangements include pilot ladders or combination ladders rigged by
the ship staff on the ship side or with a landing or winching helicopters. Usually shorter distances are covered by
pilot boats and longer distances by helicopters. Helicopters are used in some parts of the world as a regular
practice even for shorter distances due the existing inclement weather conditions. Mostly pilot transfer takes place
by the pilot ladder rigged on ship side except only very few cases where helicopter is used for pilot transfers. Thus
the incoming pilot travels by a pilot boat specially designed to facilitate pilot transfer from shipside.

The success of a pilot transfer operation depends on many factors including correct rigging methods of ladders,
following the right procedures during pilot transfers by ship staff as well as the pilot boat staff, situational
awareness of the pilot himself, donning of PPE by the pilot himself, right communication between the sip and the
pilot boat during transfers and so on. Though there are many factors we can list at any given time, the successful
transfer largely depends on the right actions by a ship master in the prevailing circumstances as well as the right
practices of correct rigging of pilot ladders by ship’s staff. In such situation, the pilot boat and the pilot have little
controls.

Ships are designed and operated with compliance to the SOLAS requirements in all respects including the pilot
transfer arrangements. But many deficiencies are observed related to Pilot boarding arrangements due to
negligence from ship’s staff.

Given the number of accidents happening related to pilot transfer procedures every day around the world, the
topic of pilot transfer arrangement is a sensitive one that is to be discussed in the pilot’s fraternity. The amount of
stake that a pilot puts on the pilot transfer procedures is very high. Thus it is a heavy topic to none other than the
pilots themselves. For ship’s staff, it may be another routine operation, but for a pilot this is the most critical
operation though they are doing it every day.

The small deficiencies from the part of ships cause life threatening accidents for pilots and sometimes to the ship
staff themselves. There are many instances of defective ladder and complacency in proper rigging of ladders has
been reported almost every day in different parts of the world. Though the incidents and consequent accidents are
not largely circulated and die down locally, a closer follow up of incidents worldwide would list numerous
incidents of failure in transfer arrangements and procedures. Many pilots lost their life, severely injured for life
and face many minor to major accidents.
Once an incident occurs, there is a heat of agonising frustration circulates among the fellow pilots. After some
heated discussions the issue slowly die a cold death without any concrete actions for improvements; except
putting local blames on the particular ship, giving PSC deficiencies to the vessel, putting some fines on the ship
etc. Ultimately the topic is closed much to the annoyance of the pilots. Being an employee, the pilots sometimes
take a firm stand on cancelling the boarding a noncompliant vessel while risking their jobs; on the other hand
some pilots let it pass just hoping everything would be good in future.

In mid-2019, there was an incident where, a pilot having more than 40 years of maritime experience and
approximately 25 years of experience in piloting met with a tragic accident while boarding the vessel and
unfortunately lost his life. There have been heated discussions and fear and frustration among the pilots thinking
if such incidents can happen to somebody who had an experience of more than 25 years, the disaster can very well
happen to any other pilot at any time, it’s only a matter of time – today or tomorrow or after 1 year or may be
after 20 years. But when the disaster strikes, it strikes without much notice on a very fine day. But it’s very likely
that someday the victim will be you.

The incident opened up many questions among the pilots as follows:

1. Why there are repeated incidents after having clear guidelines internationally?
2. Is there any database of incidents and investigation there to and their results of investigations?
3. Is there any fact finding attempt made with holistic approach to address the issue?
4. Can’t we have any better arrangements with full proof system for the safety of the pilots?
5. What is the role of the port authorities in preventing such unfortunate incidents?
6. What we are waiting for? Somebody to come and solve the problem for us?
7. What is the future of the pilots? – Will it remain hanging with uncertainty attached to the poor rope of the
ladder?
Being the weakest link in the steps of carrying out a safe pilotage, pilot transfer arrangements need a closer look
for analysis and innovation. During the whole process of pilotage since the vessel enters the pilotage waters till
she leaves the pilot. One of the problems encountered by pilots is that of getting on board the ship - particularly
when the weather is bad or the ship is very large.

The responsible persons in the industry, the port authorities, and the national administrators have many different
and diversified roles in dealing with many aspects of the marine industry. They have little time and interest to
understand the pilot’s inherent and small problems. It is the larger group of pilots themselves has to solve the
problem by developing strict laid down procedure. The problems have to be discussed with architects and naval
engineers to develop a better innovation and solve the problem.

Here I make an attempt to understand the nitty-gritties of pilot boarding procedure and problems associated with
it. All those involved must understand the delicacies of pilot boarding and fulfil their part of duties and
responsibilities. This also calls for regular training and proper documentations.

We have to understand that a successful pilot transfer operation is a composite team work by three different teams
- the ship staff, the boat staff and the pilot himself. When a job is done by a single team with a single leader, most
of the risks are minimised by team work and foresight of a team. But in a composite team work of 3 teams with
independent leaders of different cultural backgrounds, the hazards of the operation are not controlled effectively.
In such situation the person whose life in danger, should lead from the front. Thus the pilot has the final say in a
pilot transfer procedure. The pilot should not, in any case, be in a hurry and forget his critical duties to take care
of his own life. He should not depend on the competencies and understanding and mercy of the other teams of
ship and the boat. Thus blaming the ship only doesn’t end the topic here.
 Some Statistics Related Reasons that lead to Accidents: Significant Deficiencies

One of the studies identifies that Marine Pilots are having one of the highest rates of work-related traumatic
fatality with 54 deaths per 100,000 persons per year, as compared with the overall rate for all workers of 5.5
deaths. Transfers of pilots using ladders out at sea are reported by pilots as posing the greatest hazard to their
personal health and safety.

Data regarding marine pilot injuries and accidents from ladder transfers are not available for review. It appears
that this detailed data is not held in a central repository. Despite the lack of formal records, some data was
obtained from searching past reporting of pilot fatalities from various random sources. These reports confirm that
pilot ladder transfers have resulted in death and serious injury, with multiple deaths attributed to this task
internationally over the past years. The primary reasons of these deaths are related to falls from the ladder.

A brief review of the descriptions of these accidents indicates they resulted from:

• Falls from a height,

• Drowning (after being unconscious from head injuries),
• Crush injuries,
• Struck by cutter after fall from a height; and/or
• A combination of these mechanisms.

Injury mechanisms are the action, exposure or event which was the most direct cause of the most serious injury.
Most common mechanisms of injury during such transfer process are:
body stressing from being jarred or being twisted by a sudden movement of the ladder or accommodation
system, or from the cumulative effects of repeated reaching and grasping etc. resulting in various sprains
and strains and overuse diseases
being hit or hitting a moving object such as being struck by the pilot boat when on the ladder -resulting in
crush and strike injuries
slips and falls from ladders resulting in orthopaedic and soft tissue injuries.

Each of these injury mechanisms must be considered while attempting to reduce the risks and improve the
safety of the pilot ladder transfer task.

a. Body Stress

Body stress is injuries or disorders resulting from stress placed on muscles, tendons, ligaments and bones. It
includes the development of muscular stress while handling objects as well as muscular stress developing from
turning and twisting movements where no objects are handled. These injuries may develop from a brief exposure
to trauma or more commonly, from long term and cumulative exposure to load that exceeds the tissue’s capacity
for repair. Injuries may also be a combination of acute and cumulative traumas.

Body stressing contributes to the development of ‘diseases’ such as: disorders of nerve roots and nerves (such as
nerve compression syndromes like carpal tunnel syndrome); and diseases of the musculoskeletal system and
connective tissues such as disorders of muscles, tendons, soft tissues, joints and intervertebral discs. Common
body stressing disorders include Occupational Low Back Pain, Rotator Cuff Syndrome, Epicondylitis, Nerve
compression syndromes, Tenosynovitis etc. Musculoskeletal disorders contribute to significant levels of
disability, and injuries such as sprains and strains remain the most common injury group (accounting for 64% of
all workplace injuries) and the most expensive injury group (with 70% of costs)

With ladder transfers some of the evident physical risk factors include working and moving in awkward postures
(e.g. with the neck bent, shoulders elevated, wrists deviated, back bent etc.); the use of force (to pull and grasp);
repetition; and a combination of these factors.
Pilot accident reports analysed in a study showed a high rate of musculoskeletal disorders from body stressing.
The injuries were considered consistent with jarring, twisting, landing heavily onto surfaces and from the
cumulative effects of force and body stress. Musculoskeletal assessments confirmed disorders in the pilots’
elbows, shoulders, wrists necks and backs. Knees were also a common site of injury. Informal discussions with
other pilots confirm that sprains and strains and other musculoskeletal disorders from body stressing are the most
common injuries and diseases resulting from the pilot ladder transfer task.

b. Being hit by boat or ladder or vessel objects

This group of injuries are the result of the action of an object hitting a person such as being crushed by a vessel,
struck by a ladder, or whipped by a loose rope. In any environment where there are moving parts, moving
vehicles or other objects this risk exists. There is also the risk of having an object dropped from the ship onto the
pilot ladder or pilot boat deck.

The pilot’s work environment poses extreme risks for being hit as there are no fixed or stationary areas, with the
ship and pilot boat both moving independently. The ladders are also moving independently and tend to swing out
and fall back against the side of the hull as they are not fastened to the side of the vessel. The size and speed of the
movements are also relevant with a high risk of being struck by force and by hard objects.

Data provides the following are the main reasons of when being hit was the primary mechanism of injury:

• Legs crushed between ladder and pilot boat pilot boat hits the ship side,
• Foot entangled in the ladder or lines or any projection on boat
• Arm struck by ladder

c. Fall from height

Fall injuries are the most common injuries that happen with pilots. Fall injuries can be classified as fall from a
height and falling at the same level. Between 10 – 15% of all work related fatalities worldwide are from “falls
from a height”. This is equal to vehicle accidents (15%) and second to being hit by moving objects (35%). Falls
from ladders specifically account for over 1000 injury claims per year. Analyses highlight that the higher the fall,
the higher the rate of serious injuries and fatalities.

Falls into water

The maximum height to be climbed by a pilot on the ladder is 9 metres above the surface of the water as per
SOLAS. However the Japanese Pilots’ Association Handbook (1994) states that 5 metres has been identified as a
maximum safe climbing level.

People can fall and/or jump into water from great heights and survive, 15% survival from falling, with those
entering the water in a feet first, vertical position being most likely to survive

Interestingly a study investigating injury patterns from intentional versus unintentional high falls found no
significant difference in the injury patterns on the recovered bodies. In studies into falls from a height into
water, impacts that were feet first consistently produced less fractures and injury than those that were horizontal
because of the longer deceleration experienced.

Falls on hard surfaces

Low falls (3-4 metres height): Even in relatively low falls (less than 3 metres) a medical study found that 59% of
injuries were moderate or serious. In falls of over 4 metres, 86% of injuries were moderate or serious’ injuries.
Moderate injuries includes uncomplicated fracture, and serious injuries includes femur fracture or spleen rupture.
Falls from less than 6m: A study investigated 176 falls of less than 6 metres (not limited to ladder falls), finding:
• 35% of patients sustained head injuries
• 22% of patients sustained spinal cord injuries or vertebral fractures (including quadriplegia and
paraplegia)
Falls from 9 metres: Forensic studies of falls from 9.8 metres revealed the following outcomes:
• In falls from 9.8 metres the human body aligns and lands in a horizontal position
• The amount of stress sustained by a body in a fall is related to the impact of force and the size of the force
area. Where the same force dissipated over a larger area produces less force per unit area (and less stress
and therefore less injury)
• Fractures of the skeletal system result from stress exceeding the strength of the bone, so are related not
only to the angle and amount and force of the impact but also the properties of the bones such as porosity,
rigidity and collagen orientation etc.
• By flexing joints at impact, deceleration forces are dissipated through the soft tissues (eg parachutists can
reduce the deceleration forces by as much as 36 times through joint flexion and distributing the forces
over larger areas).

As well as being injured from the impact of the fall, other injuries developed as a result of the climber attempting
to catch themselves and prevent a fall to the ground or other surface. These injuries often result in musculoskeletal
injuries such as sprains and strains.

Statistics show that the fatality rate in a fall from a height increases with age. The following data was based on
more than 8000 fatal falls in the USA. Death rates ranged as follows:

• 0.23 deaths per 100,000 workers for 16-19 year olds;

• 0.40 for 25-34 year olds;
• 0.86 for 55-64 year olds; and
• 1.57 for 65 year olds and above.

The high fall fatality rates in older workers are reportedly due to more medical complications and prolonged
recovery periods. This data has important implications.

Special Case of fall from Ladder: Risk Factors

As simple record keeping of workplace accidents are far from reality, forget about comprehensive analysis of
workplace accidents in most part of the world. However reports of a comprehensive analysis of various
workplace accidents with step ladders are available from a reliable source in the USA. This report identified
4 key groups of risks affecting the task:
• working condition;
• ladder use related;
• personal and occupationally related; and
• personal and non-occupationally related factors.

The study found that variables that were the strongest predictor and were the ‘most important’ contributory
factors of ladder falls were working conditions and ladder use. Personal non-occupational characteristics (such
as health problems, physical characteristics, life stressors, personality, risk-taking behaviour, body dimensions)
were found to be the ‘least important.’

The analysis reported the major predictors of ladder fall accidents as:
• Working on night or evening shift
• Working longer hours than the control group
 • Working in awkward or uncomfortable positions
• Less able to control work flow or order of tasks
• Work requiring great strength

The ladder-use related variables were:

• Working longer hours on the ladder – resulting in fatigue and greater exposure to the task
• Less experience with ladders
• No choice of ladders for the task transitioning onto or from ladder
• Trying to over-reach
• Being thrown from the ladder
• Slippery steps
• Miss-stepping

Pilot ladder transfers require working at heights, often at a minimum heights of 2 -3 metres. Maximum elevations
are estimated at approximately 15 metres from the boat deck and 17 metres from the water, this height, being
calculated for a light draft capsizer from water level up to main deck. Many of the scenarios listed under risks in
above sections are applicable to most of the pilot transfers. The risks associated with transitioning (e.g. between
the boat and pilot ladder, and pilot ladder and accommodation ladder) and being required to over-reach to ropes
etc. are considered to pose major risks in this task. Past fatalities from falls onto the pilot boat decks and into
water confirm the risks of this injury mechanism.

Risks Involved during Pilot Transfer Procedures

There are numerous risks involved during pilot embarkation and disembarkation procedures. These are
enumerated below. While embarkation or disembarkation of pilot, the major risks is mainly to the pilot’s life
besides some trivial risks of damage to the ships fittings. The risks are as follows:

a. Ladder is broken while boarding

b. Break of the combination ladder not holding while pilot on the ladder
c. Ropes and handrails are slippery
d. Twisting of the long pilot ladder
e. Steps tilted causing imbalance due to improper securing of chocks
f. Securing arrangements on main deck is not proper and not maintained to good standards.
g. Insufficient Lighting of the embarkation area
h. Improper response from the ship’s crew and master in case of urgency situation
i. Pilot falls on water.
j. Pilot fall on the boat deck sustain injury.
k. Pilot’s leg hit by the rolling boat against shipside.
l. Pilot loss focus or health condition deteriorates due to panic.

Frequency of Accidents

Number of accidents related to the failures during pilot transfer is numerous. Most of the accidents go unreported.
It comes to wide circulation only when there is a loss of life or personal injury. There must be a proper reporting
procedure and wide circulation of the incidents and near misses. This reporting would create awareness among all
concerned and constantly contribute towards the improvements of the safe procedures and creation of checks and
balances.
The risks involved are largely generated by the negligence and complacency from the parts of all the stake holders
- the pilot, the ship staff, the boat crew all share towards the creating a hazardous scenarios. To create a safe
environment, each should cross check and balance each other. The check and balance among them must be
respected by themselves with a positive frame of mind.

Negligence in Duties – The main Reasons behind Risks So Generated

The risks so generated are due to mainly negligence in carrying out their respective duties of the pilots, ship-staff
and the boat crew. They are enumerated as below:

a. Duties of the Attending Ship staff

The master and ship’s personnel are recommended to:

• Be standby on deck to assist pilot transfer and correct any deficiencies if observed.
• Be ready with lifesaving appliances standby for immediate use.
• Give a good lee to the boat to reduce the rolling of the boat against the shipside
• Ensure that the ladder is clear of all entanglements and secured well before the pilot attempts the
boarding
• Ensure that the means of pilot embarkation and disembarkation are properly positioned, rigged,
maintained and manned.
• The ship is positioned and manoeuvred to ensure safe boarding.
• Check Warn the pilot of any discrepancies

b. Duties of Attending Pilot

The pilot is recommended to:

• Not be in a hurry to board the vessel.

• Liaise with the master so that the ship is positioned and manoeuvred to permit safe boarding.
• Not try to save trivial 5 minutes while boarding.
• Check the transfer arrangements are proper condition.
• Vessel is ready with lifesaving appliances standby for immediate use.
• Boat is not the rolling of the boat against the shipside
• Boat crew is ready for assistance before the pilot attempts the boarding
• Ensure the PPEs are properly maintained
• Check that boarding equipment appears properly rigged and manned

c. Duties of the Attending Boat Coxswain and Crew

The boat crew are recommended to:

• Be standby on deck to assist pilot bin preparation for climbing the ladder.
• Be ready with lifesaving appliances standby for immediate use.
• take all measures to reduce the rolling of the boat against the shipside
• Boat crew must ensure that the ladder is clear of all entanglements before the pilot attempts the boarding
 • As soon as the pilot goes up the ladder the boat must move away from the ladder and standby at few
feet’s away. This is important as if the ladder fails and pilot falls down he should not fall on the hard deck
of the boat and sustain injury.
• Warn the pilot of any discrepancies if observed on the ladder, with the pilot or with the vessel.

When all the 3 teams do their duties independently, they cross check each other as a matter of additional
precaution, and work in tandem in good co-ordination with each other, the risk so generated during pilot transfer
procedure are effectively managed. Thus it will significantly reduce the accidents related to pilot transfers.
Blaming the poor rope of the pilot ladder is the all-encompassing solution. Rather there should be a right
mechanism be in place to ensure that the composite team work is executed in a satisfactory manner. To place
such an instrument or the procedures in place, the local port authorities, or national authorities may have to wilful
action suitable to their local conditions.

Regulations in respect of Pilotage Access and Egress

• Requirements as per SOLAS Regulation V/23

1. Application
1.1 Ships engaged on voyages in the course of which pilots may be employed shall be provided with pilot transfer
arrangements.
1.2 Equipment and arrangements for pilot transfer which are installed1 on or after 1 July 2012 shall comply with
the requirements of this regulation, and due regard shall be paid to the standards adopted by the Organization2.
1.3 Except as provided otherwise, equipment and arrangements for pilot transfer which are provided on ships
before 1 July 2012 shall at least comply with the requirements of regulation 173 or 23, as applicable, of the
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, in force prior to that date, and due regard shall be
paid to the standards adopted by the Organization prior to that date.
1.4 Equipment and arrangements installed on or after 1 July 2012, which are a replacement of equipment and
arrangements provided on ships before 1 July 2012, shall, in so far as is reasonable and practicable, comply with
the requirements of this regulation.
1.5 With respect to ships constructed before 1 January 1994, paragraph 5 shall not apply later than the first
survey4 on or after 1 July 2012
1.6 Paragraph 6 applies to all ships.
2. General
2.1 All arrangements used for pilot transfer shall efficiently fulfil their purpose of enabling pilots to embark and
disembark safely. The appliances shall be kept clean, properly maintained and stowed and shall be regularly
inspected to ensure that they are safe to use. They shall be used solely for the embarkation and disembarkation of
personnel.
2.2 The rigging of the pilot transfer arrangements and the embarkation of a pilot shall be supervised by a
responsible officer having means of communication with the navigation bridge who shall also arrange for the
escort of the pilot by a safe route to and from the navigation bridge. Personnel engaged in rigging and operating
any mechanical equipment shall be instructed in the safe procedures to be adopted and the equipment shall be
tested prior to use.
2.3 A pilot ladder shall be certified by the manufacturer as complying with this regulation or with an
international standard acceptable to the Organization5. Ladders shall be inspected in accordance with
regulations I/6, 7 and 8.
2.4 All pilot ladders used for pilot transfer shall be clearly identified with tags or other permanent marking so as
to enable identification of each appliance for the purposes of survey, inspection and record keeping. A record
shall be kept on the ship as to the date the identified ladder is placed into service and any repairs effected.
2.5 Reference in this regulation to an accommodation ladder includes a sloping ladder used as part of the pilot
transfer arrangements.
3. Transfer arrangements
3.1 Arrangements shall be provided to enable the pilot to embark and disembark safely on either side of the ship.
3.2 In all ships where the distance from sea level to the point of access to, or egress from, the ship exceeds 9 m,
and when it is intended to embark and disembark pilots by means of the accommodation ladder6, or other equally
safe and convenient means in conjunction with a pilot ladder, the ship shall carry such equipment on each side,
unless the equipment is capable of being transferred for use on either side.
3.3 Safe and convenient access to, and egress from, the ship shall be provided by either:
3.3.1 a pilot ladder requiring a climb of not less than 1.5 m and not more than 9 m above the surface of the water
so positioned and secured that:
3.3.1.1 it is clear of any possible discharges from the ship;
3.3.1.2 it is within the parallel body length of the ship and, as far as is practicable, within the mid-ship half length
of the ship;
3.3.1.3 each step rests firmly against the ship's side; where constructional features, such as rubbing bands, would
prevent the implementation of this provision, special arrangements shall, to the satisfaction of the Administration,
be made to ensure that persons are able to embark and disembark safely;
3.3.1.4 the single length of pilot ladder is capable of reaching the water from the point of access to, or egress
from, the ship and due allowance is made for all conditions of loading and trim of the ship, and for an adverse list
of 15°; the securing strong point, shackles and securing ropes shall be at least as strong as the side ropes;
3.3.2 an accommodation ladder in conjunction with the pilot ladder (i.e. a combination arrangement), or other
equally safe and convenient means, whenever the distance from the surface of the water to the point of access to
the ship is more than 9 m. The accommodation ladder shall be sited leading aft. When in use, means shall be
provided to secure the lower platform of the accommodation ladder to the ship's side, so as to ensure that the
lower end of the accommodation ladder and the lower platform are held firmly against the ship's side within the
parallel body length of the ship and, as far as is practicable, within the mid-ship half-length and clear of all
discharges.
3.3.2.1 when a combination arrangement is used for pilot access, means shall be provided to secure the pilot
ladder and manropes to the ship's side at a point of nominally 1.5m above the bottom platform of the
accommodation ladder. In the case of a combination arrangement using an accommodation ladder with a
trapdoor in the bottom platform (i.e. embarkation platform), the pilot ladder and man ropes shall be rigged
through the trapdoor extending above the platform to the height of the handrail
4. Access to the ship's deck
Means shall be provided to ensure safe, convenient and unobstructed passage for any person embarking on, or
disembarking from, the ship between the head of the pilot ladder, or of any accommodation ladder or other
appliance, and the ship's deck. Where such passage is by means of:
4.1 a gateway in the rails or bulwark, adequate handholds shall be provided;
4.2 a bulwark ladder, two handhold stanchions rigidly secured to the ship's structure at or near their bases and at
higher points shall be fitted. The bulwark ladder shall be securely attached to the ship to prevent overturning.
5. Shipside doors
Shipside doors used for pilot transfer shall not open outwards.
6. Mechanical pilot hoists
Mechanical pilot hoists shall not be used.
7. Associated equipment
7.1 The following associated equipment shall be kept at hand ready for immediate use when persons are being
transferred;
7.1.1 two man-ropes of not less than 28 mm and not more than 32 mm in diameter properly secured to the ship if
required by the pilot; man-ropes shall be fixed at the rope end to the ring plate fixed on deck and shall be ready
for use when the pilot disembarks, or upon request from a pilot approaching to board (the manropes shall reach
the height of the stanchions or bulwarks at the point of access to the deck before terminating at the ring plate on
deck;
7.1.2 a lifebuoy equipped with a self-igniting light;
7.1.3 a heaving line.
7.2 When required by paragraph 4, stanchions and bulwark ladders shall be provided.

8. Lighting
Adequate lighting shall be provided to illuminate the transfer arrangements overside, the position on deck where
a person embarks or disembarks.

• Required Boarding Arrangement for Pilots - MSC.1/Circ.1428

Revised requirements covering some safety aspects of pilot transfer arrangements have been introduced through
changes to SOLAS Regulation V/23 and apply to “equipment and arrangements for pilot transfer which are
installed on or after 1 July 2012”. Although the revised requirements affect primarily to the ships constructed on
or after 1 July 2012, or for which the building contract is placed on or after 1 July 2012, some of the requirements
also apply to existing ships constructed before 1 July 2012.

(Fig-3.1)

The revised requirements for existing ships in summary:

• Mechanical pilot hoists shall not be used.

• Shipside doors used for pilot transfer shall not open outwards applies to ships constructed before 1
January 1994, and must be modified not later than the first survey on or after 1 July 2012.
• Installed replacement equipment shall, insofar as is reasonably practicable, comply with all aspects of the
revised requirements.
 • Other existing installations will not be affected as long as they are in compliance with the old
requirements.

As per the revised requirements for pilot transfer arrangements as stipulated by SOLAS Regulation V/23, ships
fitted with mechanical pilot hoists or shipside doors opening outwards, replacements and modifications should be
carried out in order to ensure compliance also after 1 July 2012. All replacements and modifications should be
carried out in close co-operation with the Classification Society and Flag Administration

Safe Procedures for Boarding and Disembarkation

Let’s have a structural look at the comprehensive procedure of pilot boarding procedure. With lot of
studies and observation, following are the recommended correct procedure to follow.

1. Communications before Approaching towards the vessel

Before the pilot approaches to the vessel, there some minimum communications must be done between the pilot
and the vessel. Ships should provide the relevant port or pilotage authority with basic information such as:

• Arrival intentions,
• Draught and dimensions,
• Ship characteristics
• Any deficiency in bridge equipment
• Any other deficiencies
• Other information as required by the port or other statutory obligations.

This should be completed in advance of the planned arrival. In acknowledging receipt of this information, the
appropriate pilotage authority should pass relevant information back to the ship as soon as it becomes available.

Such information should include as a minimum:

• the pilot boarding point;

• reporting and communications procedures;
• the prospective berth, anchorage and
• routing information to enable the master to prepare a tentative passage plan to the berth prior to his
arrival.

However the masters must recognise that all such information may not be complete and final to make the passage
plan until the pilot has boarded the ship.

2. While Approaching The vessel for boarding

While the pilot approaches to the vessel, the pilot must confirm following:

• Condition of health of the crew and vessel is granted free pratique

• All the bridge equipment in good order and have been tried out.
• Pilot ladders to be rigged on which side and height above water level
• Pilot ladder has been tested for good order.
• Expected side of boarding
• Exact location of pilot boarding position
• Speed and heading of the vessel required for boarding
 • Remind that Main engine need to be stopped just before pilot attempts to board the vessel. Thus master
need to adjust course speed and position beforehand.
• It’s a good idea that the vessel is asked to send a photograph showing the condition of the securing
arrangement of the pilot ladder on the deck and gunwale before the pilot even starts approaching the for
the vessel

3. The Boarding point

Preferably the pilot boarding point should be at the designated pilot station. The boarding position for pilots
should be located, where practicable, at a great enough distance from the port so as to allow sufficient time for a
comprehensive exchange of information. Sufficient time must be allowed for discussion and agreement of the
final pilotage passage plan for boarding point to berth. The position chosen should allow sufficient sea-room to
ensure that the ship’s safety It should be well clear of the traffic route and should not impede the passage of other
ships.

While there are well marked pilot boarding points on the chart with above objectives, it has been observed that
pilots tend to take shorter routes and call the vessel even closer towards the fairway channel with a sole objective
of saving time! –for what, God knows! This sort of boarding vessel at closer points to channels, away from
designated pilot boarding area removes the time margins kept for the objective of information exchange. Thus
jeopardising the safety of the vessel and jeopardising the objective of safe procedures. The vessel master as well
as the pilot must understand why a pilot boarding point has been designated at a specific place.

Some ports have multiple pilot boarding points for different types for vessel or for different range of drafts
depending on available depths of water. It is a good practice that the masters and pilots understand and appreciate
the laid down procedures and do not stumble upon the safe margins of time.

4. Making a Lee for the Pilot Boat

As the vessel reaches the pilot boarding point, it is better that the vessel proceeds with appropriate speed and
make required heading to provide a good lees for the pilot boat. The rendezvous between the vessel and the pilot
boat must be planned in such a way that the vessel reaches the pilot station with appropriate boarding speed and
proper heading to create a leeside for the pilot boat.

Everyone involved must always remember the bottom line -Safe pilot boarding is the first and most critical step of
carrying out a safe pilotage of vessels.

A good lee provides the boat to come alongside the vessel and be steady against the shipside to facilitate the safe
boarding of the pilot. If there is swell and the boat rolls and pitches alongside the vessel, this presents following
situational risks:

a. Risk of hitting the pilot’s legs while the pilot steps on the ladder. If the boat hits the pilot’s legs there is
fair chance that the pilot falls down.
b. If falls down on the hard deck of boat and sustain injuries and consequent tertiary damages.
c. Risk of the ladders lower steps entangle with the boat and damaging the ladder
d. If the ladder entangle with the boat structure, it may pill the ladder with a sufficient force to break the
ropes even if the pilot ladder is in very good condition
Thus once the boat comes along side, it is on the part of the pilot to exercise due diligence to observe the vertical
and lateral movements of the boat against shipside and assess if it allows safe boarding. If not adjust the vessel’s
course further to get a very good lee.
Even after the adjustment of the course, if the boat still rolls against shipside, pilot must observe the ladder for
some time and wait for the boat to reach its heist reach while rolling, to catch the ladder and climb up. In case of
bad weather conditions, sometimes it’s almost impossible for the boat to be steady against the shipside even with
the best possible lee. In such case instead of lighter boats, powerful tugs may be used for pilot boarding. The tugs
are more stable compared to the smaller boats. The tug boats may push against the shipside below the pilot ladder
to make her steady for some time to allow the pilot to board the vessel safely.

Even after exercising sufficient due diligence, in the opinion of the pilot, if the situation doesn’t provide safe
transfer, the pilot must refuse and avoid boarding of the vessel. Here the commercial pressure must not take over
the pilot’s safety interests. The pressure of job must not precede the safety of the pilot’s life. Here the duty of the
port authorities is to support the pilot’s views and do not force him to take the risk of life.

5. Checks of Boarding Arrangement just Before Boarding

When the pilot boat reaches alongside the vessel, the pilot should take a minute to carry out minimum safety
checks before jumping on to the ladder. The pilot must remember that the minimum safety checks would take
only a minute and it wouldn’t waste anybody’s precious time. It is not worth saving that few minute against the
risk of life for a pilot. And I think commercial shipping can spare few minutes for the pilot to carry out the safety
checks before boarding. Another reason why a pilot is in a hurry to board the vessel quickly and don’t want to
waste few minutes is because the vessel is close to the channel and making way with sufficient speed. Few
minutes delay would bring the vessel closer to the hazards and master may not be tuned to take right action while
picking up pilot at the same time. The pilot must be prudent enough not to allow such situation to happen. The
master of the vessel also must take into account these factors while adjusting the course and speed of the vessel. If
time doesn’t permit, slow down the vessel to allow more time for the pilot to assess the situation.

Everybody must remember – Safe boarding the 1st step of safe pilotage.

Checks to be carried out by the Pilot:

In those few minutes, the pilot must check following:

a. The overall condition of the ladder, wooden steps, chocks, loose steps, broken steps etc.
b. The visual condition of the pilot ladder ropes.
c. Securing of the pilot ladder to shipside by the magnets in good condition
d. Ladder is not in tilted condition
e. Ladder is free from any grease and oils and slippery handrails.
f. Sufficient lighting has been provided.
g. OOW standby with Walkie-talkie
h. Supporting crew standby.
i. Lifebuoy with line and light must be standby. It is of no use if a man is not ready with lines open to throw
the buoy immediately when pilot falls on water in case of unfortunate incident. A man must be standby
with a lifebuoy with line open near the accommodation on the aft of the pilot ladder ready to throw the
buoy if the pilot falls on water.
j. Heaving line passed to transfer any pilot’s bag carrying pilotage tools and gadgets.
k. Pilot boat is steady against the shipside
l. Securing arrangement is in good condition. This may not be checked by the pilot till the time pilot boards
the vessel. It’s a good idea that the vessel is asked to send a photograph showing the condition of the
securing arrangement of the pilot ladder on the deck and gunwale before the pilot even starts approaching
the for the vessel.
Checks By the duty Officer

While ensuring that all the safe arrangements are made from the ship’s part, the Duty Officer standby near the
ladder must check following just before the pilot boards the ladder:

a. Pilot dons life jacket and proper PPE

b. Pilot doesn’t carry backpack and ensure same is pulled up if any by heaving line.
c. Pilot boat is steady against shipside.
d. Communication established between the pilot and D/O.
If any deficiency on the part of the pilot is observed, D/O must report to the master and master in turn
immediately report to port control regarding the unsafe acts attempted by pilot. Same must be discouraged.

After the D/O gives go ahead signal, then only the pilot should start boarding the ladder.

6. While boarding
Once all safe arrangements are verified, the pilot attempts to catch the ladder. While boarding the pilot must not
think about anything else except focussing on his hand, his legs, and the grip by his hand and legs. He must
ensure at any given point of time, one leg and one hand must be with tight grips. Only after the other hand and leg
holds a tight grip he should leave the 1st set of hand and leg.

While boarding the ladder, there are 2 controversial issues those has been debated with contradicting opinions:

a. Use of a safety harness with a preventer line while climbing the vertical part of the ladder.
It is quite controversial topic that a pilot must wear a safety harness with a line going up on the ship’s deck and
same has been tightened form the deck by an attending crew. At least when the pilot is climbing the vertical part
of ladder, the line with safety harness must be present. If due to any reasons – slippery ladder or sudden health
issues of pilot or ladder breaks etc. if the pilot is not able to hold on to the ladder, he wouldn’t fall down on to the
boat deck or water. This works on the same theory of safety preventer lines during working aloft!!! A safety
harness with a preventer line is the key to ensure safety during working aloft.

b. Stopping the main engine while the pilot is on the ladder

The simple logic is that if the pilot falls on water unfortunately, with the existing speed, the vessel would move
ahead and within seconds the pilot would come towards the stern of the vessel. If propeller is running, due to
negative pressure zone, it would suck the person towards the propeller. If propeller is not running the person
would move aft while floating. This would save the life of the person.

Controversy here is, what if the vessel is unable to stop her engines for few minutes (1-3 minutes) due to
prevailing circumstances and conditions of weather, currents or proximity to navigational hazards.

Every effort must be made to make the environment conducive where the pilot can board the vessel with engines
stopped albeit for few minutes or even for less than a minute!!!

2nd Most Prevalent Method of Pilot Transfer – Using Helicopters

Helicopters have been used for pilot transfers for many years. European countries started using helicopters as
early as in 1974 in Germany. In USA helicopters have been used by the Columbia River Bar Pilots following
extensive trials. Using helicopters for 70% of all transfers are reported with no injuries or deaths with between
2200 and 3000 helicopter transfers per annum. The weather conditions in such areas are reportedly difficult with
heavy swells, confused seas and high winds

Each of the pilotage organisations can provide detailed information on the particular helicopters selected for the
transfers and the vessels on which they land or winch to and from. In Norway west coast pilot transfer operations
are carried out with 80% land on, 20% winch on.

Helicopters are used in Australia in ports such as Newcastle and Gladstone and within the Great Barrier Reef.

Due to the concern of injuries with the traditional ladder method, many ports slowly considering the use of
helicopters for pilot transfer procedures.

The Code of Safe Practice for Ship-Helicopter Transfers by AMSA for guidance in helicopter operations may be
used as a reference book.

Pilot Embarkation Platform System (Dangerous Trap-Door Mechanism)

This type of pilot ladder arrangements are also used on may vessel particularly large container vessels. Though
the pilot hoists system has been banned as per the IMO resolution A.1045 (27) these types are still in use without
any concerns from the classification societies. There has been a recent incident in UK where a pilot has died after
falling from such arrangements.

(Fig-3.2)
This is a type of pilot hoists which includes:
- A davit hoisting mechanism for an aluminium ladder.
- A platform fitted to the lower end of the aluminium ladder
- A pilot ladder fitted below the fixed platform such that the pilot after climbing up the rope ladder enters
through a trap door to reach the fixed platform at the bottom end of the aluminium ladder.
As per the revised requirements of pilot transfer arrangements in SOLAS Regulation V/23, such mechanism of
pilot transfer is wholly non-compliant with the regulations. The rope ladder is not fastened on the deck which is
essential part of securing pilot ladder. With the plat form at the bottom of the aluminium ladder, it is meant to be
hoisting the pilot – this is completely banned in the same regulation of SOLAS V/23.

Besides above non-compliant issues, there have been several practical difficulties being faced by the pilots:
 • Because the ladder was suspended from the platform it was not firmly against the ship side
• Transferring from the ladder through the trapdoor required climbing at an angle of about 110
degrees and was an awkward transition
• When pilot leaves the rope and holds a horizontal rail on the platform, he has to stretch backwards
and there is no vertical handrail immediately after leaving the rope.
• The diameter of the horizontal rail is bigger, thus it doesn’t give a good grip for holding by hands.
• The securing arrangements of the rope ladder below the platform e.g. eye pad and the thimble, are
not maintained properly and looks horrible with thick rusts.
• The trapdoor opening in the platform was a little small in size for some pilots.

Recently many senior and experienced pilots lost their lives owing to this type of trapdoor mechanism of pilot
transfer arrangements. In late 2019 and mid-2020, 2 pilots of a same port lost their lives in back to back incidents
in USA. Yet there has been no appreciable action in this regard. Though there has been a lot of hue and cry
against such arrangements, it remains largely unheard of so far. Hope things will change in near future.

Novelty Methods to Develop Full-proof Boarding Mechanism

Though various other methods had been tried out and been in use in the industry for quite some time, other
mechanical methods of pilot transfer had been turned redundant and banned from use for pilot transfer procedure.

The safest method so far is the use of the pilot ladder arrangements in fair weather conditions. However in the
previous sections we have examined and understood that pilot transfer by ladder is also not free from accidents.
If all the persons involved in pilot transfer procedure follow the proper procedures and stands in working, the
risks involved are greatly minimised.

But still there are times and places where mishaps, negligence happen despite regular training, briefing and
maintenance of equipment. Thus now the need of the hour is to follow the pilot ladder system of pilot transfer
and this should be provided with some additional safety measures in the procedure itself such that the risks due to
negligence or situational pressure would be greatly minimised.

While innovating on the additional safety measures to make the pilot transfer risk free, the basic rules of working
aloft or over side must not be compromised. Following are the requirements of working aloft or over side as per
the Code of Safe Working Practices (COSWP):

The Code of Safe Working Practice for Seafarers has a section dedicated to the safety issues with “Working
aloft and over the side”. This Code lists the following general provisions (Section 15.1):

• Working aloft or over the side should not be permitted if the movement of a ship in a seaway makes such
work hazardous
• All seafarers should wear safety harnesses and restraints appropriate to the conditions
• Safety nets should be rigged where necessary
• Persons working over the side should wear life jackets or other suitable flotation devices
• A competent person should continuously supervise seafarers working aloft or over the side

We’ve seen that the major risk factors associated with ladders, is the risk of fall besides the body stress and risk of
being hit by the boat. The risk of being hit by the boat can be managed by the adjustment of course and speed of
the vessel; the major un-addressed risk persisted so far is the risk of fall. This risk takes may live of fellow pilots
worldwide over. We need to innovate to address the risk factors associated with fall from a height. Before
innovating we must understand the step by step look of a fall from how it is initiated till the time of recovery.
Then we can put control measures during each stages of fall. When any of the control measure works against the
risk, it immediately neutralises the risk and save the person.
Now let’s see the various stages of fall, risks associated with each stage and what control measures can be put to
neutralize the risk.

There are 5 phases in a fall and its arresting mechanism while working aloft. While innovating we must look after
each stage of the fall mechanism:

• Satge-1: Initiation of the fall – There are numerous reasons which cause the initiation of fall consciously
or without knowledge of the pilot. This stage can be best managed by the alertness and focus of the pilot
in adhering to the basic precautions. But even after taking all precautions, there are external reasons
which cause the initiation of the fall.

• Stage -2: The fall itself – During this stage the mishap has happened and the man falls freely down. Panic
sets in. At that instance he tries all his best to hold something. There is little time to react and it happens
almost instantaneously. In the process he gets injured from minor to major injuries. At this time if there is
any preventer mechanism is present, like safety harness, or fall arrestor, or safety net, then it would arrest
the free fall of the person

• Satege-3: Arrest of the fall – During this if there is any fall preventer or arrestor mechanism is present,
would hold the falling person in place. Now here the person sustains injury to varying degree depending
upon the amount of jerk he gets in arresting the fall. The jerk can be minimised only if the preventer is
relatively tight and not much slack. If slack it would create tremendous jerk on the person as well as the
preventer itself. It may cause it to part also. The essence lies here is to keep the preventer slightly tight or
almost no slack on the preventer.

• Stage-4: Suspension following the fall - when the person is suspended in the harness he or she is likely to
be in a state of shock, and may or may not be physically injured. Depending on the injuries sustained in
the fall the casualty may be unconscious, have broken limbs or otherwise be unable to move, including
being totally motionless

• Stage-5: Recovery- The casualty may be able to rescue him or herself, or may need to await rescue.
Immediately the assisting crew should not waste any time to rescue the person under guidance from the
ship’s officers.

We need to analyse the risks involved and make innovations in such a way that all basic safety guidelines are not
compromised.

A Case for Additional Safety: Mechanical Fall protection Systems

All fall protection systems are aimed at minimising the effects of a potential fall and arresting the fall with limited
impact forces. The design and position of the harness on the body has been identified as having a significant
impact on the angle of the body after the fall. There are the user comfort and the potential for traumatic injury
caused by the arrest.

Despite the risks, a review of 91 fatal falls from a median height of 8metres found only 2 were related to fall
protection failure and none were attributed to orthostatic syndrome. In contrast 54% of the fallers who died wore
no protection. A further group of 13% wore fall protection but had it incorrectly fastened. The incorrect wearing
of personal protection is a risk in itself as the wearer may have a false sense of security.

Types of fall protection equipment in use:

The basic equipment required for fall protection systems consists of 3 parts, such as:
• A lanyard or free-fall device
 • An anchorage point
• A safety harness

a. Fall protection with Rope and rail grabs

This type is used on different types of ladders. Device is attached to a vertical rail or a fixed vertical line and can
move up and down the rail or line. User is connected via a short lanyard to the activating lever which locks the
device in the event of a fall. This may be a suitable form of arrester if the short lanyard attaches to a vertical fixed
rail separate from the ladder itself
b. Fall protection with Self tensioned line with fall arrestor.
Preventer line is attached to an anchorage point at the main deck level of the vessel or to a point little higher. A
sufficiently strong preventer line provided for the purpose. The preventer line is attached to user’s safety harness.
Line is controlled by a spring-loaded reel which adjusts the line length as the wearer moves up and down in the
course. The spring loaded reel locks by means of any jerk on the reel.
c. Fall protection Self tensioned line with fall arrestor
Here the preventer line is manually handled from a fixed strong point on deck through dedicated pulley. The
slackness on the preventer must be quickly adjusted by the crew. The preventer is not exactly anchored at point;
rather, it takes few turns on a strong pipe or ship side railing. In case of fall the weight must be taken by the strong
point. The movement of the user must be adjusted with the slowly while the length is adjusted manually to
remove the slackness. All or is otherwise in distress.

d. Fall protection With Self winching mechanism

Same as type-b but with the addition of a winching mechanism which permits retrieval of a wearer who has
suffered a fall or is otherwise in distress. Types of b, c & d should be anchored to a point above the user which
will not be offset by generally more than 10 degrees from the vertical or such other angle as the manufacturer
recommends.

Safety Harnesses :

Safety harnesses is a great innovation for the safety of the crew working on board ships. I may be used many
different purposes including fall prevention, positioning, and for rescue. The design of the harness has a major
impact on the body during the fall, the arrest, and the suspension phase.

A major study into harness design outlines how the orientation of the body at the initiation of the fall and during
the fall will determine which part of the body will take the first and more important impact during the arrest
phase. The attachment point of the harness will affect the degree of neck movements, rotation of the body,
compression on the spine etc. and so will impact on the location and severity of injury to the body. An innovation
may be done in the design of safety harness particularly suitable for pilot transfer. These falls protection designs
discussed above with an innovative safety harness appear to have potential application for the pilot sea transfer
procedures.

Misconceptions with fall protection mechanisms:

Fall protection is now widely used in industries such as construction, manufacturing etc. but many workers are
reportedly reluctant to use the devices. Similar is the attitude among the marine pilots who pose many reasons not
to adopt the mechanism citing mainly inconvenience or discomfort. Pilot ladder climbing up up down is a matter
of 1 -2 minute affair. Within these 2 minutes, if still we look for comforts, only God will save us.

Reasons for this attitude include following:

- Fear of suspension and slow rescue by the attending crew
- Belief that they will not fall so do not need protection
 - Belief that consequence of fall is not major
- Harness awkward and annoying to use and restrictive
- Strapping around legs uncomfortable impacting on groin area etc.
Problems with fall protection mechanisms:

A very real problem relating to fall protection systems is the period of suspension immediately following a fall.
The person is held suspended in an upright position and may be unconscious. This posture can result in
‘orthostatic shock’ or ‘orthostatic syndrome.’ This syndrome occurs from the impact of venous pooling, and
reduced cardiac output on the body’s circulation. Death can occur if a person is suspended and unconscious for
periods of even less than 10 minutes. Immediate rescue and careful treatment following suspension is also
critical to achieve a good outcome for the casualty.

There has been lot of informal discussions among the marine pilots the topic of fall protection. There are many
welcome suggestions and positive views for fall protection arrangements a s additional safety measure to the rope
ladders. But there are also dissenting view that this would only further increase their risk, the system would make
the task more complicated, they would have to be more reliant on the skill and expertise of others etc. But those
who have a dissenting view hopefully don’t understand the importance of it; and sometimes so negligent that they
fail to don a life vest while climbing the ladder.

The essence of fall protection is that while everything goes well and there is no incident, the fall protection
mechanism would not hinder anything for the pilots but in case something goes wrong on bad day, it would save
the person’s life for sure. It would be better to start using the arrangement and take real feedback than just
rejecting the idea out rightly and living in the same state of unsafe procedures with more and more victims’ year
after year…

***
 Chapter-4

Master - Pilot Info Exchange (MPiX)

Pre-boarding Information Exchange and preparations
Information from Master in MPiX
Information from Pilot in MPiX
Paramount Duties of Pilot before Commencement of Pilotage
Plans for Vessel Movement
Conduct of passage in pilotage waters

The ship’s master has the ultimate responsibility for the safe navigation of his ship – this is the generally accepted
principle in shipping till today though modern shipping has evolved in leaps and bounds. International shipping
has grown exponentially in volumes with very tight schedules and heavy commercial pressures on ship’s master.
A ship master is practically almost dependant on the pilot once the vessel enters into the pilotage waters, with
little or no local knowledge, as well as little room in decision making. Yet the master remains fully responsible for
the pilot’s advice being executed during manoeuvring of ships, as the old custom says. It looks ridiculous, but it is
the truth. Thus the ship master must be cooperative with the pilot, yet assertive. He must remember that he is in
command not the pilot. He must be confident that the pilot is doing his duties correctly and he must be ready to
take over if the pilot is not fulfilling his duties.

In most of the occasions in harbour limits, pilotage is compulsory. Thus it is imperative that the manoeuvring of
the vessel in harbour limits with pilot on board is a critical affair. There has to be a composite unit of 2 different
teams work in coherence and adequate mutual co-operation. This mutual co-operation would largely depend on
the master- pilot relationship on the bridge. This is highly necessary for a successful manoeuvring of a vessel into
or out of harbour. Thus no berthing guide would be complete without reference to the master/pilot relationship.
Such guidance is designed to supplement existing regulations and standard references on pilotage.

The pilot, master and bridge personnel share a responsibility for good communications and mutual understanding
of the other’s role for the safe conduct of the ship in pilotage waters. They should also clarify their respective
roles and responsibilities so that the pilot can be easily and successfully integrated into the normal bridge
management team. The pilot’s primary duty is to provide accurate information to ensure the safe navigation of the
ship. In practice, the pilot often cons the ship on the master’s behalf.

The master retains the ultimate responsibility for the safety of his ship. He and his bridge personnel have a duty to
support the pilot and to monitor his actions. This should include querying any actions or omissions by the pilot (or
any other member of the bridge management team) if inconsistent with the passage plan or if the safety of the ship
is in any doubt.

The pilot and the master should exchange information regarding the pilot’s intentions, the ship’s characteristics
and operational parameters as soon as possible after the pilot has boarded the ship. The Master /Pilot Exchange
(MPiX) Forms should be completed by both the master and pilot to help ensure ready availability of the
information and that nothing is omitted in error.

Pre-boarding Information Exchange and preparations

Ships should provide the relevant port or pilotage authority with basic information regarding their arrival
intentions and ship characteristics, such as draught and dimensions, as required by the port or other statutory
obligations. Though this is not a practice in general, the arriving vessels may also be asked to send a photo of
securing arrangements of the pilot ladder on main deck.
Pre-boarding information exchange should be completed well in advance of the planned arrival and in accordance
with local requirements. The information received from the vessel has to be passed to the attending pilot so as to
plan the manoeuvring of the vessel. The pilot should ensure following after receiving information on the incoming
vessel:
• He is adequately rested prior to an act of pilotage,
• He is in good physical and mental fitness and not under the influence of drugs or alcohol
• Prepare information for incorporation into the ship’s passage plan
• Update with navigational, hydrographic and bathymetric information
• Find out the existing and forecast of weather and other meteorological information
• Find out the planned traffic movements within the pilotage area
• Establish communication with the ship to make arrangements for boarding
In acknowledging receipt of this information, the appropriate port or pilotage authority should pass relevant
information back to the ship as soon as it becomes available. Such information should include as a minimum:
• the pilot boarding point;
• reporting and communications procedures;
• sufficient details of the prospective berth, anchorage and routing information to enable the master to
prepare a provisional passage plan to the berth prior to his arrival.

However, masters should recognise that not all of this information may be available in sufficient detail to
complete the passage plan until the pilot has boarded the ship

Once the pilot boarding (POB) time and position information has been passed to the ships, the master and bridge
personnel should ensure following:
• Crew are adequately rested prior to an act of pilotage,
• in good physical and mental fitness and not under the influence of drugs or alcohol
• Prepare a provisional passage plan with the preliminary information received from port authority prior to
the ship’s arrival
• Keep all equipment ready and
• establish communications with the pilot station to confirm boarding details
• provide sufficient personnel for embarking the pilot in a safe and expedient manner

Information from Master in MPiX

As a part of safe practices and procedures as soon as the pilot boards the vessel, the master shall furnish following
information to the pilot:
.
a. Engine characteristics
- Type of engine and its BHP.
- Type of propeller – RH, LH or CPP.
- Critical RPM,
- Minimum number of consecutive start,
- Astern power is %age of ahead power
- Emergency full ahead to full astern time
- Time taken from stop to full astern
- Time Limit Astern
- Minimum speeds at which the astern engines may be given
- RPM indicators in the bridge and outside bridge.

b. Speed Related Information

- Various RPMs and corresponding speed at various RPMs
- RPM are coming as per declared RPM at various level
- Minimum RPM,
- Display of SOG, STW and BT GPS speed
- Thrusters if present and its power

c. Steering Characteristics
- Type of rudder and maximum rudder angle.
- Time taken from hard over (35deg-30 degrees) with one power unit and with 2 power units.
- Minimum speed to maintain course with propeller stopped
- Rudder angle for getting neutral effect
- Rudder angle indicator status in Side Bridge and on the bridge wing.

d. Anchor,
- Type of anchors and their holding powers
- Number of shackles available on each anchor
- Maximum rate of heaving anchor in minutes / shackle speed.

e. Manoeuvring characteristics,
- Stopping ability,
- Turning ability,
- Turning circle,
- Tactical diameter,
- Blind sector at the bow

f. Status of Lights Shapes and Navigational equipment

- Working conditions of signal equipment – lights, shapes and sound devices.
- Status of electronics aids to navigation on bridge.
- Status of communication and GMDSS devices
- All bridge controls and indicators are satisfactory.
- Crew are well versed with the language of pilot commands

g. Drafts and displacement

- Drafts– Fwd and Aft. Maximum draft, Trim
- Appropriate drafts in relations to allowable zones.
- Displacement.
- GM and its tenderness.
- Windage area.
- Other stability related information.

h. Squat information
- Squat table as calculated and available ready reference.
- Cb of the vessel,
- Blockage factor in relation to the available channel of the vessel.
- UKC after making allowances for squat and safety margins.

i. Air draft,

Air draft is the height of the highest point of the vessel above the surface of water. This is important for
determining the head clearance of vessel when passing below a bridge or overhead gantry etc.

Air draft = Height of highest point of vessel from keel the keel (H) – Maximum draft of the vessel
 j. Mooring ropes
- Type of mooring ropes- Polypropylene, nylon, wire rope or natural fibre ropes
- length, size of the mooring ropes
- Number of mooring ropes available on board. If the number is sufficient for berthing of the vessel in the
port.

k. Mooring Arrangements at bow and stern

- Number and Type of fairleads available.
- Bollards and their SWL.
- Number of mooring winches available.

l. Mooring ropes
- Type of mooring ropes- Polypropylene, nylon, wire rope or natural fibre ropes
- length, size of the mooring ropes
- Number of mooring ropes available on board. If the number is sufficient for berthing of the vessel.

m. Mooring Arrangements at bow and stern

- Number and Type of fairleads available.
- Bollards and their SWL.
- Number of mooring winches available.
- Availability of Securing points for tugs
- Cooling water and its egress location

n. If towing is being carried out, then following :

- SWL of the mooring / towing equipment
- Which fairleads are suitable for securing the tugs?
- If they are off centre and only one tug is to be used, this must be specifically brought to the attention of
the pilot.
- Pushing point strength, if known.
- If no pushing points are indicated on the hull, but the ship has a reinforced belt all around, it is important
to convey this fact to the tug master

The above list made is not just for the sake of writing a long list but every point so made has a specific
importance to carry out the safe berthing of the vessel. Master usually omits in mentioning such long list
of information to pilot where there are some obvious points depending upon the type of ship or nature of
the port and resources available at the pilot’s disposal. It is advisable that the master studies the full list
and tries to make the mention of all relevant points to the pilot. It may be realised by the master that
small but relevant information at right time would break the chain of series of misses; and could prevent
a potential disaster from happening.

Information from the Pilot in MPiX

After the master furnishes ship related information, the pilot assesses the information and modify his plans for
manoeuvres and discuss with the master in details regarding the various plans. Before explaining the plans pilot
must inform the master on following:

a. Topography and Seabed

- Type of channel, its depths, width and any restrictions in the channel itself.
- Configuration of the channel.
- Charted depths and its difference from actual depths and margins available.
- Local anomalies present on the GPS positions
- Breakwater and its effects on the channel and vessel’s movement.
 - Space inside break water,
- Location of turning basin,
- Location of the berth.
- Distance from POB point to berth.
- Any particular navigational hazards present in the channel and in the harbour limits.
- Nature of the seabed and locations of any rocky surface.

b. Unknown External Factors - Current, tidal streams

- Currents, its strength and direction at various point
- Tidal stream, its strength, directions at various points

c. Other weather factors including rain and visibility,

- Present Wind Speed and direction,
- Its effects on the vessel specifically with existing windage area
- Swell direction and height
- Tide and its range

d. Tugs and their manoeuvrability, its location and approach.

- the number and types and sizes of tugs to be used.
- ship’s lines or tug line
- method of getting the tug line on board or the ship’s lines to the tug. Messenger lines may be used from
the vessel to pick up a larger size messenger rope from the tug, which can be led to the warping drum of a
winch in order to heave on board the tow wire.
- position of the fairlead preferable
- maximum speed for securing the tug
- bollard pull of the tug(s)
- VHF channels to be used for working with the tugs
- Approach of the tugs to the vessel

e. Shallow Water Effects

Master usually is aware of the shallow water effects in general and its effects on the vessel. But the pilot must
explain the master the locations, and if any peculiarity of shallow water effect is expected on the route; and
reasons for same if it is different from the general shallow water effects.

f. Local Navigational Aids

- Various Buoys – Lateral hand marks of the channel and any special buoys, isolated danger marks or
cardinal buoys at other locations if they are not updated on the BA charts available on board and their
working status at present.
- Usually in developing ports the information are not updated with utmost correctness on the BA charts. If
the port publishes its own charts or if any updated local charts or national charts are available, same has to
be handed over to the master.
- Transit lights or sector lights if present are a very good source of position confirmation in narrow
channels.
- Any virtual buys system present with AIS display.
- Any RACON marks available.
- Any landmarks those are specifically useful for navigation in or out of the port. Reference points to be
observed for carrying out a safe passage of the vessel.

g. Communications
- Various communication channels like VHF channels
- Emergency contact numbers
- Local working channels during manoeuvring
 - Availability of GMDSS walkie-talkie be standby to be used if pilots VHF fails at anytime

h. VTMS controls,
- VTMS control and communication procedure or requirements,
- Local warnings to be received from the VTMS
- Reporting requirements

i. Various Limitations & Restrictions (L&R) of the port

- As the vessel is already reached the port, it must have complied with all the limitations and Restrictions
(L&R) of the port.
- Limitations includes- draft, length, width etc
- Restriction includes – cargo related, origin ports related, related to local and national regulations, etc

j. Contingency Measures
- Contingency measure to be taken in the event of a malfunction or a shipboard emergency.
- Identify possible abort points and
- Identify safe grounding areas.

k. Roles and responsibilities of the master, pilot and other members of the bridge.
During manoeuvring of the vessel from POB point to till the all lines are fast, the duties of the pilot and master
need to understand clear and agreed upon. If any specific requirement is there for the pilot to carry out safe
manoeuvres in the feedback mechanism of information in the communications in the bridge procedures, pilot
must explain same to the master beforehand.

l. Checklists
As per the port requirements, there may be some checklists to be followed, signed and agreed by the master and
the pilot before commencement of the passage after pilot boarding. Same need to be explained by the pilot to the
master and after the master agrees, both need to sign the documents.

m. Pilotage Certificates and Declarations

Different port authorities around the world have different port procedures. Master need to fill up and sign the
pilotage certificate for commercial and legal purpose before the passage is taken over by the pilot. There are also
declarations related to manoeuvring, handling of the vessel damage to port infrastructure etc. needs to be made by
the master before commencement of the passage.

As said earlier, the above list made is not just for the sake of writing a long list but every point so made has a
specific importance to carry out the safe berthing of the vessel. Pilots also usually omit mentioning such long list
of information to masters; and probably feel its waste of time! But it is strongly advisable that the pilot tries to
make the mention of all relevant points to the master at the earliest opportunity.

After taking this information into account, master compares the pilot’s suggested plan with that initially has been
developed on board. At this point, the master has a critical role to emphasize the importance of information
exchange and carry out same. The pilot and master should agree an overall final plan early in the passage before
the ship is committed to commence her passage towards the berth from the pilot boarding point.

Paramount Duties of Pilot before Commencement of Pilotage

As already mentioned earlier in the introductory chapter, it is worth mentioning the paramount duties of a pilot at
this point before commencing the conduct of pilotage. Besides the basic duties of advisory role of the any marine
pilot to the master of the vessel related to safe navigation and safe manoeuvring of the vessel from pilot station to
the berth, every pilot has a paramount duty towards the safety, security and protection of environment as well as
obligation to national and international requirements. Thus the pilot has following paramount duties all the time
when on duty:
 • Pilot must commit to safety of navigation, safety of life at sea, safety of the port infrastructure and
prevention of pollution at all times.
• Pilot should report to the appropriate authority anything observed which may affect safety of navigation
or pollution prevention, including any incident that may have occurred to the piloted ship.
• Pilot may refuse pilotage when the ship to be piloted is believed to pose a danger to the safety of
navigation or to the environment.
• Any refusal of pilot, together with the reason, should immediately be reported to the appropriate authority
for further action.
• The pilot should assist interested parties such as port authorities, national authorities and flag
administrations in reporting and investigating incidents involving ships whilst under pilotage, subject to
the laws and regulations of the relevant authorities.
• Pilots should meet or exceed the requirements set down in IMO Assembly Resolution A.485(XII) and its
annexes

Various Plans drawn up by the Pilot for the Vessel’s Movement

A comprehensive passage plan has to be prepared by the pilot after taking all the relevant factors into account.
Same passage plan has to be thoroughly explained and understood by the master and the bridge team. The passage
plan includes several aspects of the route and usage of various available resources. There are several other
additions to passage plan of the pilot compared to a normal oceanic passage plan as prepared and used by
navigation officers at sea.

The comprehensive yet generic passage plan includes following elementary plans:

1. Route Plan
2. Channel entry Plan
3. Critical Points
4. Speed control Plan
5. Plans of Manoeuvres
6. Tugs Usage Plan
7. Berthing Plan
8. Mooring arrangement plan
9. Contingency plans

This generic passage plan needs to be modified by the pilot to be suitable for the specific vessel. Same has to be
discussed with the master before commencement of the harbour passage.

When pilot boards a vessel, generally there may be pressure on both the pilot and the bridge team in time
management. So there is a precarious situation to allot some time for this “modification & discussion” stage
before conducting the passage. At this juncture it is quite possible that it may not be discussed sufficiently thus
resulting inconsistency with each other. Due to the lack of communication between the bridge team and the pilot
in respect of the navigational intentions, it reduces the safety of vessel in pilotage waters.

Related to the familiarity of the passage plan between the pilot and the master, it has been observed and reported
frequently that:
1. Information are not shared by the master and the pilot in details,
2. Insufficient time for the ship’s crew to familiarise themselves with the pilot’s intended passage plan,
3. The pilot boarding point is closer to the channel or to the harbour entrance as compared to actual charted
boarding ground.
4. In many areas pilots use their own electronic chart systems, displaying the passage on a laptop or similar
device that they bring with them on board and connect to the vessel’s AIS pilot plug. Use of such aids to
 navigation, if combined with reduced planning and bad communication between bridge team and pilot,
further reduces the ability of the OOW to monitor the pilot’s intentions regarding the vessel’s track,
changes of course and to question any decisions made by the pilot.

Early transfer of the intended passage plan to vessel

With the technology available today, the transmission of intended passage plan in advance of the vessel’s arrival
by the pilot significantly add to safe navigation. It would assist the pilot in becoming a more integral part of the
bridge team.

When the pilot arrives on board, the bridge team is already aware of his main intentions and should be able to
quickly discuss and agree on the passage plan, including any possible deviations from the original plan. Advance
information leaves only minor technicalities to be discussed or confirmed at the time of pilot boarding and ensures
that the bridge team’s full attention can be immediately directed towards navigation.

In many ports pilots or the port control in consultation with the pilots send passage plans for a particular port to
vessels in advance. This proactive communication enables the vessel’s bridge team to prepare and enter the
expected passage in the Chart or ECDIS prior to the arrival of the pilot. The bridge team also assess the intended
passage plan and understand it fully. If there is any doubt on the part of the bridge team same maybe clarified
during MPiX. This is probably the way forward. It would facilitate input of the plan in the ECDIS and place the
bridge team in a better position to monitor the pilot’s actions.

1. The Route plan

The route plan shows the planned route of the vessel from pilot boarding point to the berth or the vice versa for
outbound passage. The route plan shows various way points and course and expected speed on each leg of the
route. It also mentions the expected navigational hazards on each leg of the route. An appropriate route plan
includes following:
• Pilot boarding point
• Channel entry point
• Alteration course points
• Speed for each leg of the route
• Minimum depth expected
• WOP for each alterations

This harbour route plan is similar to the oceanic route plan as prepared by the ship’s officers for transoceanic
passages. All such procedures are followed to prepare an effective route plan for the vessel from pilot boarding
point to the berth. Additionally this route plan shows:
• Width of sea-room available on each leg
• White and blue margins for each leg
• Additional resources of manoeuvring available
• Distance to go till the berth
• Emergency Anchorages
• Turning Basins
• Identification of the Berth

2. Channel entry Plan

Channel entry plan includes following:

• Marked Channel Entry Management Area (CEMA) for the vessel. This has been discussed in details
in the next chapter.
• The point of entry of the vessel according the draft in relation to the available depth of water.
 • Find out the present set and drift at the pilot boarding point in the exiting weather conditions.
Estimate the expected set at the entrance of the channel at that speed.
• Any sudden change of set immediately after entering channel.
• Speed required keeping the set angle within tolerable limit of set.
• The approximate shift in the series of buoys due to external force of wind or surface currents on either
side of channel creating a skewed view of channel.
• Course to be followed while entering channel
• Expected speed at the entrance of the channel
• Acute angle entry or sharp angle entry
• Width of the channel and blue and white margins with respect to the width of the channel and width
of the vessel etc.

3. Critical points

There are some critical points on the planned passage where pilot take unusually different engine or steering
orders for the safety of the vessel. If the master of the bridge team is not prepared to face the scenario, suddenly
when pilot advises excessive engine or steering movements, they may panic and may not be able to focus on their
duties. Thus it is advisable that the pilot advises the critical points on the passage and the expected movements
required to handle the situations early on the passage. This helps the bridge team to be focussed and handle the
situation calmly. Such critical points are like:
• Bars, or shallow patches
• Very narrow points
• Excessive cross currents
• Large alterations
• Restricted S- type bends

4. Speed control Plan

The details of speed control plan have been explained in the chapter – Speed Control. This is a tentative plan
which depicts the change in speed especially reduction of speed form entering the channel till reaching the exact
position on the berth of the vessel where the speed finally comes to zero. This shows the expected speed on
various legs of the passage and speed expected at various reference points. The objective of the speed control
plan is to:
• keep stopping distances of the vessel in tolerable limits,
• reduce the side effects of speed on the other vessels due to interaction
• reduce the squat effects at various points
• reduce the chances of damage to the port structures
• ensure that the vessel is always under control using all available means

5. Plan of Manoeuvres:

A specific manoeuvre is carried out with the best use of various combinations of scarce resources of manoeuvring
(engine, helm, inertia, anchor, Mooring lines, tugs, thrusters, current, wind etc.) to execute a change from one
course and speed to another course of speed in a very restricted sea-room. The plan of manoeuvres discusses the
use of various manoeuvres to carry out the course or speed alteration while keeping the vessel well under control
in the safe limits of sea room.

There may be multiple ways of achieving the same results. But pilot has to choose the best suitable manoeuvre in
the existing conditions and stick to the plan unless forced to change due to extreme conditions. Best use of all the
external and internal forces shall be made to achieve the desired results. Pilot must be also ready to manage the
emergencies at any critical points. Thus the use of emergency manoeuvres may be required to save a situation.
The bridge team may consider things which can fail - engine, steering, Tugs, tug lines. In such cases of failure
what are the best possible best things needs to be done.

6. Tugs To be Used

Depending upon the existing circumstances and conditions of weather and the limitations on the part of the vessel,
the Tug Usage Plan need to be modified or adjusted so as to attend the requirements of the case. If the plan of
harbour manoeuvres is modified at any point, it may need review of usage of tugs after that point. Thus the usage
of tugs considers following:
• Number of tugs to be used
• Types and capacities of tugs to be used.
• Position of the fairlead
• Position and SWL of the bollards
• bollard pull of the tug(s)
• Approach of the tugs to the vessel

7. Berthing and Un-berthing Plan

It includes the identification of the berth for the vessel as the first step. Berthing plan includes the approach of the
vessel towards the berth till she is docked alongside safely with all mooring lines fast to shore bollards.
Depending on the location and type of the planned berth and the relative direction and strength of the existing
current, tidal stream or wind the manoeuvres while approaching the berth is planned.

The type of the berth includes following : Wharfs, Open and closed side berths , SBM, SPM, Anchor, Double
Banking with other vessels etc. Un-berthing plan includes the plan right from making fast tug and casting off the
1st mooring lines till the time vessel is cleared the berth safely.

The pilot co-ordinates the efforts of all parties i.e. tug crews, linesmen, ship’s crew engaged in the berthing or un-
berthing operation. His intentions and actions should be explained immediately to the bridge management team,
in the previously agreed appropriate language.

8. Mooring Arrangements

Mooring arrangements generally may be declared beforehand depending on the size of the vessel and the location
of the planned berth. This also depends on the existing and forecasted weather condition during the port stay of
the vessel. The mooring arrangements could be 4+2 or, 4+2+2 or 3+2 or 3+2+2 etc. Along with number of lines,
if there is any specific need of length of lines, it has to be mentioned clearly. Besides the mooring lines, if there is
any plan of mooring anchors to be used, same has to be discussed beforehand and kept ready for use.

The lines which are expected to be affected most are required to be supported with additional lines. Cyclonic
conditions or during heavy rains and its aftermath, the mooring lines need to be taken care of. If required they
need to be reinforced by additional lines.

9. Contingency plans

After assessing the capabilities of the vessel, characteristics of engine, steering, anchors etc. and their limitations
in use of various resources, contingency plans shall be made well in advance to face the emergency scenarios
during the passage. Contingency measure should also be made which should be followed in the event of a
malfunction or a shipboard emergency.
Contingency plans may include:
• use of alternative resources,
• resort top alternative emergency manoeuvres,
 • identifying possible abort points
• identifying safe grounding areas.

All above plans need to be discussed by the pilot with master before commencing the pilotage. If the master has
any questions or any objection to any of the plans same has to be sorted out by the pilot before proceeding.
Eventually these plans should be discussed and agreed between pilot and master.

Conduct of Passage in Pilotage Waters

Efficient pilotage is dependent upon the effectiveness of the communications and information exchanges between
the pilot, the master and other bridge personnel and upon the mutual understanding each has for the functions and
duties of the others. The master and bridge personnel should ensure that the pilot’s directions are conveyed to the
ship’s crew and are correctly implemented. It must be ensured that the ship’s crew provide the bridge
management team with relevant feedback information. The master must advise the pilot once his directions have
been complied with, where an omission has occurred or if a potential problem exists. Establishment of effective
co-ordination between the pilot, master and other ship’s personnel, taking due account of the ship’s systems and
the equipment available to the pilot is a prerequisite for the safe conduct of the ship through pilotage waters.
The necessity of co-operation and a close working relationship between the master and pilot during berthing and
un-berthing operations is extremely important to the safety of the ship. The pilot and the master should discuss
and agree on the operation of key equipment and controls. It is preferable that the master operates the equipment
as he only knows its limitations and best usage. The presence of a pilot on the ship does not relieve the master or
officer in charge of the navigational watch from their duties and obligations for the safe conduct of the ship.

While pilot on board and advising master in carrying out manoeuvring of the vessel, the bridge team must take
care of following points:

• English language or a mutually agreed common language or the IMO Standard Marine Communication
Phrases should be used.
• All members of the team share a responsibility to highlight any perceived errors or omissions by other
team members, for clarification.
• The master and bridge personnel should within the bridge management team, interact with the pilot
providing confirmation of his directions and feedback when they have been complied with.
• The bridge team shall monitor at all times the ship’s speed and position, manoeuvring responses and
density of traffic, weather conditions.
• The bridge team also needs to check the positions of navigational aids, alerting the pilot to any perceived
inconsistencies
• The pilot should report to the relevant authority any irregularity within the passage, including deficiencies
concerning the operation, manning, or equipment of the ship

Ideally the pilot, the master and the officer of the watch (OOW) should discuss and agree on the intended passage
plan in pilotage waters prior to commencing the passage. The same must continue during entire period of pilotage
that the bridge team including pilot must stand on the same information platform. There should be an action-
feedback-and-crosscheck mechanism running continuously to prevent any error.

***
 PART – B
Manoeuvring Techniques
The mark of a great ship handler is never getting into
situations that require great ship handling - Ernest King
 Chapter-5

Entering Pilotage Waters

What is Confined Waters?
Dangers associated in Restricted Water especially
Keys in handling Vessels in Confined Waters
Checks Prior entry into Port Approach Channel
While entering the Channel

All the relevant factors regarding the ship’s internal information and external factors those would be affecting the
ship during the upcoming pilotage has been exchanged between master and pilot during the MPiX. Depending
upon those information exchanges, a consolidated plan including various sub plans like plan is prepared during as
explained in the last chapter - MPiX. Information exchange between the master and the pilot sets the stage for
commencing the onward voyage towards a safe berth from the pilot boarding point. Till the time, vessel is at pilot
boarding point and not entered into the narrow channels and waterways, vessel is well in safe water and well
under the control of the master. Further to this point, the safety of the vessel largely is transferred to the pilot’s
actions and intentions. Thus it is a critical juncture, where the master still can take a call to reject the pilot and
maintain the safety of the vessel. The master hence proceeds from this point only when he/she is fully satisfied
with the plan and available resources to conduct the safe manoeuvring of the vessel into the confined waters.

Once the master and pilot agree to conduct the onward journey, they stand on a same platform to commence the
conduct of the passage from pilot boarding point towards the berth. This has to be recorded and authenticated by
signing the necessary checklists and company forms. This practically sets the platform master and the pilot to set
out the passage – one being on command and other being as advisor, one being navigator and other being cross-
checker. While both master and pilot are active in execution of navigational duties, they are well supported by the
other members of bridge team. The vessel is ready in all respect to enter the confined waters under pilotage.

What is Confined Waters?

What does it mean – confined waters? It means entering an area where manoeuvring of a vessel is highly
restricted given the nature of the sea-room and proximity to navigational hazards. In approach channels usually
most of the dimensions of sea-room is restricted - depth, sea rooms on athwartship as well as on longitudinal
direction of the vessel. There are difficulties in maintaining and altering courses as the margins in either side are
limited. This difficulty is coupled with the unusual shallow water effects. The transit in confined waters is further
imposed with relatively unpredictable external forces. There are also difficulties in maintaining an optimum
speed. There is a need for timely reduction in speed which cannot be differed even for few minutes.

There are times when controlling the speed and maintaining a safe speed is always not as per the plan due to
presence of external factors, thus resort to emergency methods of reducing speed at times. Use of resources-
engine and helm may be used till the extreme limits. Any wrong use of engine or helm could cause disasters for
the ship as well as to the harbour infrastructures. Before the ship enters the channel, vessel and port properties are
safe and secure condition; after a vessel enters channel, the harbour is exposed to huge risk.

The confined waters may include but not limited to following

• Approach Channels
• Congested anchorage
• Straits and canals
 • Congested anchorages etc.

Dangers associated with Confined Waters

There are some inherent dangers associated with confined waters for the vessels to manoeuvre safely. The
characteristics features of confined waters are not same at all the places and vary in its degree of confinement
according to the locations. However each are of confined waters is jumbled up with all or some of following
danger what makes them difficult for the vessel to navigate freely:

1. Increased degree of restrictions

From the manoeuvring point of view, each vessel must have clearances with margins of safety on all 4 dimensions
of vessels expected movements. The 4 dimensions include all 3 dimensions of sea-room such as - Longitudinal,
Athwartship, and Under Keel and the 4th dimension of Headroom Clearances.

• Longitudinal Clearance (L) for the vessel is the largest component and covered by the F&A speed of the
vessel. F&A speed (V) of the vessel is shown by the BT GPS speed of the vessel.
• Athwartship Clearances (A) of the vessel is the most restrictive element inside port limits in general. This
component is covered by the lateral drift of the vessel. It can be measured by the Set (in degrees) and drift
of the vessel.
• Under Keel Clearance (U) of the vessel is covered by the vertical movement of the vessel below surface
of water due to squat and other effects of channel dynamics. It is measured by the UKC (in metres) of the
vessel.
• 4th dimension- Headroom Clearance (H) of the vessel shows the vertical clearance of the vessel form the
bridges or overhead cranes etc. It is measured by the Clearances with respect to the Air draft of the vessel.

Fig – 5.1

In confined water the restriction is of 2nd or 3rd degree where at least 2 or 3 dimensions of the vessel movement
are restricted by some obstructions. This varies with various locations. Mostly the components A and U are
restricted though component L is most of the times remains relatively open as compared to components A &U.
Component H is mostly restricted while passing below the bridges or in the ports when approaching the berth.
Harbours pose the highest degree of restrictions to the vessels manoeuvring in its limits in mostly all the 4
dimensions.

2. Shallow Water Effects.

Shallow water poses a number of peculiar effects on the vessel’s behaviour thus cause difficulties in manoeuvring
of vessel. This reduces manoeuvrability of the vessel due to reduced water flow below the keel and on the
restrictive side of the vessel. When vessel navigates in shallow water the turning ability reduces as well as the
stopping ability. The following are the effects of shallow water on manoeuvring of the vessel:
 • Smelling ground
• Bank Effects - Bow cushion /Bank suction
• Unexpected swing and Speed reduction
• Squat
• Canal Effect
• Vibration
• Difficult in steering
• Sluggishness

The details of the shallow water effects are discussed in the chapter- Shallow water effects.

3. Squat and Reduced depths.

Usually in confined waters the available depth in relation to draft of the vessel is quite low with a UKC margin of
few meters only. As the vessel speeds up in shallow waters, the effective UKC further reduces due to increased
squat. This further reduced UKC increases the risk of grounding for the vessel. Thus the speed of the vessel needs
to be adjusted so as to reduce the squat.

4. Increased Traffic Density

Confined waters usually exist near coastal waters and near the ports and harbours. Usually the topographic
restrictions are accentuated with the presence of heavy traffic in these areas. Usually confluence of vessel happens
with inbound and outbound traffic to the ports. This moving traffic is added with the local fishing and coastal
traffic near the port approaches. There also exist the anchorages with anchor cables of vessel leading to seabed
under waters.

This factor of higher traffic density with dynamic ship movement further poses restrictions on vessel movements
due to ambiguity in positioning moving traffic and actions for collision avoidance.

5. Peculiar effects of Local Weather and Wind system

Strength and direction of local wind system vary from place to place due to the peculiarity of local topography of
land above sea level and structural features on land and offshore. The pattern of the wind may be understood after
careful understanding of local conditions.
As the manoeuvring of the vessel is largely affected by the external weather factors including wind, the
understanding of the wind pattern is very important for safe manoeuvring of ships. Competent harbour authorities
and/ or pilots are advised to study and keep a record of the existing wind patterns in the harbour limits. The
records would serve as a ready reference for the pilots in future for safe manoeuvring of vessel.
6. Uncertainty with strength and direction of Currents

The effects of current in open waters are less important than the effects in confined waters. This effect may be
significant on the vessel’s behaviour particularly when manoeuvring in busy waters or rivers. Though the effect of
currents is very important factor, sometimes even becomes critical to vessel’s safety in confined waters, the speed
and direction of currents are relatively unpredictable compared with wind. The reasons may include but not
limited to following factors:

- Surface or subsurface topography of the land,

- Geographical obstructions such as islands.
- Constraints such as narrows, reefs,
- Changes in tidal direction,
- Water flows at river mouths due to rains,
- Bends in rivers or configuration of channel or river entrances
 - Man-made constructions; piers, berths, breakwaters.

7. Sudden Onset of Restricted Visibility

There are locations where due to conducive atmospheric temperature conditions, sudden onset of fog or restricted
visibility creeps in out of nowhere without much notice to the vessels. This sudden onset of reduced visibility
conditions due to rain, sand storm, hail storm, fog etc. adds challenges in confined waters. Due to proximity of
confined waters to land in general, the chances of convection fog early in the morning or in deep in the nights are
dominant features at many places. Due to increase in pollution levels and suspended particles in the air, nowadays
the chances of early morning fog, haze or smog are predominant closer to port cities.

Fog sets in all of a sudden without any notice to the navigators when the wind is normally calm or smooth. The
type and pattern of restricted visibility during some particular period of year at a particular place need to be
recorded with the percentage of possibilities. This record comes in handy to the pilots so that they can take extra
care for the safety of the vessel.

8. Limitations on Draft, Air Draft, Width Length etc.

Not all areas of confined water pose restrictions in length, width and draft, but there are places where the
limitations on movement of the vessel’s draft, length and width exist.

There are draft limitations in relation to available depth in the channel and the berth. Normally ports are dredged
up to a limit of maximum size of vessels she is expected to handle with a UKC of 1-2 mtr. Thus the UKC to draft
ratio is very less, even just 5-10%.

Usually length limitations arise due to the length of the berths available or if there is a limitation on the turning
basin. Mostly every vessel is turned by 180 degrees during her inbound or outbound passage to/from port.

Air draft limitations exist due to the passing under bridges or existence of gantry booms on the berths. Sometimes
the Chute of loaders has restrictions on the air draft of hatch covers.

9. Passing by dangers at very close range

In confined waters there are isolated dangers exists. These isolated dangers may include rocks, sand bars,
turbulences, sharp turns etc. In many instances the vessel has to pass the navigational dangers at a very close
range. At such close ranges maintaining the vessel in safe waters is a challenge with no margins of error.

10. Failure of Controls

The engine and steering are normally under stress with higher number of engine and helm orders by the ship
handler. In extreme manoeuvres, there is fair chance of the controls being failed in confined waters. There are
arrangements of immediate takeovers to emergency power supplies in case of electrical failures. There is 100%
redundancy arrangement for steering failure. Engine failure leads to lose of steering as well. The excessive use of
the controls during manoeuvring sometime puts pressure on the mechanical systems and causes them to fail. This
poses extreme hazards on the safety of the vessel.

11. Risk of Collision

As the traffic density increases, and vessels operate at very close range in confined waters, there always exist a
risk of collision between the vessels and with the local fishing crafts. There also exists the risk of collision of
vessels with fixed land objects and structures thus damaging them. There have been many such incidents
happening around the world almost every day. The potential risks of collision are due to reduced safe margins.
12. Risk of Grounding
There is risk of grounding also prevalent within in confined waters if vessel is not controlled and manoeuvred
properly. There has been many grounding case happening within the port limits due to many reasons. Grounding
and subsequent retrieval of vessel depends on the nature of seabed and the location on the vessel where grounding
has happened. If the seabed is of soft nature like soft mud and sand, the vessel is likely to re-float in the next high
tide with the help of tugs. But if the nature of seabed is rocky and likely to damage the ship’s hull, the chances of
re-floating may not be easy. If the ship side is ruptured and bilging takes place, it may turn the vessel to wreckage
and would threaten the other movements of other vessels and consequent survival of the port itself.

13. Confined Waters vs. Harbours

There are some difference between the confined waters in general and the harbours. In confined waters vessel
tries to maintain her directional ability and follow the charted course at a sufficient speed with close margins but
in harbour limits, vessel has to make 2 dimensional motions to achieve desired results at very slow speed. In
confined waters, pilot rarely need to look after the external communication but in side harbour limits the pilot has
to do an extra job of necessary communications with external parties like port control, jetty officers, tugs to carry
out a safe berthing or un-berthing. Thus the navigators have to identify and appreciate the additional
developments required within port limits.

Looking all the above factors, it may be said that in open sea what we can consider a close near miss; it’s a day
today navigational operation within harbour limits.

Key Factors in Handling Vessels in Confined Waters

Navigating in confined waters need more care and alertness from the part of the pilots and vessel’s bridge team.
The key points to complete this task are as follows:

1. Safe speed or Slower speed

Safe speed is the prominent and conspicuous part of any manoeuvring situation. Vessel has to resort to all
available means to maintain safe speed during pilotage. Safe speed has been marked usually for each critical
points and each leg of the passage towards berth.

Depending upon the distance of the vessel from the berth the speed may further be reduced by available means
while maintaining the vessel’s position in safe waters. Mostly vessels with very slow speed of 1-2 kts also get
steerage with wheel hard over either side though it is very sluggish in nature. In calm weather vessels can
maintain directional ability. If weather conditions are not favourable, assistance of tug is necessary.

2. Well marked Abort Points

Abort points must be well marked on the charts. It signifies the fact the vessel cannot alter her course or reverse
her course to return to the open waters again without external assistance if there is any need. She has to continue
on her course till the destination. At any time if the master or the pilot is uncomfortable with the developments
they may decide to abort the passage before abort point. After abort point, even if they are not comfortable, they
need to continue on her passage managing the newly developed risks.

3. Always keep some reserve Engine Power for emergency use

It is always a good idea to run at a relatively slower speed while vessel is maintaining a reserve engine power to
use when required in case of urgency. For example if vessel is moving at a speed e.g. 2 kts, and at any point of
time due to external reasons unable to get steerage and going out of control from safe waters, pilot may give dead
slow ahead, slow ahead or even half ahead for some time with wheel hard over to get the response quickly. Once
vessel is controlled within the limits, RPM is reduced back to minimum or engines stopped. But if the vessel is
running at little higher speed e.g. 3-4 kts, at any point if the vessel goes out of control, the handler may not be able
to give a higher engine order to get immediate and substantial helm effect. If at all uses higher engine order, he
would have to reduce the marginal increase in speed at a later stage in lesser time on hand. Thus the key is to
proceed at a slower speed with reserve engine power.

4. Cross checks by Visual means

Within harbour limits though the restrictions are extreme, there are numerous points of references available in the
form of fixed land objects for the pilot to immediately sense all dimensions of the vessel’s movement almost
immediately if properly observed. The electronics means of information system has a critical time delay. Thus it
is good practice to develop sense of observing references continuously to get the feel of vessel’s movement. This
saves a critical time for taking action for the pilot.

It is always prudent to place cross check mechanisms in the information inputs to the pilot so that is there is any
error in one source; another source of information cross checks it. In such case pilot would be able to verify the
correct information before taking any decision based on such information.

5. Dependence on Visual aids and as well as Electronics aid

Visual sources are the best aids to the pilot to get the right information than anything else. Well-developed ports
of the world provide lot of visual aids to the pilot where there are any chances of getting error.
At best electronic information is there to just to compare with the visual information to get an idea of correctness
and percentage of error exists in the electronic info.

6. Timely actions - Delay means lot of additional work and more risks

It is to be noted that the timely action is critical to complete a successful manoeuvring. Any critical delay would
amount to additional set of work to be done to nullify the effects of delayed actions. This further causes loss of
time and resources such as tug usage time and consequent increased fuel consumption by the tugs. A single delay
has cascading effects on upcoming movements in the harbour as well.

7. Establish clear communications

Within harbour limits, while carrying out manoeuvring pilot has a second most important job is to establish and
maintain a good communication schedule with the port control, jetty officers, tugs and other nearby ships if
required. While concentrating on the execution of the manoeuvring, it is preferable to keep unnecessary
communications to minimum and only if it is absolutely necessary. Others involved in the berthing procedure
must avoid undue communication in the channel. The officer in charge of the jetty operation must keep other
things ready for berthing of vessel to avoid undue queries from pilot and diversion of his concentration.

8. Best use of existing Current and Tidal streams

The effects of current in open waters are less important than the effects in confined waters which can be
significant particularly when manoeuvring in busy waters or rivers. A good ship handler always makes the best
use of the existing current and its effect on the vessel to achieve the desired results. According the location and
strength and direction of currents, the ship handler adjusts her speed and course to get best results.

9. Mark Contingency Anchorages

Contingency anchorage are the points where the vessel may drop anchor in case of emergency to buy some time
or to resort for safety for some time in the planned passage. All the locations on the passage are not suitable for
dropping anchor due to many factors. Thus the points where the vessel may anchor are required to be marked on
the route.
 10. Best use of available navigational aids

In confined water there are fixed land structures, offshore installations and buoys and other navigational aids for
confirming the vessel’s position. These navigational aids must be used for safe navigation. Any small errors in
positions may lead to serious consequences while navigating in confined waters especially narrow channels and
fairways. For good positioning of the vessel navigators must confirm their positions with visual aids to get correct
positions of the vessels.

11. Control tests prior arrival to the Confined waters

As the engine and steering is stressed with number of orders and even with extreme manoeuvres, there are fair
chances of the controls being failed in confined waters. To minimise the risk of failure, all bridge, engine and
steering controls must be tested well in advance to ensure that there are in good order and available at the timely
disposal of the bridge team

12. Monitoring other movements

As the traffic density in the area is high, it is necessary to monitor the movements of the vessels nearby. There are
many unlit crafts are also plying nearby. Extreme care must be taken to identify the small and unlit crafts to avoid
any collision risks. Additional look outs must be posted wherever required after careful risk assessments.

13. Emergency Contacts & Reporting Procedures

As the vessel approaches the confined water and port limits, there are emergency contact numbers provided by
each coastal states to assist the vessels in emergency. There are also reporting points and reporting procedures
need to be carried out by the vessels. Vessel must keep the emergency contacts ready for use when navigating in
the confined waters.

Checks Prior Entry into Harbour Approach Channel

As explained in preceding sections, how important it is to understand the confined water the vessel is intending to
enter and the steps need to be taken to control the existing hazards. Thus it is very important that every conscious
step must be taken to achieve a successful management of the risks involved in navigation of vessels in confined
waters and port approaches. Before making entry into the approach channel to the harbour, it is a good practice to
check the followings:

1. Berth is clear and spacious

The pilot must enquire with the port control and find out whether the berth is well clear of all obstructions so as to
allow the vessel’s safe berthing. All efforts shall be made to clear then berth before the vessel starts proceeding
towards the berth. Sometimes there is last minute confusion regarding the space available at the berth is sufficient
enough to accommodate the vessel safely. The clearances from the vessel berthed forward and aft of the
designated berth should be enough with sufficient safety margins

2. Availability of sufficient number of tugs with adequate power

The number of tugs deployed during any particular type of movement is based on the experience gained by pilot
members in normal various weather conditions and ship’s manoeuvring conditions. At his discretion the pilot
may, amend any requirements subject to the prevailing circumstances, in order to maintain adequate safety
margin. Verifying the number and power of tugs is an important part of the investigation of harbour conditions.
Number of tugs to be used for any movements depends on various factors:
 - Port regulations
- Vessel’s type, size and loading condition
- Manoeuvring Characteristics of vessel
- Vessel limitations
- Main Engine capability
- Condition of rudder, propeller and anchors
- Turning basin restrictions
- External factors- direction and strength of wind, sea, current, tide etc, windage area.
- Depth, UKC and squat in the port limits with respect to the draft of the vessel.
- Clearances from Hazards and nearby Vessels
- Berthing plan
- Manoeuvring pattern to be used in the vessel movement

Usually the local port regulations declare the number and size of tugs to be used for different types of vessel
under different circumstances. When no guidelines have been set, the following formulae may be used to
determine the necessary power of tugs required in relation to the deadweight of the vessel, under the conditions of
wind speed -10m/s. It may further vary with type of propulsion method used.

Total required power of tugs in tonnes = 0.075 X (DWT) ^0.6, where 100HP is equivalent to 1 tonne.

However depending on the existing factors acting on the vessel and vessel’s own characteristics, controlling
factors, the pilot, on the spot, has to decide on how many tugs and their positions. This is a decision after a critical
analysis of the berthing plan, vessel types and limitations and external forces.

3. Current and Tidal streams

Though the current is the most uncertain factor that affects the vessel while in the channel, all efforts must be
made to find out the correct strength and direction of current at various critical points. The tidal streams are
generally given on the charts and are almost corrects with little variations. Tidal atlas if available will be of great
help. If not refer to the charts. Some ports publish their tidal charts showing the strength and direction of tidal
stream.

4. Effects of Wind

When navigating in a channel without the assistance of tugs under the influence of wind, it is highly important
that the pilot must know whether he can maintain a course with maximum rudder angle of 30 degrees.
Considering the vessel’s speed, wind direction and speed, an investigation must be conducted to determine
whether or not manoeuvring is possible in the region in which the course can be maintained.

When the relative direction of wind is at w on stbd side, the vessel gets a leeway and gets drifted to port side. The
point at which the wind acts W is ahead of the vessel’s centre of gravity (G), and a turning moment Mw acts to
turn the vessel in the leeward direction. When the vessel tends to drift leeward, water resistance is generated on
the leeside of the bow. The point (R) at which the force of water resistance acts is ahead of W, and a turning
moment Mr acts to turn the vessel in the windward direction. The vessel turns under the turning moment of the
wind or water resistance, whichever is the greater.

As the vessel starts to turn under the resultant of Mw & Mr, rudder is given at certain angle to nullify the resultant
turning effect. The counter turning effect by the rudder Mv controls the vessel. Finally, with turning moment of
the wind, water resistance, and rudder comes in equilibrium. The vessel stops turning to any side though drifting
leeward while the vessel maintains a course at the angle @° (leeway) to the right ahead.
 Mv = Mw+/-Mr

Mr
Water Resistance
Wind

R Mw
W

Vessel’s direction of movement G (COG longitudinal)

Mv
Fig- 5.2

As the relative wind changes direction from the bow towards the beam, the point W moves closer to G. When
abeam, W comes almost close to G. Furthermore when the relative wind moves from abeam towards the aft, the
point W moves away from G towards the stern, the turning moment Mw acts in the same direction as the Mr due
to water resistance. All the 3 positions are shown in the following figures.

R R R

W R

G W/G G
W

Fig-5.3 Fig-5.4 Fig-5.5

As all the 3 moments are in equilibrium i.e. Mv= Mw+/-Mr, vessel can maintain her course. If such equilibrium
is not possible, an increase in the turning moment due to water resistance increases, and the course can no longer
be maintained.

This following graph shows the ratio (Velocity Ratio- VR) of wind speed (Vw) to speed of the vessel (Vv) at
which vessel can or can’t maintain her course under the influence of a realtive wind direction on the vessel. The
VR is shown on the vertical axis, and the relative wind angle on the horizontal axis.
 Wnd Speed/ Ship Speed on Y- Axis and Relative
12
wind angle on X-Axis

10

0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180

Fig-5.6

The area bove the Curve indicates the regions in which the course can and cannot be maintained with a rudder
angle of 30°. And in the area below the Curve, course can be maintained with a rudder angle of 30 degrees or less.
If the ratio of wind speed to vessel speed exceeds 3.7 a region occurs in which the course cannot be maintained
due to the relative wind angle .

At vessel speeds of 4 knots inside the harbour, a wind speed of 16 kts from a relative angle of 45 degrees to 135
degrees can not be maintained even with the 30 degrees of rudder angle. In such case the use of tug is inevitable.
The hull shape should also be considered together with the criteria established for the harbour in question.

5. Tolerable Set in the Channel

This shows the maximum effective set a vessel can have while transiting in a channel safely while keeping her
bow and stern within the limits of white margin of channel. Tolerable set may be on either side of the vessel while
vessel is positioned at the centre line of the channel. In such case the bridge where the navigator is present, is
positioned at the centre of channel for the ease of observation while the bow is off centre on either side within the
white margin of the channel.

If the actual observable set vessel is experiencing at a given weather condition and a given safe speed is more than
the maximum tolerable set in the channel of a given width for a vessel of given length and width, vessel may not
be able to transit in the channel. The bow and stern of the vessel would touch the channel edges and could cause
serious consequences to the vessel. In such case vessel should not attempt to enter the channel.

Tolerable set (in degrees) = tan^-1 (White Margin/ ship’s LOA)

Maximum Tolerable set (@) = Tan^-1 (2W/LOA)

The details of white margin, blue margins and tolerable set is discussed in the next chapter – “Safe positioning of
the vessel in approach channel”.

6. Planned UKC

The International Commission on the Reception of Large Ships (ICORELS) suggests the following values for
UKC in different kinds of navigation areas:

• Open sea areas: for those exposed to strong and long stern or quarter swell, where speed may be high,
UKC/d should be about 0.2.
• Waiting areas: for those exposed to strong and long swell, UKC/d about 0.15.
• Channel: for sections exposed to strong and long swell, UKC/d about 0.15.
• Channel: less exposed to swell, UKC/d about 0.10.
• Manoeuvring and berthing areas: for those exposed to swell, UKC/d about 0.10 to 0.15.
• Manoeuvring and berthing areas: protected, UKC/d about 0.07.

Obviously, the aforementioned values are only recommendations and helpful as a rule of thumb. Local conditions,
allowable speed, availability of pilots and tugs will determine accurate rules concerning minimum UKC.
In any case, absent specific knowledge to the contrary, for 1.5mtrt of UKC, 6-knot is safe speed limit as thumb
rule. It is suitable for safe navigation in almost all conditions

7. Calculation to Decide Whether or Not to Enter Harbour

A rough calculation on the available depth in the channel and the present draft of the vessel with planned speed
along various legs of the route would let the bridge team know whether sufficient UKC will be available for the
safe passage of the vessel in a channel.

In this calculation, following should be considered:

• Sinkage of the vessel while underway (usually 0.1-0.2% of the LOA)

• Safety factors related to water depths on charts. On charts, the allowable limit for error in water depth at
the international depth datum is up to 0.3m in water depths of 20 m, and is upto 1.0 m in areas of depth
above 20 m and less than 100 m.
• Squat generated during movement in shallow waters. It may be calculated using the formulae of 2Cb*V2
• Acceptable UKC required to be maintained.

Let’s for example: A vessel of LOA = 300m, draft = 17.00m, Cb=.7 planned to move at a max speed of 10 kts

Maximum draft of vessel: Arrival Draft + Sinkage of vessel (0.2% of LOA) + Squat

17m + 300m x 0.2 % (0.6m) + 0.35= 17.95m

Safety factor for water depth on chart 0.3m as per the international chart datum

UKC = 10-20% of maximum draft (depending on sailing area),

= 15 % in calculation = 17.95m x 15% = 2.69m

Minimum Required Water depth = 17.95m + 0.30m + 2.69m = 20.94 m

 8. Visibility is acceptable
Visibility is the most unpredictable factor that affects the manoeuvring of vessel in restricted waters. All efforts
shall be made to assess the weather and temperature conditions to find is any poor visibility due to rain or fog or
any other factor conditions is expected during the manoeuvring

9. Other movements in harbour or channel

Generally the port control plans the movements in consultation with the pilots. Thus if any other movements are
planned, the pilot usually knows an bout it. But there are times when due to changing circumstances or due to
emergency, there may be change in the plans of other vessel’s movements. The pilot must get clearance from the
port control regarding other movements in the port.

10. Physical Reference points

The reference points as marked by the pilot, must be verified to be clearly visible. In case they are not visible pilot
must be proactive enough to find another set of reference points to verify his actions at various critical points. If
references are not clear due to restricted visibility the pilot may consider aborting the movement till the reference
points are clearly visible.

11. Emergency handling resources

Before proceeding towards the confined waters, the pilot shall confirm that all the emergency resources for
manoeuvring are in good working order and readily available for use. If there is any doubt, they must be tried out.
If anything is found to be not in good order, alternative arrangements must be done by the pilots to address the
emergencies.

The bridge team’s sole objective is to manage of the existing risks and berth the vessel safely to a safe berth
without jeopardising harbour infrastructure. Thus above factors must be checked before entering the pilotage
waters.

Entering the Approach Channel to harbour

Entering into the channel is the very first leg of the passage in the pilotage waters. The execution of making a safe
entry to the channel is a critical step. This involves following points.

a. Alignment to the Channel prior entry

Before the vessel actually enters the approach channel for the harbours, if situation permits depending on the
location of the vessel, it is strongly advised that vessel is aligned along the centre line of the channel before a
distance of 4L-5L. Once satisfactorily aligned, speed can be increased to gain the optimum speed in the channel.

If not properly aligned along the channel and vessel is required to make sharp alterations with very limited sea
room (sea room < 1L of the vessel), there is a fair chance that after achieving the required alteration of course,
vessel may not reach the required position where it is planned to.

This happens due to presence of error in estimation in the dynamics of external forces acting on the vessel
(current, wind, tides). This may be affected also by the behaviour of the vessel such as - displacement, height of
eye, location of accommodation, manoeuvrability of vessel and engine power etc.

Channel width - 0.1 mile(180m)

External force

Fig-5.7 (Planned alteration) Fig-5.8 (Executed alteration under influence of external force)
Above diagrams shows how incorrect alterations or inadequate sea room before entering channel lands the vessel
off track of centreline of the channel.

Channel Entry Management Area (CEMA)

To avoid such missed alterations and consequent wrong positioning of vessel while entering into channel, we
must understand the concept of CEMA. This is an area near the channel entrance or the entry point where vessel
is planned to enter the channel. This is the area where the error due to external force or vessel’s limitations can be
determined. After understanding the existing external influence, effective correction measures can be taken to
make good a desired course.

Channel Entry Management Area (CEMA)

B
Alignment Margin C

Alignment margin before entry is usually (4-5) L,

Where L= Ship’s length

Fig-5.9

It is advisable to have a clearance of 4/5 ship length before being aligned to channel. If not able to align, abort the
passage and realign the vessel again.

A B’

B”

Fig-5.10

At point C, when vessel alters her course for next planned course CB, if there exists external force due to current
or leeway from stbd side, vessel’s course over ground would be more to port side. Due to existence of external
force, vessel would move on a track of CB’ or CB” according to the direction of the force. As vessel reaches some
point near B I.E. B’ or B”, she can adjust her further course accordingly at towards point A.

Thus just before entering the channel, there exists an area where vessel manages her course and speed so as to
make a safe entry into the channel without any surprises from external force. In the CEMA, the pilot is able to
estimate the existing external force due to current and/or wind. This estimation gives a good idea of existing
weather conditions, and plans her further course safely with sufficient margins of safety.

In case the existing set is higher than the maximum tolerable set of the given channel for that particular vessel,
pilot may decide to abort the further passage. Thus the preferred way of entering channel would be as follows:

• Approach at a steep angle towards the channel when far away from the channel.
• Alter course to reduce the steep angle to acute one just before 1-2 cable before reaching the buoyed line
• Enter the channel at an acute angle (5-15 degrees max)
• Once vessel is in the channel limits, adjust her course further to bring her to CL

b. Relative Change of View of the buoyed Channel as Vessel alters towards the Channel

Having the understanding of the theory behind it, execution the alterations need some practice. The effectiveness
the execution depends on the visual observation of various reference points. There are various references available
for the navigator to execute the turns effectively. The reference points vary in their types and suitability depending
upon the geographical location, topography of the area, physical land erections and structures and type of the
channels. The references can be land objects, navigational aids – transit lights, buoys, shore structure- funnels,
buildings, natural structures- trees, mountains etc, break waters and masts with lights and shapes etc.

One common form of reference that assists the navigators in execution of turns and entering into channel is the
channel buoys. As the vessel approaches to wards the channel, the aspect of the buoys keeps on changing every
second. The close monitoring the aspect of the buoys ensures that the vessel lands on the exact location with
minimum of errors. One example of change in aspects of the buoys is given below.

54.11(a) 54.11(b) 54.11(c)

Fig-5.11

Fig-4.11(a) Scenario-1: When the vessel is relatively far away (d>5 cable) from the channel. Vessel approaches
towards the channel at almost right angle. Aspect of red & green line of buoys ~ 90 degrees.

Fig-4.11(b) Scenario-2: When the vessel is closer (2 cable<d<5 cable) from the channel. Vessel approaches
towards the channel at an angle of 30-40 degrees. Aspect of red & green line of buoys ~ 30 degrees.
Fig-4.11(c) Scenario-3: When the vessel is relatively far away (d<2 cable) from the channel. Vessel approaches
towards the channel at an acute angle. Aspect of red & green line of buoys ~ 10-15 degrees.

5.11(d) 5.11(5)

Fig-4.11(d) Scenario-4: When the vessel’s bow is inside the channel and bridge is just on the edge of the channel.
Vessel approaches to the channel at 5~10 degrees. Aspect red line is 0 degrees & green line of buoys ~ 5 degrees.

Fig-4.11(e) Scenario-5: When the vessel is at the centre line of the channel. Vessel approaches towards the
channel at almost right angle. Aspect red & green line of buoys same on either side of the vessel to a very few
degrees. It looks like a highway with red buoys on port side and green set of buoys on starboard side.

Above 5 figures in series shows how the channel unfolds in front of eyes of the pilot as well as the bridge team
when closely look at the relative change in aspect of the buoys. This gradual unfolding of channel while observing
the aspect of the red buoys is what we call “opening of buoys”.

Similar to the above example of change in the aspect of the buoys, while approaching the channel and execution
of turn, any other reference points may be used to ensure that vessel lands exactly at the location the navigator
plans to do with minimum or no room of error.

The nature of reference points that confirms the vessels location varies with available infrastructure. In case there
are no reference points port authorities develop some manmade structures that help the navigators to ascertain the
positioning of vessel with respect to the channel, or various dangers to navigation.

c. Skewed View of Channel buoys in Strong winds

However it is advisable to use the fixed land objects for reference to leave no room of error. In case there is no
conspicuous land objects for reference, the floating objects like the buoys are used for reference. In case of buoys
being used for reference as explained above, navigator must keep in mind the existing state of weather- wind &
surface currents. Floating buoys shift their location by few metres (20-30mtrs sideways) depending upon the
strength of wind or surface current. As the weather affects both of the hand marks in the same way, it virtually
shows as if the channel has shifted to one side by 20~30 metre.

wind

Sea level

Visible edge of channel

Actual edge of the channel

Actual centre line of the channel

CL

Fig-5.12

This happens as the chain used to anchor the buoys get stretched over a period of time and cause the buoys to free
flow either side depending on the direction of external force. Aspects of the buoys will not be the same on both
side of the vessel when in the centre line of the channel. If the navigator tries to position the vessel only looking at
the buoys, he may not land the vessel on the centre line. So vessel may come closer to the edge of the channel and
may face bank cushion and sudden change heading of vessel. This may lead to extreme situations in very narrow
channels.

The objective of understanding the above skewed view of the channel in rough weather conditions is to achieve
safe entry of the vessel into the channel without being pushed to the extremities.

***
 Chapter-6

Safe Positioning of a Vessel in the

Channel
2D Configuration of Channel - Blue and White Margin,
Important Points on Bridge procedure for safe keeping of vessel in the channel
Determining Course to Steer in a channel
Positioning of the vessel w.r.t centreline of channel,
Sources of position estimation: how to determine exact positioning,
Effective Set (dash) in the prevailing circumstances,
Phenomenon of “Bow kissing the Buoys”
Sources of error determination : How to determine error while in channel,
Tolerable Set in the Channel

On successful entering into the channel, the main objective of the pilot as well as the bridge team is to keep the
vessel position near to centre of channel where the maximum depth is expected with minimum cross track(x)
error. This would at best ensure that the vessel maintains her position well within the safe margins of the channel.
In presence of any active external forces causing the vessel to set and drift any side of the centre line, the pilot
need to take required actions so as to ensure that the vessel’s bow and stern both are within channel limits. Why I
mentioned here both bow and stern, because on the ECDIS or any other electronic screen showing the position of
the vessel only shows the GPS position i.e. the bridge position. It never shows the position where the vessel’s bow
or stern lands exactly. Ensuring the vessel position within the limits of channel doesn’t automatically ensures that
the bow and stern lie well within the safe limits of the channel.

To ensure that vessel is present always in safe waters understanding the 2D configuration of the channel is highly
necessary. Further to this, it is also necessary to understand the location of the bow and stern exactly in the limits
of a channel. It is also important to understand what the tolerable set in a channel is. Al, these concepts are
discussed in this chapter.

2D- Configuration of Channel

Most of the places, there is no abort point in the channel till the time vessel makes an exit out it. Thus there is
nowhere the vessel can reverse her course and come back to abundant waters again till the time she reaches
turning basin in the harbour limits. At all times the vessel’s bow & stern should remain within the channel limits.
To understand this, we must understand the concept of blue and white margins.

a. Blue Margin

“Blue margin” is a zone on either side extreme edge of the channel ranging from the hand marks line to a
imaginary line parallel to it at a certain safe distance on inboard side of the channel. This blue margin shows that
the depths are not maintained to correct levels regularly by maintenance dredging. The depth in this area is
frequently reduced due to siltation and over-fall of seabed materials. The width of the blue margin varies with
location of the channel. However it may be 20/30 metre on either side.

At any time if vessels bow or stern enters in the blue margin, it is very likely to face the phenomenon of smelling
of ground and consequent sudden erratic swings of vessel’s course.
 b. White Margin

Unlike to the blue margin, white margin represents the safe waters in the channel available on either side of the
vessel. Within this margin vessel adjusts her position in such a way that both her bow and stern are placed in safe
waters.

White margin = ½ (Channel Width- 2BM-Ship’s Width)

Red Buoy Line (RBL) C L Green Buoy Line(GBL)

White margin

Blue margin

Fig-6.1

Significance of Blue margin and White margin in a Narrow Channel

At any time if vessels bow or stern enters in the blue margin, it is very likely to face the phenomenon of smelling
of ground as well as bow cushion. This would consequently cause sudden erratic swings of vessel’s course.

When vessel follows a narrow channel, if heavy weather persists, the vessel experiences considerable amount of
set towards the lee side. It may happen that the vessel’s bridge lies at the centre of channel and stbd bow on the
extreme edge of the stbd white margin; similarly on the other side, the port bow lies at the extreme port side edge
of the white margin. In such a position, vessel reaches it maximum tolerable set. After that limit, any further set
would land the bow in the blue margin of the vessel.

If the vessel further sets more to the same side, as the bow comes over the blue margin. As we know that in blue
margin, depths are unreliable and may have earthen fall overs from sides. In such position, the vessel’s bow may
come very close to bank laterally as well as the bottom may smell the ground or scratch over it. This may create
any of the 2 following major consequences:

• Bank cushion would push the bow away causing the vessel to swing violently to opposite side.
• If vessel scratches over the shallow patch, it would reduce the speed of vessel suddenly yet significantly.

Thus it is more likely that the navigator will observe any one or both of the results when bow over blue margin.
And if any such observation there, pilot must be mentally ready to give swift wheel and engine orders to
neutralise such effect.
In case of deep draft vessels, there is very likely chance that the vessel will get grounded completely on one side.
When the bow enters this zone and faces some shallow patch underneath, the speed of the vessel would fall
immediately by an appreciable level. With this observation, the navigator would sense a possibility of grounding
at the bow. Immediately the navigator tends to increase the engine power and give wheel hard-over to opposite
side. This action would bring the vessel’s stern close to the channel wall. At that time the bow was already
touching bottom and when the stern is brought to the blue margin and hence allow touching the channel wall. This
creates a situation where the entire one side from bow to stern of the vessel get grounded.

Determining the Course to Steer (CTS)

While transiting in the channel, a vessel needs to adjust her heading to move at an appropriate COG so as to keep
her within the white margins of the channel. To achieve the required COG at any particular moment, vessel has to
decide on what course to steer intermittently.

It is imperative that the restriction of space in approach channels are very high especially the lateral space. As
explained clearly in the last chapter, in the section – “dangers associated with confined waters”, the A and U
components are highly restricted in approach channels. Vessels move in the F&A direction covering the approach
distance towards berth but there is always space limitations in athwartship direction. In case deep draft vessels,
there may be UKC limitations as well while following a channel.

At any given time, determining the position of the vessel with respect to the centreline (CL) is very important.
The navigator must take care of this factor all the time. A little ignorance would land the vessel close to the banks
of the channel within few seconds of time, if not corrected appropriately. If any part of the ship, the bow or the
quarter comes dangerously close to the banks, the dynamics of bank cushion will come into play; and cause the
vessel to swing dangerously to opposite side. Managing such a situation would be really difficult for the
navigator.

Thus determining the right course to steer (CTS) at any given time with an objective of achieving a correct COG
that is most suitable to keep the vessel’s bow and stern well within the safe limits of a channel is all that important
for the navigator while following a channel.

Deciding on what course to steer (CTS), the bridge team and the navigator in charge of the vessel must
understand and find out the following 3 factors at any point of time while transiting a narrow channel:

a. The exact location of the vessel w.r.t centreline of channel,

b. Effective set (Dash)in the prevailing circumstances,

(Dash = Set +/- Leeway +/- Gyro Error = a Settled Heading – Corresponding settled COG) in degrees

c. Max tolerable set of the vessel in the channel.

A correct course to steer is the all the most important decision that a navigator makes every couple of seconds’
time while following a narrow channel. It is so important that we can understand the incident of M.V. Ever Given
in Suez Canal in March 2021.

Position of the Vessel w.r.t Centreline of Channel

We already know the importance of the athwartship positioning of the vessel in a narrow channel. Depending on
the existing weather conditions, the navigator has to decide the positioning of her bridge with respect to the
centreline of the channel and hence the course to be steered. Now let’s try to understand the few scenarios:
 Weather

bridge

Fig-6.2 (a) Fig-6.2(b) Fig-6.2(c)

Fig-6.2

Fig-5.2(a), scenario-1: If effect of weather is negligible, vessel sets almost 0 degrees. She doesn’t set on either
side. Vessel’s bridge has to be positioned exactly on the centre line. So the COG and HDG of vessel are same on
the centre line in the general direction of channel.

Fig-5.2(b), scenario-2: If weather is from port side, vessel sets to stbd side. Vessel’s bridge has to be positioned
on the stbd side of the centre line. To achieve a COG parallel to the CL, Vessel has to steer a heading that is less
than the General direction of channel.

Fig-5.2(c), scenario-3: If weather is from stbd side, vessel sets to port side. Vessel’s bridge has to be positioned on
the port side of the centre line. To achieve a COG parallel to the CL, Vessel has to steer a heading that is more
than the General direction of channel.

To keep the vessel at correct athwartship position and move with correct heading to achieve a correct COG, the
first step is to find the correct position of the vessel with respect to centre line. Let’s see that in the next section.

Sources of position estimation: How to determine exact positioning?

While vessel is transiting narrow channel it is very critical to ascertain the exact position of the vessel with respect
to the centreline or any given reference line at any point of time. This may be ascertained by various position aids
and navigational aids. Various positioning methods may be used to confirm exact location of vessel. Navigators
should use more the one method of available to cross check the positioning. The various sources of positioning
may be as follows:

1. Leading light
2. Hand Marks Lines (RBL&GBL)
3. RADAR &Parallel Indexing
4. Sector light
5. ECDIS & GPS
6. Virtual buoys Series
7. Usage of tugs for guide - last resort

Let’s see how exactly a navigator would ascertain the vessel’s position just by looking at the aspects of the above
position fixing instruments.
 1. Leading Light:

Leading light or transit lights are a set of 2 or 3 lights arranged vertically from fixed positions. When any vessel
finds them in line, she gets an accurate position line. It accurately confirms her position on the transit line. Same
principle is used to while fixing transit lights indicating the centre line of a channel. This helps any vessel on the
channel to find whether she is exactly on the centre line or off – centreline and by how much distance (in metres)
so as to confirm the vessel position with respect to the centreline of the channel.

Upper Leading light

Lower Leading Light

Fig-6.3(a) Fig 6.3(b) Fig-6.3(c)

Fig-6.3

Fig-5.3(a), scenario-1: Vessel is off-centreline and on the port side of channel. The navigator would see the lower
light on right side of the upper light.

Fig-5.3(b), scenario-2: Vessel is exactly on the centreline of the channel. The navigator would see the lower light
exactly below the upper light.

Fig-5.3(c), scenario-3: Vessel is off-centreline and on the stbd side of channel. The navigator would see the lower
light on left side of the upper light.

In all the 3 above figures, the vessel has been shown with 3 different heading, it means that vessel might have any
heading i.e. heading to port side of the LL, or heading to LL, or heading to stbd side of LL. So looking at the
heading of the vessel at once, the navigator must not get confused it with her position with respect to centre line.
It means the vessel’s position may be on port side of the channel and heading to stbd side of light, or position may
be on stbd side and heading to port side of light or any similar case. The navigator must differentiate between the
vessel’s position w.r.t CL and the Relative heading of the vessel w.r.t LL; and must not get confused between
them.

Combining above 3 scenarios, we can see virtually the lower light moves on a pendulum fashion from stbd to port
and back to stbd when the vessel moves from port to stbd and back to port side from the centre line of the
channel.

While the position of the vessel may be on any side of the centreline, the heading of the vessel may be on the
same or opposite side the centre line. The actual position of the vessel should not be confused with presence of the
ships head on any other side of the Leading lights.

Higher TL d

Lower TL for small angles,

Arc = radius in mtr x angle in radian

= radius x angle in degrees / 57.3

Where radius = d+L

L1

X1

L2

X2

Fig-6.4

For 2 degrees, If d= 2000 mtr, L1 = 2500 M L2=4000

X1= (D+L1)* A = 4500*1 /57.3 =78 M

X2 = (D+L2)* A = 6000*1/57.3 = 104 M

So the essence of the study is to establish the relation between the angle (a) created by the leading lights from the
vertical line, cross track (x) of the vessel from the centre line and the distance (d+L) the vessel from the location
of leading lights.

X= (d+L)*A/57.3 where A & L are variable

A is sharing an inverse proportional relation with the L, the distance of the vessel from end of channel

It means for a fixed cross track ( 20mtr) , the leading light angle (a) increases with every decrease in the distance
of the vessel to the inward end of the channel and vice versa.

So the navigator roughly estimates the cross track of the vessel from centre line at any given time upon looking at
the angle (A) of the leading lights and approximate distance (L) of the vessel from the inward end. In a well-
marked buoyed channel, the distances of the buoys are well established from inward end of channel (or a
reference point) which the pilot always knows. Thus at any given point of time the pilot knows the cross track of
the vessel from centre line only looking at the angle of the leading light.

Limitations:

Every positioning method has its limitations, so leading lights do have as well. The biggest limitation with leading
lights is it’s rendered unusable in restricted visibility. It is usable as long as the lights are visible to the navigator
with discernable clarity from a long distance.

The exact angle (A) of the leading lights is not measurable by any means by the navigator. But it is rough estimate
in the dynamics of execution of the navigational duties. The estimations become more accurate with experience in
duties regularly.

1. Hand Marks Line(RBL & GBL) - Series of Buoys

Similarly looking at the aspect of the series of channel buoys, an experienced navigator would be able to
determine where the vessel lies with respect to centre line.

Here we may call the series of red buoys in a line as Red Buoys Line (RBL) and similarly the series of Green
buoys in a line as Green Buoys Line (GBL) for sake of easier understanding.

When the observer is at the centre line of the channel the series of the port hand mark buoys (RBL) and starboard
hand mark buoys (GBL) give the navigator a feeling of a highway with symmetrical markings on either side of
the channel.

But when the observer stands off the centre line, the series of hand marks would look asymmetrical on both sides.
This can be easily understood by looking at the figures in Fig-5.5a,b&c and Fig-5.6a,b&c. The figures in Fig- 5.5
show the actual view of the channel from a bird’s eye point of view, while the figures in Fig-5.6 shows the
corresponding real view of the channel to an observer’s eye well within the channel.

Fig-5.5(a) and 5.6(a), scenario-1: Vessel lies on the stbd side of the channel. The series of red buoys look more
oblique at angle to the observer and Green series looks less oblique

Fig-5.5(b) and 5.6(b), scenario-2: Vessel lies on the centre line of the channel. The series of red buoys and green
buoys are exactly symmetrical to the observer when look ahead.

Fig-5.5(b) and 5.6(b), scenario-3: Vessel lies on the port side of the channel. The series of green buoys look more
oblique at angle to the observer and red series looks less oblique an angle.

Bird’s eye view of the channel

 SC-1 SC-2 SC-3

Fig-6.5

Actual view of the channel to the navigator in fair weather condition

Fig-6.6

Looking at the obliquity of the series of the hand marks, the navigator from bridge can determine if the vessel lies
to the stbd or port side of the channel at a glance.

Limitations:

The nomenclature of obliquity of the series of buoys hold good only in fair weather conditions where the location
of the buoys remains unaffected by external wind and current. But when the there is a cross wind or surface
current exist the buoys are relatively shifted from their original location by the weather as the cable that holds the
buoys gets stretched a bit.

So while using the obliquity of the series of buoys allowance must be taken for marginal shifting of the buoys
towards the leeside of the original line of series of buoys
 2. RADAR & Parallel Indexing

RADAR may be used and effective means to ascertain positioning of the vessel within the channel if there is
restricted visibility if some fixed objects available which can be used as reliable object for RADAR display exists
within reasonable range of the channel. The reliable objects may be Break waters, fixed offshore platforms, or
other fixed off shore objects which are conspicuous and radar reflective.

Once the reference objects are found parallel indexing method may be used to ascertain the vessel positioning
while following a parallel course in the channel.

However the navigator has to keep in mind that the tolerance limits of error in position are very less in narrow
channels. So RADAR range used for parallel indexing is crucial. The range used has to such that any change in
position by a degree of 10m should be discernable from RADAR screen. A range of 0.75 mile or 1.5 mile is good
enough to get a clear picture. However at lower range scale the conspicuous objects may not be available all along
the channel. In such case parallel indexing with the channel buoys may be considered. But limitations associated
with the channel buoys are that the position of the buoys has itself an error margin of 30-40 m depending of the
weather conditions. This fact must be taken into account while parallel indexing with the buoys. However in fair
weather parallel indexing with the buoys is a very good method to ensure the vessel is maintaining her position in
the channel.

3. Sector light

Another easy way to ascertain the position of the vessel while in the narrow channel is the use of sector lights.
With different colour display of lights showing specific position lines helps navigators ascertain vessel’s position.
The channel limits may be used to find the position of vessel just at a glance on the light. These lights may be
used at specific points like bends or other critical points where the local authorities may deep to be fit.

The sector lights are basically indicative of a safe zone or a danger zone. The point where the light changes from
one colour to another, gives a position line for the vessel. From this position line, the navigator understands
clearly where he stands at that time.

Similar to the leading lights, sector lights are rendered unusable in restricted visibility. It is usable as long as the
lights are visible to the navigator with discernable clarity from a long distance.

4. ECDIS & GPS positions

Electronic method of navigation means using GPS position on the ECDIS screen. The old mariners have a saying
that what if…………..this failed, that failed…….ECDIS being electronic……..is inherently unreliable. But in
my opinion, being a technological upgrade in the aids to navigation definitely ECDIS has a good impact on
conduct of the navigation out at sea. Before the advent of ECDIS all the information those were vital to safe
navigation used to be present on different screens of different machines. Thus the navigator had to run here and
there to collect all the information to take a real-time navigational decision. The commanding officer had to
depend on the other officers to take decision. If the information provided by the assisting officer is wrong to some
degree, the ultimate result of the decision may not yield the desired one. With advent of ECDIS, almost all the
navigational information are on a single screen and this helps the navigator to take a real-time decision right away
without any critical time delay and any critical error in processing the information.

Despite all the corrections to the GPS position and DGPS enforcements, there is always a “Location Error”
associated with GPS position due to various reasons of local anomalies. The location error varies from place to
place and may be time to time. The location error is in a range of few metres distance.

This error must be ascertained by the authorities associated with the narrow channels during a fair weather
conditions by multiple good visual position fixes. This error must be transmitted to the navigators through
appropriate forum. Pilots employed in such channels to advise the vessels transit must at regular intervals
ascertain this error in good weather conditions with visual fixes. Thus Electronic method of navigation
(ECDIS+GPS) with the knowledge of “Location Error” may be used for positioning of the vessel during Dual
Extremes when the navigator doesn’t have any other source of positioning but to rely on the electronic navigation.

Keeping all the limitations associated with the ECDIS and GPS in mind, the navigator may use this as a backup
method of ascertaining position of the vessel in the channel. When vessel makes transit of the narrow channels
during “dual extremes” i.e. extreme weather and poor visibility conditions, electronic method of ECDIS+GPS
comes handy to the navigator.

Effective Set (dash) in the Prevailing Circumstances

While following the channel the objective of the navigator always remains to maintain the vessel at the centreline
of the channel so that he has sufficient margins on both side of the vessel. In any condition of the weather the
same principle applies here. She has to steer such a course that vessel follows the general direction of the channel
which is a parallel track to the centre line of the channel. Her steering a course must facilitate the fact that vessel
has sufficient safety margins both on bow on weather side and the stern on the lee side of the vessel.

Thus course to steer should take into account of the existing set and gyro error of the vessel.

Heading to Steer = Required COG +/- Dash, Where Dash = (+/–) Set (+/-) Gyro Error

COG

True Co.

Gyro Hdg. Set

Steering Co.

G.Err.

dash

Fig-6.7(a) Fig 6.7(b)

Here we just see the importance of this new term “Dash”. As shown above it depends upon the set and the
existing gyro error of the vessel, when pilot boards a vessel he is usually unaware of both of these factors. Upon
taking over the duties, the pilot is again dependant on external factors – first, information provided by the master
on gyro error and the second, the existing wind and current affecting the vessel and creating certain degrees of set
and leeway.

The information so provided by master on gyro error, it is observed, many a time remains grossly wrong. And the
second factor i.e. the amount of set so generated by the existing weather varies largely on the windage area,
displacement, draft and the strength of weather itself. It means the pilot essentially is left with incorrect and
unreliable value of degrees correction to be applied on the heading to get a specific COG he wants.

This value of degrees correction which is unreliable as well as difficult to determine for the pilot quickly may be
called as “Dash”. This is the result of both the gyro error as well as the set so generated by weather. But the pilot
doesn’t know exactly why this error? Because generally after boarding the vessel and quick pilot-master
information exchange, pilot gets busy with the navigation of the vessel. The pilot never sits down to calculate the
actual gyro error of the vessel, nor does he spend time to ascertain the exact degrees of set the vessel is
experiencing. He only gets a rough and approximate idea of set so generated. Furthermore, as soon as the vessel’s
speed and course keeps on changing the value of set also keeps on changing. This the pilot never ascertains at
every course and speed for the vessel.

Thus he is mainly interested in what is the course to steer the vessel to achieve a particular COG. Thus the
difference between these two parameters is the “Dash”. Thus for a pilot or any navigator navigating in a narrow
channel, the realistic value of degrees correction he deals with is “Dash” but not the Gyro Error or the Set in
degrees.

Thus it is utmost important for the pilot to know and confirm the gyro error at the earliest opportunity after
boarding the vessel. The methods given below surely help the pilot to ascertain the gyro error of the vessel, while
navigating in a narrow channel. But it is not advisable to be off-focussed from safe navigation of the vessel to
determine the gyro error. A dynamic assessment of the existing dash will be the eventually helpful. However if
the correct gyro error is known to the pilot, it will be easier to ascertain the “Dash”.

How to determine Gyro Error while in channel

When vessel navigates in the open seas where ample sea room exists, any substantial presence of gyro error
doesn’t pose many hazards to navigation. Though navigators ascertain gyro errors every watch out at sea and
make correction to regularly, the actual error may sometimes be different than the calculated error due to many
reasons. If master is not aware of exact gyro error out at sea, still he can make the voyage safely by correcting on
the course made good at regular intervals. But without knowing the exact gyro error approaching restricted waters
where the accurate course keeping is the key factor, the presence of unnoticed gyro error may be hazardous. Thus
masters and duty officers are advised to confirm her gyro error form multiple reliable sources at the earliest
opportunity before entering restricted waters.

The pilot however when boards a vessel assume the information provided by the vessel is correct. If at all the
information particularly gyro error is wrong, he has minimum time to confirm it. This may lead to disastrous
circumstances in narrow channels particularly while entering channels, while making large alterations and while
following very narrow channels.

Method -1

When the vessel is in the centre line of the channel, and steering a heading exactly equal to the general direction
of channel, ideally the vessel should head exactly onto the leading lights or the masts. If not, there exists a gyro
error.

Thus to confirm the gyro error, pilot positions the vessel on the transit line of the channel then alter her course
slowly to head exactly onto the transit lights. Now he finds out what is the exact heading of the vessel at that
moment, let’s say g degrees. Transit bearing of the channel is let’s say t. The difference between the transit
bearing and the observed heading is the Gyro Error of the vessel.

Gyro error = Gyro heading ~ Transit bearing

Henceforth the pilot can apply the gyro error to steer a correct course so as to achieve the required COG of the
vessel. If the vessel is not able to come to centre line of the channel to carry out the exercise, he can follow below
procedure to find the error immediately

Method -2

This method is also similar to the method one. Here vessel needs to take the RADAR bearing and Gyro bearing of
any fixed and conspicuous land object e.g. break water at reasonable distance. While bearing is measured it has to
be ensured that if the vessel is moving the relative change of bearing of the object should not change appreciable
at the time of measuring the bearing of the object. It is good idea to select an object near to the right ahead of the
vessel so that the bearing change is very less.

Method -3

When there is no conspicuous object available in the vessel’s sight range it’s difficult for the vessel to obtain the
gyro bearing of any object. In such case master may co-ordinate with the approaching pilot boat to do the job of
the land object, whereby the pilot boat has to come close to the right ahead of the vessel momentarily to obtain the
RADAR and gyro bearing of the boat. In this exercise they have to co-ordinate and adjust their co and speed in
such a way that there is no appreciable change in bearing between them. This may be achieved in 3 ways –

• When vessel and boat both have speed 0,

• When vessel is moving at certain direction and speed, the pilot boat may be advised come near to the right
ahead of the vessel momentarily when the vessel is ready to take its gyro and RADAR bearing.
• When any other vessel or boat moves at a collision course with the vessel.

If situations don’t permit the pilot to carry out this exercise, pilot may carry out the exercise from any position of
the channel i.e. from any side of the channel. When vessel heads the transit lights from any side of the channel
within limited margins, the margin of error is very les may be within 1 degree. Still he can get the Gyro error
within tolerance limits of 1 degree.

Tolerable Set in the Channel

This is the maximum effective set a vessel can have while transiting in a narrow channel safely keeping her bow
and stern within the safe limits of white margin of channel.

Tolerable set can be visualised on either side of the channel while vessel is positioned at the centre line. In such
case the bridge, where the navigator is present, is positioned at the centre of channel while the bow is off centre
on either one side (port or stbd side) within the white margins of the channel. It may happen that the vessel’s
bridge lies at the centre of channel and stbd bow on the extreme edge of the stbd white margin; similarly on the
other side, the port bow lies at the extreme port side edge of the white margin. In such a position, vessel reaches
it maximum tolerable set. After that limit, any further set would land the bow in the blue margin of the vessel.

If the vessel further sets more to the same side, as the bow comes over the blue margin. As we know that in blue
margin, depths are unreliable and may have earthen fall overs from sides. In such position, the vessel’s bow may
come very close to bank laterally as well as the bottom may smell the ground or scratch over it. This may create
any of the 2 following major consequences:

• Bank cushion would push the bow away causing the vessel to swing violently to opposite side.
• If vessel scratches over the shallow patch, it would reduce the speed of vessel suddenly yet significantly.

Thus it is more likely that the navigator will observe any one or both of the results when bow over blue margin.
And if any such observation there, pilot must be mentally ready to give swift wheel and engine orders to
neutralise such effect.
 C L

Tolerable set on either side of vsl

White margin

Blue margin

Fig-6.8

Tolerable set (in degrees) = tan^-1 (White Margin/ ship’s LOA)

COG

C L

Max Tolerable set

Bridge (navigator’s location)

Blue margin

Fig-6.9

Maximum Tolerable set (in Degrees) = Tan^-1 (W/LOA)

Where, W = 2 White Margin

Example:

Channel width is 150 m, Vessel LOA is 300m, and Beam is 50 m. Let’s say blue margins (BM) either side 20 m.

So we have an effective safe lateral width is of 110 m (=150-2BM) m

White margin = (Channel width – 2 BM – Vessel’s Width)/2

= (150-40-50)/2 = 60/2=30m

With vessel at centre we have 30m either side white margin.

Tolerable set from CL = Tan (inv) {white margin/LOA}

= tan^-1 (30/300)

= 5.7 degrees on either side of centre line

Maximum Tolerable set = Tan^-1 (W/LOA)

W= 2X30+20=60 m

Tolerable set for emergency scenario = tan^-1(60/300) = 11.3 degrees

Thus the bridge team can decide what the max tolerable set for the channel is. Prior entering the channel above
information may be used by the pilot or the master to decide on whether to enter the channel or avoid entering the
channel.

While the vessel transit the channel the navigator should know what is the maximum tolerable set in a channel for
a particular vessel with respect to the given width of the channel. At any given time while transiting if the
navigator feels that the set generated due to weather is coming closer to the maximum tolerable set, the navigator
must use all available means to reduce the set by increasing speed of the vessel or with external assistance. This is
highly required to prevent the vessel face shallow water effects and behave erratically and facing consequent
grounding inside channel limits.

Phenomenon of “Bow Kissing the Buoys”

This is a peculiar effect observed due to bad weather on the vessel’s bow whereby vessel steers such course that
the bow comes very close to the buoys lying on the weather bank of the channel. While vessel makes good a
course safely to stay within the safe margins of channel, the navigator on the bridge can observe the vessel’s bow
kissing away the buoys on the weather bank of channel.

This happens when the weather causes one series of buoys (port or stbd) to shift towards the channel by some
distance by few metres, sometimes 20-30 metres depending on the strength of surface current or weather
conditions. In this case the floating buoys only shift few metres into the channel while the holder of the buoys at
the seabed remains in its original position. Similarly the other series of buoys moves away from the channel by
equal margin.

It means that visually the buoyed channel shifts laterally by few meters onto the leeside depending upon the
direction and strength of prevailing weather conditions. But original dredged channel stay as it was. In an open
sea this lateral shift of buoys has really no significance. But in a narrow channel of a range of 100 metres width,
this visual shift of buoys towards lee side has a significant effect to safe navigation of vessels.
The existing weather condition similarly creates a set on the vessel’s course due to lateral drift. To create a course
over ground (COG) same in the general direction of the channel, vessel has to steer a heading few degrees
towards the weather side of the channel. This brings the vessel’s bow on weather side to come closer towards the
Buoys Line (Red Buoys Line or Green Buoys Line) on weather side.

Thus the combined effect of both of the above mentioned phenomenon causes the buoys lying on weather bank of
the vessel comes dangerously close to the weather side of the vessel’s bow. This is illustrated in the figure below.

C L

COG

wind

Bow Kissing the Buoys

Original channel banks

Shifted Series of Buoys

Fig – 6.10

Such visuals would create a scare to the navigators on the bridge. The effect is more pronounced on large vessels
when in light condition. The blind zone at the bow of the vessel makes the visuals even scarier.

This phenomenon creates a tendency that navigators alter the course away from the buoys towards the lee side.
But any alteration away from buoys creates a more drift towards the leeside bank. Then the vessel moves bodily
away from the centre line and the stern of the vessel comes dangerously closer to the lee bank of the channel. If at
any time the stern smell the ground, this may create unusual behaviour of the vessel and sudden heaving on the
course of the vessel creating dangerous situations.

Seasoned navigators working in such channels under extreme weather conditions are well experienced in handling
vessel remain calm and follow the courses even though it looks scarier to follow such course.

Some Points on Bridge procedures for safe keeping of vessel in the channel

There are some good practices that a bridge team must follow while following a buoyed and narrow channel to
maintain safekeeping of their vessel.

• Maintain sufficient speed to reduce the effect of external factors so as to keep the vessel in the channel
limits.
• So far as practicable the speed control plan must be kept in mind and adhered to till vessel reaches safely
at the berth, at no point it should be exceeded due to the reasons of incapability of vessel’s course
keeping, except in urgency situation where speed may be increased momentarily with higher engine
power.
• At any point of time if it is estimated that the safe keeping of the vessel is not possible or dangers of set
and lateral drift is excessive despite increasing sufficient speed, external assistance e.g. tugs must be
called for assistance well in advance.
• Continuous monitoring of the engine and helm orders need to be cross checked to avoid wrong command.
Master and D/O should cross check each other.
• The “closed loop of communication” must be completed by the issuer and receiver of the orders in bridge
communications. The bridge team must be briefed regarding same.
• Correct helm orders and good steering is very crucial to safekeeping of the vessel in the channel.
• Pilot must ascertain any error in steering compass as early as possible after boarding the vessel by his own
calculations.
• Safe positioning of the vessel need to be confirmed by external source if possible by at least 2 available
means.
• Electronic means of positioning should be treated as backup to the visual checks and should be referred
only to confirm the exact location of the vessel.

***
 Chapter-7

Shallow Water Effects & Channel

Dynamics
What is Shallow Water Conditions?
Vertical Aspects of Vessel in relation to the Depth in Shallow Water,
Shallow water Effects on the Vessel’s Manoeuvrability
Channel Dynamics during Manoeuvring of ships

As discussed in the section “Dangers associated with Confined waters” in the chapter-4 “Entering Pilotage
Waters”, confined waters have 4 degrees of restrictions in different directions such as – Longitudinal(F&A),
Athwart ship (A) and Under Keel (U) and Headroom (H). In narrow channels, generally vessel’s position along 2
axes is restricted along, namely Athwartship (A) and Under Keel (U). However the Longitudinal (L) sea-room
and Headroom (H) are relatively abundant.

In the last chapter, we examined the vessel’s positioning and safety margins only on A-axis or in Athwartship
direction while transiting in a channel. Now in this chapter we’ll look into the vessel’s movement in another
dimension i.e. on the U axis or Under Keel Clearance of vessel in the channel. On this aspect, we’ll see the draft
of vessel in relation the depth of the channel and various other dynamics of shallow waters and their effects on the
vessel. When the under keel clearance of the vessel are relatively less in proportion to the draft of the vessel, such
areas are marked as shallow waters and otherwise as deep waters for any given vessel.

The under keel clearances (UKC) generally is in the range of 50 to 10 % of ship’s draft for most channels though
in the port even lower UKC values are observed. With this low UKC, the channels are vertically restricted as well
as horizontally. When a vessel navigates in narrow channels, it signifies that in the athwartship direction the
space is restricted badly, but it does not specifically says anything about under keel clearance of the vessel. When
a vessel navigates in a shallow waters, it specifically means the under keel clearance is restricted but not the
athwartship space. But when a vessel transits an approach channel to a harbour, in most of the cases both the
Athwartship limitations as well as the UKC are severely restricted. That makes an approach channel to harbours
even more critical piece of navigable water for ships.

Navigation in these channels is possible only if the vessel’s speed is limited. Speed is critical factor to avoid
bottom touch and bank effects. Due to the limited UKC values for deep-drafted ships, regular survey of the
bottom and dredging works for maintaining channel depth are of highly required to keep the channels fit to give
access to the vessels constrained by her draft into the harbour.

What is Shallow Water Conditions?

Shallow water is a relative term that signifies the depth (D) of water in relation to the draft (d) of a vessel. The
ratio D/d largely defines the term “shallow water”. According to this ratio D/d, there are marked changes
observed in the behaviour of ships occur in shallow waters. The marked changes in behaviour of the vessels due
to shallow water conditions are apparent when D/d < 1.5 and full effects are observed when D/d = 1.2
The World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure makes a distinction on definition of shallow and
deep water based on the ration D/d:

• deep water: D/d > 3.0

• medium deep water: 1.5 < D/d < 3.0
• shallow water: 1.2 < D/d < 1.5
• Very shallow water: D/d < 1.2

Using above definition, it is observed that the effect of depth restrictions can be noticed in medium deep water, is
very significant in shallow water, and dominates the ship’s behaviour in very shallow water.

With regard to forces due to current acting on a ship, OCIMF defines deep water as D/d > 6 and provides
formulae for values of D/d ranging from 6 to 1.1. The most practical aspect observed here is when D/d is reduced
from 6 down to 1.1 values; the current force is nearly 5 times higher.

Vertical Aspects of Vessel in relation to Depth in Shallow Water

When a vessel navigates in a shallow waters, it specifically means the under keel clearance is restricted. The
navigator pays special attention to the vessel’s UKC as it plays a significant role in the behaviour of the ship in
relation to directional stability, turning ability in shallow waters. When a vessel transits an approach channel to a
harbour, in most of the cases both the Athwartship limitations as well as the UKC are severely restricted. In such
areas, the navigator must take care of the UKC as well as the white margins of the vessel. To understand the
vertical movement of a vessel while transiting a shallow water area, we need to understand many factors as
discussed below.
1. Channel Depth
Channel depth is the depth below surface (DBS) of water. Due to several factors the DBS changes at different
locations and different times of the year. Thus regular survey of the bottom and dredging works must be carried
out for maintaining channel depth so as to keep the channel fit for giving access to the vessels constrained by her
draft to the harbour. The actual water depth at any point of time is the charted depth plus or minus the tide level.

Sea level

Edge of the channel

CL Centre Line of the channel

Fig-7.1

Accuracy limits of Charted Depths and Heights of Tide

On charts, the allowable limit for error in water depth at the international depth datum is as follows:

• Water depth to 20m : Up to 0.3m ,

 • Water depth to 100m : Up to 1.0m,
• Water depth to 100m or more : 10% of water depth

Nautical Bottom Concept

Due to the presence of fluid mud layers on the bottom of navigation areas subjected to sufficient sedimentation,
the nautical bottom concept is introduced in several harbours and access channels. Usually due to several factors,
sedimentation occurs in the channel and it causes deposit of fine silt material on the solid bottom. This creates a
mud layer above the bottom. The top of this mud layer may be fluid and is called as black water. Due to the low
density (1.03-1.30 ton/m³) it is difficult to remove the mud layer by dredging operations. The layer may reach a
thickness of 3 to 4 m in the zone between the breakwaters during cyclonic conditions. The rheological properties
(viscosity, yield stress) and density of the mud layer gradually increase with depth. Where sedimentation is a
regular feature of the channel, the nautical bottom concept has been introduced to allow increased draft vessels to
navigate in the channel and enter the harbours

Nautical bottom is defined as the level where physical characteristics of the bottom reach a critical limit beyond
which contact with a ship's keel causes either damage or unacceptable effects on controllability and
manoeuvrability.

Fig-7.2
The application range of this definition is quite general, and is not limited to muddy bottoms. In case of a hard
(e.g. rocky) bottom, contact with the bottom level will cause damage, while contact with a muddy bottom will
rather result into unacceptable ship behaviour.

In this case the upper part of the mud layer is included in the UKC. So even if the UKC is increased for
calculation purpose, the vertical clearance between a ship’s keel and the mud layer may become very small, even
sometimes negative. This causes the ship’s keel to be in touch in the mud layer although contact with the fluid
mud layer does not cause any damage. But this causes the ship behaviour affected to a great extent by the
presence of a fluid layer between the water column and the bottom. Although navigation above/through muddy
bottoms has been common practice in several harbours worldwide for many years, the concept of nautical bottom
was introduced in the 1970s and 80s for deep drafted vessels in a number of harbours in some European ports.
In channels, canals and places where navigation of ships are regular while subjected to regular sedimentation
process Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) studies are carried out to examine ship hydrodynamics in these
shallow and confined channels subjected to sedimentation. Due to limitations in assessing viscous effects of water
correctly, model tests in determining the hydrodynamic properties for ships navigating above or through a muddy
bottom are really challenging. However considering the possible limitations, “towing tank test” have contributed
considerably to the knowledge on the hydrodynamics of ships in muddy areas.

2. Height of Tide
Height of tide at any point of time is to be determined at any place to fine the actual depth of water any time. The
tide level is obtained from the tide table. Since this tide level is a predicted value which can be calculated from a
fixed datum, it must be considered that the actual tide level may differ. If the diurnal inequality and abnormal
weather conditions etc. are ignored, the accuracy of the tide table is within 0.3m of the actual value.

3. UKC & Draft in relation to Channel Depth

The under keel clearances (UKC) is the depth water below the keel of a ship. It is in the range of 10 to 50 % of
ship’s draft for most channels though in the port even lower UKC values are observed. In the canals UKC may
indeed not be lower than 1 m so. With this low UKC, the channels are horizontally restricted navigation in these
channels are possible only if the vessel’s speed is limited. Speed is critical factor to avoid bottom touching and
bank effects. Due to the limited UKC values for deep-drafted ships, regular survey of the bottom and dredging
works for maintaining channel depth are of highly required to keep the channels fit to give access to the vessels
constrained by her draft to the harbour.

The International Commission on the Reception of Large Ships (ICORELS) suggests the following values for
UKC in different kinds of navigation areas:
• Open sea areas: for those exposed to strong and long stern or quarter swell, where speed may be high,
UKC/d should be about 0.2.
• Waiting areas: for those exposed to strong and long swell, UKC/d about 0.15.
• Channel: for sections exposed to strong and long swell, UKC/d about 0.15.
• Channel: less exposed to swell, UKC/d about 0.10.
• Manoeuvring and berthing areas: for those exposed to swell, UKC/d about 0.10 to 0.15.
• Manoeuvring and berthing areas: protected, UKC/d about 0.07.

These values are only recommendations and helpful as a rule of thumb. Local conditions, allowable speed,
availability of pilots and tugs will determine accurate rules concerning minimum UKC.
In any case, absent specific knowledge to the contrary, for 1.5mtrt of UKC, 6-knot is safe speed limit as thumb
rule. It is suitable for safe navigation in almost all conditions.

4. Sinkage while underway

When a vessel begins moving the distribution of water pressure around it changes, and the hull lowers slightly in
the water. When navigating in harbours, therefore, the amount of this sinkage of the vessel in the water must be
added to the draft while at berth.

This amount becomes greater as the water becomes shallower, and as speed increases, as shown in the following
graph. It is also necessary to consider sinkage of the vessel due to rolling, pitching and yawing of the vessel with
wind and waves, and swell.

Average sinkage of a vessel largely depends on the speed of the vessel and length of the vessel. The sinkage can
be determined using the graph given below and calculated Froude Number.

Where, Froude Number = V (in m/s) / Sq Root (L*g) = V (in Knots) / 2 *Sq root (Lg)
 Where, V= Speed of vessel, L-= Length of vessel (m), g= Accelerations due to gravity

Fig-7.3

Thus, Fn may also be calculated as 0.16V (in knots)/ Sq root (L)

For a particular ship with given LOA (L), the Froude Number may be calculated by using following function at
any time depending on the ship’s speed only.

Fn= f V, Where, f= 1/ 2*Sq root ( Lg)

Length of vessel (m) Co- efficient f for vessel

50 0.0227 (1/44)
100 0.0161 (1/62)
150 0.0132 (1/76)
190 0.0116 (1/86)
225 0.0106(1/94)
260 0.01 (1/100)
300 0.0093 (1/108)
350 0.0085 (1/118)

Let’s calculate Fn and sinkage for some example for some vessels randomly selected with different LOAs and
assumed reasonable speed limits.

a. Container vessels of LOA = 350m, making a speed of 15 kts in any ( shallow or deep) waters
Fn = 15/118 = 0.13, Using at the graph above, the sinkage is almost 0.2 % of LOA of vessel = 0.7 m

b. Handy max bulk carrier, LOA = 190m, making a speed of 10 kts in shallow waters
Fn = 10/86 = 0.12, Using at the graph above, the sinkage is almost 0.2 % of LOA of vessel = 0.38 m

c. Smaller product tankers or feeder container vessel of LOA = 100m, speed of 10 kts
Fn =10/62 = 0.16, Using at the graph above, the sinkage at the F.P is almost 0.4 % of LOA of vessel = 0.40 m,
While the sinkage at the A.P is about 0.2% of LOA of the vessel =0.20m

Large vessels (more than 100 mtr) are operated at low speed (less than 10 kts) in harbours. Thus the Fn for these
vessels is generally around than 0.1 and corresponding maximum sinkage is about 0.1-0.2% of LOA. Thus it is
therefore appropriate to estimate the maximum sinkage for larger vessels moving at slower speed in harbour
limits as 0.1 - 0.2% of the length of the vessel.

5. Increase of draft due to heel

When there is a heel due to turning or due to wind or external factors for vessels with large windage areas, there is
a corresponding increase in the draft of the vessel. However this is more pronounced in vessels in ballast
condition for all vessels with large broad side on or container or PCTC type vessels with broad windage area. The
corresponding draft increase due to heel angle is readily available on the manoeuvring diagrams of such vessel.
Example is given for a handy max bulk carrier.

6. Trim and relation with Pivot point and Hull form

As UKC is reduced, the change in pressure on the hull causes the trim to change. The increase in draft at the bow
or stern depends on hull form. The pivot point (PP) moves along the length of the ship.

1. Trim and Pivot Point

It has been observed that ships trimmed by the head are directionally unstable. This condition is indicated by the
shifting of the apparent PP of the ship to forward. During a alteration of course following has been observed:
• in the initial stage of a turn all ships are directionally unstable, which is indicated by a PP forward of the
centre of gravity;
• as the ship stabilizes in a turn:
- ships trimmed by the stern have their PP shifted aft of the centre of gravity so the ship becomes
directionally stable;
- and ships trimmed by the head have their PP remained ahead of the centre of gravity and the ship
continues to be directionally unstable.

2. Trim and Hull Form

This has been determined with accuracy by the observation and a commonly accepted rule of thumb is that:

• a ship with a large (> 0.75) will tend to trim by the head
• ships with finer lines such as containerships with < 0.7 have been found to trim by the stern.

Considering that ships are on even keel when stationary (i.e., trim is zero), as soon as each ship moves, she will:
trim by the head if her > 0.7; trim by the stern if her < 0.7; and usually not trim if her = 0.7.

7. Squat
In shallow waters the squat may be calculated to a maximum of 10% of ships draft and can be increased by 0.3m
every 5 kts of speed. At slower speed the squat of vessel causes more sinkage and trim down by head At higher
speed it causes the liftage and trim down by stern. When the UKC is less than 10% of the ships draft, there is
sufficient chance of grounding. In such case it is advisable not to increase speed more than 70% of the limiting
speed. Squat may be calculated with following formula
Squat = Cb x V^2 / 100 (m) in open waters

= 2 x Cb x S0.81 x V2 / 100 (m) in enclosed waters

Form above formulae, it is clear that squat of a vessel depends on following factors such as:

• Ships Speed(V)
• Block Co-efficient(Cb)
• Blockage Factor (S) is the ratio between the cross section of the vessel to the cross section of the canal. If
the blockage is more than 25%, than it further increase the squat of the vessel.

Besides above factors, waterway width also has an effect on the squat of the vessel, squat further increase in
approach channels to harbours where both the depth as well as the width are restricted.

Shallow water Effects on the Vessel’s Manoeuvrability

Shallow water conditions affect vessel’s behaviour in many aspects due to hydrodynamics in relation the vessel
itself. Shallow water conditions affect manoeuvrability of the vessel by affecting the turning ability, stopping
ability, limiting speed at any time and the hull resistance to water thus the consequent effect of hull resistance on
speed of the vessel.

1. Effect on Turning Ability

a. Directional stability

Checking and counterturning ability were reduced as water depth decreased from deep to an intermediate depth
UKC/d = 0.5 and then increased at the shallower depth UKC/d = 0.2. Directional stability becomes more positive
in shallow water. A ship that tends to steady up when the rudder is put amidships has positive directional stability.

Steering characteristics improves as the UKC decreases until, in shallow water, a directionally unstable ship
becomes easier to steer and less unstable. If the ship squat so much forward that she goes by the head, the
stabilizing effects of the shallower water are negated by the change in trim.

The ship rapidly loses rudder efficiency in shallow water with the combination of below mentioned two effect:

• the rudder force has to overcome a much larger lateral resistance and is therefore less efficient.
• because of the reduced UKC, water which would normally pass under the bow of the ship is restricted and
there is a build-up of pressure, both ahead of the ship and on the port bow (for a starboard turn ). This
imbalance of pressure pushes the pivot point towards the stern and therefore reduces the lever arm of the
rudder force

b. Turning Diameter

Turning diameter increases considerably in shallow waters. The ship’s turning radius increases until, in shallow
water D⁄d ≤ 1.2. The radius can be as much as doubling that experienced at sea. When in shallow water, such as in
most port areas, turning diameter increases considerably, due to the larger hydrodynamic forces opposing the turn
The diameter of turning circle in deep water is approximately three times ship’s length, so it can be assumed that
turning diameter can be as much as six times ship’s length in shallow water.

(i) in D⁄d = 2.5, 5 to 10% increase in turning diameter;

(ii) 1.5 ≤ D⁄d ≤ 1.75, 30% increase; and
(iii) D⁄d = 1.25, 60 to 100% increase.

c. Rate of Turn (ROT)

The ROT describes the rate of change of the ship’s course per unit time, usually in degrees per minute. The
navigation bridge normally has a ROT indicator in larger vessels to permit monitoring of the ship’s performance
during a turning manoeuver. ROT in shallow water is the same or lesser as for deep water. For practical purposes
the rate of turn is about the same whether manoeuvring in shallow or deep water, the larger area required to
complete a turn.

Taking angular velocity in deep water as 100%, the shallow water ROT are generally:
- in D⁄d = 2.5, 90 to 95% (roughly 5 to 10% increase in turning diameter)
- in D⁄d = 1.25, 50 to 60% (roughly 60 to 100% increase in turning diameter).

It seems that there is a relationship between directional stability, rudder effectiveness, turning diameter and ROT.
In general, the shallow water effects increase directional stability, decrease rudder effectiveness, increase turning
diameter and decrease ROT.

2. Effect on Stopping Ability

Despite the differences in ship behaviour in shallow water as compared to deeper water, there is not much
difference in the stopping distance required. Stopping distance is largely independent of water depth.

In shallow water a ship drags a large amount of water along with her, increasing to as much as 40% of her
displacement when UKC reduces to 20% of draft. When UKC is small, more astern power and consequently more
tug power are needed to stop a ship than in deep water. This effect caused by the ‘Added Mass’. When a ship
comes to an abrupt stop in shallow confined waters, the following mass of water needs time to slow down and
may push the ship ahead, turn her and/or push her sideway.

Heading deviation while stopping a vessel with engine running astern:

A single-screw ship with a right hand screw has a tendency to turn to starboard when the engine goes astern.
Heading deviation is found to be at a greater rate, as depth decreases. The ship changes heading significantly as
much as 80 to 90 degrees in shallow water and somewhat less in deeper water,

Lateral deviations become larger with a decrease in water depth. Lateral deviation is the linear side-to-side
distance the ship deviates from its original path at the beginning of the stopping manoeuvre until she comes to a
stop.

3. Limiting Speed

There is a limit to the speed of the vessel beyond which she cannot increase her speed even if with more engine
power. This limitation on speed is put on the vessel by the depth of the water at any place. This maximum limiting
speed at any depth may be calculated using below:

Limiting Speed, V = 4.5 * Sq.Root of D, where, D= Depth of water

Any increase of RPM to overcome the limiting speed would increase dangerous wash, not the speed.

4. Virtual Increase in mass of vessel

As the UKC is reduced, vessel drags the water layer along with her and this increases the virtual mass or
displacement of the vessel. This is pronounced in her turning ability and engine power. It is difficult to control the
stopping manoeuvre as the vessel loses the advantage of propeller slipstream to get helm effect. Similarly the
effect of virtual mass is also there while vessel is coming alongside berth and when on the berth as well. The
momentum of the vessel is larger than expected.

5. Hull Resistance

In general, shallow water conditions increase the hull resistance due to many factors. A ship makes a lower speed
in shallow waters with same engine power. With sufficient power, some ships can reach a critical velocity at
which the resistance is very much greater than in deep water. Above this Vc, the resistance does not increase
anymore and thus at sufficiently high speeds, the resistance becomes less than in deep water.

As a ship moves through calm water, the ship experiences a force acting opposite to its direction of motion. This
force is the water’s resistance to the motion of the ship, which is referred to as “total hull resistance” (RT). It is
this resistance force that is used to calculate a ship’s effective horsepower. A ship’s calm water resistance is a
function of many factors, including ship speed, hull form (draft, beam, length, wetted surface area), and water
temperature.

Total hull resistance increases as speed increases with vessel’s speed. Note that the resistance curve is not linear,
but increases more steeply at higher speeds. The power required to propel a ship through the water is the product
of total hull resistance and ship speed, and so engine power increases even more rapidly than resistance. Often,
ship power is roughly proportional to the cube of the speed, so doubling (2x) the speed of a vessel from 6 knots to
12 knots will require 8 times as much power.

Components of Total Hull Resistance

As a ship moves through calm water, there are many factors that combine to form the total resistance force acting
on the hull. The principle factors affecting ship resistance are the friction and viscous effects of water acting on
the hull, the energy required to create and maintain the ship’s characteristic bow and stern waves, and the
resistance that air provides to ship motion. In mathematical terms, total resistance can be written as:

RT = RV + RW + RAA

Fig-7.4
Where: RT = total hull resistance
RV = viscous (friction) resistance
RW = wave making resistance
RAA = air resistance caused by ship
moving through calm air
Figure above shows how the magnitude of each component of resistance varies with ship speed. At low
speeds viscous resistance dominates, and at high speeds the total resistance curve turns upward dramatically
as wave making resistance begins to dominate.

Channel Dynamics during Manoeuvring of Ships

Besides the effects of shallow water on vessel’s behaviour due to hydrodynamics in relation the vessel itself, the
hydrodynamics in between the vessel and the banks of the channel creates many appreciable changes in behaviour
of any vessel while moving in a channel. The hydrodynamics of water flow in between the ship side and
the channel bank is very peculiar to understand. This causes sudden and unexpected behaviour on the vessel if
not controlled properly. It is important to understand these effects as any mismanagement with this would
surely bring the vessel to an unmanageable situation and subsequent grounding of the vessel.

1. Smelling ground
Smelling the ground occurs when a vessel nears extremely shallow water like a shoal. In this process, first, the
vessel takes severe shear towards the shoal and then suddenly another opposite shear away from the shoal. A
usually sluggish vessel in shallow waters may become violent all of a sudden due to smelling ground. When a
vessel takes a uncontrolled swing and heading deviates to an angle more than the maximum tolerable set of a
vessel in relation to the given channel. The vessel is bound to get grounded at the bow or the stern of the vessel.

Effective use of engine and helm must be used to correct the ship’s heading immediately to prevent the vessel
behave erratically subsequent to smelling ground. Corrective helm and engine would be necessary consequent
grounding of vessel if the channels are very narrow.

Smelling of ground may happen at the flat bottom below the keel of the vessel when the UKC is less than
recommended. The bottom keeps on touching the mud layer and moves away from it at the bow and stern of the
vessel causing slight pitching of vessel regularly. Patches of muddy water has been observed on the propeller
wake on the stern of the vessel while vessel transits in the channel if the UKC is less than recommended.

2. Bank Effects - Bow cushion and Bank suction

Blockage Factor (S) is the ratio between the cross section of the vessel to the cross section of the channel. When
the blockage of a vessel in relation to the channel is substantial, there is a back flow of water between shipside
and the channel bank. This back flow of water creates a low pressure zone on the mid-ship section of the vessel
close to the bank. This is in accordance with Bernoulli’s theorem (an increase in water speed results in a decrease
in water pressure and vice versa).

This causes the bank to suck the vessel towards it and this is called as bank suction. Sometimes the bow due to
positive pressure waves gets pushed away from the bank and this is called as bow cushion. The bow cushion and
bank suction may happen simultaneously causing the stern to come very close to the bank.

If the ship is close to a bank or shoal, there are other effects on her behaviour. The overall effect is a bodily
attraction towards the bank (bank suction somewhere aft of amidships) and a yawing moment away (bank cushion
at the bow). The former is stronger than the latter.

This bank effect directly depends of following:

• Directly proportional to the increase with speed,
• Directly proportional to the blockage factor,
• Inversely proportional to UKC of the vessel
• Slope of a bank. In case of sloping bank some sideways inflow of water is possible, causing a smaller
reduction in pressure. Thus reduced bank suction is observed on sloppy bank than with a steep bank.
 3. Unexpected swing and Speed reduction
While vessel navigates in narrow channels and fairways where depths are not well surveyed, vessel needs to be
very careful. Unexpected swings and reduction of speed observed many times while manoeuvring near shallow
waters and restricted waters due to existing hydrodynamics acting at that place at that particular time.

This may happen due to the smelling ground somewhere or touching bottom or shallow patches momentarily or
due to bank suction or bow cushion etc.

When unexpected reduction of speed or swing is observed, pilot must take note of it and give immediate
corrective action without any delay. Any critical delay would create disastrous results on the vessel.

4. Canal Effect
When vessel passes through a canal, this effect is pronounced due to the restricted water flow and replacement of
displaced water. In this case the vessel heels towards a bank to displace a constant volume of water thus the water
level drops towards a bank.

Angle of heel due to Canal effect is directly proportional to V2, where V= Speed of the vessel

To correct this effect vessel needs to reduce speed and apply corrective helm to get rid of this effect.

5. Drag due to Added Mass of water

In shallow water a ship drags a large amount of water along with her, increasing to as much as 40% of her
displacement when UKC reduces to 20% of draft. This effect caused by the ‘Added Mass’. When a ship comes to
an abrupt stop in shallow waters, the moving water following the vessel needs time to slow down. It keeps on
pushing the vessel ahead, turn her and/or push her sideway.

6. Partial Vacuum near Stern resulting sluggishness

As the hull moves along the restricted waters, channels and canals, with the movement of the vessel the water
which was displaced is not instantly replaced by water drawn from surrounding due to restriction in water
movement. This creates partial vacuum at the stern of the vessel instantaneously. Thus the vacuum so created has
effect on the propeller and rudder of the vessel. Response of the vessel to helm is sluggish and engine movements
are slow. This causes partial reduction of speed as well.

***
 Chapter-8

Break Water & Water Dynamics in

Proximity
Breakwaters and Their Significance
Types of Break water s
Man-Made Breakwaters
Water Dynamics near Breakwaters
Effect of the Water Dynamics on the manoeuvring of Vessels
Precautions to be taken while passing Breakwaters

Swells get generated in the high seas and travel thousands of miles till it finds shallow waters where they break
and unleash their kinetic energy. If unrestricted offshore, the dissipated energy brings the breaking waves on to
the shore. Thus Break waters are built in such a way that it prevents free run of the mostly prevalent swell and
seas into the harbour limits. The freely running swells instead breaks over the breakwaters and releases its kinetic
energy. Breakwaters are developed manmade or natural, have a specific purpose of preventing the free running
swells to enter into the harbours or anchorages thus preventing the vessels at the berth to surge and break their
lines. Thus this ensures a safe berth inside harbours.

In most of the modern and developed ports of the world, breakwaters are one of its prominent identifying features.
Breakwaters help the harbours to maintain safe berths and safety of vessels in their berths.

Breakwaters and their Significance

The significance of the breakwaters is as follows:

• The basic objective is to prevent the ships from surging while on their berths in the harbour limits.
• Break water s are structures are the natural or manmade constructed offshore at a distance from the
harbours or the anchorages to protect them from incoming weather, swells and long-shore drift due to
long-shore current.
• This consequently prevents breaking the mooring lines of ships thus preventing unwanted emergency.
• The effectiveness of the protection function of the breakwaters depends on following:
- Distance from the coast,
- Angle relative to the coast,
- Direction of incidence of the incoming waves

• Besides the protection function, breakwaters greatly affect the manoeuvring pattern of the vessel in the
ports. Before breakwaters vessel is exposed to prevalent surface currents, swell and wind.
• However after passing the breakwaters vessel’s exposure to surface currents, seas and swell is greatly
reduced. Inside breakwaters however vessel is still remain affected by wind and tidal streams. Thus there
is a marked difference on the vessel’s behaviour outside and inside breakwaters in the existing weather
conditions.
 • Since the breakwaters hinder the free run of swells and seas, the dynamics of water movement gets
largely skewed near breakwaters due to reflection, refraction and internal reflection of the cluster of
incoming waves.
• The understanding of the dynamics in the water movement near breakwaters greatly helps in safe
navigation of vessels in approaches to ports or restricted waters.

Types of Break water

There are various types of breakwaters exists in different ports around the world. There are no definitive patterns
in their structures but largely the objective is similar.

1. Natural Break waters

Natural Break waters are formed by barriers such as conspicuous or submerged land features those protects the
harbour or anchorage from incoming swell and waves.

The natural barriers may be:

• Coral reefs,
• Headlands,
• Sand bars,
• Series of hills and rocks in combined form arranged in such a way that it reduces the effects of incoming
weather.
• Offshore Tombolo formations

2. Man Made Break waters

The places where the there is no natural breakwaters that support the harbours or anchorages, and there is
sufficient risk to the safety of vessels at the berth in the harbours or anchorages, the authorities decide to make
artificial breakwaters. These breakwaters are constructed at a sufficient distance from the shore line after careful
study of the water depth, prevalent wave height and directions, seabed, availability of materials etc.

a. Rubble mound or Rock Break waters:

The location should be carefully examined before deciding the position of a rubble mound breakwater. This type
of breakwater absorbs a part of wave energy incident on them and reflects part of it back to the seas. Thus the
energy reflected back to sea makes the sea condition unsettled and choppy but at a reduced degree than other type
of Break water.

Structure

The typical rubble mound breakwater consists of a mound of coarse stone, also known as a core, covered or
protected by blankets or layers of heavier stones.

• The core

The core typically consists of stone weighing between 1 kilogram and 500 kilograms, without the fine particles -
dust and sand dumped in a heap out into the sea by a dump truck. To facilitate dumping by truck, the core should
be ideally four to five metres wide at the top and approximately half a metre above mean sea level or, in the
presence of a large tidal range, above high water spring level. The top of the core should be kept level and
uniform by a bulldozer to enable the dump trucks to travel the entire length of the breakwater. When tipped into
the water, the core rubble comes to rest at a slope of approximately 1 on 1, i.e. it drops down 1 metre in level for
every 1 metre forward. The rubble in the core is very light, so breakwaters should be built during calm weather
only.

From environmental point of view, the core dumping may create a large negative impact on the surrounding sea
due to the fine dust that gets washed off the rubble. In environmentally sensitive areas, such as coral reefs,
protected fish breeding areas and nursery grounds rich in certain species of protected vegetation, the core must be
washed before placing to limit the dust plume that would otherwise be generated by the fine dust particles. This
dust plume usually persists for many days and can cause a lot of damage by either blocking out sunlight or
depositing fine dust on the gills of fish and suffocating them.

• The under layer

The under layer of stone that protects the core rubble from being washed away usually consists of single pieces of
stone whose weight varies between a minimum of half a tonne to a maximum of one tonne. These are usually laid
in a minimum of two layers at a slope which is generally shallower than that of the core; 2/1 on the outer slope
and 1.5/1 on the inner slope.

A slope of 2/1 means that the level drops 1 metre for every 2 metres forward.

The first layer of stone may be placed by a hydraulic excavator. The excavator should place the heavier stone as
quickly as possible without leaving too much core rubble exposed to wave action. If a storm strikes the site with
too much core exposed, there is a grave danger of the core being washed away and spread all over the intended
port area. At a distance equal to 2.5 x H, a heavy stone sinker with a marker buoy should be placed on the sea bed.
A brightly coloured nylon string should then be strung from the sinker to the required height on the pole. This
procedure should be repeated every 5.0 metres to help the crane or excavator operator with the placing of the top-
most layer.

• The armour layer

The main armour layer, as its name implies, is the primary defence of the breakwater against wave attack. The
stone sizes for the cross-section in the shallow water should be in the range of 1 tonne to3 tonnes. Any defects in
the quality of the rock, grading or placing will seriously put the whole breakwater at risk. Hence, great care must
be taken when choosing and placing the stone for the main armour layer. The large stones should be lifted singly
using a sling or stone grapple and placed in the water with the aid of a diver swimming over the placing area. The
armour layer should be placed stone by stone in a sequence which ensures interlocking. This ensures that waves
cannot pull one stone out and cause the upper stones to topple down the slope, breach the armour layer and expose
the smaller rubble underneath. To ensure proper placing, the swimmer or boat crew should direct the crane
operator each time a stone is placed until the stone layer breaks the surface. As with the first under layer, two
layers of armour stones are required to complete the main armour layer. Slope profiles should be set up at regular
5 metre intervals using the same procedure as described previously. The end or head of the breakwater is the
most delicate part of the breakwater and requires extra care. The outer slope of 2.5/1 should be increased to 3/1 to
improve its stability.

Rubble mound breakwater on soft ground

The material grading should be in the range of 1 to 500 kilograms for the fine core, 500 to 1000 kilograms for the
under layer and 1000 to 3000 kilograms for the main armour layer.
 Rubble mound breakwater on hard ground
Dust and fine particles should not be placed in the core as these will wash away and cause the breakwater top to
settle unevenly. In general, rock breakwaters absorb most of the wave energy that falls on them and reflect very
little disturbance back from the sloping surface.

In designing of the rubble mound break water, care need to be taken in following:

• Unaided breakwater design should not be attempted in waters deeper than 3 metres.
• If the foundation material is very soft and thick, then a geotextile filter mat should be placed under the
rock to prevent it from sinking and disappearing into the mud.
• If a thin layer of loose or soft material exists above a hard layer, then this should be removed to expose
the hard interface and the breakwater built on this surface.

b. Caisson or Solid Vertical Break water

Great care should be exercised when deciding the position of a solid breakwater. Solid vertical breakwaters do not
absorb wave energy incident on them and reflect everything back, usually causing other parts of a harbour to
experience unsettled and rough conditions.

Structure

A stone rubble foundation is first be laid on a hard sea bed (rock, coral deposits or stiff clay) using the appropriate
equipment. If the foundation is a thick deposit of good sand (no silt or soft clay or mud), then a geotextile filter
mat should be placed under the rubble foundation.

The rubble should consist of a well-graded mix of 1- to 5-kilogram stones. A temporary profile of the proposed
section should then be erected every 2 or 3 metres. Concrete filled jute bags, or locally available dressed stone,
should then be laid on the rubble foundation, in line with the temporary profiles. Mass concrete should then be
poured into the central cavity to form a solid structure. The deck and wave wall may be built to suit local
conditions.

Finally, after the removal of the temporary profiles, the sea side face of the breakwater foundation is protected
against wave by the application of concrete-filled jute bags. In the case of a sandy bottom, these bags should
come to rest on the geotextile filter. Bollards may then be cast into the deck as desired.

For solid or vertical breakwaters:

• Unaided vertical solid breakwater design should not be attempted in waters deeper than 2 metres and
exposed to strong wave action.
• Vertical solid breakwaters are only suitable when the foundation is a firm surface (rock, stiff clay, coral
reef); thick sand deposits may also be suitable under certain conditions.
• In the presence of thick sand deposits, a rubble foundation with adequate scour protection is
recommended.
• Otherwise the strong tidal streams, water currents or wave turbulence scour away the sand underneath the
foundation.
• The core of a solid breakwater should be cast in concrete; not more than 50 per cent of this concrete may
be replaced by pieces of rock or “plums”.

c. Wave Attenuator
These are horizontally placed series of walls placed parallel to the coast of the vessel. There is one vertical wall
made of concrete structures supported by one wall on front side of the wall and 2 walls on the landward side.

As the name suggests though these walls doesn’t completely prevent the waves from passing over, they are
effective enough to reduce the impact of the waves in the harbour or the protected coasts.

d. Floating Break water

To be effective as a breakwater, the motions of a floating structure must be of small amplitude so that the
structure does not generate waves into the protected harbour side.

The simplest forms of floating breakwaters are pontoon structures, although various modifications to their shape
have been investigated in an effort to optimize the mass and ultimately the cost.

The efficiency of a floating breakwater depends primarily on the ratio of the width of the pontoon to the
wavelength of the oncoming waves and given that ocean swell has a very long wavelength, floating breakwaters
are not suitable for creating protected areas along an exposed coastline and should never be installed.

However, on lake shores, where the waves tend to be very short thus being choppy and do not generally exceed
0.50 metre, floating breakwaters tend to work efficiently.

Hydrodynamics near Breakwaters

Though breakwaters prevent the swell largely to enter into the harbour, it creates consequential disturbances near
it. There are some clearly observable phenomena on the water dynamics such as:

1. The natural set which is observed in the channel outside the Break water suddenly vanishes after entering the
water body inside the limits of Breakwater.

2. As the oncoming swells hit the Breakwater the energy transmitted in various directions. The component of the
energy parallel to the face of Break water enters the Break water at almost right angle to the channel. Thus this
area, just before passing breakwater, is expected to get an unprecedented set due to transverse current running
almost continuously.

3. There is a change in effect of substantial cross current to nil current effect while passing Breakwater.

4. Turbulence alongside Breakwater

5. As the silts suspend in turbulent water settles down in the channel depths, it causes regular siltation of channel
near the Break water.

6. Sometime due to excessive turbulence, there is collapse of the channel wall in cyclonic condition.

7. In the approach channel within Breakwater the pattern of set will be in a reduced sine wave pattern.

Above general observations may be explained by analysing the following components of water dynamics near
breakwaters. Though the above observations are largely valid in most breakwaters, but the peculiarity of
phenomenon of water movement may vary from place to place depending on various locally existing factors and
topography. Thus water dynamics of each port must be carefully examined to understand the existing pattern.
However to understand the pattern of the hydrodynamics near breakwaters following basic principles of wave
transmission shall be used:
1. Reflection and Dispersal:

As waves hit the breakwater after a long free-running in the high seas , Some of the energy gets released in
various forms such as sound, work done in movement of solid particles etc. and vertical movement of water and
turbulence. However major part of the energy rebounds back to the sea in various directions depending upon the
angle of incidence of waves to the breakwaters. The reflected energy causes the water to move in various
directions.

The reflected energy may be divided largely into 2 components such as:

1. Component X - parallel to the surface of Breakwater, and

2. Component Y - perpendicular to the face of Breakwater.

RBL GBL

Component X

Incident waves

Component –Y Reflected Waves

Fig-8.1

The 1st component which is parallel to the face of Breakwater enters into the channel at almost right angle to the
channel. This created a substantial amount of set on the vessel’s course just before passing the Breakwater.

The 2nd component of the vessel which comes at right angle to the face of breakwater moves the water away from
Breakwater almost parallel to the channel. This component causes appreciable reduction of vessel’s speed while
vessels make inward passages into the port. So ships expect to face substantial amount of reduction of speed and
set on her course just before passing Breakwater.
2. Refraction & Penetration

These are the section of incoming waves those enter directly into the water body after breakwaters through
the narrow opening meant for the passage of the vessels. These waves are affected by the X- component
of the reflected waves while passing the breakwaters at the entrance. Thus the direction of the waves is
further shift towards the frontal end of the breakwater.

As soon as the vessel passes the breakwater and the effect of the reflected waves cease to exist. These waves are
less powerful as only small section of the oncoming waves turn into refracted waves. For few minutes the vessel
comes under the effect of the refracted waves.

Refracted Waves

Component X

Incident waves

Component –Y Reflected Waves

The 1st componen

Fig- 8.2

Thus the set experienced by the vessel is reduced considerably while the speed increases marginally due to the
effect of the refracted waves. However the effect of these waves is for a quite short span of time.

3. Reduced Sine Wave Pattern

As the vessel moves ahead of position-A, after getting effected by the X-component of Reflected waves and
Position-B by the Refracted Waves, the effective set on the vessel’s course vanishes away suddenly at Position-C.
But the vessel still proceeds with a heading corrected earlier to the previous set due to component-X of the
reflected waves. This brings the vessel towards port side of the centreline (Position-B&C). Here the vessel further
gives correction on her heading to starboard side so as to bring the vessel to CL at Position –D.

At position-D, the refracted waves after total internal reflection, comes to affect the vessel and create a marginal
set on port side. There are some accumulated local waves in the water body inside breakwaters from portside
would be strong enough to affect the vessel after the position-D at around Position- E.
Above observation shows that the vessel remains continually affected by the primary effects of the waves and
later by the secondary, tertiary and quaternary effects as well in a reduced intensity. Thus the position of the
vessel also moves from stbd to port side of the centreline and further to stbd side like in a sine wave.

Pos-E

Internally reflected Waves

Local waves generated due to wind Pos -D

Pos -C Refracted Waves

Pos-B

Component X

Incident waves Pos-A

Reflected Waves

Fig- 8.3

In the channel within Breakwater, the pattern the cross track error of the vessel’s position is in a reduced sine
wave pattern from the centreline. The change in the effective set is also follows a similar pattern.

3. Backlashing Set:
Before breakwaters are subjected to cross currents thus substantial set in the course and appreciable reduction in
speed. As soon as vessel passes the breakwaters the effect of component X vanishes and the set becomes the
minimum to 0 degrees and the reduction in speed due to component Y is removed thus increasing the speed
marginally.

Here the navigator has to adjust her course immediately to achieve the desired COG. Otherwise the vessel’s COG
would me same as the heading and drive the vessel close to the weather edge or bank of the channel immediately
inside the breakwater.
 Ship Pos-2 Component X

Incident waves

Ship Pos-1

Component –Y

Fig- 8.4

The sudden change of effective set due to cross current from a high to nil while passing breakwater is known as
Backlashing Set.

5. Turbulence & Vertical movements

Besides the lateral movements and their components, the swell after hitting the BREAK WATER , moves in
various other directions. This creates turbulence near the BREAK WATER . There are also some vertical
components of the water movement that causes to removes the silts from the seabed and mixes with water
continuously. The silts after mixing with the water go down to the channel depths and settle down in the channel.
This causes regular siltation in the channel thus effective depths reduce regularly.

6. Splitting & Reunion

Splitting and reunion happens in case of individual rock or hillocks or shallow patches.

In case of there is no well-developed man made Break water s in ports, there are some natural land features which
act as breakwaters. In such case there is no well-developed and purpose built break waters. These include isolated
rocks, hills, shallow patches unevenly distributed along either side of the channel without any symmetry and
regularity.

In such case there is no regular pattern of water movements which can be generalised. Thus each place has to be
studied thoroughly to understand the nature of water movements thus their effect on manoeuvring pattern of the
ships in that particular locality.
 Obstruction

Incoming waves Re-joined Waves / Turbulence

Fig- 8.5

8. Lateral Cutting:

In case of sharp bend in the channel, the water flow causes the frontal surface of the channel erosion regularly.
The material eroded from the frontal side gets washed away few metre s and gets settled in the channel itself. This
sometimes creates a shallow patch or bar across the channel.

9. Siltation:

During extreme weather conditions, due to turbulence created near the Break water s, natural or manmade,
siltation causes the depth of channel to reduce regularly. Come times the channel wall gets collapsed and fall into
the channel during heavy weather or cyclonic conditions.

The reduction of depth if un-surveyed properly and timely poses dangers to the incoming vessels navigated
through channels. The reduction of depths, creation of shallow patches also affects the water flow pattern and new
set of currents may develop

Precautions to be taken while passing Breakwater

Due to the bottlenecks created by the breakwaters for the free flow of oncoming waves, such peculiar effects are
noticed by the navigators while passing breakwaters. Such effects will be evident only when there is an
appreciable angle of incidence of the waves on external face of the breakwater. This however would be hardly
visible if the direction of the oncoming water flow is same as the direction of the channel. In such case it only
affects the speed of the vessel.

The understanding of hydro-dynamics before and after passing of breakwater clearly signifies the importance and
effect of the breakwater on the manoeuvring of the vessel. Such phenomenon is not only common to break waters
but also in any area of bottlenecks in a channel. While passing such area the navigators has to be extra careful and
take swift actions to nullify its effects so as to keep the vessel in safe water near the centreline of the channel.
Following precautions must be taken while passing breakwaters:

• Ascertain the vessel’s position

The navigator must be very careful in ascertaining her position in these situations. Before passing breakwaters,
the set is high thus it should be within the maximum tolerable set limits of the channel while keeping the vessel
well within the white margin of the channel. Careful positioning methods must be employed to ensure vessel is in
safe limits.

• Vessel’s set within Maximum tolerable limits.

Before passing breakwaters, generally the set is high due to maximum intensity of cross currents. It need to be
ensured that the set is within the limits of “maximum tolerable set” of the vessel in relation to the channel while
keeping the vessel well within the white margin of the channel.

• Quick course corrections

To nullify the backlashing set and the sudden changes in her position due to drift, vessel must resort to quick
alteration of courses without any critical delay in actions. Any critical delay in actions would push the bow of the
vessel into the blue margin and consequently the lateral grounding of the vessel.

• Controlled reduction of speed

The reduction of speed is also required as per the speed control plan while transiting the channel. Due to reduction
of speed the effect of set increase consequentially while passing the breakwaters. Thus the speed reduction must
be carried out after careful observation of the effects of the set so as to keep her in maximum tolerable limits of
set. Speed control plan may be overridden while passing breakwaters to keep the vessel in safety.

• Reserve Engine Powers

It is always advisable to keep reserve engine power for use in case of emergency while passing in such channel
bottlenecks. When it is found that the vessel losing her control and helm effects, a higher engine order brings her
to a better control.

• Making fast tug Cast off tugs

In the inbound passage, it is preferable to make fast the tugs before passing the breakwaters so that they may be
used for assistance to the vessel in case of emergency. Similarly on the out bound passage the tugs may be kept
standby till the vessel clears the bottlenecks of the channel near breakwaters or elsewhere.

***
 Chapter-9

Tugs and Their Role in Manoeuvring

General Requirements for the Tugs to be used in Manoeuvring
Types of Tug
Power and Number of tugs to be used,
Positioning of the Tug,
Safety Operational Procedures for Using Tugs in Manoeuvring
Making Fast the Tug,
Use of Tugs for Berthing & Unearthing,
Use of Tug to carry out a Tight Turn,
Casting off Tug

Tugs are an important means of assistance when manoeuvring while entering and leaving harbour. Tugs are
usually employed by the port authorities after taking into account the type and size of vessels being handled,
prevailing weather conditions, tug capabilities and types of tugs. Tugs have powerful diesel engines and are
essential to docks and ports to manoeuver large ships into their berths. The bollard pull is the leading requirement
for tugs. Availability of tugs gives more resources and greater flexibility to the pilots in handling the vessels in
harbour limits. However the number and size and type of tugs to be used can be determined after analysing
various factors explained later in the chapter.

General Requirements for the Tugs

Tugs used for port operations should meet the following requirements:

• Locally licensed and properly manned;

• Tug master must be familiar with the topography and bathymetry of the port thoroughly.
• Tug master be able to communicate with pilots effectively.
• Tugs are fitted with VHF radio and AIS transponder;
• Supplied with Tug Lines of sufficient length and strength to handle deepest draft vessels being handled in
the port. Additional spare lines must also be present.
• Tugs must be fitted with twin screw/propulsion preferably with azimuth propellers. Tugs with single
screw are generally not allowed to be used for berthing and un-berthing of vessels in harbours;
• With adequate power and bollard pull and of correct grade;

Grades of Tug

Depending upon the requirements in handling the type and size of the vessels, the tugs are usually categorized in
two grades-
• Grade I of higher power (with at least 2600 HP) and
• Grade II of lower power (with at least 1248 HP).

Grade Power (HP) Bollard Pull (BP) General Application

I ≥ 5000 ≥62 LOA > 350m*

≥ 4000 ≥52 LOA>300m or Draft >12.5m
≥ 3000 ≥38 LOA≤300m and Draft≤12.5m
 ≥ 2600 ≥35 LOA≤200m and Draft≤12.5m
II ≥ 1200 ≥18 LOA≤140m

Types of Tugs According to Design of Tugs

In the context of manoeuvring, the tugs with different design features have different handling characteristics
depending upon the hull profile, engine, rudder and thruster. As we understand that tugs are assets of a port or
harbour authority, these adds largely to the operational costs in the day to day operations of a port. This
led to concerns regarding safety of the operating crew, manoeuvrability during harbour movements and
fuel consumption etc. That’s why there have been fairly regular innovations taking place in the design
of tugs recently taking into account the importance of tugs in maritime industry.

According to the method of propulsion and location of towing points, there are two main tug types are
those are: 1, with their propulsion aft and towing point near amidships, i.e. conventional ones, and 2,
with their towing point aft and propulsion forward of amidships, i.e. tractor tugs.

According to design of the tug there are many different types of tugs developed in the industry but there
are few types those are established types and widely used world over. These are as follows:

1. Conventional Tug
One of the oldest types of tugs is the conventional ones. These tugs are slowly becoming obsolete and
other designs are taking over. Nowadays, they are equipped with diesel engines having one or two
propellers respectively. With single propeller, depending on the type, the most common is the right-
handed (although left- -handed are also quite often met), and are equipped with a classic rudder. These
tugs may be equipped with fixed propellers or CPP, single or twin screw and single rudders with fixed nozzles,
nose rudders. Tugs may be fitted with tunnel or retractable azimuth thrusters. Their general characteristics are:
• Uses conventional screw propeller. In this type of propulsion only the rudder and nozzle can move,
the propeller is fixed.
• Less manoeuvrable than Azimuth stern drive tugs (ASD) or tractor tugs.
• Towing point is usually situated just aft of amidships.
• Astern bollard pull reduced by up to 50% of forward bollard pull.
• Increased risk of girting/girding when towing.
• Good steering and sea-keeping ability is better.
• Good bollard pulls to power output.

When the towline is attached the pivot point moves to the towing point, usually the towing hook. This distance
from the rudder has been reduced although the turning moment is still appreciable. If the tug is dragged astern
there is an increased risk of girting. The use of a gob wire moves the towing point aft, allowing the tug to be
dragged astern with a reduced risk of girting. This is an appreciable risk to conventional tugs and getting out of a
girting situation by manoeuvring alone is often not possible. Mainly due to the location of the towing point
(generally 0.45 x LWL from the aft) the tugs have limitations regarding performance and safety. When
using a gob-line, the towing point is moved further to the aft and reduces the manoeuvrability of the tug.

Advantages of these tugs

Simple construction and less maintenance than CPPs

No support system needed
Smaller propeller leading to increased open water
 Conventional propeller/rudder configurations are more efficient for port-to-port towing.
Conventional tugs are used for push-pull assistance, in particular for towing on a line.
Economic operations for using on small and medium sized vessels.
Nowadays, big vessels are not assisted by conventional tug boats, but by azimuthal stern drive
(ASD) tugs.

Disadvantages of these Tugs

Performance degrades rapidly at off-design conditions, where the vessel may operate majority of
the time,
Not able to provide reverse thrust without stopping the engine, unless a reduction gear is
installed,
Potential cavitation, strength & stability issues at highly loaded off-design conditions
limited manoeuvring capabilities which is demonstrated in slow repositioning of tugs;
amidships position of tow which results in the possibility of “girting“(capsizing) of the tug along
the radius of tow and consequently could result in capsizing of the tug with fatal outcome for the
crew. Tragic result of girting is the crew’s inability for prompt reaction due to high speed of the
girting development. To avoid girting, the tugs can be fitted with a quick release hook.
The astern power of conventional tugs is generally low. When making fast near the bow of a
vessel, interaction forces between the ship and the tug makes it very difficult for a conventional
tug to connect.

2. Azimuth stern drive (ASD) tug

These tugs are fitted with two thrusters at the aft of the ship. The thrusters can each independently rotate
at an angle of 360°. So the thrusters can give thrust in every direction. Azimuth thrusters can be fitted
with fixed pitch propellers or controllable pitch propellers (CPP). The advantage of having a CPP
system is the possibility to have immediate reverse thrust and higher efficiency with different loads.

This type of propulsion system makes the tug highly manoeuvrable and very safe during making fast at
the bow, because the thrust can be carried out to the side. The ASD tug can easily sail sideways but has
to turn their rudder propellers in almost the opposite direction, to create sufficient power at the aft ship
to drag the hull sideways through the water. This way of manoeuvring will reduce the towline force
significantly. ASD tugs are fitted with a towing winch, which is located on the foredeck instead of the
aft deck. An ASD tug is particularly towing over the bow. This means that as being a bow tug it is
mostly sailing astern.

Azimuth thrusters were invented in the late 50s. These thrusters are sometimes also called Z-drives.
There are two different types of thrusters to choose from. There is the mechanical driven version and the
alternative is the electrical driven version.Tugs with azimuthing propulsion, either Z-drive or cycloidal,
have effectively displaced single or twin screw tugs. Azimuth thrusters are used mostly for ship docking
and marine construction.

This tug type is fitted with two azimuth thrusters in nozzles at the stern as well as bow tunnel thrusters. Some are
fitted with controllable pitch propellers (CPP). General characteristics of ASD tugs are:
• Relatively Low draught.
• Good steering characteristics, except when going astern at higher speeds.
• Towing point is just forward or just aft of amidships.
• Underwater hull form improves the dynamic stability of the tug.
• Bollard pull going astern is reduced only by approximately 10%.
 • Manoeuvrable and able to pull effectively over the stern or bow. Towing winches often fitted both fore
and aft.

Advantages of ASD Tugs

ASD tugs have azimuthal thrusters fitted on the aft of the vessel, giving them excellent
manoeuvring characteristics for towing over the bow.
Good manoeuvrability due to 360 degrees turning propellers
Low maintenance costs
They do not require a lot of space in the engine room
Excellent in combination with diesel generators, making a main engine redundant

Disadvantages of ASD Tugs

The blades are fixed

Installing thrusters costs more than installing a conventional propeller
One of the disadvantages are the fixed blades. However this is not necessary because the
propeller is driven by an electric motor. Because of the latest technology in frequency controllers
it is now possible to reduce an electro-motor its power delivery without losing efficiency.

3. Tractor Tug (Voith-Schneider)

Tractor tug are originally called as Water Tractors. The unique tug concept developed by Voith-
Schneider for the use with cycloidal propellers. The propulsion units are fully turning controllable pitch
blades, able to give thrust in any direction and act as steering units or azimuthal fixed or controllable pitched
propellers. The propulsion units are placed far ahead of the towing point, close to the pivot point thereby
producing a large turning momentum. This potentially gives a poor steering performance.

The Voith-Schneider Propeller works as follows: it consists of a circular disk with movable and
controllable blades. These blades are installed at a 90 degree angle on the disk that rotates at the vessel
bottom. Below is shown a figure of the cycloidal drive. The thrust force is determined by the speed of
the rotation of the disk. The controllable angle of the blades determines the direction of the thrust. This
means that there is no need for a rudder. It provides the vessel with very precise manoeuvring, even in
difficult conditions.

Their general characteristics are:

• Full power available in all directions.
• Quick response to engine movements.
• Very manoeuvrable, especially in tight sea space.
• Reduced risk of girting/girding.
• Less directional stability and sea keeping ability.
• Reduced bollard pull per kilowatt output.
• Relatively deeper in draught therefore increased risk of grounding.
Propulsion and steering system freely arranged underneath the hull at one end of the vessel.
A keel plate underneath the freely-arranged propulsion and steering device protecting the units
against grounding and obstacles in all directions.
Rudder-shaped fin underneath the hull, opposite to the propulsion and steering devices.
The towing gear above the fin.
These types of tugs are fitted with two azimuthal thrusters at the bow (forward of the amidships). These
tugs are fitted with a harbour towing winch which is located on the aft deck. The stern and bow is
generally heavily protected by fenders so this makes it suitable for push and pull operations.

The large skeg of tugs is typical for tractor tugs and particular for Voith tractor tugs. It increases the
course stability and brings the centre of the hydrodynamic pressure more to the aft. The last is a big
advantage when towing on a line as an after tug, extreme high force can be originated.

Advantages of Tractor Tugs

Performs extremely well and fast at manoeuvring
Voith Schneider tractor tugs have great manoeuvring capabilities. They can turn on a place
around their axis, deliver a lot of thrust in every direction and sail straight astern at high speeds.
The amount of thrust astern is nearly the same as the available thrust ahead. A lot of
disadvantages of the conventional (particularly single screw) tugs, such as no or low side thrust,
does not apply to Voith Schneider tugs. Because of the availability of thrust sideways makes it is
much safer to make fast when a vessel is sailing at high speeds.
A tractor tug does not require a lot of power to tow sideways, because the propulsion point is
close to the turning point.

Disadvantages of Tractor Tugs

Complexity
Expense

Forward azimuth tractor – The tug with two azimuth thrusters under the fore body. The Azimuth tractor
tugs have almost the same characteristics as the Voith Schneider tractor tugs. Only sometimes the skeg
of the Azimuth tractors is smaller than the Voith tractor tugs.

Besides above main types of tugs following new and innovative design tugs are developed and being
used at some places. These types are still not in wide use so far.

1. Rotor tug
This is a new patented concept in the tug design with a unique propulsion system utilising three main
engines, each driving a fully azimuthing propulsion unit. Two propulsion units are located forward off
the centreline, in the normal tractor configuration, with the third unit aft off the centreline replacing
traditional aft skeg. The tug has the ability to turn rapidly in its own length, and apply almost all of its
bollard pull in any direction. The lack of a substantial skeg reduces resistance to turning and cuts
down the influence of a ship propeller wash when working in close proximity to large vessels underway.
Astilleros Balenciaga delivered the first pair of Rotor tugs – RT Innovation and RT Pioneer in 1999. It
uses a propulsion configuration consisting of three azimuthal thrusters placed in a triangular configuration,
sometimes called a triple Z drive. Two units are placed forward and one astern on the centreline of the tug. The
manoeuvrability of this type of tug is reported to be better than other conventional designs.

Rotor tug characteristics include:

• Highly manoeuvrable, useful in confined spaces.
• Similar towing ability from forward or aft towing winch.
• Good towing performance over the stern and bow; 100% bollard pull ahead and astern; 65% of bollard
pull athwart ships.
• Good residual redundancy in engine failure.
• Additional tug master training required.
 2. Reverse Tractor Tugs:
The tractor tugs are termed as reverse tractor tugs if these have Z-drive aft-mounted propulsion units.
These reverse tractor tugs don’t have a skeg and work efficiently in escorting. There are fewer fatigue
issues with these tugs as compared to tractor tugs due to unavailability of flat plate skeg. Generally,
ASD tugs serve as reverse tractor tugs.

3. Combi-Tugs:

A bow thruster and a nozzle with steering is fitted with conventional Screw Tug to get improved
manoeuvrability, this sort of modified tugs along with additional devices like a thruster and steered
nozzle, as fitted with the latter devices these tugs are referred to as “Combi-Tugs”. Combi-Tugs are
preferably the modification of twin-screw conventional tugs to have maximum efficiency.

4. Z-Peller Tugs

It can have two towing locations, one forward and one amidships and main propulsion is from two
rotating azimuth units which are placed rather like a traditional twin screw tug. Azimuthing propulsion
unit replaces conventional shafts and propellers which allows 360-degree rotation about the vertical axis.

5. Carousel tug

New type of tug provided with the carousel system, which enables the towing point to be changed
according to the direction of the tow. This greatly reduces the capsizing moment. It is even claimed that
it is not possible to capsize a carousel tug. The system uses a circular ring attached around the base of
the superstructure on the tug. This consists of two parts: the fixed inner ring and the rotating outer ring.
A simple towing hook is mounted on the outer ring as the attachment point for the towline.

Carrousel system increases the effectiveness and lowers the cost of harbour and escort tugs. It works by
placing a ring around the tug’s superstructure that rotates freely, with the towing wire connected to the
ring by a hook or winch, allowing the towing wire to rotate freely from the tug’s hull. This leaves no
need for rotation of the tug’s propulsion by means of expensive, complex and high-maintenance
thrusters.

The Carrousel system enables the towing wire to rotate 360 degrees around the tug. The prototype of the
Carrousel tug, ´Multratug 12`, has executed numerous harbour towage assistances during a test period.
The results show that breaking and steering powers can be multiplied by a factor of five, whilst safety
remains guaranteed. At the same time operating costs (fuel, maintenance, surveys and damages) are
substantially decreased.

The Carousel Tug was developed by a Dutch company which emerged as an award-winning Maritime
innovation in 2006. It consists interlocking inner and outer rings in which former are connected with
boat whereas latter with tug’s body connected to towed ship through winches or hooks.

Whatever the tug type it may be, it is important that the tug master is fully familiar with his vessel. This includes
how the tug manoeuvres in different circumstances. Experience shows that accidents happen when a person is
new to a tug type, highlighting the need to train personnel on safe operational practices and safe use of the
controls.
 Operational Types of Tugs
There are many different operational types of tugs available around the world. These tugs are designed and used
for specific purpose. There are pusher tugs are also used to push trains of barges on the rivers and inland
waterways. Oceangoing salvage tugs provide assistance to ships in distress and are engaged in such work
as towing drilling rigs and oil production platforms. There are tugs that specifically help to manoeuver large
ships into their berths. Let’s see some important operational types of tugs.

It may look out of place to mention different operational types of tugs here in this book, but it has a
specific importance. That’s why I chose to mention here. The pilot or the ship handler must be aware of
different operational types of tugs available and in use. This is because some tugs are suitable to carry out
manoeuvring of ships in harbour limits and some types are not suitable to carry out harbour movements. It has
been observed that sometimes a different operational type of tugs is presented by the ports to carry out
harbour movements. Such tugs are unsuitable to carry out a safe harbour movement. Sometimes they pose a
safety risk to the vessel as well as to the tug itself. In such case the ship handler must be able to recognise such
inconsistencies and take required preventing actions.

a. Operational types according to Usage of the Tugs

1. Escort tug

A novel fast type tug designed to assist tankers in areas of high environmental risk. Escort tugs run with
tankers at speeds of up to 14 knots to provide an emergency steering and breaking force capability. The
tugs which are designed generally to escort and manoeuvre ferries and barges to their destination are
known as escort tugs.

2. Standby tug

These tug boats are stationed at a specific location with the primary purpose of preventing a ship in
trouble becoming a major casualty with the risk of pollution. Alternatively, where an accident has
already happened to provide salvage and clean up facilities as quickly as possible to prevent the situation
becoming worse.

3. Salvage tug

These tug boats are specially designed to operate in dangerous and hazardous atmosphere. These are
provided with specific equipment for salvage as well as equipment to manage hazardous situations like
fire, collision and grounding etc.

4. Support Tugs

These are the tugs which provide support services at offshore along with towing operations. These
provide a significant role in berthing operations of offshore structures as well.

5. Ice Tugs

The tug boats escort ferries or barges and serve as ice breakers. These salvage boats also make the
ferries and barges to speed up to their destination, are termed as ice tugs.

6. Eco-friendly Tugs

These tugs are provided with hybrid fuel technology and use LNG as a running fuel. That’s why these
are categorized in an eco-tugs category. These tugs serve the same purpose of escorting and supporting
as the conventional tugs do, but without harming and polluting the marine ecosystem.

b. According to use Inland or Oceangoing

There are two groups of tugboats, either Inland or Oceangoing.

Inland Tugboats

a. Harbour Tugs:

Harbour tugs are the most typical of the tugboats that people recognize. They are used worldwide to
move ships in and out of berth and to move industrial barges around waterfront business complexes.
Their job has remained the same but their design and engineering has changed much over the the
decades. Harbour tugs have evolved from paddle wheelers, to the conventional tug known by all, and
now to the Ship Docking Modules and tractor tugs in the modern industry.

b. River Tugs:

River tugs are also referred to as towboats or push boats. They are designed as large squared off vessels
with flat bows for connecting with the rectangular stern of the barges. They are large and powerful, most
commonly seen on the big rivers of the world. They are capable of pushing huge fleets of barges that are
lashed together into "tows". Some tows can be up to 1000 feet long and 200 feet wide. Smaller push
boats are often seen handling only a few barges on inland waters. Despite their size, they are designed to
push their tow rather than tow from the stern.

2. Oceangoing Tugboats

a. The Conventional Tug:

The conventional tug is the standard seagoing tugboat with a model bow that tows its payload on a
hawser. A hawser is the nautical term for a long steel cable or large synthetic fibre rope. It operates
independently and is used to tow various loads, e.g., cargo barges, ships, oil rigs, and etc. This is the
most versatile method of towing since the conventional tugboat is able to move its load three ways:
Pushing from behind, secured to the side of the towed vessel, or by towing astern, all achieved by the
use of various lines and cables in various configurations. They are importantly recognized as the design
of choice for salvage and assistance of wrecked ships and in the rescue and safe return of disabled ships
from the high seas.

b. Notch Tug:

The notch tug is a conventional tug which is assigned to tow and push a specific barge, usually built to
the shape and specifications of that tugboat. A notch tug has a large towing winch on its stern but it gets
its name from the deep notch built into the stern of the barge. This notch is built in the exact shape of the
tug's forward hull and can be quite deep, up to 90 feet, sometimes more. The tugboat fits snugly into the
notch of the barge and with the use of various lines can be secured firmly enough to push the barge at
much higher speeds than it would if it were towing. The towing hawser remains rigged during pushing.
In the event that the seas get too rough to push safely, the tug merely releases any securing lines and
backs out of the notch while extending its towing hawser. Once in calmer waters, the tug can manoeuvre
back into the notch and resume pushing.

c. Articulated Tug and Barge:

The articulated tug and barge, or ATB, is a specially designed vessel, comprised of a tugboat and a
barge which are coupled using specially designed machinery. The tug is connected to the barge inside a
notch, similar to the notch boat, using a system of heavy pins, clamps, and/or side pads. ATB's remain
coupled all the time; the tug pushes its barge in all but the roughest seas. The advantages of this system
are speed, safety, and cost efficiency. As a unit, the ATB can push much faster than a tug can tow from
astern and the use of a coupling system eliminates many of the hazards associated with towing winches
and cables. The unit is considered by authorities to be coupled in a "semi-rigid" manner and, thus,
regulated by laws governing tugs and barges, rather than ships. This makes the ATB a less expensive
vessel to operate. To be considered articulated, the two vessels may roll simultaneously but must pitch
independently. There are three popular systems to achieve this, each having a method to lock the tug
onto the barge and secure its side to side movement, while allowing the tug to pitch freely.

d. Integrated Tug and Barge:

The integrated tug and barge, or ITB, is a rigidly connected tug and barge. This means that it fits so tight
into the stern of its barge that it will roll and pitch in the same manner with the barge. The systems used
to couple the two vessels are varied, but they are similar in that the connection point is virtually
seamless and for all practical purpose, they appear to be a ship. These units stay coupled under any sea
conditions and the tugs usually have poor designs for sea keeping and navigation without their barges
attached. Vessels in this category cannot pitch independently from the barge and so are legally
considered to be ships rather than tugboats and barges. As a result of this classification, they are
regulated by authorities as ships.

Understanding the Power of Tugs

Tugs are powerful resources that are used by the ship handlers to carry out different manoeuvring in harbour
limits. But there is always a question as to how many tugs of how much power (bollard pull) need to be used for a
certain manoeuvring.

Power of a tug is expressed in Bollard Pull (BP). It is the pulling capability of the tug. When newly built, the
pulling capability of the tug is measured using a load cell under certain conditions. The classification societies
have their guidelines on how the BP should be measured.

Thumb rules to find the BP of a tug

• The specification given to the charterer will usually be as per the BP certificate. The tug will have on
board documentation, including a certificate issued by a competent authority proving the BP.
• As the tug gets older, the reduced efficiency of the main engines and equipment will decrease the BP. It is
generally accepted that if there is a valid Bollard Pull certificate is less than 10 years old the BP rating is
as stated on the certificate. If the Bollard Pull certificate is older than 10 years, the accepted BP rating
should be reduced by 1% per year of age greater than 10 years.
• For tugs less than 10 years old, with no valid BP certificate, the Bollard Pull can be estimated as (1 tonne
/100) x Brake Horse Power (BHP) of the main engines.
• For tugs over 10 years old without a valid BP certificate the Bollard Pull value can be estimated as (1
tonne /100) x Brake Horse Power (BHP) of the main engines - 1% per year of age greater than 10 years.

A tug master should always be aware of the demands made by the ship handler from his tug and that the tug is
able to comply with the orders by the ship handler and meet those demands.
 Number of Tugs to be used in Manoeuvring

As tugs are powerful resources that are used to carry out different manoeuvring in harbour limits, there is always
a cost especially fuel cost and tug hire cost involved in using tugs in manoeuvring in ports. That’s why there is
always a question as to how many tugs of how much power (bollard pull) need to be used for a certain
manoeuvring. This depends on several factors but the decision finally taken by the designated authorities in a
harbour. Depending upon the situation the attending pilot may need more tugs for assistance.

The number of tugs deployed during any particular type of movement is based on the experience gained by pilot
members in normal various weather conditions and ship’s manoeuvring conditions. At his discretion the pilot
may, amend any requirements subject to the prevailing circumstances, in order to maintain adequate safety
margin. Verifying the number and power of tugs is an important part of the investigation of harbour conditions.

Let’s see the factors that affect such decision making. Number of tugs to be used for any movements depends on
various factors:

• Port regulations
• Vessel’s type, size and loading condition
• Manoeuvring Characteristics of vessel
• Vessel limitations
• Main Engine capability
• Condition of rudder, propeller and anchors
• basin restrictions
• External factors- direction and strength of wind, sea, current, tide etc, windage area.
• Depth, UKC and squat in the port limits with respect to the draft of the vessel.
• Clearances from Hazards and nearby Vessels
• berthing plan
• Manoeuvring pattern to be used in the vessel movement

Usually the local port regulations declare the number and size of tugs to be used for different types of vessel
under different circumstances. When no guidelines have been set, following formulae may be used to determine
the necessary power of tugs required in relation to the deadweight of the vessel.

Total required Power of tugs in tonnes = 0.075 X (DWT)^0.6

Where, 100HP is equivalent to 1 tonne, though it may vary with type of propulsion method used.
Under conditions of Offshore wind speed -10m/s, Maximum speed approaching the pier= 15cm/s, the Deadweight
and Power Requirements are as follows:

• Up to 50000 DWT : 30 tonnes X 2 Tugs

• 50000 – 100,000 DWT : 30 tonnes X 3 Tugs
• Over 100,000 DWT : 30 tonnes X 3-4 Tugs
• VLCCs : 30 tonnes X 5-6 tugs

However depending on the existing factors acting on the vessel and vessel’s own characteristics, controlling
factors, the pilot, on the spot, has to decide on how many tugs and their positions. This is a decision after a critical
analysis of the berthing plan, vessel types and limitations and external forces.

Safe Operational Procedures for Using Tugs in Manoeuvring

While using the tugs the ship handler must keep following facts in mind:
 - Tugs are effective and usable only at slower speeds. At high speed e.g. 4 Kts tugs face extreme difficulty
in manoeuvring near the vessel. At higher speed tugs can only follow the vessel and may give a back-
pulling effect when in need.
- At slower speed only tugs can come to stand-by position to give a pull or push effect laterally so as to
cause lateral movement or swinging of vessel.
- While tug push or pull with a line, there is a marginal increase or decrease of speed due the angular pull
or push by the tugs. They cannot push or pull perfectly perpendicular direction.
- The effectiveness of the tug in carrying out a swing depends on its point of use from the pivot point of the
vessel. For a forward moving ship, the pivot point lies on forward of mid-ship. Thus a minimum push by
tug at quarter will create a larger swing than a half push by the bow tug.
- While single or multiple tugs are used to carry out a swing, there is a unwanted lateral bodily movement
generated depending the lateral residual force acting upon the vessel by the tugs. Same has to be
identified by the handler and used to his advantage.
- While giving orders to the tug, she takes some to position herself to execute the order. So handler must
anticipate next order in sufficient time and give orders with sufficient time differentials.
- Tugs operating on the quarter may not be able to push if the vessel is on light drafts and the transom stern
doesn’t provide any fairly vertical pushing point. This is a great limitation of the vessel operating on
quarter for light vessels. Dangerous too.
- Tugs operating on the bow of the vessels with light drafts or container vessels with large flares create
limitations to the tugs to operate while pushing. The superstructure of the tugs may come close to the
shipside. It also creates a marginal stern speed.
- While tugs start pulling, it causes the vessel to move away from the pulling direction due to propeller
wash of the tugs. Similarly when tug is asked to push the vessel, while position herself close to shipside,
she makes her line tight to come closer to the ship side. In the meantime she pulls the vessel marginally.
- Powerful tugs when operate with small ships, it’s very difficult for the small ships to manoeuvre which
may require constant corrective helm orders. Vessel need to run at a higher speed to minimise the tugs
effect.
- While vessel moving astern, since vessel doesn’t have helm to use the course keeping the tugs are
frequently ordered corrective push or pull commands to maintain the course keeping and alteration of
courses of the vessel. In such cases the regular manoeuvring of the tugs highly desired. Thus tugs with
good manoeuvrability and easy to operate are greatly desired.

Girting, girding or tripping (GGT)

The terms mean the same thing and refer to the situation when a vessel, usually a tug, is towed broadside by a
towline and is unable to manoeuvre out of this position.

It is the most prevalent reason for tugs to capsize and can cause fatalities. This occurs at either end of the tow and
can happen very quickly. Rarely does it happen slowly enough to allow all of the crew to leave the tug before it
capsizes. Tug masters must be aware of the phenomenon and understanding the quick release to the tow wire is
essential if disaster is to be averted.

GGT is particularly relevant to conventional single screw tugs. Tractor and ASD (Azimuthal stern drive) tugs are
less likely to girt because their tow is self-aligning and the tug master is able to produce significant thrust in all
directions. It is clearly understood that towing from a point near amidships on a conventional tug is inherently
unstable and can result in situations where the load on the tow rope can heel the tug over to a large and dangerous
angle.

A recurring feature of these accidents is that, once girded, the tugboat capsized so rapidly that crew members were
unable to carry out the operation and abort control or make use of lifesaving equipment. Tug masters should
consider practical measures which might be adopted to avoid being placed in a girding situation.
Girting can occur for a number of reasons including:
• The ship or barge being assisted turns or shears abruptly away from the tug.
 • The speed of the vessel or barge being towed is too high, either intentionally or due to external
forces such as increased currents or windage on a towed unit.
• The tug is too far astern of its intended position compared to the speed of the vessel if the vessel
is moving ahead, or too far astern if the vessel is moving astern.

Use of Gob wire or Guest rope to reduce the risk of GGT - By shifting the tow point aft by using a gob wire or a
guest rope, the stability can be improved on conventional tugs. A gob wire or guest rope or bridle is a short wire
rope made fast to the towline at the after end of a tug. In this way the use of the gob wire effectively moves the
towing point aft, closer to the tug’s stern. This gives the tug master greater control and allows more
manoeuvrability to prevent girting when the tug is acting as a stern tug. The use of the gob wire requires the
emergency quick release system to work correctly. The method of quick release must be clearly known and
understood to the bridge team of the tug boat. Small work boats towing without the facility of a quick release
system should always have a cutting axe nearby should the tow line need to be parted quickly.

Right Fairlead Position for Making Fast Position of Tugs

The berthing plan has to be in commensurate with the positioning of the tugs. Positioning of tugs is very
important factor to carry out a perfect manoeuvre. Pilot must discuss with the master the positioning and
capacities of tugs in bollard pull well before the tugs arrive. Pilots and masters should understand and keep in
mind the tugs positioned with a longer lever will have greater effectiveness than the tug with shorter lever from
pivot point.

Tugs when making fast assess the existing flare, position of vertical sides and chances of their superstructure
coming in contact of the vessel side while in position. Accordingly they advise the location where they are
comfortable to operate. For the pilot’s point of view the longer the levers for the tugs better the manoeuvrability
of vessels by the tugs. But pilot should not deploy the tugs in such a position that tug is rendered un-usable
during manoeuvring. Sometimes it’s better to have smaller lever than denial by the tugs in the middle of
manoeuvring.

Preferable positioning of tugs

Tugs are mostly used to assist the vessel when she lost her manoeuvrability due to very slow speeds and without
use of any engines, or when vessel is running her engine on astern. The speed is very slow when approaching the
berths or passing alongside moored vessels at very close range. In such cases speed is purposefully kept low so as
to be assisted by tugs effectively to accomplish the task.

Besides above scenarios, tugs are called for assistance in unexpected scenarios where the external forces are
strong enough to deviate the vessel from desired result of the manoeuvre by engines and helm only. In such cases
there is a sufficient amount of speed exists when tugs are asked to push or pull let’s say at 3-4 kts. In such case the
tug has to continue moving in the vessel’s direction at same speed of the vessel while execute the push or pull in
lateral direction. In such case the effectiveness of the tug is greatly reduced as one engine is used to maintain
speed in vessel’s direction and other engine is used to carry out the push or pull. In such case due to water
resistance the tugs gets tilted in the opposite direction of water flow.

However these are emergency scenarios when tugs are required to assist the vessel. In such scenarios tugs are
required to assist the vessels while keeping themselves in safety. In a moving ship, tugs usually face following
difficulties:

1. Due to interaction between the moving ship and tug, it is very difficult for tugs to come out of alongside
vessel once she is following and moving alongside the vessel.
2. In such case the tug has to continue moving in the vessel’s direction at same speed of the vessel while
execute the push or pull in lateral direction. In such case the effectiveness of the tug is greatly reduced as
 one engine is used to maintain speed in vessel’s direction and other engine is used to carry out the push or
pull. In such case due to water resistance the tugs gets tilted in the opposite direction of water flow.
3. In a forward moving vessel the forward tug, the tugs are preferably made fast at a position at the forward
most bollards of the vessel. Aft tug if made fast at an extreme aft position , when in need for pushing she
has to overtake the vessel’s speed to move forward to get a suitable position to push. This is a very
difficult task when tugs are in stand by position. As tugs lateral speed may be maximum 4-5 kts, if vessel
is making a speed of 3-4 kts, it will take a longer time for the tug to reach the pushing position which is
absolutely unacceptable. Thus the following tug i.e the aft tug on a fwd moving ship and fwd tug on a aft
moving ship should be made fast at position with sufficient distance from the extreme end.
4. The fwd tug is running with the risk of getting caught under flare. Aft tug is also running risk of getting
caught under the transom stern.

Thus the exact fairlead from where the tug should be made fast varies from ship to ship and the decision should be
taken after due consideration to all the factors. There are leads both at extreme bow and quarter of the vessels and
leads at the break of accommodation and break of foc’sle of the vessel.

In loaded vessels the difficulties to the tugs are automatically minimised. But in light vessels the difficulties are
amplified.

In forward moving ship In aft moving ships

Pushing Position Pulling Position

Fig-9.1 Fig-9.2

Making Fast the Tug

The position of the tug is always important when assisting a vessel. The safe position of the tug relative to the
assisted vessel depends on many factors which include the size and pivot point of the unit, the number of tugs
assisting, the speed of the unit being assisted, the depth of water, and amount of manoeuvrable room, currents and
winds. Often when assisting a vessel the tug will have to make fast with a towline. If the tug is to make fast to the
barge with its own crew the risks are obviously increased, more so in poor weather.

Tugs are usually made fast well in advance to be available when in need. Thus tugs are required following
scenarios:
 1. vessel’s speed is sufficiently reduced and steering may become sluggish
2. where the prevailing current creates sufficient set that there is chance of vessel runs the risk of dragged
towards dangers or
3. if there is hazards to navigation in close proximity or
4. weather is bad

Generally it is advisable to make the tugs fast before entering BW. If sufficient sea-room available, then tugs may
be made fast in the turning basin in harbour also.

Ideally tugs are made fast when the vessel’s speed is 4-6 kts so that the interaction and consequent difficulties to
the tugs are less. But if not possible to make the tugs fast at slower speed, in many places tugs are fast at 8-9 kts if
need be. But the manoeuvring of tugs alongside vessel at high speed is dangerous due to interaction between the
vessels.

Length of tug line

Length of tug line to be used depends on following factors:

1. Displacement of the vessel

2. Freeboard of the vessel to be handled.
3. Response time of tugs from pulling to pushing and vice-versa
4. Purpose and position of the tug.

For loaded and high displacement vessels, tugs usually take longer line. This is due to the possibility that the tugs
may be used for pulling for a longer line to control any momentum of vessels.

For light and high freeboard vessels, longer line reduces the chance of chafing of the line and consequent
breaking. With a longer line the tugs take little longer time to come from a pulling position to a pushing position.
But with a shorter line they can come from a pulling to pushing position almost immediately.

But for smaller ships and with lower displacements, tug need not take long lines as any momentary use of tugs
with little power for few seconds creates sufficient corrective action on the vessel.

Difficulties while making fast due to Interaction

The phenomenon of interaction is well known to mariners and it is particularly dangerous in situations where
there is a larger vessel or barge moving at speed in close proximity to another smaller vessel, such as a tug. The
effect is increased further in confined and shallow waters. Tugs and smaller vessels have capsized as a result of
this, particularly when being overtaken by a larger, faster vessel in a confined waterway, such as a river or
channel.
When a tug approaches a vessel that is going at a moderately fast speed through the water there are various
suction and pressure forces around the vessels hull – the greater the speed, the greater the effect.

• When approaching the forward end of a ship

If a tug approaches a vessel going ahead at speed forward of the pivot point it will be pushed away and if
approaching from aft of the pivot point there will be little or no suction effect. This suction effect will increase as
the tug approaches the vessel’s stern or quarters, as the water flow increases due to the hull shape or increased
water flow from the ship’s propellers. The amount of force felt is related to the distance from the hull of the
vessel. The force can also be increased by reduced water depths or confined water areas such as narrow channels.
This manoeuvre can be dangerous when the speeds are high. When close to the vessel’s pivot point, the water
pressure pushes away the tug’s bow and the suction pulls in the tug’s stern. This sudden effect requires quick
reactions and use of rudder and engine to maintain position. The rapidity of this effect has caused a number of
tugs to be run down with severe consequences. These accidents have been reduced with the use of tractor and
ASD tugs.
• When approaching the aft end of a ship
When a tug approaches the aft end of a ship, there is considerable suction effect. This effect is dependent on how
close the tug is to the barge or ship, speed and the shape of hull form around the stern. The suction effect can be
huge and the tug is unable to manoeuvre away. This can result in damage to the tug as it is dragged beneath the
ship’s counter (when the ship is in ballast) or towards the ship’s propellers.
Another effect of interaction is water flow around larger moving vessels acting on the under hull of the tug. This
can cause a decrease in effective stability and increases the possibility of the tug capsizing if the two vessels come
into contact.
Accidents occur if the tug and unit being assisted are not similar in size and the speeds are relatively high, As the
tow line was being passed the tug took a sudden shear to port and the two vessels touched before the tug master
reacted. The impact was minimal in this case however, in seconds; the tug took a starboard list and capsized
resulting in a fatality.
It has been confirmed that the following consequences happen with hydrodynamic interaction:
• Interaction effects are increased in shallow water.
• Rudder effectiveness can be reduced in shallow water.
• Squat effects are increased in shallow water and the risk of grounding is enhanced.
• Transverse thrust of the propeller changes in shallow water.
• Changes in manoeuvring characteristics are experienced in shallow water.
• A large vessel or barge with small under keel clearance which is stopped in an enclosed basin can
experience strong turning forces.

Correct Use of Tug Combinations at Various Legs of Passage

As we know when used to assist in manoeuvring of vessel, tugs usually are used to carryout following 5
functions:

1. Achieve lateral movements of the vessel so as to assist the vessel to come alongside the berth easily
without any impact on the fenders or jetty or gantries present on the jetty.
2. Control steerage of the vessel after vessel losses steering at very slow speed.
3. Carry out sharp turns underfoot near the berth before berthing or after un-berthing.

In case of emergency for controlling speed,

4. If vessel’s engine fails to give astern engines while approaching the berth, tugs assist in killing the speed
by back pull.
5. In case of engine or steering fail from a distance and unable to create headway, fwd tug may be used to
create fwd movement and assist the vessel to come on the berth position

These functions are achieved by the tugs at different legs of passage as per the demand of the situation. The
navigator must be able to identify which action of a tug is best suitable in the given situation. Though there is no
fixed rule on how tugs should be used at different legs of passage, it is recommended that tugs may be used in
following sequence to get best possible control of the vessel while achieving safe and efficient Tug-use.
While pushing or pulling laterally the position of pivot point is crucial. Depending on the location of the pivot
point, the amount of push or pull to be used adjusted.

While carrying out turns, usually for small turns or swings only one tug should be used and other tug must be
stand by to counter the effects of the other tug. 2 tugs may be used to create same time only when one tug is
unable to create same effect.
 Use of Tug to carry out a Tight Turn
When vessel is in port at any point of time vessel may be required to be turned a very tight turn either
during inward manoeuvring or outward manoeuvring to facilitate safe entry or exit to/ from port. That’s why most
of the ports of the word do have a turning basin within the harbour limits. The diameter of the turning circle is
usually little over than the length of the largest vessel usually handled. For full-fledged port which is handling all
types of ships, usually have a turning basin of 500 m diameter or more.

Normally when the vessel is in lighter condition, vessel is preferably turned around in the turning basin. If the
vessel is coming for loading she is turned in her inbound passage; and if vessel is coming for discharging, vessel
is turned during her outward movement. But there are some vessels comes with some restriction of a particular
side alongside, in such case planner has no option but to turn the vessel as required according to the restrictions.
There are container vessels, they load and discharge same time, such vessels can be turned any time or preferably
turned when in lighter draft conditions.

In carrying out such a tight turn the assistance of tugs are inevitable. When vessel is turned in the turning basin
with limited space on the bow and stern of the vessel, the vessel maintains a minimum or 0 speed with minimum
use of main engine and helm. Thus assistance of tugs is the only way to turn large vessels in the turning basins.

Casting off the Tug

Similar to the concept of making fast tugs, the casting of the tugs need to be well timed in such a way that vessel
is free of any danger. Before the tugs are casted off, the speed of the vessel should not be more than a safe limit.
The tug line should be slack enough to be easily handled by the ship’s crew. Preferably the tug line should not be
slaked on to water as it creates lot of drag and weight of the rope increases many folds. This makes it difficult for
the crew to handle the line.

Emergency quick release systems for towline - Most tugs are designed with emergency quick release systems
which either trip the hook or release brake on the towing winches so as to take the load off the towline and allow
the tug some more time to regain control from a potential girting situation. These release systems are usually
capable of being remotely activated from the bridge. There are also manual override arrangements available at the
winch/hook in case of failure of the remote control. Crew members should familiarise themselves with these ship-
specific arrangements, including limitations if any, as soon as they join the vessel. It must be borne in mind that
these emergency quick release arrangements may not always release instantaneously due to various contributing
factors such as the direction of pull, the heeling angle etc. and hence allowance must be made when contemplating
its activation.

***
 Chapter-10

Speed Control
Rule- 6: Safe Speed,
Essence of Speed Control,
Options for Speed Reduction,
Speed Reduction Plan,
Emergency methods of killing the speed to avoid a disaster

Speed kills – the proverb is applicable everywhere including in marine industry. It is always advisable to keep the
optimum speed with regards to the prevailing circumstances.

Incidents of failing to control a ship’s speed while entering harbour, consequently the vessel colliding with port
infrastructures, and causing major damages to the pier, shore cranes, and the vessel itself, never cease. Ships differ
from motor vehicles in that they are not fitted with a braking mechanism to reduce speed. Control of speed must
therefore rely on effective control of RPM of the main engine, the reverse power, and external assistance of tugs.

In order to ensure that the vessel stops precisely at the scheduled point, the navigator is required to consider its
type, size, loading condition, inertia, and manoeuvrability, and the effects of external forces etc. when adjusting
speed. These factors are obviously not formally calculated while the vessel is approaching the pier. Lack of
communication between the pilot and the captain is one of the major causes of incidents. Both the captain and
pilot are required to have a quantitative, rather than an intuitive exchange of information, based on experience,
understanding of the stopping distance and the time required to stop.

Rule No-6 of COLREGS’72 applies to all ships in all types of conditions including while navigating in harbour
limits under pilotage. Thus it is apt to revisit the Rule once here.

Rule 6: Safe Speed

Every vessel shall at all times proceed at a safe speed so that she can take proper and effective action to avoid
collision and be stopped within a distance appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions.

In determining a safe speed the following factors shall be among those taken into account:

(a) By all vessels:

• the state of visibility;

• the traffic density including concentration of fishing vessels or any other vessels;
• the manoeuvrability of the vessel with special reference to stopping distance and turning ability in the
prevailing conditions;
• at night, the presence of background light such as from shore lights or from back scatter of her own
lights;
• the state of wind, sea, and current, and the proximity of navigational hazards;
• the draft in relation to the available depth of water.

(b) Additionally, by vessels with operational radar:

 • the characteristics, efficiency and limitations of the radar equipment;
• any constraints imposed by the radar range scale in use;
• the effect on radar detection of the sea state, weather, and other sources of interference;
• the possibility that small vessels, ice and other floating objects may not be detected by radar at an
adequate range;
• the number, location, and movement of vessels detected by radar; and
• the more exact assessment of the visibility that may be possible when radar is used to determine the range
of vessels or other objects in the vicinity.

All most all the factors enlisted in rule no-6 are applicable to maintaining a safe speed when vessel is navigating
in channels and restricted waters with pilot on board. Though it mentions all factors as to why should we reduce
speed, the pilot and bridge team also should keep in mind as to why the vessel needs to increase her speed as well.
Neither a high speed nor a low speed is desirable. Optimum speed is the key.

The optimum speed is not the same everywhere in the world but varies from each port approaches to other. The
pilot, who is an expert in local navigation in port approaches, or respective pilotage waters, is the best person to
decide on the optimum speed of the vessel at different reference points while navigating in approaches and inside
the harbour. It is advisable that pilot briefs the master during the Master- Pilot information exchange (MPiX) the
optimum speeds at different points of the passage so that the master would not get panicked due to interpretations
other wisely.

Essence of Speed Control

As vessel moves towards the berth, the vessel reduces the speed step wise from full speed to almost nil speed at
the berth while maintaining appropriate safe speeds at all stages of the passage. The pilot tries to keep an optimum
and safe speed all along the passage. Timely speed reduction and achieving the optimum speed while maintaining
the desired course and without appreciable deviations from planned course are arts. It is perfected through
experience.
Let’s look at some of the thumb rules of getting control of the ship’s speed while maintain the directional
stability.
1. It is always preferable to keep speed on slower side and keep engine power reserved for use in case
something goes wrong as a contingency measure.
2. With higher engine RPM, the helm is more effective, so the turning ability of the vessel, so the chances of
running away from danger.
3. When external assistance is ineffective due to some reason, the pilot has sole weapon of engine and helm
for manoeuvring and keep the vessel in safety. In such case if speed is on lower side then the pilot has the
added advantage to run the engine at any desired higher RPM momentarily for some time to get the helm
effect.
4. Contrary to above, if the speed of the vessel is on higher side, any further increase in the RPM to get helm
effect may create additional danger.
5. The pilot or ship handler as well as the bridge team must keep in mind that every increase in speed has to
be killed in next few minutes only when inside harbour limits and closer to berth,. Any increase in speed
or running engine at higher rpm may need equal or excessive running of astern engines to get it
compensated. So any decision to increase speed should be judiciously analysed. Immediately a backup
plan on how to reduce the speed has to be generated in the pilot’s mind.
 6. Normally astern engines are less powerful varies from 30-75% of ahead power. Though it may vary from
ship to ship, hardly sometimes it is 100% of ahead power.

7. Optimum speeds need to be clearly defined in the berthing plan and same has to be discussed with the
master. However it may not be always possible to keep the optimum speed at various stages. If due to
some reasons, if pilot is unable to achieve an optimum speed, then alarm bell rings in the pilot’s mind.
Immediately he takes resort to plan - a, b, c, d etc.

8. The disadvantages of higher speed are as follows:

- tugs are rendered ineffective,
- Squat increases with increase in speed
- Smelling ground and other shallow water effects are more pronounced
- If touches ground due to any reason, it would be very difficult to re-float
- Astern engines are less effective at higher speed. Ineffective above 5-6 knots
- Less time for assessment

9. The disadvantages of slower speed are as follows:

- Difficulty in turning of the vessel
- Rudder is found to be less responsive
- Effect of external forces such as wind and current becomes more visible
- Vessel experiences larger set and drift.

10. When running engines on astern, the ship handler must keep 3 important points in mind:
- The permissible time limit astern for the vessel
- As far as possible avoid running astern and ahead cyclically and repeatedly. This would involve
the vessel to stop repeatedly. This would consume the starting air pressure very fast. And engine
may fail to start after stopped.
- Running engines at higher astern RPM would generate heavy transverse thrust. And this has to be
managed effectively.

Making a Speed Reduction Plan

This plan says the optimum speeds to be maintained by the vessel on various legs of the passage from Pilot
boarding point till the arrival at the berth. This plan is drawn up during the MPiX and same has been passed on to
and fully understood by the bridge team before commencement of the passage. Here the pilot explains the
optimum speed limits at various legs of the passage and various reference points and any specific reasons for
maintaining unusual speed. In this plan pilot must explain also where the frequent engine orders may be given due
to criticality of vessel’s position on the route.

Optimum speeds need to be clearly defined in the berthing plan and same has to be discussed with the master.
However it may not be always possible to keep the designed optimum speed at various stages. If due to some
reasons, if pilot is unable to achieve an optimum speed, then alarm bell rings in the pilots mind. Immediately he
takes resort to plan - a, b, c, d etc.

Without taking other factors into account the normally the optimum speed is a proportional to distance to berth.
However where there is any specific external force is available to affect the behaviours of the ship at any point it
may be modified to suit the existing scenario. The optimum speed also depends on the stopping ability of the
vessel and available resources to reduce the vessel’s speed in a given circumstance.
For example for a fully loaded Panamax size vessel planned to berth on berth No-1 starboard side with 2 tugs to
be made fast on port bow and quarter.

Distance from berth Optimum speed Ref points

1. 10 miles full speed Buoy No- 1

2. 5 miles 10 kts Buoy No-7
3. 2 miles 6 kts Breakwaters ( Tugs to be made fast)
4. 1 mile 4 kts Turning Circle
5. 5 cable 3 kts Passing Berth No-10
6. 2 cable 2 kts Passing berth No- 5
7. 1 cable 1 kt Passing Berth No- 3
8. 100 mtr 0. 8kt Passing berth No-2
9. 50 mtr 0. 5kt 50 m from bow position
10. 25 mtr 0. 3kt 25 m from bow position
11. 10 mtr 0.1kt 10 m from bow position
The above plan is only for reference purpose and has to be devised the pilots according to the nature of the
passage and presence of navigational hazards in proximity.

Options for Speed Reduction

As pointed out earlier the ship handler has few avenues to reduce the speed of the vessel which may be
used as suitable to the prevailing circumstances and conditions. These avenues must be used judiciously
to achieve the desired result without jeopardising the safe position and safe course of the vessel at that
point of time. Let’s analyse the options available to control speed of a vessel.

1. Stopping engines
When engine is stopped, due to water resistance and vessel’s inertia vessel tends to reduce the speed
automatically. Depending upon the amount of speed there is certain degree of sluggishness in steering response.
Vessel’s manoeuvring characteristics may be referred to get accurate information on vessel’s stopping ability and
stopping distances.

Usually from full ahead at 12 kts when vessel is stopped, there is an advance of 10L before the vessel being
stopped completely. Stopping distances and associated reduction of speed due to stopping engines are greatly
affected by existing weather condition and existing tidal streams and currents.

Limitations:

• Within tolerable limits of directional deviation the engines may be kept stopped to gain reduction of
speed.
• Depending upon the amount of speed there is certain degree of sluggishness in steering response.
• While engines stopped and vessel is underway, she is more prone to get affected by weather

2. Running Engines Astern

Normally astern engines are less powerful varies from 30-75% of ahead power, though it may vary from ship to
ship. Hardly sometimes it is 100%. While main engines running astern, there a transverse thrust generated due to
the propeller wash being continuously hit on one side of the vessel’s transom stern.
Depending of the type of the propeller the direction of transverse thrust pushes the stern of the vessel to port or
stbd side. With the pivot point on the fwd and engines running astern, the transverse thrust causes the vessel to
swing to stbd or port side depending on the propeller type- right handed or left handed.

Limitations

• Astern engines are given to reduce speed of vessel when the speed is below 5-6 kts. At higher speed even
if vessel runs astern engines there is no appreciable reduction of speed but it exerts tremendous amount of
stress on the engines.
• Moreover while vessel is running astern, steering of the vessel becomes ineffective.
• As vessel’s steering is ineffective and she gets a constant swing to one side, there must be sufficient sea-
room to accommodate the swing of the vessel particularly on the quarter of the vessel. Otherwise there
must be tugs standby to push or pull the vessel to keep her position afloat in sufficient depths.
• While engines running astern, there is excessive vibration on the stern of the vessel and creates stress on
the vessel’s structures. It is not advisable to run half or full astern engines for longer time.

3. Sequential Wheel Hard-over

Where there is sufficient sea-room, the navigator may use sequential hard-over wheel to reduce the speed of
vessel. This may be used with engines running ahead or when underway with engines stopped. When wheel hard-
over is given, the vessel starts swinging to one side and this breaks the directional inertia of the vessel thus
reduces the speed marginally. Before the vessel settles on another course opposite wheel hard-over is given so
that she comes back to her original course while breaking the directional inertia again. This reduces the speed
marginally further. Same sequence may be repeated depending on the head-room availability and required
reduction of speed.

Limitations

• When vessel is stopped and after the 1st hard-over is given on the wheel, vessel starts swinging to one
side. Once the momentum is created, it’s is very difficult to reverse her momentum to opposite direction
with opposite hard-over on wheel. Sometimes engines may be required to stop the swing.
• With engines running this procedure may have little effect. As soon as vessel settles back on her course,
she picks up her lost speed again.

4. Back Pull by Tugs

If already made fast to the vessel, tugs may be used for back-pulling to reduce the speed of the vessel. If vessel is
unable to give astern engines to reduce her speed, tugs may be used to pull astern to reduce the speed while
engines stopped or running ahead.

Sometimes a tug is made fast right astern of the vessel through centre lead solely for the purpose of reducing
speed. These tugs are called as braking tugs. Tugs while made fast on the sides for the purpose of lateral
movement of the vessel while on slow speed may also are deployed to reduce speed by back pulling from their
positions while resting on ship side. Usually the aft tug is used for this purpose but both the fwd and aft tugs may
be deployed for the purpose.

If there is any indication that vessel may not be able to reduce speed by conventional means of stopping or
running astern due to some limitations, tugs should be advised well in advance for their deployment for back
pulling. In such case the tugs have to take a longer line which facilitates the pulling with much ease. With shorter
line there is less room for the tugs to manoeuvre. So the may end up chafing and breaking their line while back
pulling.

For loaded and high displacement vessels, and light vessels with high freeboard, tugs usually take longer line.
This is due to the possibility that the tugs may be used for pulling for a longer line to control any momentum of
vessels. For light and high freeboard vessels, longer line reduces the chance of chafing of the line and consequent
breaking. With a longer line the tugs take little longer time to come from a pulling position to a pushing position.
But with a shorter line they can come from a pulling to pushing position almost immediately. But for smaller
ships and with lower displacements, tug need not take long lines as any momentary use of tugs with little power
for few seconds creates sufficient corrective action on the vessel.

Limitations:

• When tugs are used for back pulling, they don’t pull the vessel exactly right astern direction. They pull in
arbitrary direction mostly tending towards right astern. This causes the stern of the vessel to marginally
drift to one side in which direction the tug pulls. Thus when the pilot observes a lateral drift, it is
advisable to stop the pulling momentarily or give sufficient correction by engines to nullify the effect.
• When tugs made fast on the side for the purpose of lateral manoeuvring are asked to back pull the line
mat chafe and subsequently break. This may create an emergency scenario. It would waste some critical
time without the tugs at pilot’s disposal.

Understanding Stopping Distance, Vessel Weight, and Acceleration

The relation between stopping distances, the time required for stopping, vessel’s displacement, and speed can be
derived with the following equation based on the principle of conservation of energy. It must be remembered that
these values are approximate values and this formula can be well applied to get the required results.

F*S= ½ * W/g * (Vf2 – Vi2)

S = ½ * (Vf +Vi)*t, Where, Vi

• W : Apparent displacement (displacement + addl. mass*)

• Vi : Initial speed (m/sec)
• Vf : Final speed (m/sec) Time taken- t
• F : Forces acting (tug thrust and reverse engine thrust) (tons)
• t : Elapsed time (seconds)
• S : Forward movement (m) Vf
• a : Acceleration applied to vessel (m/s)
• g : Acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s^2) Back Pull Force-F

Fig-10.1

Above 2 formulas may be used to find out some of the important parameters while reducing speed as:

1. the force for back pull required to attain a certain amount of speed for a given displacement & initial
speed of the vessel.
2. For a given displacement and given power of the tug used for back pull, what is the maximum initial
speed that can be brought down to the desired final speed between 2 points with a given distance
3. When vessel is kept stopped, what is the expected speed after some distance.
Additional mass - When accelerating and decelerating the vessel, the vessel itself moves, while at the same time,
the water in the vicinity also moves as a result of this movement. Power is therefore not only required to move the
vessel, but to move a part of the water in the vicinity. This is, in effect, the same as moving a vessel of increased
mass. This increased mass is referred to as ‘additional mass”.

As noted, the stopping distance may be calculated using following formula.

F*S= ½ * (W/g) * (Vf2 – Vi2)

In the above formulae, we can find all factors easily except the value of resisting force (F). This is the most
unpredictable element in the equation. Now let’s try to understand the each component of the resisting force and
how unpredictable these are.

F= Water Resistance Force + Wind resistance + Current resistance + Engine Force + Back Pull by Tug

Shortly we can write above as Rt + Wf+ Cf+ Ef+Tb U+ Ef + Tb, where U is the unpredictable or variable
force due to various resistances.

Unpredictable and variable forces of resistance (U)

The components of this unpredictable resistance force are as follows:

• Rt Hull Resistance
Though this is a force being calculated by the naval architect so as to find the suitable capacity of engine to be
installed with complex formulas and assumptions, for the pilot during manoeuvring process this force is relatively
unpredictable at any given time. This force varies with speed and coefficient to hull resistance.

• Wf Resistance
Wind force resistance can be calculated by Huge’s formula as given elsewhere in the book. But the exact wind
force may not be obtained by the pilot during manoeuvring process as the wind force and its relative direction
keeps on changing depending on the heading of the vessel.

• Cf Resistance
Resistance due to Current force is further difficult to be determined by the pilot during manoeuvring process as
the exact direction and strength of the currents cannot be ascertained at any given point of time by the pilot.

All the above mentioned unpredictable and variable forces may be roughly calculated to a certain degree of
correctness but based on these values a manoeuvring decision can’t be made. From manoeuvring point of view,
the forces may be neglected on the safer side as an additional safe margin on hand.

Restructuring the above formulae again,

(U +Ef +Tb) *S = ½ * (W/g) * (Vf2 – Vi2)

Ef or Engine force may be calculated with following empirical formulae:

• Ef ahead while running ahead = ( Running RPM/ Max RPM) *(EHP/100) in tons
• Ef astern while running astern = (Running RPM/ Max RPM) *(EHP/100) *(Astern power Percentage) in
tons
Tb is the back pull given b y a tug may be taken directly from the bollard pull of tugs at different RPM. For
example, in full pull by tug, the rated bollards pull (in tons) of the tug may be taken for calculations.
 Speed Reduction of High Displacement (Large and Heavy) Vessels at Short Distances
As explained above, the group of forces U is unpredictable and variable. Except in ample sea rooms, these forces
must not be depended upon by the ship handlers to stop the vessel specifically large vessels. The only reliable
forces here are the Ef (Astern Engine Power force) and the Tug Back pull (Tb). Thus whenever planning to stop
or reduce the speed of large and heavy vessels, in a short distance, it is inevitable that the Tb and Ef are made use
of.

Now if we ignore the presence of U on safer side of handling the vessel, the force required to stop or reduce the
speed of the vessel may be calculated as

F= ½ * (W/g/S) * (Vf2 – Vi2); Where W = 1.07 * Displacement of the vessel

This calculated force has to be met by either Ef or Tb.

Example -1,

For example, a Fully laden Cape sizer of 200000MT displacement, if the ship handler wants to reduce the speed
from 6 kts(3m/s) to 4 kts (2m/s) with engines stopped in a distance of 1400 m in a channel. How to go about it?

In channel, vessel avoids using astern engines to ensure that she maintain her course. With engines stopped, there
is additional Force U acting and supporting ship handler in reducing the speed. But this is not taken into account
as a safe margin.

Thus she needs a force F = ½ *200000/9.8/1400 (9-4) * 1.07 = 36 tons force approximately. This can be met by
back pull of one tug with a bollard pull of at least 36 tons.

Example -2,

For example, a Fully laden Cape sizer of 200000MT displacement, if the handler wants to reduce the speed from
6 kts(3m/s) to 4 kts (2m/s) with engines running ahead at minimum RPM for course keeping ( bulk carriers have
poor course keeping ability), in a distance of 1400 m in a channel. BHP =18000 hp How to go about it?

As the vessel is proceeding with minimum RPM ahead, this force is barely countering the U and vessel is just
maintaining her speed. Thus for calculation the margin of safety is not available due to U. If the ahead speed is
causing an increase of speed of the vessel, that force also needs to be compensated by the tug.

Additionally she needs a braking force to counter the ahead Ef = (Running RPM/ Max RPM) *EHP/100 tons

= (40/85) * ¾ *18000/100 = 63 tons

She needs a force F = ½ *200000/9.8/1400 (9-4) = 36 tons force approximately to reduce her speed.

Total force required = 63+36 = 99 tons force

This can be met by back pull of 2 tug of 60 tons bollard pull or 3 tugs of 40 tons bollard pull.

Example -3,

For example, a fully laden Container of 120000MT displacement, if the handler wants to reduce the speed from 8
kts(4m/s) to 4 kts (2m/s), in a distance of 1400 m in a channel. BHP =24000 hp. In this case engines may or may
not be kept running ahead for course keeping. How to go about it?
As the vessel is proceeding with minimum RPM ahead, this force is barely countering the U and vessel is just
maintaining her speed. Thus for calculation the margin of safety is not available due to U.

Case -1, generally container vessels have good course keeping ability. So engine may be safely kept stopped for
reduction of speed in the channel for some time.

She needs a force F = ½ *120000/9.8/1400 (16-4) = 52 tons force approximately to reduce her speed.

Total force required = 52 tons force

This can be met by back pull of 1 tug of 60 tons bollard pull 2 tugs of 40 tons bollard pull.

Case-2, if engines are kept running ahead, then additionally the vessel needs a braking force to counter the ahead
running force due to propeller.

Thus Fe = (min RPM/ Max RPM) *EHP/100 tons = (40/85) * ¾ *24000/100 = 84 tons.

So total force required to achieve such reduction is 84+52 = 136 tons

This requires 2 tugs of 70 tons capacity to counteract this force. Thus it is better to stop engines, in case of
container vessels, to reduce speed effectively while maintaining course. Whenever it is apparent that course can’t
be maintained, short bursts of engine ahead may be given.

Example -4,

Similarly a Fully laden Cape Sizer of 200000MT displacement, if the handler wants to reduce the speed from 4
kts (2m/s) to 1 kts (0.5m/s) in a distance of 400 m in a turning basin with relatively better sea room. How to go
about it?

In turning basin, vessel can give astern engines, as well as back pull by tugs,

Thus she needs a force F = ½ *200000/9.8/400 (4- 0.25) = 95 tons force approximately. This can be met by back
pull of 2 tugs of 60 tons of bollard pull. Additionally, if required it may be supported by Ef by astern engine
forces.

Speed Reduction of Medium or Light Displacement Vessels at Short Distances

As explained above the group of forces U is unpredictable and variable. Except in cases where ample sea room
exists, these forces must not be depended upon by the ship handlers to stop the vessel specifically large vessels.
But in lighter and medium displacement vessels, U emerges as a formidable force that causes the reduction of
speed of the vessel. The ship handler has better sea rooms and better safe distances for lighter or medium
displacement vessels. Thus the ship handler allows the force U to reduce the vessel’s speed on its own. If the U is
effective enough to cause the reduction satisfactorily, there is no need for use of Ef and /or Tb. However at any
point of time, if it becomes apparent that the U is not effective to reduce the speed satisfactorily, the handler may
resort to Ef or Tb.

Now the question is till what time the handler should wait to watch the effect of U and make a decision to use Ef
or Tb?

In this case, the Force of Ef or Tb whatever is preferable to be used by the ship handler in the given scenario is
already known.
For example there is a tug of bollard pull 40 tons available to do the back pulling. Or, the Ef (Dead slow astern)
of 20 tons is available, then the handler can calculate the distance needed to effect the reduction of speed from Vi
to Vf.

Thus S= ½ *(1.07 *W/g/F) * (Vf2 – Vi2)

For a loaded handy-max, vessel with a 40 tons tug, intending to reduce her speed from 6 kts to 2 kts, the warning
distance would be,

S= ½ *(1.07 *64000/9.8/40) * (32 – 12) =698 m ~3.5 time of ship length

That means at a point before 3.5 ships length, if speed is not decreased below 6 kts, then Tb must have to be used
to reduce the speed of vessel, otherwise if at any point of time the speed is not reduced as per expectation, the
handler may not be able to control her speed by use of that tug only.

Warning distances at Various Speeds

1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800 Warning distances at
700 Various Speeds
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Fig-10.2

For a given vessel with a given tug, the reference values may be calculated as follows:

S= (k/F) Vi2 Where, k= ½ *(1.07 *W/g) is fixed and predetermined for a vessel.

K= 3493.9 for a loaded handy max vessel. If F=20 tons

S0.5 = 43 m, S0.7= 85m, S1 =174 m, S1.5 = 393m, S2 = 698, S3 = 1572 etc. as per the above table.

Presence of wind as a braking forces

Though we considered the wind in U and have not rationalised its effect on speed reduction, It is important to note
that if wind is there as a braking force, same formula may be applied while considering other factors nil or
noneffective.

Hughes Formula to calculate the wind force in tons

 Ra = 1/2ｘρｘCRa ｘVa2 ｘ(A cos2 θ＋B sin2 θ）Kgf( Kgforce)

Va

θ @
a

Ra

Fig-10.3
Where,

θ : Wind direction from bow [degree]( Relative Wind Direction )

Va : Headwind speed [m/sec]
A : Ship’s projected area from bow above waterline in sqm
ρ : Air density [0.125kg ・sec2/m4]
B : Ship’s projected area from side above waterline in sqm
a : Length from bow to wind pressure centre (Point of Action )
Ra : Resultant wind pressure force (in kgs) → divided by 1,000 to be “in tons”
@ : Wind pressure force angle in degrees (Angle of Action)
CRa : Wind pressure force coefficient,
For Passenger ships, CRa = 1.142 -0.142cos2θ-0.367cos4θ-0.133cos6θ
For General Cargo Ships, CRa = 1.325 -0.050cos2θ-0.350cos4θ-0.175cos6θ
For Tankers & Bulk carriers, CRa = 1.200 -0.083cos2θ-0.250cos4θ-0.117cos6θ

For example,

For a container vessel of 255 m LOA, 11 m draft, with a projected A=880, B = 6200 wind speed of 20kts (10m/s)
from 4 points on stbd bow,

CRa = 1.325 – 0.05 cos2x45-0.35 cos4x45-.175cos6x45 =1.325-0=1.325

= ½*.125*1.325*102* (880cos2 45＋6200 sin2 45) = 29315.6 kgf=29tons

Further the formulae F*S= ½ * (W/g) * (Vf2 – Vi2) may be used to find the required result.

Concept of Balancing Rudder Angle (BRA) and Rudder Giveaway (RG) Point

(Controlling Speed While Maintaining Steerage)

We understood all the theories behind how to reduce speed under different circumstances. As we follow a peed
reduction plan, sometimes the navigator has to reduce speed and sometimes maintain a speed and probably in a
rare case has to increase speed during berthing of a vessel. There may be various reasons for maintaining a
particular speed or reduce speed at a particular point, like:
 • passing nearby vessels,
• passing in close proximity to navigational hazards,
• reduced under keel clearance,
• local port regulations,
• national regulations etc.

In any case when the vessel has to follow a slower speed, the navigator uses all available means to reduce or
maintain the vessel’s speed. Reduction of speed has a major disadvantage to be associated with. That is loss of
steerage. Reduction of speed calls for sluggish or complete loss of steerage. The navigator must be aware of it and
also must know how to keep the vessel in her allowable courses while making a slow or very slow speed.

Let’s see some methods on how to control the steerage of the vessel while engine is stopped or running or when
vessel is running astern or when moving at very slow speed. Usually modern day movements inside harbour
limits never happen without tugs. Tugs are always standby near the vessels with lines made fast, or without lines
made fast to the vessel. That depends on the type of manoeuvring and local practices in each port. But having tugs
alongside are usual features of movements. Now let’s see the various cases of lowering speed while maintaining
steerage with tugs stand by alongside to assist the vessel.

a. When vessel is making way with some speed while engines stopped but have options of running engines
ahead.

Initially when the navigator wants to reduce speed, the 1st option is to stop engines. When engine is stopped,
steerage is severely lost but not completely! The vessel maintains her heading for some time (few seconds to few
minutes depending on the affecting external disturbances), but afterwards she falters on her course slowly. As she
starts swinging slowly to any side, the navigator must be extremely alert and quick to give easy corrective helms.
This would counter the swinging moment of the vessel and slowly bring her back to the original course. If not
able to counter the swinging moment with a lower helm, a larger helm must be given. With a larger helm, her
swing to one side would reduce and finally stopped, then start swinging to opposite side. Thus an opposing helm
must be given again.

If closely observed, the navigator would see that at a particular wheel angle, the vessel would swing to neither
side and just maintains a particular heading. This wheel angel may be called as a Balancing Rudder Angle
(BRA). It means if the vessel keeps her rudder at BRA she just maintains her course and doesn’t swing to any
side. This is not a fixed one but depends on many factors:

• Speed of the vessel

• Hull shape
• Characteristics of vessel,
• Displacement
• UKC
• External disturbances, etc.

The navigator has to find out what is the BRA of the vessel at that moment when the engine is stopped but
making way with some speed. The value of BRA keeps on increasing with further reduction of speed.

As the speed falls further to very low, there would be a point when even with maximum BRA (with wheel hard
over to any side, at 35 degrees) the vessel is unable to maintain her course. That may be called a as Rudder Give
Way (RGW) Point. After that point, the navigator has two options:

• Option-1: Give a short keck on the engines to counteract the swinging moment, or
• Option-2: Push or pull the stern of the vessel by the tug-at-quarter to counteract any swinging moment.
When a vessel proceeds in a channel, or approaching a berth with sufficient distance ahead, the navigator may use
the first option to give short bursts of engine ahead.

b. When vessel is making way with some speed while engines stopped but have no options of running
engines ahead.

As explained above, similarly the vessel will use BRA appropriately till she reaches her RGW point. Afterwards
the vessel has to use her engines or assisting tugs to maintain her steerage. There are points when the vessel has
lesser distance and running engines will cause serious delay in the reduction of speed, the navigator has no option
to run engines ahead, but use the second option of using tugs.

In that case the navigator has to push or pull by the tug-at-quarter to counteract the swinging moment. In this case
the tug at the bow may also be used to control the swing of the vessel, but the tug at the quarter is most preferable
one because in a forward moving vessel, the pivot lies at the bow, thus the stern tug will create appreciable impact
with a little force and in shorter period of time. Contrary to this the bow tug will need larger force for loner time
to counter act the swinging moment of the vessel.

c. When vessel is making way while using engines astern

When vessel is making way with some speed and running engines astern to reduce speed, the most prominent
feature comes into picture is the transverse thrust. So the vessel’s stern would move away from the track. In such
scenario, the vessel has again 2 options:

Option-1: Stop running astern before the vessel develops sufficient swinging moment. Then use engines ahead
and opposing helm hard over momentarily to control the swing. With wheel hard over and engines ahead the
speed wouldn’t increase appreciably. Once swing is controlled and vessel is brought back to her original course,
again engines may be stopped and subsequently run astern again for some time to reduce speed. Same procedure
may be repeated few times. But in this case the engine room must be informed in advance and keep checking the
starting air pressure.

Option -2: Use the tug-at-quarter to push pull at 90 degrees to counter the transverse thrust almost at the same
time or moments before running engines astern. This force applied by the tug need to be effectively adjusted to
just counteract the transverse thrust.

A judicious decision suitable to the prevailing circumstances must be taken.

d. When tug is back pulling to reduce speed

There are times when a vessel is unable to reduce speed of the vessel by stopping or running engines astern while
maintaining steerage of the vessel. In that case the navigator makes resorts to back-pulling by the tug. While back
pulling, engines may be running ahead or stopped while making some speed. There are also times when the vessel
is unable to stop engines due to prevailing weather conditions, forget about running astern, to reduce her speed.
Weather conditions are such that the navigator has to keep the engines running ahead to maintain steerage.

With the engines are running while tugs back pulling, there won’t be any difficulty in maintaining steerage. The
problem happens when engines are stopped.

When engines are stopped, while back pulling, the navigator must try to maintain the vessel’s course with a
suitable BRA. Even after that if vessel is unable to maintain her course, the back pulling tug may be used to pull
the vessel with some angle from right stern e.g. 7 o’clock or 5 o’clock angle. This slight change in angle will not
affect the back pulling force but will effectively control the steerage of the vessel.

***
 Chapter-11

Main Engine Types and their Optimum

Usage
The Ship Drive Train
Basic Characteristics Features of a Main Engine
Types of engines and their Manoeuvring Potentials
Optimal usage of engines in Various Scenarios
Bow and Stern Thrusters
Azimuthal Podded Drive - Azipods

The power of engines or the propulsion machinery is the most powerful weapon on the hands of a pilot in any
manoeuvring situation. Its best and judicious use is critical to carry out a smooth manoeuvring. Ship handler and
pilots must appreciate these facts and keep this as a weapon of last resort.

When engines are running helm is effective to its full potential and can carry out an effective alteration of courses.
The combination of engines and helm is the best option to carry out any manoeuvring in perfection without
depending on external force. Engine is the primary resource for completing a manoeuvre.

Usage of tugs for assistance and usage of external forces to her advantage are the part of secondary and tertiary
nature as far as manoeuvring of ships are concerned. Before using engines to achieve a desired result all other
available means or resources like weather, tide, current forces must be used to advantage to carry out a
manoeuvre. Lower engine powers and tug powers then judiciously be used before using higher engine powers to
achieve desired result.

If engines are not available then the manoeuvring will be completely different with the help of tugs. This type of
manoeuvre without engines is called as Cold moves. In any adverse situation the best use of engines is the key to
averse any disaster and is the key to perform a smooth and good manoeuvre.

When engines are running astern, it must be emphasised here that the vessel is not under control in course keeping
ability. And the heavy transverse thrust pushes the stern with a great momentum. Transverse thrust at the stern
also be used to the advantage of the manoeuvring, if not used appropriately, it must be carefully managed in time.
At the same time the time limit astern as well as the number of engine kicks available must be kept in mind.

Thus understanding of the manoeuvring characteristics and potential of main engines is highly essential and vital
for any ship handler and marine pilots.

The Ship Drive Train

The purpose of the propulsion system on a ship is to convert fuel energy into useful thrust to propel the ship.
Figure below shows a simplified picture of a ship’s drive train. Block diagram of a ship’s drive train, starting with
the Brake Horsepower from the prime mover, and ending with the Effective Horsepower to drive the ship.
 S&S Bearing

THP DHP Thrust & SHP BHP

Reduction
Line Shaft Prime
Seal Gear
Bearing mover

Simplified ship drive train (Fig-11.1)

BHP – “Brake Horsepower” is the power output of the engine. It is called “brake” because engines are tested by
applying a mechanical load to the shaft using a brake. The power of a rotating engine is the product of the torque
(t-m) and the rotational speed.

SHP – “Shaft Horsepower” is equal to the Brake Horse power minus any mechanical losses in the reduction gear.
The reduction gear reduces the RPM of the engine to an efficient propeller speed, such as reducing from a few
thousand RPM for gas turbines to a few hundred RPM for a warship. It is measured by an instrument known as
torsion meter.

DHP – “Delivered Horsepower” is the power delivered to the propeller, which includes the losses due to the
gearbox, the bearings and the stern tube seal. The delivered horsepower is usually 95%-98% of the Brake
Horsepower, depending on the propulsion system.

THP – “Thrust Horsepower” is the power from the propeller thrust, equal to the product of the speed of advance
and the thrust generated by the propeller. This power includes the losses of the gearbox, shafting, and propeller.
The propeller converts the rotational power into useful thrust.

EHP – “Effective Horsepower” is the power required to move the ship’s hull at a given speed in the absence of
propeller action. It is equal to the product of the Hull resistance (Rt)of a ship and the speed (V) of the ship.

EHP = V* Rt

This power is equal to the Brake Horsepower minus losses due to the gearbox, shafting and propeller, as well as
interaction between the propeller and the hull.

Propulsive Efficiency

The propulsive efficiency depends on the the various losses at each stage of the drive train as listed below:
• e
Gear Efficiency = gear = SHP/ BHP ≈ 0.99−0.95
• Shaft Efficiency = eshaft = DHP/ SHP ≈ 0.99−0.97
• Propeller Efficiency = epropeller =THP/ DHP ≈ 0.65−0.75
• Hull Efficiency = ehull = EHP/ THP

The gear, shaft and propeller efficiencies are all mechanical or fluid losses. “Hull Efficiency” includes the
interaction between the hull and the propeller, which varies with ship type. The separate efficiencies are often
combined into a single efficiency called the propulsive efficiency or propulsive coefficient (PC).
eP = PC = EHP/ SHP = egear eshaft epropeller ehull
The propulsive efficiency is the ratio of effective horsepower to shaft horsepower, therefore allowing the designer
to make a direct determination of the shaft horsepower required to be installed in the ship. Common values of
propulsive efficiency typically range from 55% to 75%.

Basic Characteristics Features of a Main Engine

There are some important characteristic features of main engines the ship handler must understand thoroughly to
carry out manoeuvring of the vessels in best possible way. Some of them are as follows:

1. BHP/SHP/DHP/THP/EHP of Main Engines

This indicates the relative power of engine that may be available for manoeuvring purpose. The definitions of
BHP, SHP, DHP, THP and EHP are given above section of – The ship Drive Train. It is given in KW or HP. The
higher the BHP better is the manoeuvrability of the vessel and the vice versa. Technically BHP or Brake Horse
Power is the horse power of an engine without considering loss of power caused by the auxiliaries. This is the
power measured at crankshaft by brake dynamometer. After accounting for some losses on the BHP, the Shaft
Horse Power (SHP) comes into play which is actually turns the propeller. This is always greater than the shaft
horse power of the main engine. Shaft horse power is the horse power delivered to a propeller shaft before being
converted into thrust by the propeller.

EHP is the power required to move the ship’s hull at a given speed in the absence of propeller action. It is equal to
the product of the Hull resistance (Rt) of a ship and the speed (V) of the ship. The propulsive efficiency is the
ratio of effective horsepower to shaft horsepower. Thus the designer determines the shaft horsepower required to
be installed in the ship once the maximum service speed to be given to a vessel of given hull resistance is decided.

2. .Starting Air Pressure & Minimum Number of Kicks

Air bottles are charged and kept ready before vessel enters restricted waters for manoeuvring of vessel.
Depending on the number of air bottles available the minimum number of starts of main engine is limited during
manoeuvring. For some vessels it is 12-18 starts available and for some vessels there is unlimited number of starts
available. The ship handler should take note of it and accordingly make judicious use of engine starts and stop so
that sufficient number of starts should be available at hand during critical phase of manoeuvring.

3. Minimum RPM
When vessel has to move at a slower speed while manoeuvrability of vessel is available with running engine,
some ships are provided with an option of minimum speed/ RPM. Ship handler should make use of minimum
RPM available when required to do so. In such case the speed is maintained at low lever with helm available for
alteration of course. This RPM is a level lesser than Dead Slow Ahead RPM.

4. Minimum Speed when ship handler can order Astern on engines

This is a characteristic of engine the ship handler must know to keep the vessel well under control and plan her
speed reduction plan effectively without any exertion on the engines. Usually it is about 5-6 kts in most of the
ships when her main engine is ready to for running astern. This too is important to prepare her speed reduction
plan.

5. Minimum time for Navigation full to Manoeuvring Full Ahead

Sometimes when the distance of the berth is far away from the starting position of the manoeuvring, Pilot asks the
master to put the vessel on navigation full ahead to get more speed. It must be noted that it takes considerable
amount of time from navigation full ahead to manoeuvring full ahead. The time period ranges from 10 minutes to
20 minutes. So the pilot should take note of the exact time required for the vessel to come down to full ahead from
navigation full and make allowance for same before being able to give engine orders.

6. Weak Astern Power

Usually the aster power of the vessel is lesser than the ahead engine power. Pilot must find out astern power is
how much percentage of the ahead power. It may as low as 25%. He should take note of it and make his
dependence on her astern power accordingly. If very low astern power is available, external assistance must be
available to execute the speed reduction plan effectively. In such case the speed reduction plan may be modified
and suitable to the available astern power.

7. Characteristics while running astern

When vessel is running astern, it creates some peculiar effects. Some of these effects are – transverse thrust,
excessive vibration, Vessel not under control, wedge effect etc. One of such effect is “wedge effect”. When
running astern in close proximity to shallow patches or banks, the vessel may turn on a wrong side. This happens
as the propeller wash continuously moves ahead and if there is any obstruction (wall of shallow patch or banks)
on one side the propeller wash move ahead to hit the bank and consequently hits the vessel side at fwd of pivot
point. This creates a swing in opposite direction where the vessel is supposed to swing due to transverse thrust.

8. Transverse Thrust
The transverse thrust is more noticeable and affects the control of the vessel badly when vessel runs astern. There
is also transverse thrust available when vessel runs ahead engines but it is hardly noticeable as vessel has steering
power to control any change in heading. On a vessel with conventional RH propeller, the helical water flow
passes forward either side of hull. In the port side it is inclined down and away from the hull and on the stbd side
it it up and onto the hull. This flow of water that hits the starboard quarter creates a substantial force and turns the
stern towards port side. This creates the transverse thrust at the stern to port side and thus turning bow to stbd
side.

The transverse thrust is usually 5-10% of the available stern power. For a ship with ahead power of 10000bhp and
a 50% stern power will have stern power is of 5000bhp. Then the transverse thrust is from 250-500 bhp

Types of engines and their Manoeuvring Potentials

With constant technological innovations, we are witnessing new machines which come with improved
performance and problem solving abilities. Marine propulsion machineries are also witnessing similar
innovations.

1. Turbine Engines
Turbine ships are very different from the diesel engine powered ships. Though diesel engines the power comes
quite quickly, in case of turbine ships it takes longer time to come online and build up power, thus the power
comes up very slowly. On the reverse the while reduction in speed but still wants to keep control on the heading
turbine ships are far better than diesel engines.

2. Conventional RH propeller
Now a day most of the propulsion machineries are diesel engines. These ships are fitted with right handed
propeller. In such case when running astern the bow goes to stbd side and the transverse thrust pushes the stern to
port side. These engines also have many limitations like minimum number of consecutive kicks, time limit astern,
less aster power etc.
 3. Conventional LH Propeller
These engines are same as the last one with only difference being left handed propeller. In such case when
running astern, the bow goes to port side and the transverse thrust pushes the stern to stbd side.

4. CPP
In case of CPP, the shaft moves always in one direction - clockwise or anticlockwise whether running ahead or
astern. But when given astern power the pitch angle of the blades are changed but still the propeller turns in the
same direction. When a CPP turns continuously on anticlockwise and viewed from astern, this looks like a fixed
pitch RH propeller running astern thus the stern swings to port and bow to the stbd.

In CPP when the engine stops the vessel still inches forward or afterwards depending on her last command. Even
when the engines are stopped the propeller runs at 0 pitch and lot of wash is generated. While coming alongside
the berth, this propeller wash creates uncomfortable situation for the mooring lines to pass. This it is better to
disengage the propeller and stop engines from Engine Room. This ensures no propeller was still generated. But in
such case if engine is required then it will not be available for manoeuvring.

5. Shrouds
This type of design is slowly growing in numbers. The propeller is housed in a tunnel or shroud. These designs
are adopted for economical purposes as the fuel consumption is marginally lesser than the conventional engines.
In this type of propellers the transverse thrust is almost non-existent.

6. Twin screw
Handling of twin screw ships is quite interesting and there exists some difference from the single screw vessel.
The characteristics of twin screw ships are as follows:

The rudder positioning is a specific feature of twin screw ships. Some twin screw ships are provided with
single rudder. In such case the rudder is positioned at a centre position outside the helical discharge of
propeller. In such case the rudder is ineffective. However most of the ships are provided with 2 rudders
just on the aft of each propeller. In such case, each combination of rudder and propeller acts as a single
screw ships and can be operated accordingly
The positioning of screw is also another characteristic feature. If the both screw are placed close to each
other the torque effect created by twin screw is very less. The discharge from one propeller obstructs the
performance of other propeller. When the screws are placed as far as possible, the torque generated by
both the screw is quite effective.
When 2 propellers are run one ahead and other astern, a torque is generated at the stern of the vessel. The
torque is powerful enough to turn the vessel on the spot.
Even at zero speed, the vessel may be turned on the spot without generating any ahead or astern speed
Further there are widely 2 different types of twin screw ships depending the configuration of propellers.

a. Outward turning Twin screw

This type of twin screw ships when running ahead and looked from astern, the propellers runs outward from the
centre. It means the stbd side propeller is conventional RH propeller and the port side propeller is LH propeller.

In this type of Twin screw ships the manoeuvrability is very good. When the stbd RH propeller is put astern and
port side LH propeller is put ahead, the torque generated will turn the vessel to stbd side. Even at zero speed, the
vessel may be turned on the spot without generating any ahead or astern speed. With only one engines running
vessel may be turned while generating ahead or astern speed.
 b. Inward turning twin screw
This type of twin screw ships when running ahead and looked from astern, the propellers runs inward towards the
centre. It means the stbd side propeller is conventional LH propeller and the port side propeller is RH propeller. In
inward turning twin screw ships the manoeuvrability is very bad as the astern wash from the stbd propeller may
seriously deflect the smooth flow of water from port propeller.

Though the manoeuvrability of inward turning vessel is very bad, still in many ships such arrangement is
preferred due to fuel efficiency of such arrangements. Sometimes when the manoeuvrability is severe and if
greater manoeuvrability is required in the existing circumstances, one engine may be stopped to get full effect of
one pair of rudder and propeller.

Optimal usage of engines in Various Scenarios:

To avoid excessive stress on the engines which may lead to engine failure, it is good practice to use the engines
optimally so that engines are available at the critical moment for the navigator to ensure safety of the vessel.

1. In heavy weather conditions

In heavy weather there is tremendous amount of dynamic forces exerted on the ship’s hull. Main engine is
designed to give sufficient amount of thrust on the static load of the vessel. But with excessive amount of
dynamic load along with the static load of the vessel, the amount of load against which the vessel’s engine tries to
give thrust is uncalculated. This definitely increases tremendous amount of load on the engines even though speed
of the vessel doesn’t increase much. Thus it is advisable to run the engines at lower RPM so as to keep her on her
course and reduce the excessive load on engines. This is on the best interest of the vessel’s safety and the main
engine itself.

The direction from where the weather advances towards the vessel is also an important factor in considering the
engine movements to carry out a manoeuvring. When weather is coming from head, it allows the SOG of the
vessel to reduce, thus a higher engine RPM may be given to control the speed. But when the weather advances
from the stern, it increases the SOG of the vessel.

To maintain a safe speed vessel may have to run at a lower RPM or engines stopped. This could cause loss of
control on the heading while vessel runs at a higher speed.

2. Strong set
When the vessel experiences currents or wind laterally or from broadside, she experiences a strong leeway due to
wind and set due to currents.

This causes many difficulties to the vessel while navigating in restricted waters with restricted sea rooms.

Tan(set)= drift/ speed Fig11.2 (b)

Fig11.2 (a) for equal drift, tan(set) inversely related to speed of vessel
Diagrams in the last page depict that for an equal amount of external forces, the set or leeway created is inversely
proportional to speed of the vessel. Thus to reduce the angle of set, vessel has to increase her speed. Thus required
more engine RPM.

3. Shallow waters
In shallow waters, as the speed increases the squat effect increases. This creates more sinkage of the vessel thus
allowing smelling of the ground right at the keel of the vessel. Depending upon the UKC of the vessel the speed
should be adjusted so as to reduce the smelling ground effect on the vessel.

Squat = 2Cb.V2 /100 in metres

This shows that the squat is directly proportional to the square of speed. Engine must be adjusted to reduce the
speed and consequent squat.

4. Turning of Vessel at slower speed

When vessel has to turn at very slow speed, Engines may not be able to be run for a longer time. In such case
wheel hard over is given before engines run ahead. As soon as engine is run ahead, it would cause the vessel to
start swinging to one side. Engine is kept running for some time till speed hasn’t picked up appreciably. In such
case the swing continues to the desired side. When Speed is observed to increase till the tolerance limit, engine is
stopped. The swing will still continue too that side and speed start falling but slowly. At that time some bursts of
astern movement may be considered if suitable in the prevailing circumstances. This would reduce the speed
while the vessel still continues to turn. When speed is reduced considerably, again the engine is stopped and
wheel hard over is given and engines run in ahead direction. This would further increase the swing to the desired
side. Same procedure may be repeated to complete the swing.

In this case if RH propeller, while engines runs astern in between, the vessel continue to turn to starboard side due
to transverse thrust. This helps the starboard side turn while reducing the speed. In case Of LH propeller, aster on
engines would help the port side turn. Thus if the turning side is optional, the turn should be planned according to
the type of propeller. In such case speed can be maintained a t absolute minimum while completing a large turn

5. Turning of vessel in tight turning basins

In tight turns for large ships, when tug is used to assist to complete the turn, the forward tug which is used to push
or pull the bow marginally increase the vessel’s speed. Similarly the aft tug decreases the speed marginally. If
used to equal amount of forces in push or pull, they both nullify each other. But when the tugs are used at unequal
levels depending upon the circumstances, there is marginal change of speed continuously. If the navigator fails to
realise this speed, in tight turning circles with few metre of margins at both at bow and the stern, it would be
disastrous. Thus it is very important to identify the marginal change in the speed and apply engine bursts
marginally to nullify the speed regularly.

6. Anchoring and while at anchor

While anchoring use of engine is very important to reduce the stress on the cable and anchor itself. Judicious use
of engines may be able to prevent the dragging of anchor in heavy weather and strong current scenarios.

While anchoring also vessel has to give astern on engines to gain a marginal stern speed when anchor is dropped
and the cable is paid out slowly to lay the cable on seabed. This ensures a good holding of anchor with the weight
of the cable laid on the seabed.

Thus the best use of engines is required to control the vessel properly and effectiveness of a manoeuvre even in
anchoring.
 7. Achieving a safe speed
Speed control plan must be well understood and discussed in the bridge team including the pilot in any
manoeuvring waters. To achieve the planned speeds at a various reference points the best of use of engines is
highly necessary. The speed control plan must be made in such a way that the stress level on the engines at any
point should be minimised. Use of engines for speed reduction is described in chapter – Speed Control.

8. Steering fail - Use of only engines for turning the vessel

When steering is failed due to some physical reasons and only engines running and vessel is required to make
turn, she may use transverse thrust to her advantage and turn the vessel while reducing the speed. However the
transverse thrust of the vessel is well defined and it acts only one direction when running astern for a particular
type of propeller.

In case the vessel has to make turn onto the opposite side she has to use emergency rudders and ahead engines to
achieve the turn. The role of emergency rudder may be done by anchors of the side to which vessel wants make an
emergency turn

9. While approaching the berth

When approaching the berth, vessel moves at very slow speed may be within 1 knot. In such case the ship handler
must use the fixed land objects to get the feel of speed and should not rely on the electronic indicators. The
display on the electronic indicator has a time delay in reading the speed of the vessel and such time delay may be
critical when vessels are being berthed at very close range of few metres of distance. Thus the physical
measurement of distances must be sought after from jetty personnel.

When vessel reaches the position and clearances are very less, quick engine movements are required to stop the
vessel exactly in position needed. Sometimes of 0.1 knots of speed vessel has to give slow ahead or astern and
reverse the engines quickly to maintain the position of the vessel.

10. When engine fails

When engine fails, the first and the foremost objective of the vessel is to is to move away from danger. Thus in
such case the helm order must be used properly by using the existing speed to move away from any dangers of
navigation.

If external assistance is available the vessel may declare her intentions to carry out cold move. Then she may
carry on the manoeuvring with the help of external assistance. If there is no external assistance is available then
anchor is the sole option for the vessel to hold her position and then follow up with subsequent action.

Transverse Thrusters (At the Bow and/or Stern)

Transverse thrusters are provided at the bow or stern of the vessel to achieve lateral movement of the bow or stern
in case vessel’s engine is not running. Generally they are used at slow speed preferably less than 5 kts. Every 1
knot reduction of speed after 5 kts, the thruster effectiveness increases about 20%. At more than 5 kts speed, the
trhrusters are generally ineffective.

Many vessels are fitted with only bow thrusters and many of them are fitted with bow and stern thrusters. If
thrusters are available for use manoeuvring becomes easy for the ship handler. It provides luxury to the ship
handler!!! Wherever thruster is fitted, at bow or at the stern, it is easy to control the transverse movement of the
vessel at that point.

Transverse thruster(s) shall meet with following conditions as stipulated below:

 • It is in good working condition, such that the control button can be adjusted to full power operating
position.
• The power requirements of the thrusters for ships with different LOA are as follow –

Vessel’s LOA Actual minimum Horse Power Actual minimum Kilo Watts

≤130m 600 447

>130 to ≤170m 800 597
>170m to ≤200m 1000 746
>200m to ≤230m 1500 1119
>230m to ≤270m 2000 1491
>270m to ≤300m 2500 1864
>300m to ≤340m 3000 2237
>340m to ≤370m 3500 2610
>370m to ≤400m 4000 2983

• It can run continuously for not less than 30 minutes.

• It must be totally immersed in water.
• It must not be interrupted by the operation of the main engine or other auxiliary engine.
• Master should consider pilot’s recommendation to use tug even the above conditions are met, especially
in adverse weather or confined manoeuvring area.
• Depending on circumstances, thrusters may not be considered as substitute for tug for berthing and/or un-
berthing.

Transverse thrusters in good working condition may be accepted to substitute for one tug but if under-powered, it
will not be considered as equivalent to one tug

Azimuthal Podded Drive or Azipods

For manoeuvring purpose, a vessel equipped with azipods may be accepted to substitute for one tug.

Azipod is the electrically driven propulsion units with an AC motor incorporated in a streamlined azimuthing pod
unit directly driving a fixed-pitch propeller. The motor is controlled by a frequency converter, which produces full
nominal torque in either direction over the entire speed range, including standstill. Over torque can also be
utilized e.g. in ice-going vessels. Each Azipod propulsion system is individually designed and optimized to
achieve maximum performance. The name “Azipod” is a registered trade mark of ABB.
• Propulsion is a gearless steerable propulsion system where the electric drive motor is in a submerged pod
outside the ship hull.
• Propulsion System the propeller is fixed pitch type where the propeller speed is controlled.
• Ships with Azipod Propulsion do not need rudders, long shaft lines or stern transversal thrusters.
• The idea of placing an electric motor inside a submerged propulsion pod has been around for some time
but it was not until the late 1980s to develop the first practical podded main propulsion system.
• Sea trial results of Azipods were encouraging: the same trial speed at the same shaft speed was achieved
as in the original trials, however, remarkable improvements were found in the manoeuvrability.

Compact Azipod

The propulsion system with a power range from 1000kW up to 7MW aimed at ferries, costal ships and offshore
vessels. Due to this the construction of Compact Azipod, thruster is simpler and more compact, either not
needing a separate cooling system at all when it is cooled completely by the surrounding sea, or having a hybrid
cooling with surrounding sea and small air cooling system.

Direct seawater cooling makes it possible to reduce the motor diameter, a compact motor and pod dimensions
lead to a slimmer body and better hydrodynamics. The absence of the exciter and direct cooling reduce losses and
results in better electrical efficiency.

CRP Azipod

The combination of the shaft-driven main propeller and the podded propulsor located on the same axis, but
without any physical connection. The arrangement works as the contra-rotating propellers and is said to give an
improvement of over 10% in hydrodynamic efficiency for fast ferries and ultra-large containership.

Advantages of using Azipods

• Up to 20% more energy efficiency with reduced fuel consumption and life cycle costs.
• Environmentally friendly propulsion system Lower fuel consumption reduces emissions. A minimal need
for lubricants reduces potential leaks. Azipod propulsion also allows the use of biodegradable lubricants.
• Safe and manoeuvrable Even the largest vessels can be maneuverer with decimeter accuracy. Narrow
harbours can be entered quickly and safely.
• High reliability and reduced fuel consumption Operational reliability and lower fuel consumption bring
numerous benefits for most ship types.
• High performance in demanding conditions Ice-going cargo vessels equipped with Azipod propulsion can
operate safely and efficiently, even without icebreaker assistance.
• Remarkably improved on board comfort Lower propeller vibration and noise levels improve passenger
comfort and create a comfortable work environment for the crew.
• Excellent station keeping characteristics Azipod propulsion is good choice for offshore DP vessels like
OSVs, OCVs, and drilling ships and rigs.
• Saves space on board. Azipod propulsion saves space inside the vessel hull for greater design flexibility
that enables more cargo on board.

***
 Chapter-12

Alteration of Courses
Understanding the Rudder
Directional Stability and Turning Ability of Ships
Pivot Point,
Controlling Forces Acting on the Vessel While turning,
Wheel over Point,
Concepts associated with Execution of a Turn,
Lateral Drift of the Stern and the Bow while turning,
Execution of Large but Unaided alteration of Courses in Limited Sea rooms

Alteration of course of a vessel in restricted waters with abundant navigational hazards in proximity is an art as
well as a science. Its science because the handle need to understand the existing forces and calculate their effect
and at the same time apply correction in such a way that the alteration is smooth without any overshoot and
landing on danger. It’s a science as the understanding of the various forces acting on the vessel and best use of
them is necessary to carry out a perfect turn. It’s an art as it is perfected with experience to carry out a large and
tight but smooth alteration of course without any stress on the vessel’s hull and machineries while steering clear
of all the navigational hazards in proximity.

When a vessel alters her course, there are various forces that act on the vessel to cause her to turn. To understand
the dynamics of the turning the ship, we have to understand the rudder and its functions, the concept of pivot
point and the forces acting around it to create a couple.

When carrying out a sharp but large alteration in close proximity to dangers or in side harbour limits, it’s not only
the pivot point that is important but also the points at the extreme ends of the vessel e.g. bow and stern of the
vessel are also important. The navigator must ensure that the bows as well as the stern are well clear of all dangers
with sufficient safety margins. Altering large vessels within port limits involves huge dangers and hefty stakes.
This is probably the most leading cause of multi-million dollar accidents inside port limits. Understanding the fine
concepts in alteration of course would save lives and properties worth millions.

Understanding the Characteristics of a Rudder

The rudder is the most important part of the vessel that controls the course, her directional ability and her turning
ability. There are different types rudders from naval architect point of view. The magnitude of all the rudder types
dimensions are limited by the hull, specifically the stern’s properties.
• The chord is limited by the position of the propeller (propeller/rudder clearance) and the edge of the stern.
Rudder protruding beyond the stern is not advisable.
• The span (or the height of the rudder from the root to tip) is limited by the draft and the need for the
rudder to remain vertically above the ship keel. This is a “grounding” consideration. Typically, the span
of the rudder is approximately the size of the propeller diameter.
The types of rudder as per the above factors are of following types such as :
1. Unbalanced – simple
2. Unbalancced – compound
3. Fully Balanced – Simple
4. Fully balanced with support structure
 5. Semibalanced with underhung deep horn
6. Semibalanced with underhun shallow horn
7. Spade type
8. Spade with transon stern

Figure below shows the geometry of a typical semi-balanced spade rudder.

Root Chord

Stock

Sweepback Angle

Main Geometric Chord

Cp Main Span

Leading Edge Trailing Edge

Tip chord

Fig-12.1
Rudder Balance

Whether a rudder is balanced or not is dependent upon the relationship of the centre of pressure of the rudder and
the position of the rudder stock.

• When they are vertically aligned, the rudder is said to be “fully balanced”. This arrangement greatly reduces the
torque required by the tiller mechanism to turn the rudder.
• When the rudder stock is at the leading edge, the rudder is “unbalanced”. This is a common arrangement in
merchant ships where rudder forces are not excessive.
• The spade rudder is semi-balanced. This is a sensible arrangement as it limits the amount of torque required by
the tiller mechanism yet should ensure the rudder returns to amidships after the occurrence of a tiller mechanism
failure.

Rudder Performance

It is a common misconception that the rudder turns a ship. In fact, the rudder is analogous to the flaps on an
aircraft wing. The rudder causes the ship to orientate itself at an angle of attack to its forward motion. It is the
hydrodynamics of the flow past the ship that causes it to turn. The ship will continue to turn until the rudder angle
is removed.

Rudder Lift and Rudder Stall

As the vessel put a helm order to any side to any angle, the there is a differential water flow past the rudder from
the propeller slip stream. It creates a drift angle. This differential water flow causes the “rudder lift”. At small
rudder angles, rudder lift is created due to the difference in flow rate across the port and starboard sides of the
rudder. However, as rudder angle increases, the amount of flow separation increases until a full stall of the
differential water flow occurs at 45 degrees. The amount of lift achieved by the rudder reduces significantly after
a stall and is matched by a rapid increase in drag. Consequently, rudder angle is limited to values less than the
stall angle. A typical ship’s rudder is limited to a range of angles up to about ± 35°. This is because at greater
angles than these the rudder is likely to stall. Ships are fitted with a hard and soft rudder stop to prevent the rudder
angle from exceeding 35°.

Pivot Point and Its Position

To understand the fundamentals of the pivot point is highly required for understanding the alteration of the
course.

It is an imaginary point on the vessel which turns on a circular path on the perimeter of vessel’s turning circle
when the vessel makes a turn. It is at the same point as the longitudinal centre of gravity of the vessel when vessel
is stopped and making no movement. It starts moving towards the bow when the vessel is making ahead speed
and vice versa. The distance of the PP from the longitudinal COG varies with the speed of the vessel.

The knowledge about the position of the pivot point in a manoeuvring situation provides the ship handler with the
information on the geometry of motion of the ship. When sway and yaw occur simultaneously, a ship handler can
only perceive the combined effect of drift and turn, which gives him a false impression that only a rotational
motion happened about a certain point on the ship’s centreline. This apparent centre is called the Pivot Point of
the ship. This is a simplification of perception from two motions down to one motion.

The Mathematical Definition of the Pivot Point: Among all the points in the ship in planar motion, there is only
one point on the centreline at which the sway and yaw completely cancel each other, thus making this point seem
to be stationary. All other points appear to be turning about this point. This point is the Pivot Point. If the sway
speed and yaw speed are known, the position of the pivot point can be obtained as the distance from the centre of
mass (GP) using equation,

v + (GP x ROT) = 0

Where, v (m/s) = sway speed of G; G = Centre of Gravity; P = Pivot Point; GP(m) = distance to P from G; ROT
(rad/s) = yaw Speed.

Position of the Pivot Point

Some traditional views of the Pivot Point found in the literature are:
The pivot point:
• moves towards the bow or towards the stern depending on the direction of the longitudinal motion of the
vessel
• When making sternway, the pivot point moves aft and establishes itself approximately 1/4L from the stern
• is the centre of rotation of the vessel
• has instantaneous movement from the COG to its position
• is the fulcrum of the turning moment

Verification Experiment to establish the location of Pivot Point

A verification experiment was done in 2016 for a panamax vessel as published in The International Journal on
Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation in December 2016. The ship’s turning force was provided by
setting the engine half astern. The propeller is right handed with fixed pitch. For the purpose of analysis, the
whole experiment was divided into 8 time intervals. In each interval, the result was analysed calculating the
position of the pivot point as the average in the interval. The positions are given as percentage lengths between
the bow and the pivot point, to the length of the ship. The experiment shows plainly that the pivot point was at
around 17% of the ship length from the bow. Near the end of the experiment, it is obvious that the pier is
interfering with the water flow being created by the propeller. This experiment conclusively proves that the
traditional teachings and leanings about the pivot point for centuries are incorrect

The Starting Position The Final Position

Fig-12.2(a) Fig-12.2(b)

Formula for the Pivot Point Position,

GP = - (L2 +B2 )/ 12GFr, is a simple equation for a box shaped vessel

Where, GP – Distance between the GOG and PP ,

Fr – Position of Resultant force on the vessel,
L – Length and B- Breadth of vessel

Some important aspects are noted from above Equation.

• The minus (‐) sign indicates that the pivot point appears on the other side of G from Fr.
• A bigger GFr yields a smaller GP, which means that an external force farther away from G causes the
pivot point to be closer to G.
• A bigger block coefficient will cause the pivot point to be closer to the bow.
• The direction of the longitudinal motion is irrelevant with the pivot point location. But rather, if the
propeller and rudder combination at the stern is used as the only propulsor system, the pivot point will
always appear near the bow

Interpretations of above findings are essential knowledge for the ship handlers.

A B C D
Fig-12.3

A-Vessel moving Ahead, B-Vessel moving astern, C-Vessel experiencing external force D- Vessel being pushed
by one tug (In case 2 tugs, the tug applying more force decides)
The pivot point settles down at one point when the motion of a vessel becomes steady; and when vessel is
unsteady the position of PP is very difficult to determine exactly, particularly when various forces are involved.

All of the traditionally held views mentioned in the beginning of this section are incorrect. The facts about PP are
that the pivot point:
• is independent of direction of motion,
• is only an imaginary point
• moves gradually towards or away from the COG depending on the application of forces on the vessel.
• is not a physical entity.

However, ship handling professionals, particularly the seasoned practitioners, find it very difficult to accept these
findings.

How the vessel Turns - Controlling Forces

As soon as rudder angle is given, a Drift Angle is created due to differential water flow past the rudder from the
propeller. This differential water flow exerts a differential force on the stern of the vessel. Due to this force the
stern of the vessel tends to turn in the desired direction. As the vessel’s stern tends to turn, it acts against the
inertia of the wall of standing water. As a reaction the hydrodynamic forces acts on the vessel as per newton’s 3rd
law. This reaction force in terms of hydrodynamic force actually exerts in great amount to cause the vessel to turn
in opposite direction of the stern movement. As the hydrodynamic force acts along the entire ship side, the
resultant of this force acts closer to the COG of the vessel. The rudder being at the aft of the vessel is far away
from the COG has a longer lever. Thus the differential force acting at the stern of the vessel due to rudder angle
also creates sufficient amount of turning moment. Thus the turning of the vessel is the result of the moment
created at the stern due to the rudder as well as the moment created by the hydrodynamic forces.

Along with the above forces due to rudder and hydrodynamics, the external forces of wind and current also exert
additional forces to turn the sway the vessel from her course. These external forces may be used to turn the vessel
wherever required by the ship handler to his advantage. Whenever unwanted such turns, the rudder force is
applied to nullify such external forces.

Directional Stability & Turning Ability

Directional stability and turning ability are two terms that needs good understanding before carrying out alteration
of courses of a specific type of vessel. While direction stability speaks of the steadiness of the vessel while
following a course, turning ability is speaks of the agility of the vessel while turning.

Directional Stability

There are circumstances where it is more important for a ship to move on a straight line rather than turn. With the
rudder set amidships, and in the absence of external forces, the ship will travel in a straight line. This is termed
controls fixed straight line stability. But sea directly on the bow will create a yawing moment that has to be
compensated for by movement of the ship’s rudder. So directional stability is related to the inertia of a vessel,
specifically, to inertia of motion. The vessels with more inertia of motion are supposed to be more directionally
stable.

As explained in the section “Concept of BRA and RG Point” in the chapter “Speed Control”, direction stability
can be maintained by applying a suitable Rudder Angle (BRA) when the vessel’s engine is stopped and but
underway. Thus the directional ability depends on many factors as explained in the said section. As the speed
reduces, after some time even a hard over wheel to any side doesn’t match with the disturbing external force. At
that point the rudder is said to have given away.
 • Hull Forms with different levels of directional stability: Many hull forms do not have a good level of
directional stability. In particular, ships which are relatively short and wide such as tugs or harbour utility
vessels and in certain circumstances, small combatants tend to have poor controls fixed straight line
stability.
• Controls fixed straight line stability is quantified during sea trials by the spiral manoeuvre where rate of
turn is compared with rudder direction.

Turning Ability - Rudder Response

The level of response required by a ship is driven by its operational role- cargo ships, containers, passenger ships,
or destroyer or naval ships. In opposition to the directional stability of a vessel, it is also required for the ship to
turn in a satisfactory manner when a rudder order is given. Thus the response of the rudder also must be
satisfactory. The ship handler must understand and appreciate the rudder response of various ships. The ship must
respond to its rudder and change heading in a specified minimum time (T) and there should be minimum
overshoot of heading (Heading overshoot) after a rudder order is given.

Both of the above response quantities are dependent upon the magnitude of
• Rudder’s dimensions;
• Rudder angle;
• Ship speed.

Rudder Dimensions: Dimensions of rudder are limited by the geometry of the ship’s stern. The larger the
dimensions of the rudder, the more the ships are manoeuvrable. Increasing the rudder dimensions decreases the
response time and overshoot experienced by the hull.

Rudder Area Ratio=Rudder Area / LBP

For example, the ratio of rudder area to the product of length and draft ranges from 0.017 for a cargo ship to 0.025
for destroyers.

Rudder Angle: The response characteristics of a ship will depend upon the rudder angle ordered for a particular
manoeuvre. It is common procedure for the levels of response to be specified with the ship using standard rudder.
This is 20 degrees of wheel, but may vary for different ship types.

Ship’s Speed: The speed of the ship also has a great effect on the response of the rudder. Ships with more speed
gives better response to the rudder and the vice versa. This is something under the control of the ship handler.
When the response of the rudder is sluggish, the ship handler tends to increase her speed by more increasing the
engine RPM.

Wheel Over Point (WOP) While Altering Courses

As soon as the vessel gives a certain degree of wheel over to any side, the vessel doesn’t start turning right away.
It takes few seconds for the vessel to overcome her inertia and then slowly she starts turning and the ROT
increases subsequently. As soon as the ROT reaches the desired limit the helm is reduced to control the ROT. The
helm is reduced and brought amidships or opposite helm to control the ROT.

As the vessel takes few seconds to overcome her inertia, within this time vessel traverses some distance ahead
before she actually starts turning. This has to be appreciated by the navigator before altering any course. To bring
the vessel right on the new course, the wheel over must be ordered before she reaches the actual alteration point.
Otherwise if there is any delay or early in putting the wheel over, she would land off track while achieving the
required new heading
How much distance before the actual alteration point, the Wheel Over must be given to achieve the desired
alteration? - This is normally a ship’s length or little over it for loaded vessels and little less for light vessels.
Thus Wheel over point (WOP) is point on the charted course of the vessel where the wheel over is ordered so as
to get the effects of turning on to her new course.
This appreciates 2 facts –
1. Circular turning path - Vessel turns on a circular path gradually rather than a sharp turn almost
immediately, and
2. Delay in time and distance before actual turn - Vessel starts turning only after some time and distance
once the inertia is overcome.
Normally in open seas or relatively less restricted waters the simple method of finding WOP is as follows:

Safe distance from danger = r (usually 1 miles)

danger

distance = 1L wop

Wheel over line safe dist= r

Fig-12.4

Drawing WOP on Charted Course

Usually to achieve the objective of shortest distance, while drawing the course lines on the navigational charts,
during the linear route plan, vessel plans alteration of courses near or around any obstructions or isolated dangers
comes on her straight line path from the start to the destination point. This logic is not applicable in Great Circle
Sailing course alterations. But GC courses are usually followed on transoceanic passages of large distances with
less or minimum obstruction on the way for the vessels. Drawing the WOP on the track before course alteration
points is a important requirement of the passage plan. Following steps may be followed:

1. Draw 2 lines over the isolated danger keeping a safe distance parallel to the planned course lines. The safe
distance may be 1mile or ½ mile or 2 cables as decided by the officer in-charge considering the degree of
restrictions of sea-room.
2. Draw 2 straight lines over the isolated danger at right angle to the 2 planned course lines
3. Draw a arc touching the points where the right angle lines cross the planned course lines with the centre at
the isolated danger. This would be the path to be actually followed by the vessel while altering the course.
 4. Mark a point at a distance of 1 ships length on the course line before alteration. That is the point called
WOP.
5. Many times it happens that the vessel may not be exactly on the planned course line while altering the
course due to various reasons of avoiding collision with present traffic. Thus there is need of drawing a
Wheel over Line parallel to the latter course line. Vessel would give wheel over when reaches this line if
she is not on the course and off track.
Understanding Wheel Over Point is not only for the purpose of drawing a course line on charts. It must be
understood that it has some practical application while carrying out alterations of ships. When altering ships alter
large angles, the wheel over has to be actually executed in right time. Failing to carry out wheel over in right time
would land the vessel largely off track after alteration completion. Making up for those off track sometimes is a
dangerous as well as time taking affair.

Concepts associated with Execution of a Turn

In open seas, alteration of courses is a minor and routine job for a navigator. Even auto pilot does it without any
monitoring. But in narrow channels and harbour limits, it is a critical task with heavy stakes involved. As seen
from statistics failure to carry out a perfect alteration in harbour limits is one of the leading factors of huge
accidents happening in maritime industry world over. Despite regular fact finding and investigations, such types
of incidents keeps on happening leading to heavy damages to the port structures along with commercial losses.
The blocking of Suez Canal by mega container ship M.V. Ever Given in march 2021 is one stark reminder of its
importance.

Making a precise alteration of course of large vessels in narrow channel or the places where space restriction is
too narrow, these concepts below an inevitable importance. Before execution of large turns in restricted waters we
need to understand following:

a. Relation between ROT and Speed

b. Paths traversed by bow, stern and pivot point
c. Relation between Heading and COG
d. Lateral Traverse (Xr & Xm) of the stern due to Inertia of rest and motion
e. References to be monitored during turning

Now let’s examine above mentioned factors in details to get a clear understanding of them so as to understand the
basic concepts involved associated with alteration of courses and safe positioning of vessel during same.

a. Relation between ROT and Speed

In restricted waters or in harbours, the navigator has to follow a designed turning path. There is not much room to
deviate from the designed path. The designated path is proximate to shallows and dangers. There is always a risk
of running on to danger of getting aground and or collision.

For execution of a good turn in restricted waters, vessel has to keep right speed in proportion the right ROT.

Let’s assume, r = Radius of the turn, V = Speed in m/s, @ = Turn Angle, t = Time taken to complete the turn, d
= Distance travelled on a circular path, ROT = Rate of turn of vessel in degrees / second, w= Distance from
wheel over point to the point where vessel actually starts turning.

Thus, ROT= @/t V= d/t, V/d = ROT/@ ROT= V@/d

Also, d=r@ ROT = @/t= d/r*t = V/r ROT=V/r

From above linear equations it is clear that the ROT is directly proportional to speed of vessel, V

If Vessel making a speed of V has to turn a angle of @ at a Rate of Turn - ROT, ROT has to be directly
proportional to speed V. If a vessel is making more speed, her rate of turn has to be more and the vice versa.

Pos-3

Pos-2

Pos-1 Turn angle @ Turn Angle @

Speed – V1 Speed V2

Rate of turn – ROT1 Rate of Turn- ROT2

Fig-12.5(a) Fig-12.5(b)

When vessel moves from position-1 to position -2 the distance covered and angle turned by the vessel are the
same in both the diagram. But the speed in one diagram is V1 and another is V2. So the ROT in one diagram
should be different from other one.

V1 /V2 = ROT1 / ROT2 ROT2 = (V2/V1)*ROT1

Thus to make a particular turning path, the ship handler has to adjust her speed and ROT accordingly to get a
designated turning path. If the vessel is making a lesser speed the rate of turn (or Swing) has to be slower and if
the sped is more the rate of turn has to be higher for the vessel to follow the planned path.

b. Paths traversed by Bow, Stern and Pivot Point

While vessel is making a turn in open waters with abundant sea-room, the paths traversed by the bow stern and
pivot point matters a little or nil. But when the sea room is very less, in a range of few metres, it is very important
to understand the difference in the paths traversed by bow, stern and pivot point is very important. If you ask
anybody in maritime industry, how a pivot point moves, almost everybody has a correct answer. But if you ask on
how the stern and bow moves in relation to the pivot point, probably you will get rarely a correct answer. There
lies the reason why large accidents are frequent in recent in port limits during manoeuvring. Let’s take a closer
look at how the bow and stern moves on a circular path.

At the beginning of the turn, the path of the stern is of much interest to the handler as the stern moves away from
the path towards the probable danger at the stern. Bow is supposed to be n safe waters as the bow is turning
towards the new course of the vessel. However towards the end the alteration, the path of the bow is important as
the bow would move away from the new course once she overshoots the course. The stern is still coming and yet
to come to the new course.
 PP

Bow

Pivot Point stern

Bow

Stern

Fig-12.6(a) Fig12.6(b)

c. Lateral Drift of the Stern and the Bow while turning

When vessel is turning, though the heading of the vessel keeps on changing the COG of the vessel doesn’t change
appreciably till she settle on a new heading. Once she settles on a new heading her COG changes gradually and
settles down near the heading with applicable set.

On a forward moving ship, while she is turning to any side her stern moves in the opposite direction of the turn
substantially and bow onto the direction of the turn lesser than the stern.

Let’s examine how the bow and the stern moves from their original positions in the following diagram

For small alteration of course,

Lateral movement of stern = K+B/2 + (4/5)L tan@

Let’s say,

ROT = r, Speed = v Turn Angle =@ in the time period of TLb , Time taken = t (TLb), Distance travelled= d

t= @/r, d= v*t, => d= v@/r

 Pivot Point

Bow

Stern

Fig-12.7

At position P-1,

Lateral movement of stern = - (K+B/2 + (4/5)L tan@)

Lateral movement of Pivot Point = 0

Lateral movement of bow = + (B/2 + (1/5)L tan@)

At position P-2,

Lateral movement of stern = ((2L/3)- Xsec2@) tan2@ =

Lateral cross track of the pivot point , X = + d * tan@ x”= (d+Xsec2@) tan2@

Lateral movement of bow = X + (B/2 + L tan2@)/3) = (L/3+ X sec2@) tan2@

Thus lateral movement of the stern follows function as below:

4L/5 * tan@

4L/5* tan 2@ - d*tan@*sec2@* tan2@

4L/5* tan3@ - (d+Xsec2@) tan2@*sec3@*tan3@

Above function shows that as soon as the PP starts moving on the circular path, the lateral traverse of the stern
starts reducing after reaching the maximum value of 4L/5* tan@, where @ is the change in the heading of the
vessel time lag at the beginning of the turn ( TLb).

d. Relation between Heading and COG

Once the vessel gives wheel over to any side she starts turning to that side after the vessel overcomes her inertia.
There is a time and distance lag before she actually starts turning after wheel over is given. As the vessel starts
turning, the heading starts changing as well as the COG; but the heading changes earlier than the COG. There is a
time and angular lag between the Heading and the COG.

At the beginning of the turn as the vessel’s heading starts turning to one side COG remains same as before and
doesn’t change right away. After some time the COG also starts turning to the same side. The time lag between
the turning of heading and turning of COG is TLb. Similarly when the vessel’s heading completes the turn and
comes to new course the vessel’s COG is still not settled down in the new course. At that time the COG is still
changing towards the heading. The time lag between the settling of final heading and COG is TLe

YYY’ Final course ( degrees)

Course (degrees) heading

COG

XXX’ Initial Course (Degrees)

TLb TLe time

Fig-12.8

XXX’ : Initial course

YYY’: Final Course

TLb : Time Lag between Hdg & COG at the beginning of the turn

TLe : Time Lag between Hdg & COG at the end of alteration of Course
. It is to be noted that TLb & TLe may not be the same.

What is the significance of TLb & TLe?

At the time of alteration when wheel over is given to one side, the stern moves in opposite direction from the
original path. As vessel keeps on turning to one side the stern keeps moving onto opposite side. The lateral
traverse of the stern due to inertia of rest (Xr) of the vessel keeps on increasing during the TLb till it reaches
maximum. This happens due to “inertia of rest”. As soon as the COG starts turning towards the heading the lateral
traverse of the stern starts reducing from the maximum. If there is ample sea room on the stern there is no issues.
But if the stern-room is restricted, then the lateral traverse of the stern could cause it to touch the ground or
smelling the ground. It could complicate the alteration process. This is critical while altering in the channel. If the
white margin of the channel is less than the “maximum lateral traverse” of the stern, then there is risk of the stern
being grounded or damage to the buoys if at the stern.

During the alteration of course, there is a continuous lag between the Heading and COG of the vessel.

Towards the end of alteration of course, once the vessel reaches her final course, there is still a lag exists between
the heading and the COG. The stern still moves away from the settled new course of the vessel due to the “inertia
of motion”. The stern keeps on moving from the new course within the period of TLe till it reaches maximum.
This is “lateral traverse of the stern due to inertia of Motion”(Xm). This would land the stern off the centre
line of the course. If there is not much sea room available at the stern on the opposite side of the turn, this could
cause a significant disaster if not controlled properly. The classic example of a disaster due to this is the
accident of container vessel M.V. Milano Bridge in the Port of Busan in Apr 2020.

This “lateral traverse of the stern due to inertia of motion (Xm) during TLe is dangerous and pose serious threat to
the vessel and environment in restricted waters, channels and harbours. This is due to following reasons:

1. The inertia of motion for large and loaded vessels is very high. This is even higher when moving at a
higher speed. To control this inertia of motion possibly the handler may reduce speed in advance for
loaded or larger vessels.
2. The time period of TLe is relatively unknown to the handler. The time period may be longer or shorter
varies from vessel to vessel. During this period there is a degree of uncertainty in the position of the
vessel as it continuously keeps on changing.
3. If there is effect of weather exists at the time of alteration, the amount of set is unknown in the final
course of the vessel. Though the direction of wind remains same relatively, the current may be different
in the new course. And with the changed course, the relative direction and strength of the combined
external forces with respect to the heading of the vessel would be quite different. Thus the amount of set
is unknown to the handler. Though the pilot handles the vessels regularly and they can expect the amount
of set on a new course. This varies with time in a diurnal range, month of the year, local disturbances in
the weather system, strength and direction of tidal stream. There is a certain degree of uncertainty in this
regard.
4. This set due to external forces adds up the “lateral traverse of the stern due to inertia of motion” would
cause a great amount of uncertainty on the positioning of the vessel in the new course.
5. The time to give correction is also very critical. If not acted swiftly vessel will land upon danger.

Due to above reasons it is very important to understand and take corrective action for this so as to keep the vessel
in safe waters all the time during large alteration of courses in restricted waters.
Corrective action to Lateral traverse of Stern (Xm)

Corrective action involves 3 issues – displacement of vessel, speed of vessel and existing external forces causing
set and or leeway.

1. Handler can do nothing about the Displacement of vessel. Looking at the displacement of vessel handler
may decide on what speed to keep during the alteration and ask for additional assistance of tug if
necessary.
2. Speed is critical. Maintaining an optimum speed is the key. For high displacement vessels, it is preferable
to reduce the speed in advance so that the inertia of motion would be lesser. For lighter vessel handler
may choose to keep higher speed.
3. Regarding existing weather condition creating set on the vessel’s course, it is advisable to keep the
heading towards the weather so that there is a little safe margin on the lee side of vessel during the period
of uncertainty of TLe. If not heading to the weather side and there is no safe margin on lee side, if the set
is more than expected and by the time handler realises it and vessel is drifted few metres onto the lee side.
If not, she will be drawn to the edge of the channel and face consequent hazards.

Even after the alteration, it advisable to alter few more degrees (+Cz’) towards the altering side before she settles
on the final new heading. This may be called as “Corrective Angle”. This is +ve if altering to stbd side and –ve if
altering to port side on the 3digit notation of the course. Then give wheel hard over on opposite side so as to break
the inertia of motion of the stern and quickly settle on the final COG.

The Cz’ should further be increased or decreased depending of the direction of weather and consequent set of the
vessel. This additional correction +/-Wz may be called as the “Weather correction”. This is the resultant of the
effects due to current, leeway and Tidal stream on the vessel.

Thus the final corrective angle may be called as Weather Corrective Angle (wCz’)
Where, wCz = Cz +/- Wz

Final heading = final charted course +/- wCz ( + for stbd side, - for port side)

The green dotted line in the graph shows the path of COG if there is a current or weather exists on stbd side and
vessel is having a set to port side. After alteration of course set may not be the same as before alteration of course.

e. References while making tight turns

While carrying out any manoeuvre, the most important tangible objective of the ship handler is to keep vessel’s
position in safe depths so as to keep her always afloat. The ship handler mostly is aware and confident on the
vessel’s position except during alteration of course until she settles down on a new course.

While vessel alters her course, there is relative degree of uncertainty in the position of the vessel in the perception
of the navigator as position continuously keeps on changing during the process. The navigator needs to actively
observe vessel’s change in position, rate of change of position as well as the position itself.

During this uncertainty, it is the physical references that come to the rescue of the ship handler. The ship handler
should find 2 fixed land objects on land to understand the relative change in position of the vessel and the rate of
change in position, which is the relative speed of the vessel in a particular direction. The motion of the fixed land
objects relative to one another shows clearly the change in position and rate of change in position.
Thus while carrying out a large alteration of course; reference shall be made to the fixed land objects inevitably.
At least 2-4 pair or reference points ensure informing the ship handler periodically whether she is following there
right path. At any time, by looking at the reference objects, if the ship handler feels that the vessel is not following
satisfactorily on her correct path; immediate intervention must be done to correct the factor which is running out
of hand.

Execution of Large but Unaided Alteration of Courses in Limited Sea rooms

Execution of large alteration of courses in limited and highly restricted sea rooms is as tricky as dangerous. The
stakes are very high when executing a large alteration of course particularly in harbour limits or in close
proximity to hazards of navigation or harbour structures. Many accidents has been recorded over history and in
recent past also caused due to wrongly executed alterations of course; the latest incident being – accident of
vessel M.V. Milano Bridge in the Port of Busan in Apr 2020.

All the concepts related to execution of turns have been discussed earlier in the chapter. Let’s now see how to
execute large unaided alterations of course safely and comfortably.

1. Large alteration with restricted sea room

When a large alteration of course is to be made in highly restricted waters, it may be executed in several smaller
parts looking at the physical references. Though the alteration is a continuous process, it can be checked by the
pilot with the physical references whether the alteration is going smoothly within the tolerable limits. If something
is going beyond the limits, corrections may be given to control the alteration in tolerable limits.

As shown in the figure below, the course is divided to 4 legs reference lines – RL1, RL2, RL3, RL4. Their
corresponding ahead reference points are RA1, RA2, RA3, RA4. RL5 is the reference line at which the vessel
already settled on her new course.

Thus while alteration of course the pilot need to check that when passing any fixed point on the reference line
RL1, she should head towards Reference point ahead-RA1. The vessel keeps on swinging to starboard side under
helm till she passes any fixed object along RL2. While passing RL2 vessel should head towards reference point
RA2. Similarly the alteration would proceed till end.

There is no hard and fast rule on the dividing the course to how many parts. This may depend on following:

1. number of available fixed reference points on the bow and corresponding reference points on the beam of
the vessel.
2. Should not be in large numbers that it is difficult for the pilot to monitor them
3. Ideally 3-4 numbers depending on amount of alteration.

At any point if it is felt by the pilot that while passing a fixed land object at reference line RL, the corresponding
reference pilot on the bow is not reached, then he may increase the swing (ROT) to catch the next reference point
on time. Similarly at any time if it is felt that the bow reference point (RA) is overshoot while passing the
corresponding reference line (RL), then the swing(ROT) of the vessel would be reduced to accordingly.
 RB5

RB44

RA3

RB3 RA2

RA1 Cz

Rr RA4

RL5

RB2 RL3 RL4

RL2

RB1 RL1

Wheel over line

Fig-12.9

2. Large alteration with restricted sea room under External force

Above section explains the alteration of course when there is no external force exists to disturb the vessel while
altering the course. But what happens when there is appreciable strong external force affects the vessel while
altering her course. Similarly when there exists some external force like wind or current to cause set and drift or
leeway on the vessel, the alteration of the course may be carried out little early or late depending on the direction
of the set.

In the figure given below, if the from stbd side (green), then the course should be altered early so that while
passing reference line RL1, the corresponding reference object on bow is already passed on to her port bow.
Similarly the alterations would be executed further while passing subsequent RL.

If the Force is from port side (Red), then the course should be altered little late so that while passing reference line
RL1, the corresponding reference object on bow is not yet crossed, thus be visible on her stbd bow. Similarly the
alterations would be executed further while passing subsequent RL.
 Dm

Cz

Wheel over line

Fig-12.10

This ensures the vessel has a margin of safety due to drift (Dm) at the beginning of alteration. Same maintained
regularly. At any time if this Dm becomes excess or reduced due to unpredictable wind or current, it must be
corrected in the next RL.

3. Large alteration around a shallow patch Or without reference points

When there are no reference points to carry out a large alteration or while altering around a isolated danger or
shallow patch, Some small calculations need to be done by the pilot to proceed for the alteration.

Let’s say, Radius of the turn = r, Speed = V, Turn Angle =@, Time taken =t, Distance travelled= d

Distance from wheel over point to the point where vessel actually starts turning = w

ROT= @/t V= d/t, V/d = ROT/@ ROT= V@/d ……..1

Also, d=r@ ROT = @/t= d/r*t = V/r ROT=V/r………………..2

Vessel can carry out an alteration perfectly by looking at the ROT. ROT may be calculated by using equation 1 or
2 depending on the known factors. If r is exactly known, then ROT = V/r or (57.3V/r) degrees per second.

If r is not known, then pilot needs to calculate d by any physical means. The calculation of d is not generalised
here as it may vary at different locations and may be calculated using various methods physically. Angle of
alteration (@) is already known from Navigational chart. V is also known to the pilot as the speed he decides to
carry out the alteration. Thus ROT may be calculated as V@/d degrees per second.
Thus without any reference points on view, the pilot can alter her course at a predetermined ROT, as calculated
above and reach the final course accurately. In such case off course there must be relatively sufficient sea-room as
compared to the previously discussed case with reference points.

Amalgamated Turn – (Turning + Reduction of Speed together)

What is “amalgamated turning” (It was named Hybrid turn in the last edition of the book. Amalgamated turn is
the suitable term that can be used to such turns)? It is a combination of alteration of course while reduction of
speed. There are points in pilotage waters where alteration of course is necessary while reduction of speed is
equally important. For example, when loaded bulk carrier has to be berthed at the nearest berth close to the
channel. For the vessel to keep safely in the channel vessel needs to run her engine thus the speed remain
appreciably higher. As soon as the vessel comes out of the channel, within few hundred metres there is the berth
at some angle to the channel. In such case vessel has to alter her course to head towards the berth while all
available means must be used to reduce her speed. Reduction of speed is vital while alteration of course is equally
required.

Such example is not rare. There are places in many modern ports of the world where the vessel has to be turned
by substantial amount of degrees while there is a demand for substantial reduction of speed as well. This is one of
the peculiar features of such ports where the sea conditions are relatively bad outside the breakwater and there
may also be sufficient cross currents causing the vessel to drift appreciably. In such conditions, the pilot prefers
not to reduce speed of the vessel till the vessel enters inside break waters. Once the vessel enters the break waters,
there is an urgent requirement to reduce speed. While reducing speed remains the top priority, there are many
places where the vessel needs to take a substantial turn to reach the designated berth.

The design of the berth is in such a way that the vessel needs to reduce the speed substantially as well as alter her
course by a large angle. Such locations need extreme manoeuvring actions while such actions pose also a
substantial risk to berth as well as the expensive equipment and infrastructure fitted on the berths. Such locations
invariably present highest risk of collision of the vessel with the berths before being safely berthed.

Collision potential of such manoeuvring remains always high as the execution of an amalgamated turn is itself
fraught with many risks. Execution of a perfect amalgamated turn lies depends largely on the reliability of main
engines of the incoming vessel. Should there be any engine failure; the attending tugs have to manage both the
reduction of speed a s well as the turning, which is not an easy task. The experienced pilots may better understand
what I’m talking about.

We may say that the designers of such berths are at fault. They could have prevented such designs. True. But the
designers have many other factors as well to consider. They make such berths so as to reduce the effects of
oncoming swells into the harbours. Some places the topography facilitates such design. There are many other
factors to consider while designing a berth. But, surely the designers must not ignore the statistics of the number
of such incidents happening around the world every day. While designing such berths, this factor must be
prioritised and effective controls measures must be given if at all there is a need be.

Whatever amount of control measures they put during design of such berths; still the pilot has to execute an
excellent manoeuvre to get a vessel berthed safely on such berths. The pilot must take into account of the
possibility that engine may fail during such manoeuvre. The pilot must have effective control measures to
counteract such emergency situations.

That’s why the reality of an amalgamated turn makes itself important. It needs special analysis and understanding.
The Process to be followed:

Use all available resources to reduce the speed of the vessel while maintain steerage, before arriving
Wheel Over Point.
On reaching WOP, engines are ordered ahead, if stopped or running astern before that. This is to allow
helm effect to start turning the vessel. At this stage tugs if made fast to assist the vessel, may continue to
assist reducing the speed only as at such higher speed tugs are unable to go to a 90 degrees position to to
push or pull the vessel laterally to start the swing. Thus running engines is the best option to start the
swing early, especially in laden vessels.
When engines are runs ahead, give wheel hard over to the side where she needs alteration.
As soon as the sufficient swing is generated, the pilot needs to assess the situation regards to speed. If
speed has fallen to satisfactory level, engines may be stopped or run to control the swing of the vessel.
If the speed is still not fallen to satisfactory level, astern engines may further be used to reduce the speed
while vessel is still swinging to the same side. If engines run astern to reduce speed, the rate of turn
(ROT) will further intensify if the vessel is turning stbd, and will reduce if turning to port side
(considering RH propeller). The pilot must keep an eye on the rate of turn at that time.
As the speed of the vessel keeps on reducing, at a satisfactory level, the tugs must be called to be stand by
at 90 degrees to push or pull accordingly to control the rate of turn (ROT) of the vessel.
After the vessel achieves sufficient reduction of speed and rate of turn (ROT) to make the manoeuvre
safe, all the applied forces in both longitudinal and transverse direction are removed one by one.
In the meantime make the forces (Tugs, engines and helm) ready in opposite direction to break the
momentum of the vessel to allow the vessel so as to allow her settle on her new course.

Stages of Turning while Reducing Speed.

Understanding the process above indicates few clear points related to such amalgamated turn. A graphical
representation of above process may be as follows:

Speed (knots)

ROT

Zone (F) of Zone (M) of Zone (B) of

Applying Forces to Maintaining Breaking
reduce speed and Speed and Momentum
Increase ROT Turn

Fig-12.11
Above diagram clearly shows speed and ROT values in all the 3 stages of carrying out an amalgamated turn.
These stages are as described below:

Stage –F:
In this stage, vessel was initially proceeding with some higher speed and with almost steady course. It means
initially the speed was V, and ROT=0. As WOP arrives, various available forces (helm with ahead engines, and
push or pull by tugs at 90 degrees at bow or quarter, if available at that speed) are applied to increase the ROT
slowly. While this being done, if tugs are available for back pull, braking would continue. After reaching a
satisfactory ROT or Speed, the forces may be removed one by one. The removed force may be used for
controlling the other factor which is still not arrived satisfactory result.

Stage-M:
Once a satisfactory ROT as well as corresponding speed is arrived, these are maintained at satisfactory level by
applying the required forces or without applying as the case may be. During this part, the pilot needs to observe
the physical reference points on land, just to confirm that the vessel is turning satisfactorily while countering the
external forces if any. Any time, from the references if it is apparent that the vessel is overshooting the required
path at any time, required corrections need to be given.

Stage-B
Once the vessel alters sufficiently with a satisfactory speed, then opposing forces are applied here to reduce the
momentum of the turn and slowly settle down the vessel on her new course. On the new course the ROT reduces
to 0 or may be negative as required by the case. However the speed never comes to zoro till the time she arrives
the designated berth.

Thus, to summarise above, initially the vessels have higher speed and lower ROT. Forces are applied to reduce
the speed and increase the ROT. After a satisfactory level, when the speed and ROT are in right proportion, speed
and ROT are maintained for some time. Once the vessel is comes closer to complete the turn, opposing forces are
applied to break the momentum so as to allow her settling down on her course and speed.

Important points to Note

• Keep in mind, time is critical. Best use of time is important. Any critical delay in action will make the
whole process futile.
• In such scenario, if need be use the maximum engines early to reduce the speed. Once speed is reduced
the tugs forces will come into play early. Delay in reduction of speed would also render the tugs to be
delayed in coming to action.
• Keep in mind that the ROT has to be in proportion to the speed of the vessel to carry out a perfect turn. If
speed is not reduced substantially an appropriate increased ROT may be required.
• In this case stbd alterations are better controlled than port turns, as most of the vessels are RH propeller.
• Rate of Speed Reduction (RSR) and Rate of Turn (ROT) both should be monitored regularly to adjust the
forces.
• While running astern, try to understand the vessel characteristics on the spot. The RSR and ROT will
depend on astern characteristics of the vessel. Vessels with higher transverse thrust and less astern power
may result in more intensification of stbd turn while RSR is low. Similarly the vice versa. In such case
anticipate the results and take right actions accordingly.
Dangers involved in hybrid turning

While vessel is running astern, she is not under command. Sometimes the swing is so excessive that it is unable to
control her swing. In such case tugs must be standby to keep a check on her swing. Sometimes the expected rate
of turn is not maintained and swing is reduced. In such case tugs must be available to increase her swing.

Sometimes for fully loaded cape size vessels, even 4 tugs at 4 corner points with their full push-pull power, vessel
may not be able to control her swing while vessel is running astern. In such case there is no option but to stop the
astern engine immediately and run ahead engines and wheel hard over to opposite side to get the effect of helm.

Conclusion

As pilots execute large alterations of fairly larger vessels within harbour limits at appreciable speed the
momentum of vessel involved is fairly large. If not properly executed alterations within very narrow sea room, the
potential risks to the vessel as well as the harbour infrastructures are very high. Such improper alterations would
damage the vessel as well as the port infrastructure with loss amounting to millions of dollars. Off late it has been
observed that many accidents are happening while such alterations of course in harbour limits. Thus it is advisable
the ship handlers and pilots must understand the theory behind the alteration of courses in harbour limits. Above
concepts would help them in execution of alterations with much ease and confidence with reduced risks to the
property and life on board!

***
 Chapter-13

Manoeuvring Inside Harbour Limits

What is special inside harbours?
What are the keys in handling vessels in harbour?
Managing Sudden Onset of External Disturbances
Handling different types of Vessels,
Contingency Plans to avoid Disasters

After the successful entry of the vessel in the harbour limits, the vessel already completed her transit through the
inbound channel. Tugs are made fast to the vessel to provide assistance and speed is brought down to a controlled
limits. Inside harbour limits vessel is posed with highest degree of external restrictions. Further manoeuvring is
marked with slower speed, minimum uses of engines while retaining reserve engine powers, large wheel orders
when used, and commands to tugs etc. Manoeuvring inside harbours may also call for use of anchors and other
emergency methods of manoeuvres.

What is special inside harbours?

There are some special characteristics of harbours that need to be understood to carry out safe berthing and safe
manoeuvres inside harbours. Some of them are:

Highest degree of restrictions

From the manoeuvring of ships point of view, it is obvious that inside harbours pose the highest degree of
restrictions to the vessels manoeuvring in its limits. We experience all the restricted conditions of highest degree.
Sea room is very restricted in all the 4 dimensions – longitudinally, transverse, UKC, and headroom.

Depth and Draft Limitations

Normally ports are dredged up to a limit of maximum size of vessels she is expected to handle with a UKC of 1-2
mtr. Thus the UKC to draft ratio is very less, even just 5-10%. In such case the flow of water below the keel is
highly restricted to carry out smooth movement of laden vessels.

Air Draft Limitations

Some ports are provided with many peculiar infrastructures. Air draft limitation is one of them. There are places
where vessel passes under bridge in river ports. In such case vessel has to adjust her air draft for safe passing
under the bridge. Similarly at the berth, gantries are placed for quick cargo operations, but they pose an air draft
restrictions. Vessels have to operate with this restriction on the headroom of the vessel. In case gantries outreach
restrict the vessel movements, these need to be lifted before safe passing of vessels nearby.

Limitations on Lengths
Usually length limitations arise due to the length of the berths available or if there is a limitation on the turning
basin. The diameter of the turning basin also limits the length of vessels to be handled in the port.

Maximum Size of Acceptable Vessel at Pier may be calculated from following:

The pier length= LOA + k X Breadth (B)

Where k= 1.0-1.7 depending upon the angle between the mooring lines and the pier; angle being 45degrees,
k=1.0, Angle being 30 degrees, k= 1.7

Thus maximum LOA of the vessels that may be handled on a pier is = Available Pier Length – k X Breadth (B)

Turning Basins

Turning basis is an important feature of a harbour. This allows the vessels to turn while inbound or outbound
passage of the vessel. The diameter of the turning basin is usually little more than the largest size of vessel
handled in the port. . Mostly every vessel at any point of time during the port stay is turned by 180 degrees during
her inbound or outbound passage to/from port. This large turn has to be carried out near the berth if space is
available. Otherwise the vessel is brought to the turning basin by her ahead or astern movement and finally
allowed to turn about 180 degrees. The diameter of the turning basin also limits the length of vessels to be
handled in the port. Thus turning basin is an important and critical feature of any harbour. This defines the
easiness of handling vessels to/ from the harbours.

Risk of Collision
As the vessel is operated at very close range of the port and jetty infrastructure, there arises the risk of collision.
There are also vessels berthed nearby, small crafts working for various purposes, and dredgers if working inside
harbours. With the amount of traffic density in a very small congested area always runs the risk of collision. This
risk of collision has to be completely removed by putting appropriate control measures.

Risk of Grounding

As the risk of collision, there is risk of grounding also prevalent within the harbour limits. There has been many
grounding case happening within the port limits due to many reasons. Though grounding is little tolerable
emergency than collision with vessels nearby. Grounding and subsequent retrieval of vessel depends on the nature
of seabed and the location on the vessel where grounding has happened. If the seabed is of soft nature like soft
mud and sand, the vessel is likely to re-float in the next high tide with the help of tugs. But if the nature of seabed
is rocky and likely to damage the ship’s hull, the chances of re-floating may not be easy. If the ship side is
ruptured and bilging take place, it may turn the vessel to wreckage and would threaten the other movements of
other vessels and consequent survival of the port itself.

Pilots must also be expert in re-floating the vessel in case there is grounding on soft bottom. Otherwise the
salvage operations may be required to re-float or removal of the grounded vessel.

Passing by at very close range

In developing ports of world, the sea-rooms are generally very tight. Trying to maximise the operations with
available resources, port authorities often push the vessels through highly restricted areas to berth the vessels. In
such cases vessel has to pass at very close range with other vessels or shallow patches. The close range may be
sometimes even 10-5 mtrs also.

Pilot has to manoeuvre the vessels while passing the objects or other vessels at very close range. At such close
ranges maintaining the vessel in safe waters is a challenge with literally no margins of error. As the vessels pass at
very close range with shallow patches the bank effects from the shallow patches complicate the manoeuvring
process. Further when the vessel pass with already berthed vessels at close range due to interaction between the
vessels, the berthed vessel face excessive surging motion and their cascading effects.

After effects of Passing at Close range

As the vessels pass at close range with the berthed vessels, there are many peculiar shallow water effects,
interaction with other vessels. This causes the berthed vessel to suffer due to surging and breaking mooring lines
and gangways. Following graph shows Time in seconds on X- axis and surging force (kN) experienced by the
berthed vessel on passing of other vessel.

Time in seconds
200

150

100

50

0 Y-Values
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
-50

-100

-150

-200

Fig-13.1

To avoid such incidents, pilot always try to proceed at a very slow speed to reduce the shallow water effects and
the interaction with other vessels. But it comes with added danger of lateral drifting and difficult to maintain
vessels on the planned course.

Difference between Channel and Harbour

The basic difference between the channel and harbour is that in channel risk of grounding are available while in
side harbour, risk of grounding is coupled with risks of collision. In channel vessel tries to maintain her
directional ability and follow the charted course at a sufficient speed with close margins but in harbour limits,
vessel has to make lot of turns, bends 2 dimensional motion to achieve desired results at very slow speed.

While within the channel, pilot rarely need to look after the external communication but in side harbour limits the
pilot need to do necessary communications with external factors like port control, jetty officers, tugs to carry out a
safe berthing or un-berthing.

Thus pilot has to identify and appreciate the additional developments required within port limits.

Looking all the above factors, it may be said that in open sea what we can consider a close near miss, it’s a day
today navigational operation within harbour limits.
 What are the keys in handling vessels in harbour?

Navigating inside harbours with numerous restrictions is a critical and highly specialised task. With lot of
limitations on headroom stern room and side room and UKC and air draft etc. it’s really a specialised task to
position the large vessels at a safe berth. The key points to complete this task are as follows:

1. Safe speed i.e. slower speed

Inside the harbour limits the definition of safe speed amounts to a slow speed of less than 5 kts in which case the
both ahead and astern engine powers are available for use. Whenever required, a minimum RPM is maintained on
engines to get steerage of the vessel. Also vessel proceeds with engines stopped and get whatever possible
steerage to maintain directional ability of vessel.

Depending upon the distance of the vessel from the berth the speed may further be reduced by available means
while maintaining the vessel’s position in safe waters. Mostly vessels with very slow speed of 1-2 kts also get
steerage with wheel hard over either side though it is very sluggish in nature. In calm weather vessels can
maintain directional ability. Id weather conditions are not favourable assistance of tug is necessary.

2. Reserve Engine Power

It is always a good idea to run at a slower speed while vessel is maintaining a reserve engine power to use when
required in case of urgency.

Example on better use of reserve engine power explained with 2 contrary situations as below:

Let’s say a vessel is approaching and just 500m away from her planned berth. If vessel is moving at a speed of 2
kts, and at any point of time due to external reasons unable to get steerage and going out of control from safe
waters, pilot may give dead slow ahead, or slow ahead or even half ahead for some time with wheel hard over to
get the response quickly. Once vessel is controlled within the limits, RPM is reduced back to minimum RPM
engines or stopped. In this period there is a marginal increase of speed, let’s say maximum 0.5 kts. So vessel may
go up to a speed of 2.5 kts. Again when engines are stopped, speed starts falling back again.

In a contrary situation, if the vessel moves at a speed of 3 kts (1 kts more than previous scenario), in case of
urgency if vessel has to run up to half ahead and there is a marginal speed of 0.5 kts increase, then she would
attain a speed of 3.5 kts. With 3.5 kts speed, vessel would cross the remaining distance to the berth at a faster pace
than previous scenario.

Now the ship handler has a task of covering the distance of 500 m in 4.7 minutes as well as reducing the speed of
3.5 kts to zero in same time. On the contrary, the ship handler has to cover the same distance in 7 minutes at a
speed of 2.5 kts while reducing the speed to zero at the berth.

We can very well understand that to break 3.5 kts speed vessel has to run her astern engine at higher RPM for a
longer time causing more stress on the engine and resultant unwanted transverse thrust while running astern near
the berth.

Consequently she has to manage the additional transverse thrust generated by much power consumption by the
tugs. Theoretically the whole exercise of 2 scenarios save a time of may be 2 minutes if vessel proceeds at 3 kts
compared with the vessel proceeding at 3 kts. It amounts to no much difference in time saving while causing lot
of stress on the engines and more power consumption from the tugs.

Thus the key is to proceed at a slower speed with reserve engine power.
 3. Good references & cross check mechanism
Within harbour limits though the restrictions are extreme, there are numerous points of references available in the
form of fixed land objects for the pilot to immediately sense all dimensions of the vessel’s movement almost
immediately if properly observed. The electronics means of information system has a critical time delay. Thus it
is good practice to develop sense of observing references continuously to get the feel of vessel’s movement. This
saves a critical time for taking action for the pilot.

It is always prudent to place cross check mechanisms in the information inputs to the pilot so that is there is any
error in one source; another source of information cross checks it. In such case pilot would be able to verify the
correct information before taking any decision based on such information.

4. Dependence on Visual aids – Little or no use of Electronics aid

Visual sources are the best aids to the pilot to get the right information than anything else. Well-developed ports
of the world provide lot of visual aids to the pilot where there are any chances of getting error.

At best electronic information is there to just to compare with the visual information to get an idea of correctness
o and percentage of error exists in the electronic info.

3. Control on swing
When vessel has to alter course within the harbour limits, there is restrictions in sea room and time limit for
alteration. Thus it is very important to alter the course timely. A delay in the alteration would complicate the
further manoeuvre of the vessel. Loaded vessels constrained by her draft it is very difficult to later the course of
vessel due to less UKC. All available resources are used, in case vessel is not turning as per the plan, to turn the
vessel. But once the vessel swings to one side at a particular ROT, then before the vessel comes to her final course
the ROT need to be reduced slowly to settle down on her final course.

Laden vessel’s with restricted UKC, when keeps on swinging at a ROT, due to inertia of motion, she keeps on
turning to that side. It is really difficult to reduce her swing and slowly settle down on her final course if not taken
action timely.

As vessel is pilot is tied his hands to use the engine for a longer time, controlling swing timey and within safe
limits of depths, it’s a really very critical and specialised task. Any delay in controlling the swing is suicidal.

4. Optimal Use of Tugs

In the chapter – Tugs, best use of the tugs has been discussed in details. However it is to be reminded that for a
satisfactory manoeuvring, the optimum use of tugs is very important.

What is optimal use of tug?

-When tug is used to push or pull the vessel the vessel at particular situation. It should create just sufficient effect
on the vessel. It should not be excessive or underuse so that it is required to give another command to the tug to
correct the effects of previous command. It is not good for the tug to execute the extra command and not good for
the movement itself.

It is said that a good movement is the one where there is minimum number of commands given to the vessel. This
can happen only with optimal use of tugs.

5. Anticipation of next action

While doing the manoeuvring, it is a continuous process whereby the mind of the pilot continuously processes
information, decides on action, observes its effect and takes inputs from the observation and processes again. This
cycle keeps on running in the mid of the pilot.

However during each cycle he should anticipate next action. Then only he can find the difference between his
anticipation and effects of his decision. This deficit shapes his further action. This creates the feedback
mechanism in the sequence of action.

6. Tugs St-by to give assistance in adverse conditions

Generally tugs are put on standby modes – ready for pushing and pulling when vessel is passing in critical areas
inside harbours. For tugs to be in standby mode and carry out push or pull, vessel has to come down to a speed of
less than 4-5 knots. At critical points the tugs must be warned and briefed of any anticipated situation and thus
ready for any adverse conditions.

7. Timely actions - Delay means lot of additional work and more risks
It is to be noted that the timely action is critical to complete a successful manoeuvring. Any critical delay would
amount to additional set of work to be done.

T1 T T2

Shallow waters berthed vl

Point C

Point B 2 cables dist

Point A

Fig-13.2(a) Fig-13.2(b)

In the above 2 diagrams, it shows the effects of delay in alteration. In 1st figure the vessel alters to stbd smoothly
at point A and again port at point C. In 2nd figure vessel delays her alteration at A thus alters at B. This delay
would cause following:

1. At B, she has to alter to a large angle towards point C, which is time taking and may need more power on
engines,
2. More power on engines would cause the speed increase marginally.
3. As soon as she alters to a larger angle at b, within a lesser time interval she has to alter her back to port
side again to a larger angle. This further is a time taking and process very difficult to control.
4. There is fair chance that vessel would follow track T1 or T2 instead of T. This would call for the tugs to
push heavily in case of T1 or pull heavily in case of track T2
 5. If tugs are unable to do so which is very likely, she would get closer to the berthed vessels or land closer
to the shallow waters. This may lead to a collision or grounding.

8. Control on lateral drifts

While maintaining a course in the harbour, it is very important to keep on crosschecking her position regularly
and keep a check on her lateral drift. If not checked regularly it’s very difficult to bring her on to safe waters again
once she lands appreciably away from her desired position. Tugs have to really work hard to push her back to her
desired position.

9. Establish clear communications

Within harbour limits, while carrying out manoeuvring pilot has a second most important job is to establish and
maintain a good communication schedule with the port control, jetty officers, tugs and other nearby ships if
required.

While concentrating on the execution of the manoeuvring, it is preferable to keep unnecessary communications to
minimum and only if it is absolutely necessary. Other involved in the berthing procedure must avoid undue
communication in the channel. The officer in charge of the jetty operation must keep other things ready for
berthing of vessel to avoid undue queries from pilot and diversion of his concentration.

10. Find out Clearances and positions gantries on berth

Before reaching her designated berth, the pilot must confirm that the clearances from fwd and aft vessels or
obstructions are sufficiently maintained. Gantries if present on the berth have to be positioned in such a way that
they would come near the mid-ship section of the vessel being berthed. Positioning of the gantries must be
avoided at the positions where the bow or stern of the vessel is planned to position. This is because while berthing
of the vessel, many times the bow or the stern if approach the jetty at some angle, the bow or the stern moves over
to the jetty. In such case if gantry is present in such location, the bow or stern which comes over to the jetty would
definitely hit the gantry causing damage to gantries and major disasters in the port.

Managing Sudden Onset of External Disturbances

There are instances when it happens that some external disturbances onset immediately without or at very short
notice. These are the times which pose extreme difficult conditions for the ship handlers to manage the vessel and
keep her in safe limits. The sudden onset of such disturbances with very short notice or without any notice calls
for swift decisions and further actions from the ship handler.

1. Onset of restricted visibility

At any point of time in the middle of manoeuvring, if there is sudden onset of rain, snow, fog or hailstorm to
restrict the visibility, it hinders the visual aids of navigation. Without any visual aids to navigation it is very
dangerous to proceed further in the manoeuvring. In such case it is better to hold her position in relatively safe
waters.

If the vessel has a higher speed, she should make use the speed and proceed to relative safe water like turning
basin. Then let go her anchor to hold her position.

If the vessel is at slower speed and near berth or near other berthed sips, give astern on engines or back-pull by the
tugs to bring her speed to almost zero, and then let go her anchor underfoot. Try to hold her position. In such case
with 2 tugs standby near the vessel, they must be used to stop any yawing of vessel while at anchor. It is
important to hold the position as well as the heading of the vessel. Otherwise vessel if yaws at her position she
may come close to the other vessels or to the shallow patches with running risk of collision or grounding.

2. Sudden onset of strong wind

Sudden onset of strong wind creates lot of difficulty in handling the vessel in harbour limits. In such case vessel
generates lot of leeway especially if in slow speed. This creates the lateral drift potortional to the available
windage area of the vessel.

Within the tolerance limits, she may continue with the planned manoeuvring by allowing for additional drift
generated by the winds. But if unmanageable with the applicable correction within its tolerance limits, additional
tugs must be called for assistance to prevent the lateral drifts of vessel. The amount of force generated by the wind
may be calculated by Huges formulae given elsewhere in the book. Depending on the amount of force generated,
the number of tugs to be called for assistance may be decided by the pilot.

3. Tug lines broken

Many times it happens that in the middle of manoeuvring, while pulling the vessel the tug lines gets broken. Thus
it’s a good practice to check the condition of tug line regularly and add reinforcements, protection sleeves to
prevent chafing of the lines. If lines are old enough or developed sign of deterioration, they must be renewed at
regular intervals.

In such case pilot has few options such as: 1. Pass good ship’s lines immediately to make fast tugs immediately
or, 2. Pass another line from the tug or 3. Call another tug for assistance immediately 4. Instead of keeping the tug
pulling position, check if the tug may be used in pushing position from opposite side of the vessel.

But availing any of the options would take some time from 1-5 minutes sometimes even 15-20 minutes also.
Within this critical time without tugs assistance, vessel must manage herself to stay in safe waters without
incident. And within this critical time vessel must have to use engine and / or steering diligently to stay in safe
waters.

4. Tugs Grounded and unable to run engines

When manoeuvring in restricted sea-rooms inside harbour limits, while managing vessels to keep in safe waters,
tugs take additional risks. Or due to excessive swing of the vessel on to the tug side and tugs in unmanageable
position, they run into dangers of grounding.

In such case the tug must report same to the pilot. And the pilot if possible reduces her speed to prevent any drag
of the tug along with the vessel and consequent breaking of lines and accidents on board tug.

In the meantime the pilot may ask for another tug to come for assistance to the vessel and the grounded tug.

5. Wrong engine or steering commands

Many times it happens that during the manoeuvring; when pilot advises to give particular engine or helm order,
the duty officer or the helms man give a wrong helm or engine command in the wheel house.

This happens when the crew are tired or manoeuvring in late night or midnights or early in morning hours when
crew is not fresh for duty. There is a bridge team which cross checks each other for any wrong execution of orders
on engine or helm but mistake happens even after crosschecking each other few times.

In such case the pilot also needs to cross check each commands advised to the master is executed properly. Even
after checking when pilot is busy ascertain the position or drift of the vessel, at critical points, he may not be able
to cross check the orders if executed properly.
In such weak moments of manoeuvring, mistake happen and wrong execution happens. If at all happens, the pilot
realises the wrong execution as soon as he realise that he doesn’t get the effect of the last order in sufficient time
or get a opposite effect of the intended order.

As soon as it is realised to the pilot and crew the wrong execution of the command, it must be reversed and pilot
advises a bold correction order for the wrong one.

6. Sudden Engine or Steering Failure

Engine or steering failure happens on vessels if not frequently in the middle of the manoeuvring process. This also
poses threats to the safety of vessel and property of ports and environment.

This is the main reason why tugs are deployed for manoeuvring the vessel in port limits. 2 tugs if available, they
normally are able to maintain her course while another tug may be deployed at right ahead or astern of the vessel
to control her speed.

Handling Different Types of Crafts

There are many different types of vessels and crafts enter the port limits for many different purposes. Each water
crafts are provided with quite distinct manoeuvring characteristics and features. There are crafts with or without
propulsion machinery, there are crafts with unusual sizes, there are crafts with extreme drafts, there are crafts with
extreme length limitations and there are crafts with excessive engine speeds that are difficult to manage with
available resources.

1. Handling bulk carriers

Bulk carriers are the known for their sluggishness in manoeuvring abilities. With deep drafts and heavy
displacements coupled with lower engine power and sluggishness of the helm, handling a large bulk carrier in
restricted water is a difficult task.

Normally engine power is lesser; accordingly the effectiveness of helm is also very slower.

As the size of bulk carriers increase there no proportionate increase in engine power, rather their engine BHP
reduces proportionately. Handy max – 9000 BHP, Panamax- 15000 bhp , Cape sizer – 25000 BHP. In the days of
economic speed, bulk carriers are provided with further lower powered engines.

The Stopping distances of the bulk carriers are usually longer than the container vessels.

Due to the relative sluggishness of helm, their tactical diameter of the turning circle is relatively larger.

Turning ability of the vessel is less. Once gets a swing it is very difficult to stop her swing easily.

Laden bulk carriers are very difficult to handle their swing solely by engine and helm.

Transverse thrust generated during astern engines are generally larger compared to their aster speed.

Directional ability of bulk carriers is relatively lesser.

While in laden condition effect of wind ha little effect on bulk carrier except only to the accommodation area, but
in light condition when the full ship side is fully exposed to the wind, it creates sufficient lee on the bulk carriers.

Blind area from the bow is usually less when in full laden condition
 2. Handling containers vessels

Container vessels are the known for their good manoeuvring abilities. With the higher engine powers and
provision of thrusters at bow and stern, manoeuvring is easier compared to the other types of vessels.

As the engine powers are higher, accordingly the effectiveness of helm is also good.

As the size of vessel’s increase there is proportionate increase in engine power, Engine BHP of a 30000 GT
container vessel is usually 15000BHP, and 80000 GT vessel is 24000 BHP approximately. They are provided
with 2000BHP thrusters.

Stopping distances of the bulk carriers are usually lesser compared to other vessels and speed reduction is quicker
than other vessels. A container vessel speeding at 15kts can be stopped within 5 minutes in comparison to 15
minutes in case of bulk carrier.

Dead slow ahead speed of container vessel range from 6 kts to 9 kts compared to 4-6kts in case of bulk carriers.
But speed reduction ability of container vessels is still better than bunkers. Reason being when engines stopped
the containers vessels steel able to steer for quite some time and bring down the speed.

At very slow speed it is running engines for some time to get helm effect the marginal speed increase in container
vessel is quicker, which is not good in handling the vessel. However in bulk carriers the marginal increase of
sped is quite lesser. It’s a good feature of the bulk carriers.

Due to the relative swiftness of helm, their tactical diameter of the turning circle is relatively smaller.

Turning ability of the vessel is good. It’s easier to get control of swing of the container vessels compared to other
vessels.

Usually container vessels do not need tug’s assistance for manoeuvring unless the external conditions are not
favourable.

Transverse thrust generated during astern engines is also lesser in case of the container vessels compared to the
astern speed generated.

Directional ability of container vessels is very good.

In any condition of loading, container vessels are prone to wind effects. At 20 kts of wind speed, container vessels
become difficult to manage. Either port declares stop of movements. If the port lies in a windy area, the sea-rooms
are developed very clear for handling the vessels.

Blind area from the bow is usually higher when in light condition.

3. Handling Lighter vessels

In a port developed to handle large vessels, there is sufficient sea-rooms for smaller vessels. Thus it is relatively
easier and quicker to manoeuvre lighter and smaller ships.

Though the engine powers are usually less, the pilot may be able to run the engines at higher RPM to get better
effects of engine and helm.

With Tugs standby, it’s easier to control the vessels.

 4. Handling Un-propelled Objects

Different types of un-propelled objects are handled in the ports for many different purposes. Un-propelled objects
may include but not limited to – Barges, floating cranes, dead ships, vessels under repairs etc.

Usually these types of un-propelled objects are not regular in ports. Once in a while they appears in regular ports
thus poses a difficult task for the regular pilots handling vessels with propulsion machinery. If a particular type of
un-propelled objects is handled by the port regularly, it is not a problem as all the handling resources are
optimised as per the dimensions of the object being handled. But problem comes when due to some extreme
circumstances, such type of objects are required to be handled by port. All the resources are not optimised as per
the dimensions of the object and relative experience of the handlers is less.

In such case such movement when planned, it has to be properly assessed and meeting must be carried out among
all those to be involved in the manoeuvring process. A risk assessment must be carried out and all the risk s
involved must be addressed properly. The dimensions of the object to be handled should be assessed properly to
understand its effect on its manoeuvring.

Handling un-propelled barges without any navigational characteristics is a special and different task.

These barges are usually handled by the tugs. It is preferable to deploy 3 tugs to control the lateral and
longitudinal speed of the vessel. Handling of the un-propelled barge is largely depends upon the displacement of
the vessel.

If one tug is used for pushing aside to control her longitudinal speed, the handling is quite different.

5. Handling vessels with Extreme Drafts

Handling vessels with extreme drafts with respect to available depths is a different experience all together. As the
UKC is very less and almost nothing, the water movement below the keel remains highly restricted. The restricted
movement of the water blow keel and on the side of the vessel causes the vessel to behave differently at many
places.

Alteration of course is very difficult. The inertia of motion is very high. Tugs with their maximum powers, may
not be able to get hold of the vessel in extreme conditions.

6. Handling Vessels with Extreme Lengths

Long vessels with longitudinal space restrictions are also a different matter al together. In this case engine and
helm is usually available at pilot’s disposal. Turning large vessels in restricted space is a specialised task. Vessel
has to be kept in safe waters by monitoring the fwd and aft distances from shallow patches.

Contingency Plans - Plan for the Unexpected Situations

As long as all goes well within harbours, a sense of satisfaction comes well in the mind of Pilots. If at any point of
time something doesn’t go as per plans and something serious is going to happen, there must be well trained and
clear-cut action plans available at the disposal of pilot to manage the situations. Thus the contingency plans and
measures must be there in the thought process and response of the pilot to averse any disaster. We plan very well
for situations which we know would create problems for us. The situations which we tend not to plan therefore
catch us by surprise, are those where the potential for harm has not been foreseen or is considered too remote.
We are trained to handle some specific emergencies out at sea and I can say easily that seafarers are the one of the
best managers of emergencies. They have the ability to think underfoot and act almost immediately as per the
plan. However the natures of emergencies at sea are different from emergencies in port and harbour limits in
many aspects. Potential emergencies scenarios may develop at any time due to many factors such as –

• Engine failure
• Tug failure
• Lack of alertness
• Sudden onset of weather and visibility conditions
• Sudden increase in wind or current etc.

From Pilot’s Point of View

Pilots working in a specific port are doing numerous ship movements every day of similar and different types of
ships. Doing same movements almost every day, they know what they have to do at every critical point on the
passage though for masters and duty officers, it is very difficult and unimaginable actions. The quickness and
boldness and perfection in every action come with experience. By doing same types of movements almost every
day the pilots gets confident as long as there is no error and the movement is completed satisfactorily every time.

But there is something that comes with the experience and repeatedly doing same type of movement by the pilots
is – Complacency. The feeling that everything will be all right – is the killer attitude. Accidents happen only once
in life, they don’t happen every day. Normally with all factors working well, all goes well. Accidents happen
when one or multiple factors go against the pilots intentions on a fine day when it was least expected. A recent
five-year study of claims in excess of USD 100,000 recorded by each of the Clubs in the International Group of
P&I Clubs revealed that some 262 claims were caused by pilot error, with an average cost per incident of USD
850,000.

Why? – If all goes well with pilots actions. This every pilot must ask this question to himself and try to find
answers.

The causative factors may be broadly categorised as-

• Error from the pilots wrong actions or

• Error from wrong actions by the master or bridge team or,
• Error in reading the due to external causes.
Whatever the case may be the role of the pilot as the leader of the manoeuvring team is to think out of the box
many a times. Expect the unexpected at any time. Think what wrongs may happen during whole process of
manoeuvring at each critical point particularly. What needs to be done- action plan when such wrongs happen at
critical points.

We cannot generalise about the dangers involved during each pilotage for each harbour, berths, or canals or
channels etc. around the world. Thus it is on the each individual pilot and the competent authorities of each
pilotage waters to carry out regular risk assessments and create contingency plans for the potential risk.

There must be procedural checks and balances put in place to minimise the risks. After getting sufficient pilotage
experience, each pilot must carry out brain storming sessions to develop contingency plans. Many serious
incidents happens when there is no emergency as such, and develop into emergencies because the potential for
harm has not been foreseen or has been considered too remote. During brainstorming sessions, they should think
where and what may go wrong at any critical points during manoeuvring and find out what action need to take.
These brain storming sessions would prepare the minds of pilots to face the actual emergency scenarios with
ready actions. This would prevent critical time delays in their actions in real life situations.

Brainstorming session might include the following:

– the main dangers/risks to the crew/vessel?

– what are the worst case scenarios?
– what is the plan to avoid the worst case scenarios?
– what is the back-up plan if the 1st plan fails?

Barriers

It is important to recognise potential barriers to brainstorming to develop contingency plans and planning for the
unexpected. The barriers may include but not limited to:

• Complacency – After doing similar movements they develop dangerous complacency iand close their
minds to new situations and ideas. They think they know them all. There is no need to learn anything
more.
• No well-developed systems of checks and balances – Usually pilots are ex-master mariners with sufficient
sailing experiences and are proven good managers. Thus there is a reluctance in them as well as with the
management to check their actions and create balancing corrections. Thus there should be systematic
checks balances to avoid personal error finding mechanisms.
• Discussions on Near misses – There have been many near misses happen regularly during pilotage due to
many factors. But mostly they are not discussed in a proper forum. These are discussed in informal
groups without proper analysis. There is a need to develop a database of near misses without fault-finding
and blame game on individuals. This would encourage the pilots to report and discuss them.
• Unclear guidelines and SOP – Many authorities have not developed clear guidelines or have given very
vague or unclear guidelines on use of resource to manage potential dangers. There are instances of very
vague statements so as to push the safety margins to boarders to achieve commercial efficiencies.

Solutions

• Perhaps the most important solution is mental preparation. Consider “what if…?” scenarios and will not
react properly in a developing situation.
• Create Checks and balances involving the bridge team
• Training, exercises and drills are good opportunities to test crew reaction to scenarios that have the
potential to develop into an emergency.
• Brainstorming session before they found themselves in a developing situation which required them to
react without a plan.
• Need for a Near Misses database. These can be vital in terms of detecting whether any barriers exist and
may provide an opportunity to do something about them before a near miss becomes an emergency which
is out of control.

From Ship Master’s Point of View

On ships, there is little time to stop and think about potential problems. There are response plans and checklists
available for emergency situations which have the clear potential to cause the crew and ship harm. The
development of bridge resource management has done much to address deficiencies in situational awareness, by
stressing the importance of a team approach. However, if the members of a team are too preoccupied with tasks at
hand, or other human factors are at play, there will be a much greater chance of potential emergencies being
considered at all.

Problems in Planning

How do you plan for something you do not foresee happening? Often there is no checklist or response plan
specific to each exact situation and it is impractical to produce checklists and plans for every eventuality.

Another problem is that sometimes there may be very little time to take action, and that is particularly relevant to
pilot error. However, before the pilot embarks, the plan can simply be to identify the critical aspects of the
pilotage where the bridge team will have to be particularly alert. The plan can also involve reminding the whole
bridge team that pilots can make mistakes and that it is therefore important for the team to be mentally alert and
prepared to speak up if there is any concern over the pilot’s orders. Perhaps a final consideration to a pre-pilotage
plan would be whether or not to proceed with the pilotage.

Many situations, such as those mentioned in the above cases, occur on ships every day and although each
situation will be different, time will often permit a plan to be developed to deal with a situation from the moment
it becomes real.

Barriers

It is important to recognise potential barriers to planning for the unexpected and, perhaps more importantly, to
carrying out plans. The barriers may include but not limited to:

Language and cultural differences – These can generate reluctance within the bridge team to speak up if there is
concern in a particular situation.

Shore staff support – Even if only perceived, a suspicion may exist on the vessel that the shore staff will not
support a decision taken on the vessel, for example not to proceed with a pilotage.

Speed at the cost of Safety– Many investigation reports on a major casualty points out that “speed and quick
turnarounds appear to have become the focus of the industry at the expense of the safe operation of its vessels.”

Cost saving – For a vessel without her engines far off land one can appreciate the temptation to attempt repairs
before calling in potentially expensive external assistance.

Solutions

Perhaps the most important solution is mental preparation. If crew members have their minds preoccupied with
other things, or have persuaded themselves that something bad will not happen, then chances are that they will not
anticipate these scenarios and will not react properly in a developing situation.

Training, exercises and drills are good opportunities to test crew reaction to scenarios that have the potential to
develop into an emergency.

***
 .Chapter-14

Slow Speed Manoeuvres

What is Slow Seed in Manoeuvring?
When vessel resort to Slow Speed Manoeuvring?
Why slow Speed manoeuvring is Critical?
Thumb Rules of slow speed Manoeuvring
Various Options Available to control the ship at Slow Speed,
Some Extreme Manoeuvres at Very Slow Speed

While we learn more about the manoeuvring of vessels with sufficient speed and full availability of engines and
helm, the manoeuvring of the ships at slow and very slow speed is quite different and critical too. Such
manoeuvres are required within harbour limits at very close range from other vessels and shallow patches. The
objective of these manoeuvres is to carry out safe berthing or un-berthing of the vessel with a good control on her
movements.
Though higher speed has a good control on the vessel manoeuvring, but vessel cannot maintain a higher speed in
the harbour limits due to following reasons. The disadvantages of higher speed are as follows:
• tugs are rendered ineffective,
• Squat increases with increase in speed
• Smelling ground and other shallow water effects are more pronounced
• If touches ground due to any reason, it would be very difficult to refloat
• Astern engines are less effective at higher speed. Ineffective above 5-6 knots
• Less time for assessment
That’s the reason why every ship handler or pilot must be conversant and comfortable with the slow speed
manoeuvring of vessels especially in harbour limits.

What is Slow Speed Manoeuvring?

Vessel is provided with her manoeuvring characteristics with full engine power available. Most of the ships
officers are aware of the manoeuvring characteristics of the vessel and use them when required. But how about
the manoeuvring characteristics of the vessel and options available at slow speed with minimum engine power?
There is no characteristics are given in any bridge poster and has not been recorded anywhere. This is based on
experience of the pilots and ship handlers that mostly calls the shots. There are certain questions that come to a
navigator’s mind.

- How the vessel behaves at slow speed? How to control the vessel at very slow speed?
- How to control the vessel when engine power is not available?
- What happens when even if engine is available but unable to use the engine freely due to excessive space
restrictions longitudinally?
 When a Vessel Resort to Slow Speed Manoeuvring?

As per the speed control plan in the passage, there are points where there is a clear understanding that vessel need
to reduce speed to a certain level. Though optimum speed or safe speed in Rule No-6 doesn’t specify the speed
limits, in the speed control plan the pilot when take over the navigational duties has specify the speed limits
quantitatively at different reference points and legs of the planned passage. The speed control plan needs to be
discussed between master and the pilot during the master pilot information exchange. Here the pilot explains the
optimum speed limits at various legs of the passage and various reference points and any specific reasons for
maintaining unusual speed. This indicates the frequency of engine orders may be given at different legs.

Without taking other factors into account the normally the optimum speed is a proportional to distance to berth.
However where there is any specific external force is available to affect the behaviours of the ship at any point it
may be modified to suit the existing scenario. In the speed control plan when the vessel comes closer to the berth
the speed of the vessel reduced by the pilot periodically.

For the purpose of discussion on slow speed manoeuvring and better understanding, we consider here slow speed
means a speed less than 5 kts and while engines runs at dead slow ahead or at lesser RPM or at Astern
revolutions.

In the example of speed control plan given in Chapter – “Speed Control” for a fully loaded Panamax size vessel
planned to berth on berth No-1 starboard side with 2 tugs to be made fast on port bow and quarter, the segments
of the passage which falls under slower speed is as follows:

Distance from berth Optimum speed Ref points

1. 1 mile 4 kts Turning Circle

2. 5 cable 3 kts Passing Berth No-10
3. 2 cable 2 kts passing berth No- 5
4. 1 cable 1 kt Passing Berth No- 3
5. 100 mtr 0. 8kt Passing berth No-2
6. 50 mtr 0. 5kt 50 m from bow position
7. 25 mtr 0. 3kt 25 m from bow position
8. 10 mtr 0.1kt 10 m from bow position

Why slow Speed manoeuvring is Critical?

1. Disadvantages of slower speed

There are some disadvantages in manoeuvring a vessel at a slower speed what makes it difficult for the ship
handler to keep good control of the vessel at slow speed. These are as follows:
a. Difficult in turning
b. Rudder less effective
c. Wind catches
d. Larger set
2. Insufficient number of Minimum Number of Kicks
Air bottles are charged and kept ready before vessel enters restricted waters for manoeuvring of vessel.
Depending on the number of air bottles available the minimum number of starts of main engine is limited during
manoeuvring. For some vessels it is 12-18 starts available and for some vessels there is unlimited number of starts
available.

During slow speed manoeuvring, the ship handler resorts to frequent stopping and restarting of engines due to
restriction in increase in speed. This regular start and stop consumes pressure on the starting air bottles and thus
the number of kick starts of engine available. After certain number of kick starts vessel reaches a critical level of
engine being unavailable due to exhaustion of starting air pressure. This complicates the manoeuvring process of
the vessel. ship handler should take note of it and accordingly make judicious use of engine starts and stop so that
sufficient number of starts should be available at hand during critical phase of manoeuvring.

3. Minimum RPM is not available

When vessel has to move at a slower speed while manoeuvrability of vessel is available with running engine,
some ships are provided with an option of minimum speed/ RPM. Ship handler should make use of minimum
RPM available when required to do so. In such case the speed is maintained at low level with helm available for
alteration of course. This RPM is a level lesser than Dead Slow Ahead RPM. Most of the ships are not provided
with another minimum RPM other than dead slow ahead. To keep control of the vessel, if engine needs to be run
at dead slow ahead continuously the speed wouldn’t fall below the corresponding speed. Thus it calls for stopping
of engines and kick ahead when necessary to get the effect of helm.

4. Cannot solely depend on astern engines to reduce speed.

Usually the aster power of the vessel is lesser than the ahead engine power. It may as low as 25%. He should take
note of it and make his dependence on her astern power accordingly. If very low astern power is available, other
methods must be deployed to reduce speed while keeping control of the vessel.

5. Helm is not usable when running Astern

While running astern, helm is not usable thus vessel is not under control for that period. Thus vessel needs other
techniques to keep her under control while vessel is running astern.

6. Characteristics while running astern

When vessel is running astern, it creates some peculiar effects. Some of these effects are – transverse thrust,
excessive vibration, Vessel not under control, wedge effect etc. It’s difficult to have control of the vessel while
running astern due to these peculiar effects. Thus the handler must have other methods to ready to keep the vessel
under control.

7. Dangerous Transverse Thrust when running astern

The transverse thrust is more noticeable and affects the control of the vessel badly when vessel runs astern. On a
vessel with conventional RH propeller, the helical water flow passes forward either side of hull. This creates the
transverse thrust at the stern to port side and thus turning bow to stbd side.

While running at dead slow or slow astern, the transverse thrust is unmanageable limits. But if the vessel is
required to run at Half or full astern for some time the transverse thrust is heavy and difficult to manage if
correction measures are not taken rightly.

8. Limitations of different types of engines

Different engine types have different limitations while running at slow speed. Turbine ships are very different
from the diesel engine powered ships. Though diesel engines the power comes quite quickly, in case of turbine
ships it takes longer time to come online and build up power, thus the power comes up very slowly. On the
reverse the while reduction in speed but still wants to keep control on the heading turbine ships are far better than
diesel engines.

Most of the ships are diesel engine with right handed propeller. In such case when running aster the bow goes to
stbd and the transverse thrust pushes the stern to port side

There are also ships fitted with diesel engines with a left handed propeller. In such case when running aster the
bow goes to port side and the transverse thrust pushes the stern to stbd side.

9. Handling vessels fitted with CPP

In case of CPP, the shaft moves always in one direction - clockwise or anticlockwise whether running ahead or
astern. But when given astern power the pitch angle of the blades are changed but still the propeller turns in the
same direction.

In CPP when the engine stops the vessel still inches forward or afterwards depending on her last command. Even
when the engines are stopped the propeller runs at 0 pitch and lot of wash is generated. While coming alongside
the berth, this propeller wash creates uncomfortable situation for the mooring lines to pass. This it is better to
disengage the propeller and stop engines from Engine Room. This ensures no propeller was still generated. But in
such case if engine is required then it will not be available for manoeuvring.

10. Handling Twin screw ships at slow speed.

Twin screw ships are good for handling at slow speed if fitted with outward turning propeller. However when
fitted with inward turning propellers, the handling characteristics are not so good as compared to outward turning.
Some of the characteristics of twin screw ships are as follows:

• Some twin screw ships with single rudder.

In such case the rudder is positioned at a centre position outside the helical discharge of propeller. In such case the
rudder is ineffective.

• The positioning of screw and torque generated thereby.

If the both screw are placed close to each other the torque effect created by twin screw is very less. The discharge
from one propeller obstructs the performance of other propeller. When the screws are placed as far as possible, the
torque generated by both the screw is quite effective.

• Turning ability
When 2 propellers are run one ahead and other astern, a torque is generated at the stern of the vessel. The torque is
powerful enough to turn the vessel on the spot. Even at zero speed, the vessel may be turned on the spot without
generating any ahead or astern speed

• Manoeuvrability of outward turning Twin screw ships

The manoeuvrability is very good. When the stbd RH propeller is put astern and port side LH propeller is put
ahead, the torque generated will turn the vessel to stbd side. Even at zero speed, the vessel may be turned on the
spot without generating any ahead or astern speed. With only one engines running vessel may be turned while
generating ahead or astern speed.

• Manoeuvrability of inward turning twin screw ships

The manoeuvrability is very bad as the astern wash from the stbd propeller may seriously deflect the smooth flow
of water from port propeller. Sometimes one of the screws is stopped to get full effect of rudder with one screw
while alteration of courses at the cost of reduced speed.

Thumb Rules of Slow Speed Manoeuvring

Some of the thumb rules which may be followed while handling vessels at slower speed. They are as follows:

1. As rule of thumb, it is always preferable to keep speed on slower side and keep engine power reserve to
give in case something goes wrong as a contingency measure. With higher engine RPM, the helm is more
effective, so the turning of the vessel, so the chances of running away from danger.
2. When tugs become ineffective due to some reason, the pilot has sole weapon of engine and helm for
manoeuvring and keep the vessel in safety. In such case if speed is on lower side then only pilot can run
the engine at any desired higher RPM for some time to get the helm effect. But if the speed is on higher
side any further increase the RPM to get helm effect may create another danger.
3. In side harbour and close to berth, every increase in speed has to be killed in next few minutes only. Any
increase in speed or running engine at higher rpm may need equal or excessive running of astern engines
to get compensated. So any decision to increase speed should be judiciously analysed. Immediately a
backup plan on how to reduce the speed has to be generated in the pilot’s mind.
4. When engine runs at higher RPM with wheel hard over to any side the speed increase becomes marginal
but not so quickly as normal.
5. Normally astern engines are less powerful varies from 30-75% of ahead power. Though it may vary from
ship to ship. Hardly sometimes it is 100%.
6. Number of consecutive starts has to be noted and keep the engine movements within limit. Otherwise if
starting air pressure consumed then engine becomes unusable.
7. When engine is stopped but vessel is underway with appreciable speed, many vessels steer satisfactorily
for some time. It depends on the directional ability of the vessel which may vary from ships to ship.
However when stopped but underway helm use may need larger than normal.
8. At very slow speed without engines running, hard over helm may be used to get lateral movement of the
stern.
9. Optimum speeds need to be clearly defined in the berthing plan and same has to be discussed with the
master. However it may not be always possible to keep the optimum speed at various stages.

Various Options Available to Control the Ship at Slow Speed

It is well known fact that controlling a vessel is more difficult when vessel runs at slow speed. Knowledge about
the slow speed control and manoeuvres are highly essential for the ship handler as these measures are required
when the vessel in restricted waters or in harbour limits or near the berth or near other vessels. Speed above a
certain limit is totally not acceptable inside harbour limits and when at close to the berth.

There is a challenge for the pilot is to control the vessel within her safe limits while not increasing the speed at
any cost. Increase in speed is suicidal and calls for unwanted emergencies. Thus while vessel at slower speed
controlling a vessel is an art every ship handler must have expertise in. There are various options available to
control the vessel at slow speed while maintaining the speed at low level or reducing the speed.

However it may not be always possible to keep the designed optimum speed at various stages. If due to some
reasons, if pilot is unable to achieve an optimum speed, then alarm bell rings in the pilots mind. Then pilot has to
resort to other methods of reducing speed while keeping the vessel well under control. Thus immediately he takes
resort to plan - a, b, c, d etc.

Options using Engines and Helm only

1. Short bursts of Ahead Engines

When engine is stopped, due to water resistance and vessel’s inertia vessel tends to reduce the speed
automatically. Depending upon the amount of speed there is certain degree of sluggishness in steering response.
Within tolerable limits of directional deviation, the engines may be kept stopped to gain reduction of speed.
Depending upon the amount of speed there is certain degree of sluggishness in steering response.

While engines stopped and vessel is underway, she is more prone to get affected by weather and develop bodily
drift. As the speed keeps falling, same external disturbance would affect the vessel in a continuously increasing
manner. If engines running, with steering vessel regularly tends to correct the set and drift generated by weather.
But with engines stopped, vessel may not get the desired correction to set and drift.
If speed is falling steadily and vessel intends to maintain a certain speed without increasing any further, short
bursts of engine may be given to maintain the speed as required.

2. Hybrid Turning
It is a combination of alteration of course while reduction of speed. There are points in pilotage waters where
alteration of course is necessary while reduction of speed is equally important.

For example, when loaded bulk carrier has to be berthed at the nearest berth close to the channel. For the vessel
to keep safely in the channel vessel needs to run her engine thus the speed remain appreciably higher. As soon as
the vessel comes out of the channel, within few hundred metres there is the berth at some angle to the channel. In
such case vessel has to alter her course to head towards the berth while all available means must be used to reduce
her speed. Reduction of speed is vital while alteration of course is equally required.

In such case, while engines are running vessel is given hard over to the side where she wants alteration.

• As soon as the sufficient swing is generated, engines are stopped while swing is continuing.
• Once engine is stopped, put the wheel amidships.
• Give astern on engines upto full astern as per requirement. Now the aster on engines creates transverse
thrust and the vessel keeps on turning to the same side.
• This causes the speed to drop continuously while vessel is continuing her turn.
This process is called as hybrid turning.

What are the dangers involved?

While vessel is running astern, she is not under command. Sometimes the swing is so excessive that it is unable to
control her swing. In such case tugs must be standby to keep a check on her swing. Sometimes the expected rate
of turn is not maintained and swing is reduced. In such case tugs must be available to increase her swing.

Sometimes for fully loaded cape size vessels, even 4 tugs at 4 corner points with their full push-pull power, vessel
may not be able to control her swing while vessel is running astern. In such case there is no option but to stop the
astern engine immediately and run ahead engines and wheel hard over to opposite side to get the effect of helm.

3. Wheel hard over with engines stopped

While engines stopped vessel runs on her course for some time depending upon her directional ability and the
effect of external disturbances. While engines stopped, the propeller slipstream passes through the rudder gives
little helm effect. In such case larger helm must be used to steer the vessel. The objective of reducing speed
slowly is achieved while controlling the vessel precariously as the vessel is stopped and large helms are used to
keep the steering of the vessel.

While engines are kept stopped, helm hard over may be used to achieve lateral movement of the stern of the
vessel. The speed of the lateral drift of the stern depends on the existing ahead speed of the vessel. However this
is many times effective against:

a. The wind effect on the accommodation causing the stern to drift away,
b. To achieve a lateral speed of the stern while approaching the vessel towards the berth and avoid using the
tug to push the vessel at stern
c. To reduce the lateral drifts of the stern due to other reason.
d. Nullify the continued effect of transverse drift generated while running astern, after stopping the vessel
from running astern

4. Wheel hard over with sort engine kicks.

While vessel is underway while engines stopped, she maintains her course for some time. After some time her
course starts wandering and unable to hold even at wheel hard over to any side. In such case short kicks of engine
may be given to bring the helm effective and stop the course wandering. Once she is steady on her designated
course, engine may be stopped. She would follow the course for some time and again starts to wander again. In
such case the engine may be given again to steady her course. This process may be repeated to maintain her
course while maintaining her speed.

Disadvantage here is that frequent kicks consume the starting air pressure and the available kick starts reduces on
every use. Pilot must be mindful about this.

5. Sequential Wheel Hard Over

Where there is sufficient sea-room, the navigator may use sequential hard-over wheel to reduce the speed of
vessel.

This may be used with engines running ahead or when underway with engines stopped. When wheel hard-over is
given, the vessel starts swinging to one side and this breaks the directional inertia of the vessel thus reduces the
speed marginally. Before the vessel settles on another course opposite wheel hard-over is given so that she comes
back to her original course while breaking the directional inertia again. This reduces the speed marginally further.
Same sequence may be repeated depending on the head-room availability and required reduction of speed.

Limitations

When vessel is stopped and after the 1st hard-over is given on the wheel, vessel starts swinging to one side. Once
the momentum is created, it’s is very difficult to reverse her momentum to opposite direction with opposite hard-
over on wheel. Sometimes engines may be required to stop the swing.
With engines running this procedure may have little effect. As soon as vessel settles back on her course, she pick
up her lost speed again.

6. Astern Engines at right time

Normally astern engines are less powerful varies from 30-75% of ahead power, though it may vary from ship to
ship. Hardly sometimes it is 100%. Astern engines are given to reduce speed of vessel when the speed is below 5-
6 kts. At higher speed even if vessel runs astern engines there is no appreciable reduction of speed but it exerts
tremendous amount of stress on the engines.

Moreover while vessel is running astern, steering of the vessel becomes ineffective. As vessel’s steering is
ineffective and she gets a constant swing to one side, there must be sufficient sea-room to accommodate the swing
of the vessel particularly on the quarter of the vessel. Otherwise there must be tugs standby to push or pull the
vessel to keep her position afloat in sufficient depths.

Looking at all these factor associated with running astern engines, the handler may decide to use astern engines
earlier I situations are suitable if required , to reduce speed and have reserve ahead power to get control of vessel
in near future in critical area. Using the astern engine s at right time is key to gain more reserve ahead engines.

7. Transverse thrust with Astern Engines

While main engines running astern, there a transverse thrust generated due to the propeller wash being
continuously hit on one side of the vessel’s transom stern. Depending of the type of the propeller the direction of
transverse thrust pushes the stern of the vessel to port or stbd side. With the pivot point on the fwd and engines
running astern, the transverse thrust causes the vessel to swing to stbd or port side depending on the propeller
type- right handed or left handed.

a. Whenever required to swing the vessel the transverse thrust may be resorted to if conditions are
conducive to make use of it to the advantage of vessel.
b. Transverse thrust may also be used to push the steer away from a particular obstruction if any while
reducing speed.
c. If on suitable side while berthing, sufficient astern engines would reduce the speed while bringing the
stern closer to the berth.

With assistance from Tugs

8. Engines Ahead with tug back pulling

When vessel is unable to stop the engine or run astern to reduce the speed of vessel due to any reason, and she
needs to reduce her speed while having control of vessel, pilot may use the one of the tugs to start back pulling.
While the tugs keeps on pulling back the engine runs continuously thus helm effect is available for course keeping
of the vessel.

If vessel is unable to give astern engines to reduce her speed, tugs may be used to pull astern to reduce the speed
while engines stopped or running ahead. Sometimes a tug is made fast right astern of the vessel through centre
lead solely for the purpose of reducing speed. Tugs while made fast on the sides for the purpose of lateral
movement of the vessel while on slow speed may also be deployed to reduce speed by back pulling from their
positions while resting on ship side. Usually the aft tug is used for this purpose but both the fwd and aft tugs may
be deployed for the purpose.

When tugs are used for back pulling, they don’t pull the vessel exactly right astern direction. They pull in
arbitrary direction mostly tending towards right astern. This little arbitrariness in direction of pulling causes the
stern of the vessel to marginally drift to one side in which direction the tug pulls. Thus when the pilot observes a
lateral drift and pilot is unable to control the drift by the engine and helm, tug may be asked to stop the pulling
momentarily. Once vessel is well in control tug may be advised to resume pulling back.
 9. Use of tugs while engines stopped or running astern
When it is overtly necessary to run astern or keep the engine stopped and cannot be given ahead engines in
whatsoever conditions and pilot is not able to resort to other options of slow speed manoeuvring, pilot has to
heavily depend on the tugs to keep the vessel under control till the time alternative arises for the pilot.

If running astern due to transverse thrust vessel may swing dangerously to any side or if engines stopped and
propeller slipstream is not enough to get any helm effect, in such case tugs must be warned in advance and
deployed at right time at right position even before the effect starts to develop on the vessel. This proactive usage
of tugs may save lot of time and energy other wisely wasted if there is any delay in deployment of tugs.

10. Hooking while Using 1 Tug

This is a type of movement when 1 tug is used to control the lateral movement of the vessel while vessel is
underway but engine stopped. Hooking may be carried out in 2 ways such as – Bow Hooking and Stern Hooking.

Bow Hooking

1. Example of Bow Hooking when vessel is underway but stopped,

A vessel, in a highly restricted area while passing other berthed vessels on her starboard side at close range, is
getting drifted to stbd side continuously.

To stop the drift or to bring the already drifted vessel to outboard side, hooking by 1 tug may be used without
running engines. Hooking may be done with following steps:

a. Put wheel hard over to the side of drift (stbd side in this case).
This would stop the drift of the stern to stbd side anymore or bring the stern away from the berthed
vessels if already drifted. As the stern moves away, the bow would tend to close in with the vessels after
some time. As the engines are stopped, once the swing catches to stbd side, it would not stop easily.
b. Use the fwd tug to pull the bow out. (fwd tug at pull minimum position.) This would hold the bow from
closing in with the vessels berthed on her stbd side. While the bow doesn’t goes in, the stern continuously
comes out.

These 2 steps would bring the vessel bodily out if already drifted or stop the bodily drifting to stbd side.

Drift to stbd side Drift on port side

Fig-14.1(a) Fig-14.1(b)
 2. Example of Bow Hooking when vessel is running Astern

A vessel, in a highly restricted area while passing other berthed vessels on her starboard side at close range, is
getting drifted to stbd side continuously. At the same time vessel needs to reduce the speed of vessel while
running astern.

To stop the drift or to bring the already drifted vessel to outboard side, hooking by 1 tug may be used with
running engines astern. Hooking may be done with following steps:

a. Run engines astern (Wheel Amidships)

Due to astern engines, the stern starts developing the transverse thrust slowly causing the stern to move.
The course of the vessel starts changing slowly with increasing ROT.
b. Use the fwd tug to pull the bow out. (fwd tug at pull minimum position.) This would hold the bow from
closing in with the vessels berthed on her stbd side. While the bow doesn’t goes in, the stern continuously
comes out.

These 2 steps would bring the vessel bodily out if already drifted or stop the bodily drifting to stbd side.

Drift to stbd side

Fig – 14.2

Stern Hooking

1. Example of Stern Hooking to keep her course while reducing speed

A vessel, in a highly restricted area while passing other berthed vessels on her starboard side at close range, is
required to reduce speed running astern.

If the vessel runs her engines astern, due to transverse thrust the stern moves to port side and the bow swings to
stbd side. To stop the drift of the stern towards the port margin of the channel, stern hooking by 1 tug may be
carried out to stop the swing and stern drifting of the vessel. Hooking may be done with following steps:

a. Run Engines Astern to start reducing speed

Due to astern engines, the stern starts developing the transverse thrust slowly causing the stern to move. The
course of the vessel starts changing slowly with increasing ROT.

b. Bring the stern tug to be stand by to push from port quarter.

Order the tug to be stand by to push from port quarter. As the ROT starts increasing, slowly increase the push by
the tug accordingly to nullify the transverse thrust.

Drift to stbd side

Fig-14.3

These 2 steps would keep the vessel on her course steadily while decreasing the speed sufficiently.

2. Example of Stern Hooking to stop drifting while reducing the speed

This is a method similar to the above method. In this case the vessel is getting drifted towards the shallow water
bank of the channel while due to external disturbances.

If the vessel runs her engines astern, due to transverse thrust the stern moves further to port side and the bow
swings to stbd side. To stop the double drift of the stern towards the shallow bank of the vessel and bring the
vessel in the safe water, proactive use of tug must be done anticipating such effect in advance.

• In such case before running astern the vessel is pushed sufficiently to generate a residual drift on
starboard side.
• Once the vessel starts drifting to stbd side, then run engines astern. Now running astern would
compensate for the drifting to stbd and keep the vessel on her course.
• In the meantime the tug must be used to increase her power to create little stbd drift. Otherwise after few
minutes the double drift to port side would cause the vessel to drift dangerously to shallow bank of the
channel.

Drift to port side

Fig-14.4

These 3 steps would keep the vessel on her course steadily while decreasing the speed sufficiently.
 11. Use of tugs only without help from engine or steering

In case of any situation when there is no engine and helm bot are unavailable due to any reasons, tugs only are
used to get control of the vessel. Tugs are deployed one at the fwd and one at the aft to control the lateral
movements of the bow and stern respectively and keep the vessel in safety margins accordingly.

It is important to note here that the speed of the vessel reduces at a greater rate when tugs are working alongside
the vessel for pulling and pushing to control the vessel. This happens as the tugs comes to almost right angle to
the vessel heading while pushing or pulling. This creates additional drag and weight on the vessel. When the tugs
push or pull, it increase the lateral speed of the vessel, While marginally increase or decrease the longitudinal
speed of vessel depending upon her location.

Using Thrusters if available

12. Use of bow Thruster only

Bow thruster is an added tool to manoeuvre the vessel at slow speed. When there is sufficient speed of the vessel
and she wants to reduce her speed while keeping control of the vessel, the handler may use bow thruster only to
get control of the heading of the vessel without running the engines ahead.

Besides being used to develop lateral speed while approaching berth, thusters are of great help in carrying out a
safe manoeuvre of the vessel in course keeping.

13. Use of Thrusters and Helm together while Engine is stopped

Bow thruster may also be used for Bow Hooking as already explained in case of tugs, if tugs are unavailable.

Combination of thruster and helm while engines are stopped or running, ship handler can generate lateral bodily
drift of the vessel while coming alongside the berth if tugs are not available.

Using other resources

14. Use current in favour

Current is in the dynamics of the water flow which is not measurable real time and applicable for manoeuvring
process. But Current and tidal stream normally follow a pattern in diurnal and seasonal range. Thus the ship
handler can anticipate the strength and direction of currents at a particular place and time after sufficient
understanding of its flow. Thus the ship handler must estimate and understand the direction and strength of the
current or tidal stream at any place on the passage while manoeuvring. This knowledge only helps the pilot to use
the current to his favour.

Anticipating the current is highly required in this case. Experience also helps the pilot in anticipating and
understanding the current at a particular time in the harbour limits. Without proper anticipation, pilot may caught
unaware in handling the effects of current to his advantage.

15. Use wind in favour

Unlike currents, wind force and direction can be observed on real-time basis. The direction and strength can be
found almost instantaneously by avid observers of weather after looking at the sea surface. Observing the strength
and direction of the wind, the pilot must use the wind force to his advantage to carry out a safe and successful
manoeuvring.
 Hughes Formula to calculate the wind force in tons
Ra = 1/2ｘρｘCRa ｘVa2 ｘ(A cos2 θ＋B sin2 θ）Kgf ( Kgforce)

Va

θ @
a

Ra

Where, Fig-14.5

θ : Wind direction from bow [degree]( Relative Wind Direction )

Va : Headwind speed [m/sec]
A : Ship’s projected area from bow above waterline in sqm
ρ : Air density [0.125kg ・sec2/m4]
B : Ship’s projected area from side above waterline in sqm
a : Length from bow to wind pressure centre (Point of Action )
Ra : Resultant wind pressure force (in kgs) → divided by 1,000 to be “in tons”
@ : Wind pressure force angle in degrees (Angle of Action)
CRa : Wind pressure force coefficient,
For Passenger ships, CRa = 1.142 -0.142cos2θ-0.367cos4θ-0.133cos6θ
For General Cargo Ships, CRa = 1.325 -0.050cos2θ-0.350cos4θ-0.175cos6θ
For Tankers & Bulk carriers, CRa = 1.200 -0.083cos2θ-0.250cos4θ-0.117cos6θ

For example,

For a container vessel of 255 m LOA, 11 m draft, with a projected A=880, B = 6200 wind speed of 20kts ( 10m/s)
from 4 points on stbd bow,

CRa = 1.325 – 0.05 cos2x45-0.35 cos4x45-.175cos6x45 =1.325-0=1.325

= ½*.125*1.325*102* (880cos2 45＋6200 sin2 45) = 29315.6 kgf=29tons

Above calculation shows, that since the CRa value depends on Cos2θ, when wind is from right ahead or astern,
the CRa value is minimum (1.325-0.575) i.e 43% less.

When It is from 4 points on bow, cos2θ value becomes 0 thus the CRa is maximum absolute value 1.325. As the
wind changes direction from 4 points towards the abeam, cos2θ value becomes negative thus increasing the value
of CRa. At right abeam, the cos 2θ = -1, thus CRa reaches maximum value (1.325+0.575) i.e 43% increase.

16. Mooring lines & Anchors

Mooring lines and anchor are used at right time with right assessment of the scenario, particularly at the time of
approaching the berth or casting off the vessel and manoeuvre away from the berth. The use of anchor and
mooring lines are explained in chapter –“Approaching the berth” and “Berthing and Mooring”

Some Extreme Manoeuvres at Very Slow Speed

Use of Tug to carry out a Tight Turn

When vessel is in port at any point of time vessel is required to be turned a very tight turn either during inward
manoeuvring or outward manoeuvring to facilitate safe entry or exit to/ from port. That’s why most of the ports of
the word do have a turning basin within the harbour limits. The diameter of the turning circle is usually little over
than the length of the largest vessel usually handled. For full-fledged port which is handling all types of ships,
usually have a turning basin of 500 m diameter or more.

Preferably when the vessel is in lighter condition vessel is preferably turned. If the vessel is coming for loading
she is turned and if vessel is coming for discharging, vessel is turned during outward movement. But there are
some vessels comes with some restriction of a particular side alongside, in such case planner has no option but to
turn the vessel when required. There are container vessels, they load and discharge same time. In such vessels can
be turned any time or preferably turned when in lighter draft conditions.

Marginal change of speed when turned by Tugs

In tight turns for large ships, when tug is used to assist to complete the turn, the forward tug which is used to push
or pull the bow marginally increase the vessel’s speed. Similarly the aft tug decreases the speed marginally. If
used to equal amount of forces in push or pull, they both nullify each other.

But when the tugs are used at unequal levels depending upon the circumstances, there is marginal change of speed
continuously.

If the navigator fails to realise this speed, in tight turning circles with few metre of margins at both at bow and the
stern, it would be disastrous.

Thus it is very important to identify the marginal change in the speed and apply engine bursts marginally to
nullify the speed regularly.

In carrying out such a tight turn the assistance of tugs are inevitable.

1. Turning the Vessel using one Tug Boat

When turning with one tug pushing at the stern (or bow), the center of the turn is the pivot point (PP). Turning the
vessel on the spot in a circle of radius 1/2L (L being the vessel length) is therefore not possible. The radius of area
required for turning can be found with the following equation.

Turning radius (R) = GP + 1/2L ,

GP = k2 /GC

• k: Turning radius of moment of inertia around vertical axis through center of gravity (G= 0.35L)
• P: Pivot point, center of rotation when turning vessel
• G: Center of gravity
 • C: Point at which tug acts on vessel

GP

½L

Fig-14.6

2. Turning within a circle of diameter 1L using 2 tugs under Wind Effect external Force

A series of simulations has been carried out for a container vessel of 255m in length, turning the vessel with 2
tugs while vessel has no speed (vessel speed =nil) under windy condition with a wind speed 20kts 4 points on stbd
bow. Vessel’s draft was- 11m, and windage area A= 880 m2 and B= 6200 m2. It has been calculated the wind
force of 29 tons acts on the vessel. While the vessel is turning, other factors being approximately same, CRa
changes from a 43% increase when wind is abeam and 43% reduced when wind is right ahead or astern assuming
the values of A and B constant. Thus the wind force would be 41 tons when right abeam.

Though it varies with the hull shape and vessel type, It is observed that the vessel needs a turning basin of double
of her length to make a full turn with the help of 2 tugs without using any engines. That means she drifts about 1
ship’s length extra when engine is not used under the influence of 20 kts of wind.

1m/s= 1.944 kts Wind- 20kts

5 1 2

3 R=2L

Fig-14.7
 4.5
Turning Basin Dia/ ship's length
4

3.5
Turning Basin Dia
3

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

Fig-14.8

Above graph shows that any further increase of wind speed more than20 kts would reqire a further large turning
basin for the vessel to turn. It means the drift increase exponentially after 20 kts . Experience shows that
container vessels may be manoeuvred even in more wind speed than 20 kts as long as the main engine is working
well. But if engine failed and vessels speed reduces considerably, than controlling the vessel at low speed would
be really difficult and tricky.

While making a full reverse turn in the turning circles, usually the speed of the vessel is less and it is more prone
to the winds. In such case more powerful tugs or more number of tugs may be deployed to carry out the turns if
the turn is really necessary.

3. Short round Turn in Slow speed

Turning a vessel in a tight turning basin at very slow speed is a critical task. When vessel has to turn at very slow
speed, Engines may not be able to be run for a longer time. In such case following steps may be followed:

a. Wheel hard over is given before engines run ahead.

b. Run the engines ahead. It would cause the vessel to start swinging to one side. Engine is kept running for
some time till speed hasn’t picked up appreciably. In such case the swing continues to the desired side.
c. When Speed is observed to increase till the tolerance limit, engine is stopped. The swing will still
continue too that side and speed start falling but slowly.
d. At that time run engines on astern movement. This would reduce the speed while the vessel still continues
to turn.
e. When speed is reduced considerably, again the engine is stopped and wheel hard over is given and
engines run in ahead direction. This would further increase the swing to the desired side.
Same procedure may be repeated to complete the swing.

In this case if RH propeller, while engines runs astern in between, the vessel continue to turn to starboard side due
to transverse thrust. This helps the starboard side turn while reducing the speed. In case Of LH propeller, astern
on engines would help the port side turn. Thus if the turning side is optional, the turn should be planned according
to the type of propeller. In such case speed can be maintained at absolute minimum while completing a large turn

4. Turning while making sternway

Vessel sternway 3 kts

Pos-1

Vessel sternway 1 kts Pos-2

Nil Sternway & Little headway Pos-3

Fig-14.9

In case the vessel is making a sternway before being turned. The diameter of turning circle is about 1.5 times of
ship’s length. Wind speed is less than 20 kts. 2 tugs used are of 55 tons bollard pull capacity one on bow and one
at the quarter.

At Pos-1: The vessel keeps on falling astern with the stern tug on pulling position to create a swing of the stern to
port side and bow to starboard. AS the bow is clear of all obstructions and comes in the turning basin limits, the
fwd tug starts pushing the bow. All the forces of tug, bow thruster are put so as to allow the bow keep turning to
starboard.

In the meantime as the bow turns at high ROT to starboard side the astern speed of the vessel keeps on falling
automatically. If the astern speed is not falling at appreciable limit, pilot may consider giving engines to reduce
the astern speed. While engines ahead is running, helm hard-over to starboard may be given to increase the ROT
to stbd or the vice versa.

At Pos-2: The vessel’s stern is already reached to turning basin limits and at this point of time the astern speed
must have been killed to 0 or minimum limits depending on the exact position of the vessel and available safety
margin on hand. Care must be also taken that the vessel doesn’t catch ahead speed as well.

As the vessel keeps on turning to stbd at higher ROT, there would be a marginal increase in ahead speed. If the
speed turns ahead after becoming zero once the stern speed is neutralised, Engines may ordered astern to
neutralise any increase in ahead speed till the time vessel completes her turn.

At Pos-3: At this position the vessel has already completed the turn, and the vessel would make her next course.
However as explained in the chapter- Alteration of Courses, due to lateral traverse of the stern the stern stll keeps
on moving away from the newly achieved course. In such case opposite helm with higher engine RPM may be
given to control the stern easily. If the stern doesn’t come under control due to very low speed of the vessel or due
to external force acting on the vessel, tugs the stern tug may be used to push or pull accordingly to control the
lateral traverse of the stern.

Once the both the bow and stern are under appreciable control of the pilot and the vessel has gained sufficient
speed, tugs may be released of their duties and vessel follows on her next course.

5. Changing pivot point

This is an option that may be used at low speed, where use of engines may reverse the speed from ahead to astern
and the vice versa. With the change in the direction of speed, the location of pivot pint moves substantially from
fwd to aft and vice versa. With this change in the location of pivot point away from the external force increase its
effectiveness in turning or getting swing of the bow or stern of the vessel.

This may also be used to reduce the effect of any external force by shifting the pivot point towards the position of
the external force.

Engine astern

Brings the PP to aft

Fig-14.10

***
 Chapter-15

Approaching Berths
Checks before Approaching to Berth,
While approaching the Berth,
Vessel’s Approach Speed to the berth,
Different types of Approaches to Berth,
Few Thumb Rules of Berthing Procedure

Great deal of pilotage prowess has been done before the pilot make the vessel approach to the berth. This is the
final leg of the manoeuvring before the vessel positioned on a safe berth. Approaching a berth is marked with
very slow speed in order of 1kts or less. Quick engine movements may be required followed by reverse orders to
maintain her position.

As discussed earlier, when vessel approaches close to the berth, all the 3 dimensions of sea-room as well as the 4th
dimension of headroom also become restricted. Thus when close to berth, besides managing the lateral and
vertical positioning of the vessel, vessel has to resort to extreme speed control measures. During this leg of the
pilotage, the pilot must proceed to control both longitudinal as well as the lateral speed of the vessel while
ensuring sufficient under-keel and headroom clearances.

Judicious use of tugs made so as not to deviate from the planned position and push the vessel laterally so as to fall
on the fender parallel yet smoothly so that full load of vessel is spread equally on all fenders. It is a very precise
exercise. A good berthing needs the team work between ship staff, tug staff, Pilot and the jetty staff. Its co-
ordinated exercise leads by the pilot.

Checks before Approaching to Berth

Turning basin is the last breather point for the vessel before making the final approach towards the berth. It is a
good practice to make sure everything is in good order before proceeding towards the berth. If any difficulty or
inconvenience has been created for the vessel it is better to wait in the turning basin as supposedly there is
sufficient sea room is available for the vessel to wait there or change the berthing plan if any of the factors has
changed which would affect the safe berthing of the vessel. Though jetty officers usually take round of the berth
where vessel is planned to berth and check the clearances and all required arrangements are done to facilitate safe
berthing procedure. Still before proceeding towards the berth, if possible, it is good practice to reduce speed in the
turning basin and buy some time to confirm following are in order and in commensurate with the plan.

1. Berth is Clear
The jetty officer must inspect the berth and its structures, lights, signals are working fine. Sometimes at the last
moment the berth number also changed in some busy ports due to other incoming or outgoing vessels. Fenders
and markings on the berth should be in good order.

2. Which side alongside

This is usually declared well in advance so as to facilitate cargo operations. But sometimes due to some
limitations of vessel like problems in gangway etc, master request to berth on a particular side against the planned
side. Many a times which side alongside is left to pilot’s choice. In such case pilot plans the movement
considering the easiness of inward as well as the outward movement. Due to limitations of cargo handling
equipment, vessel has to berth on a particular side and may be turn around at a later stage to reverse her berthing
side.
3. Berth space is enough
This is the length of the berth has to be sufficient enough to accommodate the vessel safely. In a tight situation the
clearances from berthed ships at forward and aft of the designated berth has to be calculated well and confirm that
it accommodates the incoming vessel. Though sometimes the calculated berth space is enough to accommodate
the incoming vessel, the mooring lines of already berthed vessels are arranged in such a way that they eat way lot
of berth space. In such case the mooring of the berthed vessels may be rearranged to create sufficient space.

4. Tight clearances Ahead and astern

Sometimes vessel has to berth with a clearance of 10/12 metres from other vessel. In such cases the headlines of
the aft vessel and the stern lines of the fwd vessel may come in very close to the ship’s structure sometimes 3-4
mtrs only.

In such case the pilot has to be very careful in the engine movements and quickness of its response. Speed control
is a very important factor in such cases.

5. Clear Head-rooms
This is related to air draft of the vessel in relation the height of the gantries positioned on the berth. The height of
the gantries above the sea-level must be higher than the air draft of the incoming vessel. Otherwise the gantry
booms must be lifted up to make sufficient headroom for the vessel’s movement. Usually the air drafts of large
container vessels remains in a range of 45-55 mtr depending on the drafts. And may places the height of gantry
head is around 40 mtr. In such case the booms must be lifted up before vessel approaches the berth.

6. Depths at the Berth

Depth at the berth is also a critical criteria to consider while approach. For lighter vessels it’s not an issue. But for
vessels loading at the berth or for vessels with fully loaded drafts when comes on the berth, may ports take
advantage of high tide and berth vessels of higher drafts at high tide though the depth are less at the berth. In such
case pilot must be aware of the scenario and make the movement according to the height of tide.

Due to cargo falling on the berth side from the jetty, the depths alongside the jetty reduce slowly. If not properly
surveyed at regular intervals, it may spring surprises and vessel would not come alongside even after maximum
pushing by the tugs.

7. Sufficient space for tugs to work

This is usually is not a problem except the vessel approaches to the last berth close to land in river ports. This may
be a problem when the vessel moves outboard away from the desired position and tugs has very less sea-room.

8. Predominant current working along the berth

Pilot must be aware of the strength and direction of current flowing at the berth exactly at the time of berthing. If
there is a time delay, this must be taken into account and plan the movements accordingly.

9. Wind offshore or onshore

Exactly before berthing pilot must confirm the strength and direction of wind – whether it’s on shore or off shore.
If strength of wind is high, in such case assess the windage areas of the vessel like, high broad side, containers
loaded positions, accommodation area etc. Depending on the exposed widage area, the pilot must expect the
forces on the vessel while approaching the berth and make tugs standby accordingly to control her lateral
movements.

10. Tugs powerful to pull her out

The power of tugs is another important factor to be considered before attempting to berth the vessel. In case
something goes seriously wrong the tugs must be powerful enough to save the situation.

11. Gantries location on the berth

Location of gantries is also important particularly for high flare vessels like container ships. While coming along
side parallel high flare ships if tend to move towards jetty at unequal speed, the bow or stern may move over to
jetty. If gantries or shore structure are present at that position, it is going to hit the structures and create disastrous
situation. It is preferable to position the gantries amidships of the vessel position or away from the final vessel
position.

12. Lighting showing bow

Light fixtures at the berth are an important aspect of safe berths when vessels are being berthed particularly at
night. If the lights at the berth are insufficient, vessel may be advised to switch on all her outboard flood lights.
Portable lights may also be used to mark the limits of the berth.

Placing retro reflective posts or pillars helps the pilot greatly specifically in nights to prevent any confusion due to
clusters of lights.

Checks while approaching the Berth

When you are sufficiently close to the berth, let's take 1 berth space before the starting point of the berth, it is
advisable to bring the speed down to a range of 1 kts, however it may vary with the prevailing circumstances
depending upon the size and displacement of the vessel, and existing weather condition.

• Decide on the type of Near Berth Manoeuvre

After crossing the previous vessel if berthed or just before one ships length of the vessel to reach her correct
position the “Near-berth manoeuvre” is started by the pilot. Though this has been already planned in the berthing
plan as discussed but the pilot with master during the MPiX, there may be some changes depending upon the
actual existing scenario near the berth when the vessel is making the last leg of berthing – the near berth
Manoeuvre. There may be sudden increase in Wind, there may be sudden rain, there may be gantry failure putting
sudden restriction on headroom etc.

If there is any change or amendment in the plan, there may not be sufficient time for the pilot to explain the
master the whole scenario, but pilot may brief the master that there is a change in the plan. In such case master
may not panic with the deviation from the planned manoeuvre.

• Re-Test of Astern Engines

It’s a good practice to carry out what may be called as ‘re-test astern engine’ just before making the final approach
of the vessel onto the berth. Vessel gives astern on engines and reduces the speed marginally and if required give
ahead engines to gain required minimum speed. This ensures that astern engines are available to reduce the speed.
Otherwise one tug must be deployed for back-pulling to break her speed before making final approach to her
position.

As the clearances are less, even the miniscule of speed if not controlled on time will cause the vessel to hit the
ships berthed ahead or ask for grounding.

• Engine Movements and Response

In such case the pilot has to be very careful in the engine movements and quickness of its response. Diligent speed
control is a very important factor in such cases. Following must be considered before pushing the vessel onto the
berth:

- There are vessels where there is a time delay in command on engines and actual turning and stopping of
the turns of the propeller. This must be realised by the pilot before approaching to the berth.
- In CPP vessels even after stopping the vessel, she keeps on moving ahead or astern and those ships are
difficult to control at the berths if clearances are very less.
- Light vessels are very swift and responsive to small engine movements.
 - Loaded vessels are responding late to the engine commands. Thus in loaded vessels may be higher
engines required to break a very small decimal speeds.
- In case of slotting, better to make S-z approach to avoid lot of engines.

• Effects of Tugs
Keep in mind that tugs when the push or pull create marginal ahead or astern speed depending on their location
and amount of push or pull. This should be taken into account before giving engine movements at the berth to
control the speed of vessel.

When pushed towards the berth during parallel approach, while vessel gains lateral approach speed, without
default vessel gains a longitudinal speed due to tug push or pull. This longitudinal speed must be kept under
control.

With minimum longitudinal speed, the tugs when are only in standby position- may be standby to pull or push
create marginal effect of pushing or pulling lightly depending their locations. For small er vessels or light vessels,
pilot must be very careful with the presence of tugs.

• Touching the Fenders

Whatever may be the approach to the berth – Angled or parallel depending on the size, type and displacement of
the vessels, vessel must touch parallel to the fenders so as to spread the weight of on all the fenders equally. For
this, the handler must ensure that vessel is parallel to the berth before reaching a distance of ½ of the ship’s width.
Before entering this safe zone of ½ ships widths, the vessel may be angled or parallel depending on the situation.
But as soon as the bow or the steer reaches a distance of ½ B from berth line, every care must be taken to make
the vessel parallel to the berth line. Once she is parallel with no or min speed of less than 0.2 kts, the vessels
speed must be controlled ( pushed or pulled sideways by tugs) to get a planned and designated tolerable speed of
falling on the fenders (fof)
Container vessels have large curvature on bow and stern. Expected to go over jetty and touch gantries.

• References to get the feel of speed

When vessel approaches berth or during falling on the fenders how to know the exact speed with which vessel is
moving longitudinally or laterally. The range of speed is too low to be accurately indicated by the electronic
indicators. Moreover there is a critical delay in the actual speed and displayed speed on the electronic indicators at
any point of time. The critical time delay of few seconds is also not acceptable while vessel is actually falling on
the fenders.

The best way to get the feel of the speed is to observe a pair of fixed objects on jetty or nearby land. The relative
motion between the fixed object gives the real-time speed of the vessel at any given time. Make reference of two
fixed objects on shore and see their relative motion to get the feelings of speed.

The references may be heads of gantries, the light poles on the jetty, trees or other vertical objects like standing
cranes, buildings or fixed lights on the jetty.

• Passing of the Lines

Jetty officers and crew must be standby to take the messenger line as soon as possible so as to pass the spring
lines line as quickly as possible. The spring lines are important to check on the longitudinal movements of the
vessel and avoid engine movements.

• Communication with the jetty staff

Communication and co-ordination with jetty staff is another vital factor for the safe berthing of the vessel. As the
vessel approaches to her exact position, the jetty officers monitor her movement and check the clearances. Pilot is
in continuous communication with the jetty officers for proper positioning of vessel. Any failure of
communication or any improper communication or any wrong communication would translate to wrong engine
commands by the pilot and subsequent disaster near the berth.
 - Thus the communication channel has to be free for only berthing related communication.
- There must be the GMDSS walkie-talkies from the vessel standby to back up the VHF of pilot.
Communications should be loud, short and clear.
- Communicate while staying away from wind
- Care must be given not to pass half or broken words due to in sufficient or improper pressing of the PTT
switch.

• Positioning of the Vessel

The jetty officers must be well versed and informed of all the distances, clearances to assist the pilot in
positioning the vessel. The jetty officer should focus on monitoring the clearances form other vessels or existing
obstructions etc. till the spring lines are fast. They also must keep an eye on vessels movements- moving ahead or
falling aft due to running current across the berth even after successful positioning of the vessel till all lines are
fast.

Vessel’s Approach Speed to the Berth

Conventionally, the vessel approaches at an angle (Angled approach) on a face line of the pier, the bow line is
taken, and the stern is pushed to the pier. This method is still used with vessels of up to 30,000GT as conventional
method. However larger vessels generally approach and position parallel to the pier at a distance of 1- 1.5 times
the beam depending of the presence of vessels on the berths ahead or astern of the designated berth. Then they are
pushed sideways onto the pier by a tug (parallel approach)

Advantages and disadvantages of the parallel approach

While this depends on the layout of the pier, a mistake in reducing speed does not result in damage to the pier.
When the pier is of considerable length, a mistake in speed control simply results in overrunning the scheduled
stop position, and does not result in damage to the pier.

Advantages
• There is a reduced risk of damaging the pier had there been any failure in controlling the speed. With the
conventional method, container ships etc. with large bow flares sometimes damage cranes etc.
overhanging the pier.
• The vessel is more easily controlled with the parallel approach, when there are rapid changes in external
forces.

Disadvantages
• An extra 10- 20 minutes is required to reach the pier.
• While approaching laterally during falling on the fenders, vessel by default gains some longitudinal ahead
or astern speed. Pilot must keep a check on this speed and kill it with available means.

Falling on the Fenders (fof) speed

Whatever may be the approach to the berth – Angled or parallel depending on the size, type and displacement of
the vessels, the handler must ensure that vessel is parallel to the berth before reaching a distance of ½ of the ship’s
width. Before entering this safe zone of ½ ships widths, the vessel may be angled or parallel depending on the
situation. But as soon as the bow or the steer reaches a distance of ½ B from berth line, every care must be taken
to make the vessel parallel to the berth line. Once she is parallel with no or min speed of less than 0.2 kts, the
vessels speed must be controlled ( pushed or pulled sideways by tugs) to get a planned and designated tolerable
speed of falling on the fenders (fof)
The amount of energy with which the vessel hits the fenders depends on this speed. The energy varies with square
of this fof speed.
The energy of the vessel when contacting the pier can be calculated with the following equation, and is
proportional to the square of the speed of contact.

E = ½ k * Wi /g * Vf2

Where,
• E : Contact energy (in ton-m)
• Wi: W (displacement in tons) × transverse additional mass coefficient (varies from 1.0 to 2.0)
• g : Acceleration due to gravity (m2 /sec )
• Vf: Berthing Velocity (m/s)
• k: Energy diminution coefficient due to turning etc.

For example, A handy-max vessel with displacement of 50000 MT approaching the pier at a speed of 10cm/sec.
The vessel has an additional mass coefficient of 1.8, and Energy diminution coefficient - k of 0.7.

The contact energy = ½ *0.7*50000*1.8*0.12 = 32.1 Ton-m approximately.

For the sake of understanding and getting a feeling of the energy being involved, this is equivalent to large car (2
tons) colliding with a wall at 65km/h speed.

Vessels generally approach at a maximum speed of 10cm/sec i.e 0.2 kts. Large vessels such as big containers
vessels or Cape Size bulk carriers and VLCCs approach at 5cm/sec (0.1kts). These speeds allow absorption of the
energy of the vessel when contacting the pier fenders, and prevent damage to the hull and the pier.

Near-Berth Manoeuvres

As vessel approaches to the berth, the pilot has to adjust on her approach towards the berth depending upon the
prevailing circumstances and conditions. The location of the berth and restrictions around it, location of gantries,
vessel’s limitations are many other factors to decide on which type of approach is suitable for a particular
berthing. Whatever may be the type of approach, the ultimate objective of the pilot is to berth the vessel safely
without exertion on the vessel and without damaging the shore structures and with optimal usage of tugs.

It is important to note that the ahead speed and the lateral speed must be checked by a pair of references. The
relative motion between them gives a clear idea on how and at what speed the vessel moves in respective
directions. It is to be noted that the speed at which the vessel falls on the fender (fof speed) laterally must be
adjusted in such a way that the lateral momentum of the vessel remains lesser than SWL of the fenders on the
berth.

Following are the types of approach listed and explained briefly:

1. Parallel approach for Modern day large displacement Vessels

Fwd pair of references

Lateral pair of references

Fig-15.1(a) :2 tugs - Offshore wind Fig-15.1(b) : 2 tugs - Onshore wind

Mostly modern day pilotage deploys a parallel approach with 2 tugs one at bow and one at the quarter for all large
vessels with high displacements. This is the most convenient and safe method of berthing of all though it may
take little over time than other methods of berthing. This method is preferable for heavy vessels as the stakes
involved are very high. However vessel gains marginal ahead or astern speed during the process, as the vessel is
falling parallel to the berth by lateral push of the tugs and hence vessel has to control the speed by engine
movements. This calls for a lot of engine commands ahead and astern to maintain the position of the vessel. But
the advantage in this approach is that even if something fails vessel is still under control and can be pulled out by
the tugs immediately.

If onshore wind or offshore wind is present, best use of the wind can be made to control the lateral approach of
the vessel on to the fenders. If offshore wind is there control of vessel is better with the tugs applying
proportionate push to nullify the wind effect and allow the vessel slowly fall on the fenders with control. But with
on shore wind with its maximum effect at the accommodation causes the stern of the vessel pushed quickly than
the bow, causing the vessel to approach at an angle. In such case the aft tug may be pun on pulling position and
keep pulling the stern to control the movement of the stern. The bow tug may be used in accordance of the
situation.

2. Acute angle approach

In this approach vessel makes an acute angle to the berth and approach to the berth slowly. In this case the bow
comes closer to the berth slowly while the stern is little farther from the berth. In such case the forward tug is
always “standby to pull” position and the aft tug is at “stand by to push” position. In any case of emergency, the
forward tug would pull the bow to safety away from the jetty.

In this case the vessel’s path would make a S or Z curve depending which side alongside.

Fig-15.2(a) Fig-15.2(b)

3. Obtuse angle approach

Ahead engines

Wheel- Hard Stbd

Fig-15.3(a) Fig-15.3(b)
This approach is suitable for small and light vessels with better manoeuvrability. This method is also preferred in
ports where tug is not available or only one low powered tug is available for berthing. In this the vessel makes a
larger angle to the berth and head towards the bow position so as to facilitate the passing of fwd mooring lines on
to jetty. Till the time lines are passed on to the jetty pilot has to hold the position of the vessel at that angle.

In this case the bow comes closer to the berth slowly while the stern is little farther from the berth. The fwd
mooring lines are passed and made tight. If tug is available at the stern, tug can push the stern close to the jetty to
facilitate passing the stern lines. But if no tug is available at the stern, vessel may give wheel hard over to stbd
side and ahead engines to turn the vessel. In this case the stern will come closer to the berth while fwd movement
is checked by the fwd mooring lines.

In this case the vessel’s path would make a curved path which looks like an arc centred at the bow of the vessel.

4. Turning in front of berth

Depending upon the length of the vessel and space at the berth, if it is feasible, vessel is turned in front of the
berth to facilitate safe berthing on a particular side.

In such case the tugs are made fast on the berth side while approaching the vessel so that tugs will be on opposite
side of the berth. In this case the reference is the berth itself. While turning the vessel, the stern of the vessel is
kept at a pre-calculated minimum safe distance, preferably about a distance equal to the beam width of the vessel
so that the vessel is always in safe waters.

Min Safe Distance from berth (= width of the vessel approx.)

Pos-2 Pos-3

Pos -3

Pos-1

Fig-15.4(a) Fig-15.1(b)

5. Stern Approach after turning at Turning Basin

If there is not much space in front of the berth, vessel is turned at the turning basin and then moved astern towards
the berth. In such case the vessel moves astern all the way from turning basin to the berth. Once the vessel is near
the berth, then a parallel or acute angle or obtuse angle approach is resorted to bring the vessel alongside the berth
to pass the mooring lines.

The typical features here are as follows:

• The vessel moves all the way stern from the turning basin to the berth.
• The stern of the vessel make approach earlier then the bow
 Pos-1

Pos-2

Pos-3

Pos -4

Fig-15.5

6. Offshore anchor lateral approach

This is a special operation where circumstances and conditions are not suitable for a guided berthing by tugs in a
port with not so developed infrastructure. The reasons may be as follows:

• When there is a strong current at the berth side and it is very difficult to hold the vessel at low speed
berth.
• Sea-room is not sufficient to keep engines running for longer time for berthing
• Tugs are not available in the port
• Wind or weather is suitable to carry out such operations. When there is an onshore breeze sufficient to
make a controlled drift on the vessel.

Ahead engines

Wheel- Hard Port

Fig-15.6(a) Fig-15.6(b)

In such case the weather side anchor is let go underfoot and slowly paid out as the vessel starts drifting towards
the berth. As soon as the vessel’s stern closes in on the berth lines are passed quickly and tightened to hold the
stern. Once the stern lines are passed, Wheel hard over and ahead engines are used to bring the bow close to the
jetty for passing lines.
In this process the job of anchor cable is to hold the vessel’s position close to the berth and allow controlled
closing to the berth.

7. Slotting

Slotting is a term used for berthing of vessels to a position where there are already vessels berthed on fwd and aft
of the designated berth. The clearances from both fwd and aft berths are very close. The vessel is literally pushed
in without any margins of error on F&A direction.

Slotting may be done by using Parallel method or acute angle method. Other methods of approaches are not
suitable for carrying out slotting. It should be discouraged trying other methods. Bu if in case of emergency
required to do so, the pilot has to be very careful in controlling the movement of the vessel.

8. Double Banking

Double banking is berthing a vessel alongside another vessel. When double banking is planned, the mother vessel
has to be prepared in many aspects and assess is she is ready for double banking in all respects. After careful
examination of the case, necessary risk assessment and equipped with all required arrangements, vessel decides
on double banking. If decided for double banking the vessel has to be provided with Big Yokohama Fenders to
create sufficient space between the vessels.

Pos-2

Pos-1

Fig-15.7(a) Fig-15.7(b)

Precautions for Double banking:

• Do not approach at an angle to the vessel at any cost.

• Make best use of the wind
• Slowly fall of the fenders ,
• Touching parallel to the fenders. Any angle may cause metal to metal contact between the ships.
• Touching fenders without any fwd or aft speed. It may break their lines.
• Tugs if used must be used judiciously
• Check the combination of double banking. Small + big, same size, big + small
• Check the freeboard difference

9. Cold movement

Sometimes cold move is planned to berth a vessel with engines under repair or in emergency. But sometimes
unexpectedly in the middle of a manoeuvre, if engine fails, cold move has to be carried out.
 Fwd tug used for pulling ahead the vessel

Fig-15.8

If situation doesn’t permit, tug may be made fast at quarter to push the vessel ahead.

In any case the at least 3 tugs are required to carry out a safe berthing procedure. One tug would act as propulsion
machinery for the vessel. This tug may be made fast at the centre lead fwd of vessel or at the aft of the vessel. If
situations permit, at the aft of the vessel it is more useful with an ability to pull and push the vessel from right
astern. While other 2 tugs assist the vessel’s bow and stern for any swing and lateral movements.

Short tow line arrangement

Short tow line arrangement is made if possible, for better control of the vessel in a planned berthing. But in case
of emergency when time is critical, only a tow line would be sufficient. Shortening the tow to provide steering
effect especially in narrow channels and rivers where there is insufficient number of assisting tugs are available.
Though such arrangement provides good result in controlling the vessel, additional tugs, if available, must be
deployed at the stern to assist better positioning of the stern especially in narrow channel.

Shortening the Tow

Fig-15.9

When on a short wire, utmost caution must be taken to avoid sharp alterations or else the chances are that the
barge may violently swing out of control. If this happens then the master should immediately consider paying out
some length of tow wire to dampen the violent movement.
Towing alongside
When a barge is to be towed alongside the tug, the connection should be made with a suitable heavy spring and a
stern rope. The tug should be positioned close to the stern of the barge so that the tug’s stern overhangs the stern
of the barge. The further forward the tug is positioned the more difficult it is for the tug to steer the combined
unit. Proper fastening of the ropes is key to the safe conduct of the towing passage. On the way if any line breaks,
it creates distressing situations especially in restricted waters. This is absolutely undesirable.

Fig-15.10

***
 Chapter-16

Berthing & Moorings

Safe Berth
Significance of moorings,
Mooring Lines ,
Mooring Procedure at the Berth,
Special Situations
Mooring with the Buoys,
SBM,
Mooring with Anchors

Judicious use of tugs made so as not to deviate from the rewired position and push the vessel laterally so as to fall
on the fender parallel yet smoothly so that full load of vessel is spread equally on all fenders. It is a very precise
exercise. A good berthing needs the team work between ship staff, tug staff, Pilot and the jetty staff. Its co-
ordinated exercise leads by the pilot.

Safe Berth

Safe berth is a broad term that includes jetty, wharf, SBM, Cargo handling anchorage etc. where vessel is
positioned to carry out a specific purpose like Cargo handling or repairs or bunkering etc. The objective of the
safe berth is to provide good shelter to the vessels while facilitating the specific objectives of cargo or bunker or
transhipment operations.

For making fast of the vessels when alongside the berth, mooring bitts are provided on the jetty of sufficient
strengths at certain intervals. The spacing of bollards doesn’t have any standard criteria. However it depends on
the type and size of vessel being berthed, type of mooring being followed and the strength of mooring bitts. The
spacing may be 20- 30 mtrs when vessels are being berthed on the sides. If the vessels are being moored in
Mediterranean or Baltic moor, the spacing me be lesser up to 7-10 mtrs also. The strength of mooring bitts
required depends on the size of vessel being handled and type of mooring bitts such as- curved bitts or straight
bitts.

Strength of Mooring Bitts

It is also necessary to verify that the mooring bitts on the pier are able to withstand mooring of the vessel.
Strength of mooring bitts in accordance technical criteria for harbour facilities design standards are as follows.

Vessel’s GT Curved Bitt in Tons Straight Bitt in Tons

500-1000 15 25

1000-2000 25 35

2000-3000 25 50
 5000-1000 35 70

10000-15000 50 100

15000-20000 50 100

20000-50000 70 150

50000-100000 100 200

Significance of moorings

A good berthing needs the team work between ship staff, tug staff, Pilot and the jetty staff. Its co-ordinated
exercise leads

Mooring Lines
Mooring lines are the ropes used to make the ships fast alongside the berth safely so as to facilitate its cargo or
other necessary operations at the berth. When vessel is at berth, these lines prevent the ship’s 3 dimensional
motions – lateral, longitudinal and transverse singing motions. Each line used at a particular position has a
specific job to do.

Head Lines

Fwd Breast Lines

Fwd Spring Lines

Aft Spring Lines

Aft Breast Lines

Aft Spring Lines

Fig-16.1

1. Head & stern lines

Head lines are fast from the focs’le mainly has an objective to prevent the bow from ship from swinging away
from the berth. These lines are passed at an angle – 45-60 degrees from the focs’le to the bollards on the jetty. The
tension on these lines has 2 components one longitudinal and one transverse. The transverse component prevents
the bow to swing out of jetty. The longitudinal component prevents the vessel to fall astern.

Similarly the stern lines do the same function at the stern as of headlines do at the bow.
 2. Spring lines

Spring lines are the lines passed along the ship side on a reverse direction i.e fwd springs run aft and aft springs
run fwd, and are kept relatively longer. These lines act as a spring and pulls back the vessel to her original
position when moves longitudinally. Fwd spring prevents the aft motion of vessel and aft spring prevents the fwd
motion of the vessel.

3. Breast lines
Breast lines are the lines those within as ole intention to prevent the vessel to come off the berth laterally.
Normally the transverse component of the head and stern lines do the job for smaller vessels. But in case of large
vessels or of there is a offshore wind exists continuously the stern and headlines are supplemented with breast line
to prevent the lateral motion of the vessel at the berth.

Types of ropes Used

There are various types of ropes used by the ships for mooring of vessels. These size and type of the ropes used
depends upon the size and type of vessels. But the type of rope also depends on the type of harbour also. If the
harbour is well guarded by break waters and harbour water is relatively calm and free from any predominant
currents and prevalent bad weather conditions, normal shops ropes will do the required function. But if the vessel
is open to sea and there is a prevalent swell and weather conditions are normally not very favourable, the ropes
are doubled up or some ports provide their additional ropes for safety of the vessels. The decision of the port
authorities in this regard is well defined and well researched. Many ports provide guidelines to vessels on their
moorings if any specific peculiar information is required to the ships.

1. Wire Ropes
There are some ports of the world, where the provide wire ropes for berthing of the vessel and normally handled
by the shore mooring crew. Chain stoppers are used for handling the wire ropes in such case. Ship’s crew only
assist the shore mooring crew in the mooring operations.

2. Synthetic Ropes

Largely synthetic fibre ropes are provided to the ships for their moorings and these are normally used by the ships
in most of the ports of the world. These are polypropylene ropes with eye splice on their both ends. These ropes
are most suitable for mooring ooperations as are of sufficient SWL and with safety characteristic features.

3. Natural Fibre ropes

Natural fibre ropes are least used for the purpose mooring of vessels except in small ports handling small vessels.

Mooring Procedure at the Berth

A good mooring operation is carried out with a good co-ordination between the ship’s crew and jetty staff led by
the pilot.

As explained earlier the mooring plan was discussed during the master- pilot information exchange. Same has
been transpired to the ship’s officers and crew by the master well before the vessel approaches the berth. The
ship’s crew makes the mooring ropes ready for berthing and be stand by for same.

The sequence of the ropes to be passed in mooring plan depends largely on the weather condition, prevailing
current and wind at the berth. The mooring plan also depends upon the type of berthing plan devised by the pilot
looking at the available resources and the prevailing circumstances.

The first line usually is to prevent the unwanted movement of the vessel that the pilot wants to control in the
existing berthing plan. Making fast the 1st line is critical from many points of view. Once the first line is passed,
usually the vessel comes largely under control by the engine if required further. Thus the first line is very
important for the vessel to get a safe berthing. Largely the 1st line is the fwd spring in many cases as it checks on
the fwd sped of the vessel. But if there is a current along the berth that tends the vessel to swing away from the
berth the 1st line may be the headlines. There is no hard and fast rule in this. The pilot best decide looking at the
prevailing circumstances.

Once the 1st line is ashore (FLA), vessel is brought alongside by the lateral motion by the engines or by the tugs.
Once vessel is completely alongside other lines are passed and made fast. During the process if tugs are available,
keep on pushing the vessel alongside to remove any unwanted motion of the vessel to facilitate safe berthing.

Special Situations

The moorings need to be rearranged and managed differently if situation is not normal. When ships are exposed to
inclement weather, while at berth, the mooring lines come under severe stress while holding the vessel at the
berth. The normal mooring arrangement may not be able to hold the vessel safely at the berth. The ships officers
must arrange reinforcements to prevent the lines part away while coming under severe stress.

1. Doubling up of Lines

In any uncommon situation when vessel comes under excessive stress due to wind, rain, or currents in river ports
or passing cyclones while at the berth in the ports, the master decides to double up the lines.

Depending upon the direction of the affecting external disturbance the affected lines must be given priority in
doubling up. Those lines are reinforced by passing some additional lines in the same locations.

2. Moorings while Surging in Heavy Weather

While vessel surges continuously at the berth there is risk of lines being fall apart. In such scenarios, vessel resort
to doubling up of the lines. Sometimes the forces are tremendous that even doubling lines doesn’t help and they
part. In such cases, the vessel may set free to move arbitrarily and run with the risk of grounding after lines are
broken. In such emergency scenario, vessel reports to port control and ask for tugs to help.

Many ports keep the duty pilots on emergency duties in the port when to attend such emergency scenarios if the
weather is expected to be bad. Pilot with the help of tugs comes in the rescue of such scenarios and handle the
vessel in extreme situations and bring the vessel to safety.

3. Strong current across berths

There are instances when the current alongside berth is very high and it is difficult from the vessel to hold her
position. With other things being normal, sometimes the current increase its intensity due to various reasons like
heavy rain at the upper end of the river, high tidal ranges etc. In such case sometimes they appear momentarily for
few mutes or few hours. Sometimes they stay steadily for longer time.

If the current is expected to rise for few minutes or few hours, the crew remains standby to handle the situation.
Additional lines kept ready and passed to double up or triple up where the lines are mostly expected to get
affected. Mooring winches kept running to tight lines when they become slackened.

4. Ships pass close by

When loaded and heavy ships with large displacements pass nearby the berthed ships, it creates interaction
between the vessels. The interaction consequently causes the berthed vessel surge on her position. This surging of
the vessels at the berth brings the lines under severe stress and often breaks the lines.
When a passing vessel approaches a berthed vessel the lines which come across the moving vessel’s bow gets
slackened and as the vessels passes on, the lines becomes tight when the stern passes the lines. This sequential
slackening and tightening of the lines cause the vessel to surge on the berth itself. Once vessel starts surging, the
moments of the vessel creates further stress on the lines and finally breaks the lines apart.

-- --

----------- -Ve Pressure Zone

+++++ +Ve Pressure Zone

+ +

Fig-16.2

If this happens when the cargo or other operations are in progress on the vessel, this surging and breaking of the
lines would ultimately affect badly to the operations going on. The gangway when resting on jetty and vessel
suddenly starts surging, the gangway stuck with some obstructions becomes deformed or broken many a times.

Here when suddenly a vessel passes near by the berthed vessels usually don not have prior information of passing
ships. Thus they are not prepared for the immediate onset of surging due to interaction. Thus it is the duty of the
port to inform the berthed vessel on passing of vessels nearby. So the crew is ready to face the danger.

5. Use of anchors off the berth.

When the vessel faces excessive and continuous surging at the berth, and external assistance is not available for
the vessel, the master may decide on letting go anchor while vessel is at the berth to prevent unwanted vessel
movement and safety of the vessel.

6. Moorings on double banking vessels

Double banking of the vessel is a special operation which has been discussed in another Chapter – “approaches to
berth”. Mooring in double banked vessels are also in principle same as other moorings but in this case the head
and stern lines may be passed on the jetty while the spring lines are passed on the mother vessel. But if the mother
vessel is not at berth and at anchor, in such case all the lines are passed on to the mother vessel only.

Mooring with the Buoys

There are many ports in the world where there are no well-developed jetties for berthing of vessel. There are also
some well-developed ports in the world with all the jetties are occupied due to extreme busy ports.

Ships are berthed with mooring at the buoys. In such case the vessel in manoeuvred and brought near to the buoys
to facilitate berthing of vessel with the mooring buoys.

Fig-16.3

In such case the mooring boats are used to take the lines on the mooring buoys for making fast them to the buoys.
Usually the length of lines used is very long in the range of 100 metres. Vessel must be equipped with sufficient
long lines for successful mooring at the buoys.

Single Point Mooring or Single Buoy Mooring

Single point Moorings (SBM) is an arrangement whereby very large crude carrier (VLCC) tankers are moored to
a single buoy for loading or discharging to or from storage facilities where dedicated facility is not available for
cargo operations. The cargo is loaded or discharged through subsea manifold structures. Usually SPM is anchored
at the seabed with multiple anchors spread evenly on the seabed so as to keep the SBM stable in all sea and swell
conditions prevailing in the area. There are 2 types of ways the buoy is held in position – CALM( Catenary
Anchor Leg Mooring) & SALM( Single Anchor Leg Mooring) .
SBM has mainly 5 parts – buoy body, anchors and cables running down to the seabed, fittings for mooring and
product transfer system that transfers the product from the buoy to the subsea manifold and the fenders those
prevent the damage to the buoy if the vessel hits the buoy in unusual circumstances. The fittings for mooring s on
the buoys are arranged in such a way that the buoy moves feely within the defined limits.

Vessel is moored to the SPM using chains of varying diameter (usually 76mm chains of OCIMF type B). Vessel
keeps 2 free mooring drums at the focsle with messenger lines reeled through Bow Stopper and fairleads at either
side of the break of focsle. Same messenger lines are passed to the mooring boats. The boat carrying the
messenger line proceeds to the buoy and make the connections for securing the ship.

After the mooring has been completed hose connection procedure follows. Hose connection gear and crew boards
the vessel while approaching to the SPM. Using vessel’s crane the hose and gear are lifted to facilitate the hose
connection. Lifting and handling equipment on the buoy allows the connection of hoses and tools.

Pilot boards from a tug boat on the vessel at the pilot station usually few miles from the SBM. 2 tugs usually
guide the vessel in the berthing process. After berthing and mooring operation is completed one tug is released
while another tug remains standby near the vessel for pull back operation when required. Pilot usually stays on
board to guide the vessel in maintaining her position with the help of one tug.

Mooring with Anchors

1. Open moor

Fig-16.4

In this case the vessel is anchored with both the anchors leading ahead at 1 point on the bow. In such case the
vessel approached the anchor position with wind or current on the bow. Upstream anchor is let go and slowly paid
out. Once 1/3 rd of the final cable length is paid out, let go the other anchor. Slowly pay out both the anchors
slowly to final equal length of the cable.

2. Running Moor and standing moor

This is a mooring method in which 2 anchors are used in such a way that one anchor runs ahead of the vessel and
other runs aster of the vessel.

Vessel is expected to position at a particular position in a place where vessel is expected to move on a
longitudinal direction periodically and there is very less sea-room for the vessel on either side of the vessel like in
a canal or river with tidal streams or in a channel etc. In such case one anchor is let go 5 cables and other is 4
cables.
 Fig-16.4

These mooring methods can be carried out by standing moor or running moor method. Standing or running moor
are only the name that signifies how the mooring is carried out.

3. Mediterranean Moor

Mediterranean mooring is adopted in ports where there not sufficient space for vessels to berth alongside on the
berth. In this case the stern or bow of the vessel is made fast to the jetty or land perpendicularly using 2 set of
mooring lines. While the other end of the vessel is hold in position using 2 anchors in open moor position.
Mediterranean mooring may be carried out in 2 methods such as – “Bow to” or “Stern to”. He bow is made fast to
the jetty it is “Bow to” and the vice versa.

Stern –to type of Med Mooring Fig-16.5

These type of mooring is suitable for smaller vessels or vessels provided with bow or stern ramps for loading or
discharging cargo. With this type of mooring conventional method of cargo operation is not possible from jetty as
shipside is doesn’t come alongside the berth. Floating cranes or barges may be used for cargo operation from
shipside locations.

4. Baltic Moor

While berthing a vessel alongside the berth, if there is a strong onshore weather acts on the vessel to move her at a
fast pace towards the jetty so that the impact is intolerable for the ship or to the fenders or to any port
infrastructure, then the Baltic mooring method is used to control the lateral speed of the vessel if tugs are not
available to assist the ship.

In this case a stern rope is shackled to the weather anchor of the vessel at a place called “ganger length” while
keeping the anchor a’cockbilled position. Once the arrangement is done, anchor is let go at a sufficient distance
from the berth. Slowly pay out the anchor and slack the stern mooring rope so as to adjust the lengths
proportionately. This would help the bow and stern both of the vessel to approach the berth laterally at a slower
speed.

Fig-16.6

***
 Chapter- 17

Un-berthing and Outward Manoeuvre

Outward Paperwork & Information Exchange
Un-berthing Plan,
Outward Near-Berth Manoeuvres,
Casting Off Tug,
Manoeuvring vessels out of the harbour to open waters,
Pilot Disembarkation

As soon as the purpose of the vessel’s berthing is finished, she becomes ready for outward procedures and un-
berthing of the vessel. Vessel takes the designated minimum time to prepare herself for sailing. Besides all the
paperwork, crew secures the vessel for sailing out to sea. All controls including the main engine and steering are
tested for their good working condition. As vessel is ready for sailing in all respect pilot boards the vessel through
gangway or the seaside pilot ladder.

When the pilot boards the vessel, he assesses the circumstances and conditions of weather and her suitability for
sailing in all respects. Master pilot information exchange (MPiX) must be carried out taking into account all the
factors as deliberated in the chapter Master Pilot information Exchange - MPiX. The basic thumb rule of un-
berthing sequence is exactly opposite to berthing sequence, if mostly the prevailing circumstances are same.
However the sequence may not be the same if the all the prevailing conditions are changed from what at times of
berthing.

While vessel is at the berth, prevent or minimize unwanted vessel movements before vessel is clear of all the lines
and moorings components. All care must be taken to prevent any damage to mooring lines, any mooring related
accidents and injury to the crew or jetty staff.

Outward Paperwork & Information Exchange

After the pilot boards the vessel on the berth for sailing the vessel out of the berth, the outward paperwork as per
requirements of the port regulations has to be completed as the 1st and foremost job before proceeding to the real
job of manoeuvring. If there is any pilotage outward certificate or other documents need to be signed by the
master, same has to be completed earliest.

Pilot must see the Port Clearance physically before starting the procedure for sailing. Otherwise if any alternative
arrangement is made, same has to be confirmed from the port control.

As the inbound pilot may not be the same for outbound movement of the vessel, it is necessary that the pilot –
master information exchange must be carried out in details. Master must brief the pilot if any changes in the
vessel conditions from the time of berthing movement of the vessel. It imperative that the information exchange
between Master and Pilot includes all the points as discussed in the chapter of MPiX ! Then the pilot has to plan
the passage for outward manoeuvres that include but not limited to the following:

1. Un-berthing plan
2. Near-Berth manoeuvre,
3. Speed control Plan,
4. Expected passage of the vessel,
5. Tugs cast off location,
6. Pilot disembarkation procedures and location
 Un-berthing Plan

After the necessary paperwork and pilot-master information exchange, the pilot explains the master about the un-
berthing plan. The un-berthing plan varies for each vessel depending upon type, size, manoeuvrability and
displacement of vessel and largely depends on the prevailing weather conditions.

There are various Methods of Un-berthing:

1. Parallel method for Larger Vessels with relative calm weather conditions:

This method deploys a parallel movement of the vessel with 2 tugs one at bow and one at the quarter for all large
vessels with high displacements. While tugs keep on pushing the vessel on the berth, all the head & stern lines are
casted off the berth and taken on-board. Then cast off all the fwd and aft spring lines simultaneously to prevent
any of the fwd or aft spring lines exert tension longitudinally and any consequent movement of the vessel. Once
all the lines are on board, pull the vessel off the berth using 2 tugs – one at the bow and one at the stern while
maintaining distance parallel to berth till she is sufficiently clear of the nearby obstructions. This makes sure that
the vessel is clear for any swings, lateral movements in the near-berth manoeuvres. This method is preferable for
heavy vessels as the response of the vessel to external for or tug push or pull is slow.

However vessel gains marginal ahead or astern speed as the tugs starts pulling the vessel off the berth, and hence
vessel has to control the marginal speed if any, by engine movements. Due to this marginal ahead or astern speed,
vessel may come dangerously close to other berthed vessel nearby. Thus quick engine commands ahead and/or
astern always remain on the cards to kill the marginal speed and maintain the F&A position of the vessel.

If large vessels have bow and/or stern thruster, the tugs may be used minimally or should be avoided using the
tugs for pulling the vessel off the berth as the use of the thrusters wouldn’t generate any marginal longitudinal
speed of the vessel while moving away from the berth.

Fwd pair of references

Lateral pair of references

Fig-17.1(a) Fig-17.1(b)

2. Un-berthing with Stronger Off-shore Breeze.

If onshore wind or offshore wind is present, best use of the wind can be made to control the lateral movement of
the vessel away from the berth.Once all lines are cast off, Vessel will go off the berth automatically if offshore
wind is there; vessel would come off the berth automatically when the tugs stop pushing and standby for pulling.
But with on shore wind, with its maximum effect at the accommodation, it’s difficult to pull the stern out of the
berth. If the stern doesn’t come out, fwd tug may need to push the bow to get better effect of the aft tug.
 3. Un-berthing with strong Head wind or current

If there is a prevailing strong head or stern wind or current causing the vessel to move longitudinally on the berth
if let free. In such case one set of spring lines – fwd or aft, would remain under stress and tight and other set of
lines would remain slack. In this case, cast off the head and stern lines first. Then cast off the loose spring lines
and hold on to the tight spring lines holding the vessel against the prevailing wind or current. Pull out the bow
little. Slowly stern also comes off. Finally cast of the remaining spring lines and move the vessel off the berth.

4. Close clearances. Small vessels with one tug with stern wind

These methods are suitable for smaller and lighter vessels. Developing ports with no or 1 tug can deploy this
method with minimum resources. Make fast the only tug on the bow of the vessel.

Cast off all head and stern lines and stern spring. Hold on to only fwd spring. Once all the lines are onboard, give
engine ahead and helm away from jetty. This would bring the stern away from the berth. Once the stern is away
from the berth, stop the engine and helm amidships. Then cast off the spring and pull bow immediately away from
the berth.

5. Close clearances. Small vessels with one tug with head wind

This method is also suitable for smaller and lighter vessels in developing ports with no or 1 tug. Make fast the
only tug on the bow of the vessel. Cast off all head and stern lines and fwd spring. Hold on to only aft spring.
Once all the lines are on-board, the pilot has to follow following steps assuming RH fixed pitch propellers:
1. In case of port side alongside, give engine order on astern while helm amidships. This would bring the
bow away from the berth while the stern rest on the fenders of the berth.
In case of stbd side alongside, when engine astern is given the stern would come off the berth and the bow
would rest on the fenders.
2. The tug at the bow slowly pulls the bow as required to keep the bow away from the berth. In case of stbd
side a/s, this would bring the vessel out of the berth.
3. Once the bow is well away from the berth, give ahead movement on the engines and helm towards the
berth. This would bring the stern of the vessel away from the berth in case vessel is on portside alongside.
4. Above action would slack the aft spring. Immediately cast off the aft spring. Slowly the stern would come
out of the berth and vessel would be steady on her course.

6. Un-berthing from Double Banked Vessels

In double banked vessels, the situation is very precarious as there is always a chance of metal to metal contact
between the vessels. There are some yokohama fenders between the vessels those maintain a marginal distance
between the double banked vessels. However the number and size and condition of the yokohama fenders in use
decides how the good the distance is maintained.

Fig-17.2
Cast off the head and stern lines and hold on to the springs fwd and aft. If tugs available, they should avoid
pushing the vessel on to the yokohama fenders. Once the headlines and the stern lines are on board, cast off the
springs from the inner vessel. Once all lines are clear, get the vessel pulled by both the tugs parallel to the fenders.
Once sufficiently clear, vessel can be manoeuvred away from the fenders.

Precautions for Double banking:

• Make best use of the wind

• Slowly clear away from the fenders
• Any angle may cause metal to metal contact between the ships.
• While the vessel is touching the fenders, don’t gain any fwd or aft speed. It may break their lines.
• Tugs if used must be used judiciously

Outward Near-Berth Manoeuvres

After vessel is successfully casted off and brought to a safe distance from the berth and vessel is clear of all
obstructions near berth, the pilot starts the near-berth manoeuvring of the vessel to move away from the berth
safely while maintaining a bare minimum speed.

1. Turning in front of berth

if there is sufficient space near the berth for the vessel to turn in front of the berth, vessel is turned right away so
as to avoid any astern movements of the vessel. Vessel is turned in front of the berth so as to take advantages of
ahead engines and steering of the vessel without using any tugs from further movement of the vessel in her
outward passage. It is easier and time saving to manoeuvre ahead than manoeuvre astern to cover a certain
distance in the harbour for obvious reasons of less power on astern engines coupled with transverse thrust and no
steering available when vessel moves astern.

In such case after the vessel is away from the berth, the tug at the bow pulls the vessel to generate a turning swing.
In this case the reference for the pilot is the berth itself. The vessel has to maintain a safe distance from the berth
while turning. While turning the vessel, the stern of the vessel is kept at a pre-calculated distance so that the
vessel is always in safe waters.

Min Safe Distance from berth

Fig-17.3
 2. Moving Astern till the Turning Basin

If there is not much space in front of the berth, vessel is turned at the turning basin and then moved astern towards
the berth. In such case the vessel moves astern all the way from turning basin to the berth. Once the vessel is near
the berth, then a parallel or acute angle or obtuse angle approach is resorted to bring the vessel alongside the berth
to pass the mooring lines.

The typical features here are as follows:

• The vessel moves all the way stern from the turning basin to the berth.
• The stern of the vessel make approach earlier then the bow

Pos-4

Pos-3

Pos-2

Pos-1

Fig-17.3

3. Offshore anchor lateral approach

It is already seen during the berthing procedure how to carry out such an operation with the help of one anchor.
This is a special operation where circumstances and conditions are not suitable for a guided berthing by tugs in a
port with not so developed infrastructure. The reasons may be as follows:

• When there is a strong current at the berth side and it is very difficult to hold the vessel at low speed
berth.
• Sea-room is not sufficient to keep engines running for longer time for berthing
• Tugs are not available in the port
 • Wind or weather is suitable to carry out such operations. When there is a onshore breeze sufficient to
make a controlled drift on the vessel.

In such case the pilot follow the reverse sequence of steps while casting off the vessel.

All the headlines and fwd springs are cast off the berth while the anchor is engages and pulled few links up to get
a swing of the bow away from the berth while keeping the cable on a moderate to longer stay if required. Then
cast off the aft springs and the stern lines to clear the lines from the berth. In the meantime put helm hard port and
a kick ahead on engines would ensure that the stern is away from the berth while vessel gains marginal ahead
speed. While doing so, keep hearing on the anchor cable.

Till the time anchor is aweigh, vessel has to use her engines and helm to keep her stern away from the berth.

Ahead engines

Wheel- Hard Port

Fig-17.4(a) Fig-17.4(b)

4. Towing on to Berth in Cold move

Sometimes cold move is planned while un-berthing a vessel with engines under repair or in emergency. But
sometimes unexpectedly in the middle of a manoeuvre, if engine fails, cold move has to be carried out.

Fig-17.5

In any case the at least 3 tugs are required to carry out a safe berthing procedure. One tug would act as propulsor
for the vessel. This tug may be made fast at the centre lead fwd of vessel or at the aft of the vessel. If situations
permit, at the aft of the vessel it is more useful with a ability to pull and push the vessel from right astern. While
other 2 tugs assist the vessel’s bow and stern for any swing and lateral movements.

Short tow line arrangement shall be made for the tug used as a propulsor, if possible, to get a better control of the
vessel in a planned cold move. But in case of emergency when time is critical, only a tow line would be sufficient.

Casting off Tugs

The casting of the tugs after the completion of the outward manoeuvre is a critical decision and need to be well
timed and done ata correct location. Following care must be taken while casting off tugs:
• Need to be well timed in such a way that vessel is free of any danger in proximity.
• Before the tugs are casted off, the speed of the vessel should not be more than a safe limit above which it
would be unsafe for the tugs to operate alongside the vessel.
• Before the tugs are casted off, the speed of the vessel should not also be less than a safe limit as this
would present the vessel on the mercy of the external forces to play on without any external assistance
from the tugs.
• The tug line should be slack enough to be easily handled by the ship’s crew. Preferably the tug line should
not be slaked on to water as it creates lot of drag and weight of the rope increases many folds. This makes
it difficult for the crew to handle the line.
• While casting of the line, the stern tug must be careful of the transverse thrust from the propeller wash
especially when the vessel is in light condition.
• Especially while tugs are being casted off from large vessels in light conditions, the tug is unable to
communicate with ship’s crew due to the height of the deck above sea level. In such cases the pilot has to
take extra care and ensure safe operation of casting off of tug is carried out in communication with the
master.
• If vessel has gained more speed above safe limits, the tug may get glue against shipside due to interaction.
It is sometimes really hard time for the tugs to move away from the vessel. If any such incident happens,
the tug must report to pilot to reduce the peed of the vessel for safe cast off.

Manoeuvring vessels out of the harbour to open waters

Manoeuvring the vessel during out bound vessel is no different than inbound manoeuvres except few minor
differences.

• Loading condition thus displacement of the vessel may be different except for vessels came for bunkering
and any other purpose.
• There may be marked changes in the drafts of the vessel.
• Vessel would face more and more open waters as she keeps on moving out of the berth
• While there is a speed reduction plan for inbound manoeuvre, there is a speed increase plan during
outbound manoeuvre
• After cast off from berth, vessel starts securing and gets ready for sailing
• Tugs need to be cast off while vessel is moving.
• All the navigational marks would be on opposite side of the vessel.
• All the fixed land references for positioning of the vessel are not constantly visible anymore as vessel
moves out of the port.
Though there are some differences in the outbound manoeuvres, the basic principles of manoeuvring in restricted
waters would always remain same.
 Pilot Disembarkation

Once the vessel is in safe waters in all respects and the vessel master is comfortable to navigate the vessel without
any further advice from the pilot, the pilot gets ready for disembarkation from the vessel. Once decided the pilot
boat is contacted and informed about which side pilot ladder is ready for disembarking the pilot. During pilot
disembarkation, master has to adjust her speed such a way that it is not difficult for the pilot boat to manoeuvre
alongside the vessel, and alter her course accordingly to give a good lee to the pilot boat. On a preferable course
and speed, the pilot boat to facilitate good disembarkation arrangements.

It is advisable to stop the engines of the vessel just before the pilot lands on the ladder. This is to prevent the
propeller running while pilot is hanging on the ladder. In the case of any accident during pilot transfer, and pilot
falls on water then the propeller must not pose a life threat to the pilot. Rest of the procedures are similar to the
safe pilot embarkation procedures.

***
 Chapter-18

Emergency Manoeuvring Options

Emergency Scenarios while manoeuvring in port limits,
Vessel’s Emergency Manoeuvring Characteristics,
Emergency methods of killing the speed to avoid a disaster ,
Emergency Manoeuvring in Distress Situations,

Emergency do occur in life. We should be prepared and trained to face and handle the emergency, when it occurs
without any notice. In ship handling we should learn about the emergency handling options available at our
disposal to save the vessel from emergency situations. Emergency manoeuvring options are the last resorts, after
the handler consumed all other options and you have to take the actions to prevent an actual emergency situation
to happen.

Emergency Scenarios while Manoeuvring in Port Limits

In most of cases, emergency situations that may arise while manoeuvring the ships are - grounding, running on to
hazards, collision with vessels, collision with shore objects, jetty cranes etc., anchor dragging, engine failure,
steering failure, tug ineffective, excessive bad weather, saving vessels on bad wx, man overboard, sudden onset of
poor vis.

Well-defined action plans are kept ready to attend emergencies while vessel is out at sea where it lists out what
vessel has to follow for immediate action and a list of subsequent actions to manage the emergency scenarios.
While manoeuvring in restricted waters, if emergency strikes the challenges increases multiple folds. As the
vessel is within or near the harbours, there are some issues immediately taken care by the port authorities once
they get the report of any emergency. The vessel is more likely to get assistance from shore authorities. Safety of
life is attended without much delay compared to incidents in open sea. Though some issues are taken care by the
port, there are some more additional issues come up when vessel is in the port limits.

Managing the emergency scenarios is in port need different approach than at sea. The nature of emergencies are
similar but the consequences of the emergencies not only affects the vessel only, but affects the nearby vessels,
crafts, the port itself and the local communities and international communities in general.

Handling such emergencies in restricted waters, within harbour limits, or anchorages or channels and canals don’t
have some set procedures. As each port, each anchorage, in different countries has different rules and regulations
with different topography and different challenges. Thus the pilots and ship handlers, navigators and masters must
follow the basic principles of handling the emergencies with proper co-ordination with the relevant shore
authorities.

The emergency scenarios that may arise while vessel in the port limits includes but not limited to following:

1. Failure of Main engines or Steering in the middle of manoeuvring and required cold movement.
2. Imminent collision due to inability to alteration or reduction of speed.
3. Imminent grounding due to inability to course keeping.
4. Excessive drifting of vessel due to sudden onset of current or wind.
5. Man overboard
6. Cyclonic Passing that area and vessel need to leave the port at short notice.
7. Mooring lines parted and vessel unable stay at the berth.
Although the emergencies arise at any time, the pilots or the ship handlers must be prepared and mentally ready to
face and handle the vessel efficiently to remove the vessel from the emergency scenarios to safe positions. The
handler must understand and appreciate the emergency procedures and emergency manoeuvring characteristics of
the vessels. The handlers must also understand the gravity of each emergency or distress scenarios and gain
expertise on how to handle them.

Vessel’s Manoeuvring Characteristics

Vessel’s pilot card provides following informations for the immediate reference of pilot at any time. The
manoeuvring diagram and manoeuvring booklet also provides details regarding vessel’s manoeuvring
characterisics. Though these particulars are required in general during manoeuvring, the emergecy characteristics
are also included and compiled togather with the general characteristics.

1. Main Engine Characteristics

Example of main engine informations given on the pilot card.

Engine Order RPM Loaded speed(kts) Ballast Speed(kts)

Full Sea Speed 106 14.0 15.2
Full Ahead 80 10.0 10.8
Half Ahead 60 7.5 8.4
Slow Ahead 50 6.2 7.0
Dead Slow Ahead 40 5.0 5.6

Corresponding astern engine RPMs are same as ahead RPM but the speeds are notsame as ahead speed. Speed
may vary as the actual power of astern engines are 30% as mentioned below.

Main Engine Characteristics

Number of Screw – Single Screw
Type of Proppeller – Fixed Right Handed
Bow swings stbd with astern engines
Critical revolutions – 63~75 rpm
Minimum RPM- 35rpm @ 4kts
Time limit from full ahead to full astern -615 s
Time limit from stop to full astern – 260s
Astern Power -30% of ahead
Maximum Number of Kick starts - 13

2. Steering Characteristics

Example of steering particulars given on pilot card

Steering Particulars
Type of Rudder – Semibalanced , Spade
Maximum Rudder Angle - 35 degrees
Time taken from Hard over one side to hard over other side (35 deg -30 deg)
• with one power Unit – 25.2 s,
• with 2 power unit – 24.8 s
Minimum speed to maintain course with propeller stopped – 4 kts
Rudder Angle for neutral effect – 2 degrees stbd
 3. Anchors

Example of anchor information given on pilot card.

Particulars of Anchor and Cables

Anchor type – Stockless AC14 type
Number of anchors – 2 (por and stbd bow). No stern anchor.
Number of shackels on anchor cable on port side – 10
Number of shackles on anchor cable stbd side- 11
Max rate of heaving anchor – 2’04” minutes / shackle
Max rate of heaving anchor – 1’58” minutes / shackle

4. Blind Sector at th bow

Blind sector at the bow is another important feature that determines the emergency actions and their effective
execution. When vessel clears any obstruction or dangers from the bow with swinging action or stopping
manoeuvre, form the bridge, its view may be scary than actaul scenario due to the blind sector. Moreover when
any object comes under the blind sector at the bow, the ship handler is not able to know the eaxt distance at which
the bow clears the obstruction. For this a look out on the focsle may be of some help. However the correct
reporting of the look out matters in such case.

In confined waters, in harbour limits as the restrictions are quite high, there are many instances when the onjects
fal, under blind sector of the bow, while turning or stopping the vessel.. This includes the clearing distances of
buoys in turning circle, jetty while turning in front of the berth, the distance from other vessel when berthing
alongside etc.

Below give an example, where the blind sector distances are given for ballast and loaded conditions for a vessel
with LOA-170m and height of the bridge above keel is 27.4 mtr.

In Loaded condition – 140 m, while in ballast condition – 295 m

Fig-18.1

Understanding Stopping Ability of a Vessel

Stopping ability is measured by the "track reach" and "time to dead in water" realized in a crash stop or crash
astern manoeuvre performed by a vessel. As per standards for ship manoeuvrability, the track reach of any vessel
in the crash astern stopping should not be more than 15 ship lengths. It may be modified from 15 ship lengths, at
the discretion of the administration, where ship size and form make the criterion impracticable particularly in
large tanker ships, VLCCs.

The application of full astern power to an engine of any type when the ship is moving at full speed ahead would
place high and perhaps crippling stresses on the engine. This should not be attempted except in the gravest of
emergency situations.

In crash stop scenario, the engine can be reversed after about 3 minutes, while still running ahead at about 30 %
rpm. A slower vessel, or one in ballast, would take less time to accomplish this. A single-screw ship will cant her
bow briskly to starboard under astern power and will bring her stern into the wind once sternway is built up.

Most vessels will travel approximately 5 to 12 times their own length before coming to rest from full ahead
depending on displacement, trim, speed, type of machinery, etc., and will take from 4 to 10 minutes to do so. The
application of full rudder to both sides alternately will help in reducing headway during the first few minutes after
stopping engines.

Track Reach
An example of stopping distances of handy max bulk carrier is given below for reference purpose.

Fig-18.2

Following formula may be used to find the stopping distance of a vessel on a straight track,
S = A log (1 + B) + C,

Where,
S: is the stopping distance, in ship lengths.
A: is a coefficient dependent upon the mass of the ship divided by its resistance coefficient.
B: is a coefficient dependent on the ratio of the ship resistance immediately before the stopping manoeuvre, to the
astern thrust when the ship is dead in the water.
C: is a coefficient dependent upon the product of the time taken to achieve the astern thrust and the initial speed of
the ship.

The value of the coefficient A is entirely due to the type of ship and the shape of its hull. The value of A is
inherent in the shape of the hull and so cannot be changed unless resistance is significantly increased. Typical
values of A are shown below.

Ship type Coefficient A

Cargo ship 5-8
Passenger/car ferry 8-9
Gas carrier 10-11
Products tanker 12-13
VLCC 14-16

The value of the coefficient B inversely related to the astern power as percentage of ahead power. In diesel
machinery, the astern power available is usually about 85% of the ahead power, whereas with steam turbine
machinery it is about 40%. The value of B can only be reduced by incorporating more astern power in the engine,
an option which is unrealistic for a steam turbine powered ship. Typical values of the coefficient B are given
below table

Type of machinery Percentage power astern Coefficient B Log (1+B)

Diesel 85% 0.6-1.0 0.5-0.7
Steam turbine 40% 1.0-1.5 0.7-0.9

The value of the coefficient C is half the distance travelled, in ship lengths, by the ship, while the engine is
reversed and full astern thrust is developed. The value of C will be larger for smaller ships. The value of C would
become larger if more than one minute was taken to reverse the engines, from the astern order to the time when
the full-astern thrust is developed. Typical values are given below.

Ship length Time to achieve astern thrust (s) Ship speed Coefficient C
100 60 15 2.3
200 60 15 1.1
300 60 15 0.8

Let’s calculate the stopping distance of a VLCC with steam turbine machinery, of 300 metres length, travelling at
15 knots, and assuming that it takes 1 minute to develop full-astern thrust in a stopping manoeuvre. The
coefficients A, B, C are - A = 16, B = 1.5, and C = 0.8,

Stopping distance S would be, S = 16 log (1 + 1.5) + 0.8 = 15.5 ship lengths. This exceeds the stopping ability
criterion of 15 ship lengths.

Side Reach

The behaviour of a ship during a stopping manoeuvre is extremely complicated. For any ship the longest stopping
distance can be assumed to result when the ship travels in a straight line along the original course, after the astern
order is given. In reality the ship will either veer off to port or starboard and travel along a curved track, resulting
in a shorter track reach, due to increased hull drag. This not only results the track reach but also side reach of the
vessel due to lateral deviations of the vessel due to several reasons. Side reach is very sensitive to initial
conditions and wind disturbances.
 Side Reach
16

14

12

10

8
Side Reach

0
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Fig-18.3

Stop Engines
From Track Reach Head Reach Side Reach Time Taken
Loaded Ballast Loaded Ballast Loaded Ballast Loaded Ballast
Full Ahead-Sea 2.94 1.96 2.81 1.87 0.53 0.36 21m26s 14 22
Full Ahead 1.90 1.26 1.44 0.96 0.74 0.50 18,27 12 25
Half Ahead 1.63 1.05 1.23 0.80 0.64 0.41 15,48 10 16
Slow Ahead 1.20 0.81 0.91 0.61 0.47 0.32 11,10 07 55

Track reach deceleration factor is about 0.10 miles per minute in all cases except from full ahead sea where it
varies from 0.14-0.16 miles per minutes.

Full Astern
Engines From Track Reach Head Reach Side Reach Time Taken
Loaded Ballast Loaded Ballast Loaded Ballast Loaded Ballast
Full Ahead-Sea 1.89 1.06 1.87 1.05 -0.04 -0.02 12m02s 06 58
Full Ahead 0.88 0.59 0.83 0.56 -0.08 -0.05 08,23 06 10
Half Ahead 0.75 0.51 0.71 0.48 -0.07 -0.05 07,11 05 11
Slow Ahead 0.56 0.39 0.53 0.37 -0.03 -0.04 05,22 03 02
One important factor, a ship handler as well as all the deck officers must know is that: Stopping time of a large
vessel is shortest when the ahead power is instantly shut off and after an interval of about few seconds, the engine
is put slow, half and then full astern in succession. It should be observed that the respective RPM are attained
before giving next engine commands.

The immediate application of full astern power from ahead engines will result in cavitation at the propeller and
actually increase the stopping distance. In smaller and slower ships, the application of full astern power as soon as
practicable may still be more effective.

How the Crash Stop or Astern is executed?

When the engine is operating in ahead direction and a crash astern movement is given, the following will be the
sequence of events:

a. Bridge orders crash astern.

The communication to engine room:

• When in Engine room control mode – Conventionally bringing the bridge telegraph from head to full
astern then again to full ahead and again to full astern was the standard way to communicate crash astern
to engine room. Engine room implements the astern command given by bridge on telegraph.
• When in Bridge control mode – In modern ships with automation and controls, the bridge telegraph is
directly connected with the engine controls and it doesn’t require involvement of engine room personnel.
Such type of telegraph is called remote controlled telegraph device.

A provision is given to link both the telegraph so that manual operations can also be carried out in case of
automation failure.

In bridge control mode, to give crash astern, the officer on the bridge should directly put the telegraph to Full
Astern as available. Engine will automatically comply with the order.

b. Main Engine fuel supply is immediately put to zero.

c. Engine may continue to turn in ahead direction due to the momentum of the vessel even if the fuel supply
is cut off, hence the tachometer on the bridge may still show ahead rpm.

d. Engine (Engineer will do this it is in Engine control mode) is now waiting for the ahead rpm of the engine
to come down to the reversing level as prescribed by the engine manufacturer (which is around 25% to 30
% of MCR rpm)

e. As the engine rpm reaches the reversing level, admit starting air (in the astern direction) this is also
known as braking air. Attempting to admit the braking air at higher rpm is termed as “braking air”, which
can cause very high level of Stresses and break the crank shaft.

f. Repeated kicks of braking air are then given to bring down the engine rpm to zero.

g. Once engine rpm is at zero, starting air in astern direction is admitted

h. As the engine rpm reaches the start level in astern direction, fuel is injected.

i. Engine starts turning on fuel in astern direction

 j. Vibration may be set up due to heavy wake disturbance; hence the astern rpm will have to be gradually
increased. Similar sequence will automatically take place on a ‘bridge controlled vessel’.

Telegraph Failure - Emergency Operation of Engines from E/Room

It is also important for the ship handler to understand that in case of telegraph failure from wheel house and or
wheel house, Engine commands can be executed from the local position near the main engine manually. In this
case the telegraph doesn’t work, rather the D/O has to inform the duty engineer near the local station to execute
the commands. In such case the ship handler must take into account the delay in execution of orders, and the
chances of mistake due to manual operation. That’s why this topic is discussed here briefly the changeover and
operation procedure during such emergencies.

Main engine’s direction and rotation are remotely controlled from either bridge or ECR through telegraph and
fuel lever control. However engine is also provided with emergency manoeuvring control system in case the
remote control system fails to operate. Local manoeuvring control system is provided for use if the remote control
manoeuvring system fails to operate from both the remote stations, i.e. bridge and ECR, or the governor of the
main marine engine goes faulty.

The changeover and operating procedure differs from engine to engine as different control systems are adopted
for different engine types; however the basic procedure remains the same. .The local control stand is normally
located in the engine room near the fuel pump platform of the main engine.

a. Changeover from Remote to Local position

1. First change control from wheel house to ECR and both the telegraph on wheel house and ECR are to be
in stopped position.
2. Bring the fuel lever of wheel house and ECR in stop position.
3. Turn the changeover switch in the ECR to Local.
4. At the local control station, changeover the fuel pump control shaft from local to manual.
5. For operating the fuel rack, a cone clutch arrangement or a mechanical lever arrangement, which acts as
manual control.

It is to be noted that the changeover procedure can be done with main engine in stopped as well as running
condition, but if the situation permits it is better to be done when the engine is stopped. Now she is ready for
operation from local position.

b. Operations from local stand near main engine.

1. As the wheel house order is given by local telephone and communication system, respond to the telegraph
and give fuel and air to the engine via local control levers.
2. If the engine fails to start, give extra amount of fuel and air as now it is controlled manually and the
linkage requires more push for the fuel supply.
3. Once the marine engine starts, follow the telegraph and maintain the speed from local fuel lever.

Reduction of Speed on Engine Failure

There are situations when engine fails without notice and quickly loses her control. With drop of speed the turning
ability also seriously falls down. A not-under-control vessel with sufficient speed can create disasters
unimaginable. In such situation, the ship handlers’ immediate objective remains to bring the vessel to a safe
location and control the speed as required. Many times the speed need to be reduced substantially while engines
remain failed. Let’s see how to reduce the speed of such a vessel in emergency scenario.
 a. Rudder Cycling

In that case if sea room is available, the ship handler or the navigation officers may use rudder cycling to reduce
her speed effectively. Rudder cycling uses the drag of the rudder as well as the vessel, to break her momentum.
These methods are suitable in open seas, but also may be used at suitable locations in restricted waters.

• High Frequency Cycling

It gives a stopping distance of approximately 10 times the ships length. It uses the “drag” of the rudder to reduce
headway. Put the rudder hard over and stop the engines. As the vessel starts to swing, put helm hard over the
other way. Continue to do this cycling until vessel is stopped.

You may need a short burst of ahead power and corrective helm to bring the vessel back on course. This results in
minimal deviation of heading and the effectiveness of the manoeuvre is not reduced by shallow water.

This manoeuvre is not really suitable for use on vessels of full hull form which are deeply laden. Most effective
on fine form vessels in lightship condition.

• Low Frequency Cycling

It gives a stopping distance of approximately 6 times the vessel length. This uses the “drag” of the hull as the
vessel turns. Put rudder hard over to port until vessel is 40 degrees off course, then hard to starboard with full
astern. This will stop the vessel with small deviation to the port side of her course and close to her original
heading. Shallow water will reduce the effectiveness of this manoeuvre.

It must be remembered that vessels on reciprocal courses will close at their combined speeds and that a ‘safe’
speed to conform with IRPCS should therefore be one at which the vessel can be brought to a standstill in half the
range of her visibility.

b. Back Pull by Tugs

If already made fast to the vessel, tugs may be used for back-pulling to reduce the speed of the vessel. When
engine fails, tugs should be advised immediately for back pulling.

Sometimes a tug is made fast right astern of the vessel through centre lead solely for the purpose of reducing
speed. These tugs are called as braking tugs. Tugs while made fast on the sides for the purpose of lateral
movement of the vessel while on slow speed may also are deployed to reduce speed by back pulling from their
positions while resting on ship side. Usually the aft tug is used for this purpose but both the tugs at the bow and
stern may be deployed for the purpose.

Limitations:

• When tugs are used for back pulling, they don’t pull the vessel exactly right astern direction. They pull in
arbitrary direction mostly tending towards right astern. This causes the stern of the vessel to marginally
drift to one side in which direction the tug pulls. Thus when the pilot observes a lateral drift, it is
advisable to stop the pulling momentarily or give sufficient correction by engines to nullify the effect.
• When tugs made fast alongside are asked to back pull the line may chafe and subsequently break. This
may create an emergency scenario. It would waste some critical time without the tugs at pilot’s disposal.
 Emergency Methods of Killing the Speed to Avoid a Disaster

Despite deploying all available methods when it is apparent that vessel’s speed cannot be reduced and there is an
imminent threat of grounding or collision with nearby vessel’s or any hazards to navigation, the emergency
methods of speed reduction may be followed to save life and or property. These methods may cause the vessel to
sustain some damage to her structures or machineries. But the bigger objective is to prevent a disaster of life loss
or bigger property damage. There may be legal implications run after the incidents but the best possible action is
to avoid a bigger incident.

1. Dredging Anchors Underfoot

When all previous options are exhausted, the navigator may resort to dredging the anchor to reduce the speed. In
such scenario a critical decision to make is which anchor is to be used for dredging. While deciding which side
anchor to be dropped following factors must be taken into account:

• As soon as vessel drops anchor, her stern will start swinging to opposite side as anchor will act as a pivot.
So there should not be any obstruction on the side where the stern is expected to turn. Otherwise to avoid
a bow collision there should not be a stern collision.
• Whichever side anchor is decided to be dropped, bow near that side has to be clear of any boats and
sufficient depth must be available
• It is preferable to drop weather side anchor of sufficient stern-room is available. Otherwise the leeside
may be considered.

It is a prudent practice that both anchors are kept standby for emergency use when vessel enters restricted waters.
Once it is clear which side anchor is to be dropped for dredging, same anchor is made ready for letting go.

Usually the depth in harbour limits is less than one shackle of anchor cable i.e. 27 metres. Thus the anchor once
ready, shall be let go up to 1 shackle on water and held back with break tight and gear disengaged. The objective
is to drop the anchor up to sufficient length so that the anchor dredges on the seabed. There will be tremendous
force on the anchor cable depending upon the speed and consequent momentum of the vessel. Anchors and cable
are designed to hold the static load of the vessel in and prevent yawing and holding particular position. In such
case anchor and cable are subjected to dynamic load of the vessel which is excessive enough to break it. Once one
anchor is let go for dredging vessel must be ready to let go another anchor for dredging if need be. If 1st dredging
anchor is given way the 2nd anchor may be used.

Further it is to be noted that the timing and position of the vessel where dredging may be started has to be clear in
the minds of the ship handler. Before starting dredging it is to be noted the speed, head room, stern room, weather
effects on the vessel.

2. Smelling Ground at Bow or Quarter (Side touching)

When vessel at high speed and dredging anchor is not a viable option, allowing the vessel’s bow or stern to smell
the ground laterally may be considered to break the speed. This is a very precise and critical exercise whereby the
vessel touches ground laterally at bow or stern and returns back to safe water with the help of bank cushion. The
marginal touch of the vessel to ground laterally causes great reduction of speed almost instantaneously.

To carry out the process the helm and engine or tugs if available may be used to carry out a swing towards a
shallow patch in a controlled swing. Just before touching the ground, opposite helm must ready with a higher
engine RPM to move the bow or stern away from the shallow patch. This would cause the vessel to brush away
from the ground. This would cause the speed of the vessel to drop dramatically.

In such case the ground must be of non-damaging nature i.e. soft mud, sand etc.

There are limitations to this method such as: this is a very precise exercise and difficult to carry out, the vessel’s
underwater areas may sustain damage.

3. Beaching to Avoid Collision

Everywhere we read since our cadetship that grounding is better than a collision. If all resources are consumed
and all the critical time is lost, then the last resort is to cause a beaching or grounding. When it is required to do
so, it is better to ground the vessel from the side or from bow. This would cause lesser damage and easier to re-
float.

Turning Ability at Max Rudder Angle in Open and Shallow Waters

In opposition to the directional stability of a vessel, it is also required for the ship to turn in a satisfactory manner
when a rudder order is given. Thus the response of the rudder also must be satisfactory. The ship handler must
understand and appreciate the rudder response of various ships. The ship must respond to its rudder and change
heading in a specified minimum time (T) and there should be minimum overshoot of heading (Heading
overshoot) after a rudder order is given. Both of the above response quantities are dependent upon the magnitude
of rudder’s dimensions, rudder angle, and ship’s speed. These have been discussed in details in the chapter-
Alteration of courses.

Now let’s see how a vessel moves in a turning circle?

Turning circle is the path traced by the pivot point when a vessel is allowed to turn with a fixed rudder angle and
with a particular engine RPM. Thus the configuration of a turning circle will change when the rudder angle is
changed from10 to 20 to 30 degrees. Same will also change when the engine RPM changes from dead slow ahead
to slow ahead to half or full ahead. The shortest turning circle would be the result when engines are running full
ahead and helm is given hard over to any side.

As the vessel traverses on turning circles, she moves ahead as well as laterally to one side. The longitudinal
distance traversed by the vessel till her heading is changed by an angle of 90 degrees from initial heading is called
as “Advance”. Similarly the athwart-ship distance covered by the vessel when her heading is changed by 180
degrees from initial heading is called as “Transfer”. The diameter of the turning circle is called as tactical
diameter. The measurements of various distances of advance, transfer and tactical diameter are recorded in the
manoeuvring booklet for future reference by ship handlers. Similarly the times taken there to are also recorded in
the manoeuvring booklet. These measurements characterise the turning circle of a vessel.

The parameters of tactical diameter or advance and transfer all depends on following factors:

• Displacement of vessel – loaded or ballast condition

• Depth of water
• Angle on the rudder
• Running RPM on the engine etc.

Example of a turning circle is given below for a loaded bulk carrier on shallow waters with engine running at full
sea speed and wheel on hard starboard.
 Fig-18.4

Fig-18.5(a) Fig-18.5(b)
 Comparison between Effects of Crash Astern vs. Full Ahead and Hard Over Wheel

We have seen the stopping manoeuvres and their effect interms of head reach and side reach. We also have seen
by now the advance and transfer of a turning circle of vessel when running full ahead and with hard over on
wheel. We can easily compare these two manoeuvvres for the purpose of understanding their effect in avoiding a
collision. Collision may happen in open seas with other vessels. This may happen also inside harbour limits with
various infrastructures as well as moving vessels. Avoiding ccollision with any floating or fixed objects is on of
the major objective of carrying out a emergency manoeuvre.

Lets compare how the vessel travesres in each case. This comparision is of special importance as the ship handler
at any given point may make a well informed and good decision in averting any hazardous navigational situation.

Fig-18.6(a) Fig-18.6(b)

It can be seen from the diagrams that for a loaded vessel,

Type of manoeuvre Head Reach Side Reach

Crash astern head reach of 10.1 cable in side reach 1.7 cable
9minutes 18 second

Turning with wheel hard stbd advance – 3.3 cable in 2 min transfer -3.6 cable in 4 m 00 sec
and engines full ahead 06s

Comparing above two manoeuvres, it is crealy advisable to turn with full ahead and hard oer wheel if the vessel
havs a lateral tolerance of 4-5 cable distance to avoid any collision sitiation. It gains less longitudinal distance and
in less time. Thus generally it is prefereable when ample searoom is abailable to alow vessel’s turning. But it may
nota always be possible as in harbour limits the lateral sea room is generally restricted.

***
 Chapter-19

Special Operations
STS Operations,
SBM Operations,
Customary Towing Operations

Pilotage operations include many special operations in special circumstances besides relatively simpler berthing
and un-berthing procedures. Though the basic principles of pilotage and ship handling techniques are similar,
some operations pose relatively higher challenges to the pilot. Such operations may include but not limited to –
Towing, cold move, trans-shipment, STS operations, handling laden cape size bulk carriers or VLCCs, handling
large unusual dimension un-propelled objects etc.

Such operations if carried out regularly by the pilot, then the experience of the pilot makes it relatively easier and
doesn’t pose much challenge to the pilot. But there are times when a pilot has to carry out such special operations
once a while due to some compulsions. In such case the pilot doesn’t have much experience in handling such
special operations.

Al the responsible persons involved in carrying out such operation must carry out a meeting to discuss the issues
and draw upon a risk assessment of the operation. All the hazards so enlisted must be addressed by putting control
measures to reduce risk level to trivial. Once everybody involved are comfortable and risk management controls
are in place, such special operations should be taken on hand.

A. STS Operations

STS transfer operation generally involves trans-shipment between two ships and sometimes called as Lightering.
The large vessel is called SBL (Ship to be Lightered) and small one called SS (Service Ship). They are positioned
alongside each other, either while stationary or underway in order to commence cargo transfer. Usually this
operation is carried out for huge oil tankers in open sea, when ship does not berth in port or jetty, especially due to
draught restrictions or the port berthing charges. The motivation for performing these operations is a lack of deep
water ports and economic aspects. Sometimes there are also need to carry out the cargo transfer between damaged
ships after meeting with accidents and thus save the cargo from the damaged ship and to mitigate emission to the
environment. Accidents involving oil tankers represent approximately 10% of world’s marine accidents.

These types of STS operations are expected to increase significantly in frequency, and expand into new
geographical areas in the coming years.

The STS transfer operation requires proper coordination, equipment in according to STS operation plan and
administration approval. The purpose of the STS transfer operation plan is to provide a step by step description of
STS procedure according to guidelines Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) and the
International Maritime Organization (IMO).

This plan should deal with the following stages of operation:

• Pre‐Approach Planning;
• Approach Manoeuvre;
• Mooring;
• Cargo Transfer;
• Unmooring;
• Departure Manoeuvre
Each stage consists of different procedures to follow and check‐lists to complete.

1. Pre-Approach Planning and preparations

STT operations are carried out at different scenarios e. g. at anchor, at berth, while underway. When STS is
planned, the mother vessel (SBL) has to be prepared in many aspects and assess is she is ready for double banking
in all respects. After careful examination of the case, necessary risk assessment and equipped with all required
arrangements, vessel decides on double banking.

The vessel has to be provided with Big Yokohama Fenders to create sufficient space between the vessels

• Check the combination of vessels. Small + big, same size, big + small
• Check the freeboard difference
• Condition of fenders should be in good order.
• Prepare good ropes through designated leads. Otherwise chafing
• Crew must be trained and be ready to carry out the mooring operations

2. Approach Manoeuvres

The most common incident to occur during STS operations is a collision between the two ships while
manoeuvring alongside each other or sailing. Collision between two ships typically occurs for reasons which
include:
• incorrect approach angle between the manoeuvring ships;
• approaching at excessive speed;
• Failure of one or both ships to appreciate weather conditions.

a. Approach while at anchor or berthed:

While Service Ship (SS) approach the SBL berthed alongside or at anchor, following precautions need to be taken
into account.
• Do not approach at an angle to the vessel at any cost.
• Make best use of the wind
• Slowly fall of the fenders
• Touching parallel to the fenders. Any angle may cause metal to metal contact between the ships.
• Touching fenders without any fwd or aft speed. It may break their lines.
• Tugs if used must be used judiciously

SBL SS SBL SS

Fig-19.1(a) Fig-19.1(b)
 b. Approach while underway

The principle of a standard Approach Manoeuvre in STS lightering operations suggests a standard way to carry
out an STS transfer operation is when the SBL maintain a constant heading at minimum controllable speed (5
knots or less) or drift with wind and currents. SS approach the SBL and berths normally with its lee side of the
constant heading ship.

The standard Approach Manoeuvre is divided into two phases as follows:

- The initial phase is basically a collision avoidance manoeuvre from current position to final position in
order to obtain the required safe distance between Service Ship and Ship to be lightered. The safe distance
is called the Distance at Closest Point of Approach (DCPA) and it is appropriate to the conditions. During
this phase SS must approach the SBL on a parallel course and adjust its velocity to equal SBL.

- The second phase which is operation of ships alongside takes place after the required safe distance has
been maintained. On closer approach, the manoeuvring ship should then position itself relative to the
constant heading ship. Contact is made by the manoeuvring ship, reducing the distance until the fenders
touch. Subsequently both ships are on parallel courses with similar velocity and their manifold in line to
minimize force of berthing simultaneously on all fenders.

SBL
DCPA
100m
SS (Pos-4)

SBL SS (Pos-3)

0.5 mile SS (Pos-2)

SS (Pos -1)

Fig-19.2

In the open waters the standard Approach Manoeuvre begins at distance of 0.5 NM from the destination point and
finish at DCPA approximately 50‐100 m off. The mooring lines start about 20‐30 m away from each ship.
Normally the manoeuver will be made with the wind and sea ahead. However it depends on the local conditions
and knowledge and experience of the SS navigator.

Throughout any berthing operation the visibility should be good enough for safe manoeuvring, taking into
account safe navigation and collision avoidance requirements. This standard Approach Manoeuvre is of assistance
when ships are under power, considering normal STS transfer operation. The procedures may vary according to
circumstances - emergency with oil spill, inshore operation, and limited geographical scope of operation,
dynamical and kinematical ship properties, and weather condition and traffic density.
 c. Approach during Emergency Ship-to-Ship Transfer Operation with Oil Spill

One of the major activities during Ship to Ship (STS) transfer operation at sea is to safe approach the Ship to be
Lightered (SBL) which moves on a constant heading with slow speed or drifting. The approach manoeuvre is
considered as a sequence of navigation manoeuvres in specific navigational environment with environmental and
operational constraints. Additional constraints results from STS transfer operation guide and navigation practise
in order to obtain the required safety distance between two ships and to take side by side position. The
manoeuvring operations are individually different depending on variation in the environment condition,
manoeuvring performance of the individual ship.

During emergency STS transfer, additional important aspects may appear like ship and cargo condition
(transhipment from undamaged side), time limits as well as water area constraints, avoidance moving oil spill or
other rescue units etc. These additional constraints may also call for a specific type of manoeuvre depending on
actual scenario.

The pilot’s main objective is to define Approach Manoeuvre during emergency STS transfer operation as a
problem of safe trajectory planning for approaching taking into account weather condition, traffic density and stop
and speed control performance of the vessels involved. Approach trajectory is required to be determined on
available information. This allows to take proper manoeuvring decision by ship operator using rudders and
propellers and to mitigate oil spill to the environment.

Manoeuvres are from leeward and to the starboard side of the constant heading ship. The Service Ships dedicated
for conducting STS transfer operation are mostly equipped with aft main propeller usually in conjunction with
rudder and bow tunnel thruster. Main propeller produce the necessary surge force needed for transit and rudder
produce yaw moment which can be used for steering control.

The tunnel thruster produces a sway force and is only effective at low speed. These three factors can realize
Trajectory Tracking operation of Approaching and then Berthing. Azimuth thrusters can produce two force
components surge and sway in the horizontal plane. To control the movement of the Service Ship during STS
Approach Manoeuvre, the approach may be divided into 3 parts in order to achieve the final Distance from SBL,
parallel course and equal speed. This consist of following:

• Trajectory Planning (moderate or high‐speed manoeuvring)

• Stopping Manoeuvre (stop ship)
• Dynamic Positioning (low‐speed manoeuvring)

Trajectory planning: The first control objective is to minimize a tracking error. During STS operation tracking
control can be used for course‐changing manoeuvres and speed‐changing control separately or simultaneously.
The task is mostly realized at the first phase of Approach Manoeuvre to assume moderate or high ship speed
(more than 2m/s). At this speed rudder for course control and main propeller for speed control (ROT and ruder
angle control) are only effective.

Stopping Manoeuvre: This is related with a reduction of current ship velocity along trajectory. The stopping
ability of the vessel is judged using stop manoeuvres – emergency or normal stop.. During stop manoeuvre the
operator should stop its engine and only course keeping by using rudders amidships. This may be achieved by
using engine on astern direction also.

Dynamic Positioning: This consists of manoeuvring the ship at low speed (less than 2 m/s). The only course and
position control are associated with this mode. At this speed ship steering is carried out by using mostly azimuth
thrusters, bow and /or stern thrusters whatever available. The efficiency of rudders at low velocity significantly
decreases. Dynamic Positioning mode can be activated at last phase of approaching to realize various kind of ship
movement like longitudinal, transverse, rotation around its axis or side manoeuvre at certain angle.
 SBL
DCPA
100m

Dynamic Positioning

Spillage
Stopping Manoeuvre

Trajectory Tracking

Fig-19.3

3. Mooring
After Approach Manoeuvre by using different controls, the ships should manoeuvre alongside at the required
safety distance (DCPA). That means both SS and SBL keep their constant heading and constant speed or drifting
about 0. In this condition the Berthing operation by using tunnel thruster and Mooring procedure by using lines
can start.

4. Cargo Transfer
Careful attention must be given to the prevailing circumstances and condition while cargo transfer operations are
going on. Checking mooring lines is of utmost importance while in cargo operation particularly in following
conditions:
• Inclement weather condition
• Change of tide
• Freeboard of the vessels changing
• Changes in drafts and trims
• Changes in rolling period due change in GM

5. Unmooring and Departure Manoeuvre

The sequence of unmooring must be carefully decided after existing situation. Once both vessels are ready in all
respect to sail the service Ship away from the SBL, the unmooring operations follows after careful examination of
the situation.

Cast off the head and stern lines and hold on to the springs fwd and aft. If tugs available, they should avoid
pushing the vessel on to the yokohama fenders. Once the headlines and the stern lines are onboard , cast off the
springs from the inner vessel. Once all lines are clear, get the vessel pulled by both the tugs parallel to the fenders.
Once sufficiently clear, vessel can be manoeuvred away from the fenders.
 .

Initial Position Final Position

Fig-19.4(a) Fig-19.4(b)

The situation is very precarious as there is always a chance of metal to metal contact between the vessels. There
are some yokohama fenders between the vessels those maintain a marginal distance between the double banked
vessels. However the number and size and condition of the yokohama fenders in use decides how the good the
distance is maintained.

B. Single Buoy Mooring Operation

Single point Moorings (SBM) is an arrangement whereby very large crude carrier (VLCC) tankers are moored to
a single buoy for loading or discharging to or from storage facilities where dedicated facility is not available for
cargo operations. The cargo is loaded or discharged through subsea manifold structures.

SBM- Structure and Securing Methods: Usually SPM is anchored at the seabed with multiple anchors spread
evenly on the seabed so as to keep the SBM stable in all sea and swell conditions prevailing in the area. There are
2 types of ways the buoy is held in position – CALM (Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring) & SALM (Single Anchor
Leg Mooring).

SBM has mainly 5 parts – buoy body, anchors and cables running down to the seabed, fittings for mooring and
product transfer system that transfers the product from the buoy to the subsea manifold and the fenders those
prevent the damage to the buoy if the vessel hits the buoy in unusual circumstances. The fittings for mooring s on
the buoys are arranged in such a way that the buoy moves feely within the defined limits.

1. Preparations Prior Arrival at SBM

Vessel keeps ready following:

• Chains of varying diameter (usually 76mm chains of OCIMF type B).

• 2 free mooring drums at the focsle with messenger lines reeled through Bow Stopper and fairleads at
either side of the break of focsle.
• Ready to receive the hose connection gear and crew when they board the vessel while approaching to the
SPM.
• Vessel’s crane is ready to lift the hose and gear to facilitate the hose connection.
• Lifting and handling equipment on the buoy allows the connection of hoses and tools.

2. Manoeuvring in SBM Operation

Pilot boards from a tug boat on the vessel at the pilot station usually few miles from the SBM. 2 tugs usually
guide the vessel in the berthing process. After berthing and mooring operation is completed one tug is released
while another tug remains standby near the vessel for pull back operation when required. Pilot usually stays on
board to guide the vessel in maintaining her position with the help of one tug.
Approaching the pickup lines the pilot or berthing master may move to focsle so as to better conning of vessel
with a communication with bridge manned by the master and the ship’s officers. This may be considered to have
a better view of the forward from bow than the bridge.

As the vessel approaches the pickup lines, the speed of the vessel is reduced to less than half knots or so. The
pickup lines are designed to pull the chafing chains on board. The slack is slowly picked up as the vessel slowly
approaches the SBM while heaving up the lines, they should be kept little slack.

At some SBM terminals, there are no tugs, but 2 line boats are present to carry out mooring. One boat clears the
floating hoses clear of the tanker’s approach, and other boat is used to pull the ropes to bring to the vessel’s bow.

3. Mooring
Vessel is moored to the SPM using chains of varying diameter (usually 76mm chains of OCIMF type B). Vessel
keeps 2 free mooring drums at the focsle with messenger lines reeled through Bow Stopper and fairleads at either
side of the break of focsle. Same messenger lines are passed to the mooring boats. The boat carrying the
messenger line proceeds to the buoy and make the connections for securing the ship.

4. Cargo Operations at SBM

After the mooring has been completed hose connection procedure follows. Hose connection gear and crew boards
the vessel while approaching to the SPM. Using vessel’s crane the hose and gear are lifted to facilitate the hose
connection. Lifting and handling equipment on the buoy allows the connection of hoses and tools.

Normally a loading master or pilot stays on board the vessel once the vessel is berthed at the SBM, to co-ordinate
between the ship and the terminal. He also assesses the weather conditions and takes decisions to stop loading in
severe weather etc.

Engines remain standby on short notice. This is necessary to prevent any unwanted movement of the vessel
towards the SBM. Astern engine is required if the vessel is riding upto the buoy due to weather from astern

5. Un-berthing and Departure Manoeuvre from SBM

Careful assessment of the existing conditions of weather must be carried out before considering to un-berth the
vessel for SBM.

If the vessel is heading to the weather – tide or wind or current, the lines would remain taught. In this case it is
necessary to give a kick on the engine so as to move the vessel ahead marginally. This would slack the lines. This
helps the chafe chains to be released from stoppers. This facilitates the Smitt bracket to get unshackled.

Once lines are casted off, vessel my give an astern engine order or back pull by the astern tug to allow the vessel
fall astern. This clears the pickup ropes from focsle of the vessel. This takes some time to clear all the ropes from
focsle. Once all the ropes are clear, she may leave the berth

C. Customary Towing Operation

Towage may be defined as ‘a service rendered by one vessel to aid the propulsion or to expedite the movement of
another vessel’. Towage can take place in many different circumstances and can be part of salvage or wreck
removal operation following a casualty. It can also occur when a ship is in distress in order to avoid a casualty
occurring. In the vast majority of cases, however, towage is a routine operation, particularly within the confines of
a port. This is referred to as customary towage.

An agent of the ship, or the charterer, usually requests the services of a tug for port towage. Once engaged,
however, the tug may take its orders from any pilot on board the towed ship and therefore the presence of tugs
adds to the complexities of the relationship between the master and pilot. The pilot and the master should be fully
aware of each tug’s power and handling characteristics but the responsibility for engaging tug assistance, where
required, rests with the ship’s master, and the ship’s master may be found negligent in not engaging a tug to assist
where the circumstances warrant it and an accident occurs. The rights and responsibilities of the tug and the towed
ship, with regards to each other and in relation to third parties, are generally dealt with in the applicable “towage
contract”.

1. Preparations for towing operation

Planning and preparation before a tow commences might include:

• Assessing the size and type of vessels or barges to be towed and any limitations of the tow.
• Confirmation that the tug is of suitable; size, manning, sea-keeping, horse power (HP) and bollard pull
(BP).
In order to calculate what the bollard pulls of the tug should be for a towed barge with a displacement ∆ and
dimensions stated the following formula has been used as a guide.
BP = {∆2/3 V³ + (0.06 B x D)120 x 60}x K in tonnes
Where,
∆ = full displacement of towed vessel (tonnes)
V = tow speed (knots)
B = breadth of towed vessel (metres)
D = depth of the exposed transverse section of the towed vessel including deck cargo, measured above the
waterline (metres)
K = a factor that reflects potential weather and sea conditions;
for exposed coastal tows K = 1.0 to 3.0
for sheltered coastal tows K = 0.75 to 2.0

• Tow wire and towing equipment is suitable for the planned tow.
• Route to be taken and passage planned, including safe transit times (day/night transits), times when
passing through narrows, under bridges or areas of high traffic density, tight bends in rivers and adjacent
river berths. Noting any areas of reduced depth, tidal limitations and currents expected during the voyage.
A list of bridges with maximum and minimum height; tide height for each arch to be passed under
showing the bridge’s maximum air-drafts.
• Weather forecasts to include outlook for at least 48 hours. Navigational information and warnings.
• Connection and disconnection arrangements. Confirmation of sufficient fuel, water, spares on board.
• Emergency contingency plans.
• Other factors such as Tugs efficiency, e.g. age, appreciable hull growth, propeller condition and high sea
water temperatures.
• Another factor identified in fatal accidents is when a tug is using a shaft alternator during a tow.
Therefore the main engine output will be reduced and consequently the BP is reduced. This fact should
always be taken into consideration when in an operational mode.

Precautions for Rough Weather

Rough weather in the context of a small tug or workboat is not restricted to being caused by strong winds. The
Club has suffered many claims where the tug and tow unit have contacted a third party vessel, berth or other fixed
floating object due to misjudging the prevailing weather conditions when manoeuvring. Adverse weather
conditions can be caused by any of the following:

• The action of wind against tide.

• Tidal bores, rip tides or strong currents.
 • Interaction of strong river currents and prevailing currents/winds e.g. at mouths of large rivers.
• Sudden changes in the current due to increased rains.
• Turbulence, undertows and/or wash reflected off river or channel banks.
• Wash from passing craft.
• Geographical/seasonal issues such as the freshet where operations on the Fraser River are affected by the
seasonal ice flows.

The effects of rough weather on a tug and tow can be appreciable and in extreme cases water over the bow of the
tow can impact on barge stability. Extra strain on towing and mooring lines and potential damage to barges being
towed alongside or in tandem can occur. In order to reduce the potential of an incident due to rough weather the
following should be considered:

• Delay departure and wait for an improvement in weather or tide.

• Anchor or tie up and wait for an improvement in weather or tide.
• Reduce speed of tow.
• Increase the length of the tow to compensate for power surge and wire tension due to tows movement in
the seaway/swell.
• Consider towing astern if tow is arranged for towing alongside.
• Alter course.

2. Length of Towing Line

The less water under the keel the more power the tug will need to apply. This will increase the wash effect and a
longer towline can reduce or avoid the wash effect. A short tow line in a confined area can produce a significant
wash effect. Tractor tugs pulling over the stern and ASD tugs pulling over the bow can reduce the wash effect
since the propellers are further away from the towed unit’s hull.
Shortening the length of the tow
Very often, the tug and barge transit through waters where the sea room is restricted. The master then must
consider shortening the tow wire to ensure better control of the barge. The length of the tow wire is at the master’s
discretion depending on the prevalent situation. The shortening of the tow should be carried out preferably in deep
water, weather permitting, and most certainly well before entering congested waters. The shortening in deep water
reduces a lot of wear and tear in the wire which it would have endured with dragging on the seabed. However, if
the weather is severe, then there will be no choice but to defer it to as late as possible.

It is recommended that the length of the tow should not be too short as if anything were to go wrong, the tug will
not be able to manoeuvre out of the barge’s path and can result in her coming into contact with by her own tow. If
the tug has a wild tow on a short wire, the master should call for assistance without further delay to bring the
barge under control. When on a short wire, utmost caution must be taken to avoid sharp alterations or else the
chances are that the barge may violently swing out of control. If this happens then the master should immediately
consider paying out some length of tow wire to dampen the violent movement.

3. Establishing the Tow Connection

There are no strict rules to making fast the tow. Each tow will be different; the barge size, shape, draught,
weather, current strength, light or location will vary. Prior planning will make the operation safer. A briefing
between the tug master and his crew on how the job is to be approached is vital. Before arrival at the connecting
location effective communications should be established between the tug and towed unit if manned. Ideally, a risk
assessment would be in place. Tug speed should be adjusted for a safe rendezvous and connection.
The nature of the towed voyage will dictate what equipment and configuration the tow will take. All need to be
discussed beforehand and the towing equipment made ready and inspected before arriving at the tow. If the tugs
crew are required to access the towed unit plans must be made so that it can be carried out safely in the prevailing
circumstances.
Towing multiple barges

If the tow consists of a number of barges with different loads, sizes and shapes, the barges should preferably be
arranged by similar size and design, with similar sized barges as the lead. If possible, loaded barges should be
placed first with empty barges astern.

Fig-19.5(a) Fig-19.5(b) Fig-19.5(c)

Tow ropes should be similar sized and of the same material, secured to the barges in equal lengths, with the same
number of turns so that the tow ropes can be equally rendered if necessary and the stretch is similar. Where more
than one barge is towed the remaining barges can be bundled into ranks using rope breast or stern lines.

Pushing ahead

Tugs will regularly have to push barges ahead even though they may not be specifically designed to do so. It is
recommended that the barge is secured to the tug using winch wires attached to corner bollards of the barge/s so
that the whole unit can be operated as a single unit. There should also be two substantial ropes made fast to the
tug’s centre bollard and the barge’s port and starboard quarter bollards.

Fig-19.6(a) Fig-19.6(b)
 4. Exchange of Information

It is generally assumed that tug operations are routine for ships’ crews and that mooring parties will handle them
efficiently and swiftly. As a result, master-pilot exchanges do not usually address this issue. However, in order to
ensure effective harbour towage operations, it is essential that the relevant information is exchanged between the
master and the pilot beforehand, so that the mooring parties can be called to their stations in time, fully briefed on
the details of the operation. This lack of skill may result in delays in securing a tug, putting time pressure on the
crew and thereby increasing the risk of personal injury or of the vessel sailing in unsafe conditions, for instance in
dense traffic, before the tug is ready.
The tug information can be exchanged during the voyage under the pilot’s advice, as opposed to being exchanged
at the time of pilot boarding, when there are other navigational priorities to be addressed. At the start of operation
the parties should all be at their mooring stations in good time and have the heaving lines ready at the
correct/required position. If the operation is to take place at night, the crew should have ample time to wake up
and prepare for the period out there, possibly in adverse weather conditions.

a. Information from pilot to master

Due to the different types and sizes of tugs, there are many different types of harbour manoeuvres, so the master
should find out the following details from the pilot in order to pass them on to his crew:
- ship’s lines or tug line
- method of getting the rope on board or the ship’s lines to the tug. (most commonly for tug’s lines: thin heaving
line from the vessel to pick up a larger size messenger rope from the tug, which can be led to the warping drum of
a winch in order to heave on board the tow wire. When using ships’ ropes, the other option is to lower a ship’s
rope or send it over with a heaving line.
- position for passing over the heaving line (throw from the ship’s shoulder, which fairlead the heaving line
should be taken through)
- maximum speed for securing the tug, so the bridge team can monitor
- bollard pull of the tug(s)
- VHF channels to be used for working with the tugs

b. Information from master to pilot

The master should provide the following information to the pilot:

- SWL of the mooring / towing equipment
- Which fairleads are suitable for securing the tugs. If they are off centre and only one tug is to be used, this must
be specifically brought to the attention of the pilot.
- Pushing point strength, if known. If no pushing points are indicated on the hull, but the ship has a reinforced belt
all around, it is important to convey this fact to the tug master.

5. During the towing operation

a. Position of tug and interaction

The position of the tug is always important especially when assisting a barge or vessel. The safe position of the
tug relative to the assisted unit depends on many factors which include
- the size and pivot point of the unit,
- the number of tugs assisting,
- the speed of the unit being assisted,
- the depth of water, and
- amount of manoeuvrable room,
- currents and winds.
 b. Communications

The commands used by the officer in charge should be clear and well understood by the deckhands using standard
terminologies subject to the ship’s working language.

The officer in charge must ensure that the mooring party knows:
- which bollard(s) will be used for the tug(s),
- how the messenger line will be led towards the warping drum and
- how the tow wire will be stopped off in order to allow the strain to be taken off the messenger line and the
soft eye to be put over the bollard.
- the releasing procedure.

The officer in charge must always be in visual contact with the tug during securing up, so he can exchange hand
signals with the tug crew, which is usually better than trying to handle a walkie-talkie VHF in windy conditions.
There are ships in which the bulwarks are so high that the tug crew cannot see anybody on the (forecastle) deck of
the vessel, or anything that goes on there. In such conditions, it is absolutely essential to have one person in a
specific location for signalling visually to the tug. The crew should always signal to the tug when the tow wire is
secured and the tug can safely start applying power. Status of the tow wire should also be confirmed to the master
(secured, in the water, propeller cleared).

c. Safe Working Practices

- The crew should wear leather working gloves or gloves made from equivalent materials when handling a
tow wire, never cotton gloves. Very loose work clothing should also be avoided. Overalls should be tight,
especially around the wrists and ankles.

- Many serious personal injury incidents in mooring areas involve parting lines. It is therefore important to
note that a “snapback zone” exists when a mooring line is under tension. Crews should take that into
account during operations and it may be a good idea to indicate these areas permanently on the deck. As
soon as the tug is secured, all crew stand back from the snapback zones.

- Crew members should also be warned to beware of hands and fingers: sudden jerks in the tow wire while
taking the line on board or releasing the tug can easily lead to personal injury.

- Only a suitably weighted heaving line should be used. Monkey’s fists should not have additional weight,
but a heaving line should not be thrown without a monkey’s fist. The latter may be blown away and may
be impossible to get across to the tug. The crew should have a second heaving line ready to throw in case
the first one should end up in the water. The ship’s crew should always warn the tug crew before sending
the heaving line across.
- The crew should never use a thick messenger line to throw to the tug, instead of a normal heaving line:
the weight of the line coming down may injure the tug crew; it is also more difficult to tie two messenger
lines together (a rope messenger line will typically be a three strand polypropylene rope of 24mm
diameter).
- A tow wire should never be grabbed from below, but always from above. If the wire has to be released
quickly in an emergency, it is always easier to just release your grip on the wire and let gravity do the
work than to pull your fingers away from underneath the wire.
- The messenger line must never be disconnected from the tow wire. As an alternative, after securing the
wire over the bitt, the shackle can be disconnected from the soft eye of the tow wire and reconnected
immediately, over the wire behind the soft eye, as a “running” shackle. This provides a means to give
sufficient power to the tow wire to create enough slack so that the soft eye can be lifted easily from the
bollard. If this is not done, the shackle connecting the messenger line to the tow wire should not be
allowed to become jammed between the bollard and the tow wire. This would cause a sharp bend in the
tow wire under load, which might cause it to snap.
 - The tow wire should never be stopped by simply putting it on deck and standing on it; the wire is too
heavy and you may be thrown off your feet or dragged along. Very serious injuries will result in most
cases.
- The crew should also beware of “snaking” messenger lines when they are released and run out. They
could seriously hurt someone upon impact.
- Normally, the bow tug will have no problems when the tow wire is released in one go; the tug will be
moving away from the vessel and there will be little risk of the tow wire ending up in the tug’s propellers.
However, the crew should always try to obtain confirmation from the tug of how they want this done.
- The stern tow wire must always be released in a controlled way (slacked away by means of the messenger
line, in co-ordination with the tug crew). When you let it go in one motion, it will most probably end up
in the tug’s propellers.

d. Dangers associated with Towing

1. Girting, girding or tripping (GGT)

It is the most prevalent reason for tugs to capsize and can cause fatalities. This occurs at either end of the tow and
can happen very quickly. Rarely does it happen slowly enough to allow all of the crew to leave the tug before it
capsizes. Tug masters must be aware of the phenomenon and understanding the quick release to the tow wire is
essential if disaster is to be averted. GGT is particularly relevant to conventional single screw tugs. Tractor and
ASD tugs are less likely to girt. Towing from a point near amidships on a conventional tug is inherently unstable
and can result in situations where the load on the tow rope can heel the tug over to a large and dangerous angle.

2. Interaction

The phenomenon of interaction is particularly dangerous in situations where there is a larger vessel or barge
moving at speed in close proximity to another smaller vessel, such as a tug. The effect is increased further in
confined and shallow waters. Tugs and smaller vessels have capsized as a result of this, particularly when being
overtaken by a larger, faster vessel in a confined waterway, such as a river or channel.

Accidents occur if the tug and unit being assisted are not similar in size and the speeds are relatively high.
The tug was proceeding at about 4 knots parallel to the ship, gradually pulling ahead until about 6 metres abeam
of the ship’s forecastle. As the tow line was being passed the tug took a sudden shear to port and the When a tug
approaches a vessel or barge that is going at a moderately fast speed through the water there are various suction
and pressure forces around the vessels hull – the greater the speed, the greater the effect.

Another effect of interaction is water flow around larger moving vessels acting on the under hull of the tug. This
can cause a decrease in effective stability and increases the possibility of the tug capsizing if the two vessels come
into two vessels touched before the tug master reacted. The impact was minimal in this case however, in seconds;
the tug took a starboard list and capsized resulting in a fatality.
The following consequences happen with hydrodynamic interaction:
• Interaction effects are increased in shallow water.
• Rudder effectiveness can be reduced in shallow water.
• Squat effects are increased in shallow water and the risk of grounding is enhanced.
• Transverse thrust of the propeller changes in shallow water.
• Changes in manoeuvring characteristics are experienced in shallow water.
• A large vessel or barge with small under keel clearance which is stopped in an enclosed basin can
experience strong turning forces.

3. The effect of wind

Not appreciating the effects of the wind when towing can result in collisions, groundings, towlines parting, injury
and girting. The wind causes headings to change, speeds to increase and a towed craft to drift. Manoeuvring can
become difficult if the wind increases or changes direction suddenly. Tug masters should always be aware of the
potential effects of the wind before a tow commences or before commencing the next part of a towing operation.
Knowing the forecast or local weather conditions is essential.

4. The effect of current

Mariners will be aware of the effects that currents have on a craft being manoeuvred in water. The effects of
current in open waters are less important than the effects in confined waters which can be significant particularly
when manoeuvring in busy waters or rivers. River tugs work where currents can be strong and changeable over
short distances. Over the width of a river the current strength may vary. The outer parts of the river may be faster
flowing than in the centre. The more forceful current at the starboard bank impacts on the port quarter and as the
vessel turns the bow is in a less strong current and so there is a turning moment to port. This effect can be sudden
and the effect should not be underestimated.

6. Emergency release systems for towline

Tugs working on a towing winch have a “let go” system. The ship’s crew does not have to do anything to
disconnect the wire; that will be done by the tug master. He will set his winch drum free and let the wire run out,
until it breaks from its securing bolt on the winch drum, while he manoeuvres his tug to safety. However, this
leaves the ship’s crew with a problem: the vessel will be trailing up to 140m of steel wire, which has to be
recovered from the water before the tug can make a new approach (to secure up with its spare towing wire). When
making speed through the water, this will be a difficult job for the mooring party, because once the messenger line
is entirely on board or on the warping drum, it will be much more difficult, probably even impossible, to wind the
remaining towing wire in on the warping drum. In this case, a stopper must be used, and a (second) messenger
line tied to the towing wire further down the line, and then winding the wire on board can be resumed. This
process may have to be repeated a considerable number of times. It will probably be necessary, if conditions
allow, for the vessel to reduce speed. This is a dangerous operation and great care must be taken when carrying it
out.

***
 PART – C
Statutory and Legal Aspects of Marine
Pilotage
 Chapter -20

Statutory Aspects of Pilotage

History of Regulations related to Marine Pilots
Designated Authorities that Regulate Pilotage Matters
Pilotage Regulations
Pilot Exemption Certificates (PEC)
Qualification, certification and Standardisation of Marine Pilotage
Training of Pilots
Role of National Maritime Pilot Associations (NMPSs)

Pilots provide a crucial service to the marine industry; assisting ships to navigate through dangerous or congested
waters. Most jurisdictions impose compulsory pilotage and while there are some generally applicable universal
principles, there are significant variations in local regulations. Professional pilotage has been around almost as
long as ships have been commercially transiting the seas. The importance of pilotage to the maritime industry has
not diminished with time. This has been acknowledged by the IMO as well as all stake holders in maritime
industry. This chapter reviews the main features of pilotage in key maritime jurisdictions

Qualified pilots are usually employed by the local port or maritime administration and provide their services to
ships for a fee, calculated in relation to the ship’s tonnage, draught or other criteria. The IMO Assembly in 2003
adopted resolution A.960 (23) Recommendations on Training and Certification and Operational Procedures for
Maritime Pilots other than Deep-sea Pilots, which includes:

• Recommendation on Training and Certification of Maritime Pilots other than Deep-sea Pilots and
• Recommendations on Operational Procedures for Maritime Pilots other than Deep-sea Pilots.

However, binding legislation on pilotage remains the responsibility of individual countries. While there is some
variation in protocol for pilots, the fundamentals are similar almost everywhere, with many countries following
the legislation laid down by the UK. In general, the pilot will board the ship at sea as the ship is entering, leaving
or manoeuvring within a port. The pilot acts in an advisory capacity, utilising his knowledge of the local environs
to direct the ship safely to her destination. The ship remains subject to the master’s ultimate command and, as
such, a negligent act by the pilot will legally be deemed a negligent act by the ship.

Statistics will invariably show that many marine accidents involve vessels which had a pilot on board. This is in
most cases an obvious consequence of the fact that pilotage areas are close to the coastline or in restricted waters.
Traffic and safety margins are therefore at a completely different level than on the high seas. Accidents are
therefore more likely to occur.

There are very few jurisdictions where it is possible to make significant recoveries from the relevant local port or
maritime administration for loss, damage or liabilities incurred as a result of pilot error. The general principle is
that while on board a ship, the pilot acts as a servant of the ship and its owner and operator, who therefore remain
liable for damages arising as a result of the pilot’s negligence, notwithstanding that pilotage may be compulsory.

Even where the regulations allow for pilot liability where gross negligence or wilful misconduct can be
established, the same regulations often provide for very low limitation levels, very high burdens of proof and/or
prohibitively restrictive forums within which to bring such a claim. The end result is that even where there may be
grounds to allege pilot liability, it may not be worth the hassle and cost involved in trying the case against the
local port or maritime administration.
Nevertheless, pilotage remains a concern in many parts of the world and a number of disasters, such as the "Sea
Empress" and "Diamond Grace" groundings, have put pilots and pilotage services are under increased scrutiny
from authorities, industrial bodies, classification societies and insurers. The varying standards of pilotage
worldwide and the lack of international requirements with regard to pilot qualifications, master-pilot relationships
and passage planning are of concern to the shipping community. Another concern is that pilots and/or the
authorities, who employ them, are often immune from liability when their negligence or misconduct causes a
casualty.

History of Regulations related to Marine Pilots

In Norway, the oldest rules about pilotage date back as far as the year 1276, which shows that pilots have for
centuries played an important role in providing local knowledge and assistance to ensure the safety of vessels and
seafarers.

In Europe, since the beginning of the 17th century, the pilotage is regulated in all the countries by national laws,
called “Pilotage Acts”, and by local regulations of ports, fixing the professional status of the pilots in each
country.

In France, the foundations of the French regulations were adopted in 1554 under the reign of Henri III, by
donning the control of this activity under the supervision of the Admiralty. Later, the Prescription of Colbert of
1681 defined the main principles of the right of the pilot and the captain of ship. These major principles are
contained in the texts of laws today governing the French pilotage Act. It was only in December 12th, 1806,
thanks to the publication of Colbert ordinance taken under the reign of Napoleon I, that the first pilot station
appeared.

For many, the roots of modern pilotage can be traced back to the establishment of the Corporation of Trinity
House in England in 1514, by Royal Charter granted by King Henry VIII, with a licence to regulate pilotage
services. Trinity House relinquished its role as the UK principal pilotage authority in the late 1980s as the
responsibility was passed to individual Competent Harbour Authorities.

Eventually, because the act of pilotage needed to be regulated and to ensure that pilots had adequate insurance, the
harbours licensed pilots, the California Board of Pilot Commissioners was the first government agency created by
California's legislature, in 1850.

In the inland brown water trade another type of pilots are known as trip pilots. Due to the shortage of qualified
posted masters these independent contractors fill the holes in the manning schedule on inland push boats on
various inland river routes. Qualified pilots are usually employed by the local port or maritime administration and
provide their services to ships for a fee, calculated in relation to the ship's tonnage, draught or other criteria.

The importance of employing qualified pilots in approaches to ports and other areas where specialized local
knowledge is required was formally recognized by IMO in 1968, when the Organization adopted Assembly
resolution A. 159(ES.IV) - Recommendation on Pilotage. The resolution recommends Governments organize
pilotage services where they would be likely to prove more effective than other measures and to define the ships
and classes of ships for which employment of a pilot would be mandatory.

Designated Authorities that Regulate Pilotage Matters

Through various national regulations, a harbour authority has statutory powers relating to the regulation of
shipping movements and the safety of navigation and pilotage matters. Competent harbour authorities keep under
consideration what pilotage services are needed to secure the safety of ships and give them powers to:

• make pilotage compulsory within their pilotage district and levy charges for the use of a pilot;
 • grant pilotage exemption certificates (PEC) to any bona fide master or first mate who has the skill,
experience or local knowledge to pilot their own ship in a compulsory pilotage area; and,
• authorise pilots within their district.

In India, there is no national legislation related to marine pilotage. Same has been taken care by individual port
regulations. The harbour authority of each port decides on all issues related to pilotage services to the ships and
all the matters related to pilotage. In most of the countries in the world similar arrangement is prevalent. Such
arrangement gives the local harbour authority more powers and gets better control on harbour management. This
has been reinforced worldwide after the following the Sea Empress disaster in 1996 in UK.

After the above mentioned disaster in UK, the Department for Environment, Transport and the Regions undertook
a review of the Act which concluded that "Pilotage should rightly remain the responsibility of the Competent
Harbour Authorities and become integrated with other port marine activity under the management and
responsibility of one Statutory Authority". The United Kingdom's Pilotage Act 1987 is an Act of Parliament that
governs the operation of maritime pilotage. The Act repealed the previous pilotage legislation in its entirety, the
Pilotage Act 1983, which itself had repealed the Pilotage Act 1913. The act has been amended by the Marine
Navigation Act 2013 to:

• provide a mechanism for a CHA to relinquish its duties and powers in respect of pilotage;
• permit pilotage exemption certificates to be awarded to a bona fide deck officer (qualified as before by
reference to skill, experience and local knowledge); and,
• tighten powers on the use, suspension and revocation of pilotage exemption certificates.

Pilotage Regulations

Harbour authorities should publish the administrative requirements and details which support these directions.
These may be called as ‘pilotage regulations’. These may include:

• Application of the regulations

• Establishment of Pilotage Areas
• Compulsory Pilotage Areas
• Vessels required to take a pilot on board
• Master to give notice of arrival
• Boarding facilities for pilots
• Exchange of information
• Pilot Signals
• The role of Pilot and Master
• Pilotage Directions
• pilot authorisation procedures;
• arrangements for Pilotage Exemption Certificates (PEC);
• any conditions governing the provision of the pilotage service;
• how vessels should obtain the services of a pilot;
• details of the local radio communications allocated for pilotage etc.
• Limitations of Liability of a Pilot
• Liability of vessel and master for damage
• Civil liability for loss or damage
• Exemptions
• Force majeure
• Dispensations
• Pilotage Certificates
• Revalidation
• Misconduct by a Pilot
• Preliminary Investigation into a Pilotage Incident
 • Pilotage Charges and Fees
• Penalties
• Transitional provisions

Liability of a Pilot in Case of Damage

Most of the regulations around the world essentially confirms that the role of pilot

• Subject to the authority of the master of a ship, the duty of a pilot is to safely pilot the ship.
• The master of a ship is not relieved of his responsibility for the conduct and navigation of the ship by
reason of the ship being in the charge of a pilot.

A pilot shall not be personally liable in any civil proceedings for:

• any damage done by him;

• for any loss suffered as a result of any act done by him; or
• for any failure to do anything required to be done by him; while acting as a pilot, unless that act or
omission arose from his gross negligence, wilful neglect or misconduct.

The ship owner and the master of a ship shall be jointly and severally liable in civil proceedings for any loss or
damage caused by the ship, or as a result of any fault in the navigation of the ship, notwithstanding that a pilot
was, or was required to be, on board the ship at the time that the loss or damage was caused.

Regarding civil liability for loss or damage, pilotage authority nor any employee is liable in any civil proceedings
for any damage done by, or any loss suffered as a result of, any act or omission on the part of a pilot while acting
as pilot of a ship.

Present Status of Pilotage Regulations in Various Parts of World

Let’s see the regulatory status of pilotage related matters in various parts of the world. Though the provisions of
the regulations are in principle same, there are region wise marked variations.

India

Pilotage in India is compulsory in all ports, Major or minor. All the major ports are regulated by Indian Ports Act,
1908(15 of 1908) and Major Port Trusts Act, 1963 (38 of 1963). Under this umbrella act, all the matters related to
ports are regulated including pilotage. However each port authority has their regulations to the details of pilotage.
This includes pilotage duties, licensing procedures, reporting procedures and so on. All the Pilots and Master
Pilots shall obey and execute all orders by the Deputy Conservator or the officer nominated by him relating to the
docking, undocking, towing, transporting, berthing, un-berthing, removing of vessels and/or duties pertaining to
the working and handling of the port trust owned suction Dredger.

A Pilot shall on boarding the vessel get the pilotage papers signed by the Master (details of arrival/departure of
the ships for the purpose of raising marine related charges). A Pilot about to take charge of a vessel which is
outward bound, or which is about to be moved from the berth in which she is lying, shall go on board and report
himself to the officer in command at the time appointed, i.e., in sufficient time for her to be moved out to sea or to
her destination.

A Pilot before the taking charge of a vessel shall enquire of the Master of the vessel whether all the main engines,
steering system and other navigational aids are in proper working order. All pilots, prior to boarding the vessel,
acquaint themselves with the movement of vessels in the harbour and the pilot on board in each of them.
No Pilot shall move or direct the moving of any vessel within the port from one position to another, unless the
following conditions are fulfilled-

• if the vessel is underway, the Master shall be on board;

• if the Master leaves the vessel before the movement is completed, the Pilot shall direct the vessel to be
anchored in such safe position as may be most easily reached by the vessel and shall not give directions to
proceed with the moving until the return of the Master to the vessel;
• throughout the moving, the number of officers and crew on board and available for duty shall be sufficient
to perform any duty which may be required, and if the Pilot on boarding considers that the number is not
sufficient, he shall call the Master’s attention to the Port rules and refuse to proceed with the moving unless
the Master first signs a declaration under his own hand expressly assuming entire responsibility.

Pilots to report to the harbour authority (Deputy Conservator) in followings matters:

• A Pilot who has observed any alternation in the depth of the channels, or noticed that any buoys, beacons or
light vessels have been driven away, broken down, damaged, or shifted from position, or become aware of
any circumstance likely to affect the safety of navigational shall forthwith send a detailed report thereof in
writing to the Deputy Conservator.
• A Pilot, whenever any accident has happened to or been caused by a vessel while in his charge, shall as
soon as possible report the facts in writing in the form prescribed for the purpose to the Deputy
Conservator.
• In case of any damage caused to port property by the vessel, the Pilot on behalf of the Port, shall issue a
letter to the Master holding the Master of the vessel responsible for the damage as per Indian Ports Act,
1908(15 of 1908) and Major Port Trusts Act, 1963 ( 38 of 1963) and obtain acknowledgement thereof.
• Pilot to ascertain quarantine and security compliance- A Pilot, on boarding an inward bound vessel, shall
obtain the International Declaration of Health from the Master and if the answer to all questions in the
declaration is in negative, grant free pratique. In case the answer to any question is in the affirmative or if
the pilot is in doubt, he shall apprise the Dock master at the Control Station immediately who in turn shall
pass the information to the Port Health Officer. In the meantime, the pilot shall anchor the vessel in suitable
anchorage and await the Port Health Officer.

Liability: The liability of the individual pilot is governed by the Indian Ports Act, 1908(15 of 1908) and Major
Port Trusts Act, 1963 (38 of 1963). Individual port authorities declare the limits of liabilities due to pilot’s
negligence in duties. However there is no personal liability on the attending pilots due to pilot error. Depending
on the circumstances, the port authority make suitable arrangements for survey of any damages and the claims
may later be decided. But claims against a pilot are very rare in India.

United Kingdom

Pilotage in the UK is at the moment in a period of change. Prior to the Pilotage Act of 1987, pilots were generally
self-employed, but the Act delegated responsibility for pilotage to the "Competent Harbour Authority" (the
"CHA"). It is these bodies – normally the local port authorities – who now have responsibility for authorising
pilots to act. The CHA will also decide whether pilotage is compulsory and will issue pilotage directions and
examine exemption certificates.

However, the Department of Transport has begun a review of the Pilotage Act, partly as a result of the "Sea
Empress" casualty at Milford Haven which, according to the NUMAST Telegraph of October 1997,"…raised
concerns about standards, training and the Master/pilot interface". This report is still in the process of preparation
and the current deadline for its completion is understood to be Easter 1998. In the meantime, one CHA is
implementing plans to introduce a new pilotage regime. The Port of London Authority (the "PLA") intends to
bring in changes which will increase the length of vessel above which pilotage is compulsory. Those opposing the
changes fear this will result in many more unpiloted vessels using the River Thames. These changes were due to
be considered by the PLA board on 2nd December 1997 and it is understood that the position will remain
unchanged until August 1998. Thereafter, vessels exceeding 50 metres length overall will be subject to
compulsory pilotage.

The current practice of two major UK ports, London and Liverpool, has been examined. The situation regarding
pilotage at these two ports can be summarised as follows:

In London, there are 78 sea pilots and 13 river pilots who are all employed directly by the PLA. Pilotage is
compulsory for vessels over 50 metres long in the upriver section of the river and for vessels over 80 metres long
in the downriver section. The Master, in consultation with the pilot, is responsible for ordering and deciding on
the number of tugs. The PLA can issue exemption certificates to a person who is a bona fide Master or first mate
of a ship. There will normally be an examination, although certificates will be issued without an examination if
the PLA is satisfied that the applicant is properly qualified and experienced in the navigation of the relevant area.

In Liverpool, there are 48 pilots who are all self-employed. Pilotage is compulsory and the pilot is responsible for
ordering and deciding on the number of tugs.

The CHA issue exemption certificates to Masters who have completed a requisite number of berthing manoeuvres
and successfully undertaken an examination.

Liability: The liability of the CHA and the individual pilot is governed by the Pilotage Act 1987.A claim by a
ship-owner is possible in certain circumstances, but an owner will have to show negligence on the part of the
pilot. The liability of a pilot to a ship owner for any loss or damage caused by any act or omission, whilst carrying
out pilotage duties, is limited under the PA 1987 to £1,000 plus the charges for the services so provided. Any
potential liability faced by a pilot that is not limited under the PA 1987 may be limited in a particular port’s
Pilotage Directions. Claims against a pilot are therefore very rare.

The liability of a CHA is limited to £1,000 multiplied by the number of authorised pilots employed by it at the
relevant time. Pilotage Directions often also limit the liability of a CHA for delay, damage or economic loss
resulting from the non-availability of a pilot.

Panama (Panama Canal)

Pilotage through the Panama Canal is compulsory and carried out exclusively by Panama Canal Commission
pilots (about 270 pilots). Unlike most ports of the world, Canal pilots do not act in an advisory capacity but take
command over the vessel.

Liability: It is possible to hold the Panama Canal Commission liable for accidents which occur during Canal
transit and which can be attributed to actions of Canal pilots in command of the vessel. Claims procedures are
ruled by the Panama Canal Act of 1979 with amendments and Code of Federal Regulations. Amended claim
procedures were also introduced with the Panama Canal Transition Act which entered into force on 18th
November 1997. In order to protect an owner’s right to claim against the Panama Canal Commission after a
casualty, the Master of the vessel must request an official investigation of the Board of Local Inspectors (BLI) and
the same must convene before the vessel’s departure. Subsequent to this, the owner has one year (previously two
years) from the date of the accident or from the date of the new Act (18th November 1997), whichever is the later,
to file an administrative claim with the Panama Canal Commission. If the owner is not satisfied with the final
determination of his claim at the conclusion of the administrative claims process, he may file suit within 180 days
from the date of the final determination or 180 days after the date of the new Act, whichever is the later. The suit
must be filed with the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana. If a vessel involved in an
accident departs the Canal waters without the convening of the BLI, the right to claim against the Panama Canal
Commission will be lost.

At noon on 31st December 1999 the Panama Canal Commission will cease to exist as a United States
Government agency and the Panama Canal will pass into the control of the Republic of Panama. The ‘Panama
Canal Authority’ will then become the new entity operating the Canal. There has been some speculation as to
changes in the way pilotage will be handled in the Canal after the year 2000, but although the system current is
under re-examination no decisions about the future have been made yet. We will continue to monitor the
developments in Panama and will keep our readers advised of developments.

Egypt / Suez Canal

Pilotage is compulsory for all vessels entering or leaving Egyptian ports and for vessels transiting the Suez Canal,
regardless of whether the vessels call at Port Said or Suez or not.

Pilotage services are administered under the local regulations of the subject port and the Suez Canal Formal
Regulations. Suez Canal pilots are under the employment and authority of the Suez Canal Organisation, whereas
the other pilots are not state pilots but subject to supervision of the port authorities concerned.

Liability: Pursuant to the Egyptian Maritime Code No. 8 of 1990 (Art. 279) as well as rulings of the Supreme
Court in Egypt, the responsibility for pilotage operation in port and in the Suez Canal lies entirely with the Master
of the guided vessel even in case of the pilot’s error.

Japan

The Japanese Pilotage Act, 1949, with amendments, provides that a pilot is licensed by the Japanese Minister of
Transport to conduct pilotage business belonging to one of the local pilot associations. The number of pilots in
each port or area is determined by the Ministerial Ordinance. For example, there are 45 pilots in the Yosuka Area
(entrance of Tokyo Bay) and 29 in the port of Kobe. Pilotage is compulsory for all non-Japanese vessels over 300
gross tons and also for Japanese vessels over 300 gross tons if engaged in international trade. Pilotage is also
compulsory for Japanese vessels over 1,000 gross tons engaged in domestic traffic only. It is possible to apply for
an exemption from the rules about compulsory pilotage, but only for Japanese flag vessels or a vessel on bareboat
charter to Japanese interests, and only if the Master has the necessary experience. The criteria vary from port to
port.

Liability: According to the Act, the pilot must prepare a "Pilotage Agreement" in advance of his actual
performance of pilotage. The standard format of the "Pilot Agreement" provides that the Master or owner of the
vessel undertakes not to assert any claim of personal liability against the pilot for damage or loss sustained by the
vessel, its Master and crew, and any third person, even though resulting from the (ordinary) negligence of the
pilot in the performance of his services.

The Agreement also prescribes that if the loss or damage exceeds the amount of the pilotage fee paid or payable to
the pilot (concerning the voyage he was engaged in at the time), the said vessel or owner further agrees to
indemnify the pilot in respect of any liability arising out of any action taken by a third party directly against the
pilot by reason of his negligence in the guidance of the vessel. This is, however, provided that the amount of such
indemnification shall not exceed the amount to which the owner is entitled to limit its liability to such third party
under applicable law pertaining to limitation of ship owners’ liability.

Accordingly, unless the pilot causes an accident by reason of his own intent or gross negligence, a pilot shall not
be liable for whatever results may be due to his error under the Pilotage Agreement (exceeding his pilotage fee).
There seems no apparent difference between compulsory pilotage and non-compulsory pilotage as far as the terms
of the pilotage agreement are concerned.

No judicial precedent or case so far has yet been reported in which a Japanese court declared that such exemption
of a pilot’s liability was deemed to be unfair and thus invalid.

Each individual pilot is permitted to conduct his own pilotage business and, thus, determining who should be
responsible to the vessel’s interests and any third party. This implies that a local pilot association is a mere ad hoc
organisation created to liaise for and on behalf of a member pilot. In other words, a pilot association would not be
held legally responsible for member pilot’s error in pilotage services under ordinary circumstances.
Norway

An integrated pilotage system which applies to the entire coast has been in effect since 1st May 1995. Section 6 of
the new regulations sets out in detail which vessels the rules apply to; the main rule being that vessels exceeding
500 gross tons must use a State pilot when underway in waters inside the base line (an imaginary line drawn
through the outmost islands or mainland promontories along the entire coast). There are separate rules for certain
areas and for certain categories of vessels. As an example, a single hull vessel of more that 100 gross tons shall
use a State pilot when carrying hazardous and/or polluting cargo (as specified in a separate annex). The Coast
Directorate has issued separate regulations concerning the advance notice and booking of a pilot.

Exemptions from the obligation to use a pilot can be given if the Master or other of the ship’s navigators holds a
pilot exemption certificate (PEC). The PEC can be issued to navigators who meet various requirements, including
a documented knowledge about the vessel and the particular fairway.

Liability: The vessel’s owners are not relieved from liability on the grounds that the ship was under pilot control.
Pursuant to the 1989 Pilotage Act and the 1994 Maritime Code the pilot is deemed to be a servant of the vessel’s
owner who therefore will be liable for the acts of the pilot. The government is not liable in its capacity as pilot
employer and cannot be held liable for loss or damage caused by pilot negligence or fault – even when
government property is damaged. The reasoning behind this is that pilotage is considered to be an integral part of
the risks involved in maritime transport and that the liability should therefore rest with the owner. However, the
vessel’s owner has in theory a right of recourse against the individual pilot as per the general principles in the
1969 Compensation Act.

United States of America

Pilotage in the USA is essentially a dual system, regulated either by the law of the state (or states) within which a
port lies or regulated by federal law.

Pilotage for ports on the Great Lakes is regulated exclusively by federal law. State pilotage law does not govern
US flag ships in coastal trade, but state laws do apply to foreign flag ships and US flag ships in foreign trade,
which are compelled to employ state licensed pilots. Substantial penalties are imposed upon ships that ignore the
obligation to employ a local pilot.

Pilot regulation primarily involves licences, discipline and the setting of rates. It can also govern pilot liability.

Pilotage charges

Payment rates for Great Lakes pilots are established by the US government and administered by the US Coast
Guard. Rates for federal pilots aboard US flag ships in coastal trade navigating in non-Great Lakes ports are
market based and often negotiated by the US flag operator with a specific pilot or group of pilots. Rates for state-
licensed pilots are typically established either by a state legislature or by a commission or board appointed by and
operating under a state’s executive branch.

Federal pilots are examined and licensed by the US Coast Guard. A federally licensed pilot need not hold a
licence as either a deck officer or ship operator. Obtaining a pilot licence or pilotage endorsement to an existing
licence requires, among other things, proof of a minimum number of trips through the specific pilotage grounds
and then successfully passing an examination which includes filling in a blank chart of the grounds with all of the
existing shoal areas, channels courses, aids to navigation, etc. State licensure typically requires both a federal pilot
licence and an extensive period of apprenticeship organised and run by a pilot association. Many state licences are
graded (first class, second class, third class, etc.) in accordance with ship draught and/or length.

All pilots are subject to scrutiny and potential civil penalties by the US Coast Guard if they are involved in a
casualty deemed to be caused by their negligence. Federally licensed pilots can have their licences suspended or
revoked by the US Coast Guard.
However, a state-licensed pilot who also has a federally issued licence cannot have that federally issued licence
revoked or suspended if the casualty occurred while he was piloting a ship which employed him as a licensee of
the state. If the ship being piloted was required to employ a state-licensed pilot, the pilot is deemed to have been
working under his state licence, not under his federal licence. The state board or commission that issued the
licence is responsible for overseeing the behaviour of its

United States of America continued licensees and, within the bounds of the state’s administrative procedures, can
charge the pilot with negligence, incompetence, etc., and impose fines, periods of suspension or licence
revocation, depending upon the circumstances of a given case.

The US Coast Guard has requirements for the reporting of marine casualties: Pilots, whether federal or state, do
not typically fall into the category of persons who are required to make those reports. All state licensed pilots are
required to report casualties of certain types to their licensing board or commission.

Liability/exemptions from liability: The general maritime law of the USA holds pilots to a very high standard
with respect to the performance of their duties. They are expected to be experts in handling ships and navigating
within the geographic area for which they are licensed. The ship’s master does not, however, have the right to
simply turn complete control of the ship over to the pilot. The master remains in command of the ship. The master
is therefore obligated to monitor the pilot’s actions and to intervene and reassume control of the ship if the pilot is
impaired or manifestly incompetent.

However, since the pilot is employed because of a greater familiarity with local waters and conditions, the master
who displaces him must be certain that that action is correct and proper under the circumstances.

The duty of the master and the crew is to bring to the pilot’s attention things pertaining to the navigation of the
ship, to maintain a lookout and to obey the pilot’s orders scrupulously.

It is very important in US waters that a meaningful master-pilot exchange of information takes place prior to the
pilot assuming the conn. This should be a two-way flow of information so that the pilot is aware of the ship’s
characteristics and the crew of the ship understands the pilot’s expectations, particularly with respect to
engine/helm orders, lookouts, radar watch and anchor readiness.

For all intents and purposes, the ship owner/operator will be liable for any negligent acts or omissions made by
the pilot that result in personal injury, property damage to third parties, cargo loss or oil pollution. There is a legal
distinction made in an old US Supreme Court case with respect to the difference between a so-called ‘voluntary’
and ‘compulsory’ pilot in order to accommodate the common law doctrines of ‘borrowed servant’ or ‘respondent
superior’, but in practical terms, such distinction is most often irrelevant. The US Supreme Court decided in the
case of The China that although a ship’s owners may not be liable for the negligent acts of a compulsorily
imposed pilot, the ship itself is liable for such in rem. The ship can therefore be arrested by the victims of a
compulsory pilot’s negligence, which generally forces the owner to submit to the jurisdiction of the court and
proffer security (such as a letter of undertaking) to get the ship released from arrest.

Pilots in the USA are theoretically liable for the consequences of their own negligence, but pilots are rarely sued
by either ship owners or third parties. This is because pilots are usually uninsured and do not possess sufficient
personal wealth to be worth pursuing.

Moreover, pilots in many states enjoy protection from or limitation of liability under state statutes. Although most
pilots are members of associations or partnerships, those associations or partnerships are not vicariously liable for
the negligence of their individual members because it has been recognised that neither a pilot’s association nor his
fellow pilots have the requisite control over the behaviour of a pilot in the performance of his duties to justify
liability.

In some US ports, the state-licensed pilot does not dock or sail the ship to/from the pier. That work, usually aided
by one or more tugboats, is performed by a so-called ‘docking pilot’. Traditionally, the docking pilot was the
captain or mate of one of the assisting tugs, who came up to the bridge of the ship to assume control over both the
ship and the tugs in getting to or from the pier. Even today, docking pilots are usually provided by, affiliated with
or recommended by the tug company. No state or federal law compels the employment of a docking pilot; the
employment of a docking pilot is therefore deemed to be voluntary, with the attendant consequences being the
owner’s liability. Moreover, the tug company typically requires the ship’s master to sign a ticket containing a
‘pilotage clause’ by which the ship acknowledges that the docking pilot is the ‘borrowed servant’ of the ship.

This pilotage clause holds the tug company harmless and indemnifies the tug company for harm done as a result
of the docking pilot’s negligence. The master and crew of the ship have the same responsibilities vis-à-vis a
docking pilot as they have with respect to the harbour or river pilot.

There are several ports in the USA that have US Coast Guard-operated Vessel Traffic Systems (VTS), or Vessel
Traffic Information Systems, in place. For the most part, but with important exceptions such as Valdez, Alaska,
these systems are advisory in nature. They do not assume positive control over ships transiting their areas. Indeed,
in the port of New York, the VTS watch standing crew is augmented by a designated harbour pilot to assist in
relaying relevant information to his fellow pilots aboard ships in order to minimise the risk of collision.

Australia

Australia is a federation which comprises various states. Regulations relating to ships are contained in both
federal and state legislation. Section 326 of the Navigation Act 2012 sets out the position relating to pilots in
Australia. It provides:

(1) A pilot who has the conduct of a vessel is subject to the authority of the Master of the vessel.

(2) The Master of a vessel is not relieved of responsibility for the conduct and navigation of the vessel only
because the vessel is under pilotage.

(3) The liability of the Master or owner of the vessel in relation to loss or damage caused by the vessel or by a
fault in the navigation of the vessel is not affected only because pilotage is compulsory under a law of the
Commonwealth, a State or Territory.

(4) Neither the pilot of a vessel, nor any pilotage provider responsible for providing the pilot, is liable in civil
proceedings for loss or damage caused to or by the vessel because of an act done, an instruction given, or
information or advice provided in good faith and in the course of the pilot’s duty.’

Each state and territory also has its own legislation which inter alia provides regulations for pilotage.

Pilots are required to be registered and to have Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) certification. The
requirements and regulations relating to pilotage are included in both the Commonwealth Act and each state’s
Acts. Pilotage is compulsory in all ports and some coastal areas (e.g. Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait), but
exemptions can be obtained for regular users of the port and for ships under a certain length. Pilotage charges vary
from port to port.

There is no uniformity in Australia for any such systems. However, in some states, there are specific systems for
designated areas, including the movement of participating ships within the VTS area of Sydney Harbour and
Botany Bay in New South Wales; Port Philip Heads, South Channels, Melbourne and Geelong in Victoria; and in
some ports as well as the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait in Queensland.

Liability/exemptions from liability: In addition to the provisions in the Navigation Act 2012, and pursuant to local
legislation, Australian states also provide exemption from liability for pilots.

Pursuant to the Navigation Act 2012, additional provisions apply for ships of a certain length or for loaded oil
tankers, chemical carriers or liquefied gas carriers. Otherwise, there are no general considerations but individual
ports may have their own specific requirements. Pilotage is arranged by the ship’s agent and the agent will advise
of any particular requirements.

Fines apply where a ship navigates in a pilotage area without the required pilot.

Hong Kong

The Director of Marine is the Pilotage Authority in Hong Kong. Pilotage is currently compulsory for any vessel of
3,000 gross registered tons1 or more but also for vessels of 1,000 gross registered tons or more in certain specified
circumstances, such as vessels carrying dangerous goods or vessels proceeding to certain container terminals,
other wharves and government mooring buoys. Pilotage is compulsory for any gas carrier and for any vessel of
300 gross registered tons or more if, for example, the vessel has limited ability to manoeuvre.

Pilotage services are provided exclusively, on a 24 hour basis, by licensed pilots who are employed by the Hong
Kong Pilots Association Ltd. This is an independent company, owned by the pilots themselves and supervised by
the Director of Marine. The Marine Department maintains a register of pilots. There are various classes of pilot
depending on experience/qualification. A person wishing to become a pilot first has to be registered as an
apprentice pilot and to gain appropriate experience in this capacity before being licensed as a pilot.

Liability: The law concerning pilotage in Hong Kong is to be found in the Pilot Ordinance (Cap 84). Section 23
provides that "Neither the Authority nor the Government shall be liable for any death, injury, loss or damage
caused by or arising out of any act or omission of a licensed pilot". Section 24 provides that the owner or Master
of a vessel shall be answerable when the vessel is under compulsory pilotage in the same manner as he would if
pilotage was not compulsory. In addition to this, section 24A of the Pilot Ordinance limits the pilot’s personal
liability to HK$ 1,000.

Thus, in a situation where an accident is caused by pilot error the owner or Master remains responsible for any
loss or damage, neither the Director of Marine nor the Government have any liability and the liability of the
licensed pilot concerned is limited to HK$ 1,000 (USD 129). This means, effectively, that the pilot is immune
from liability.

Belgium

Our survey starts in Belgium where the three main categories of pilots are North Sea pilots, river pilots and dock
pilots. North Sea pilots handle the non-mandatory pilotage out of the Belgian territorial sea, and as they are rarely
used the following information will focus on the river and dock pilots which every vessel entering a Belgian port
will meet.

In addition to pilot services, a radar-based Vessel Traffic System (VTS) tracks and records all vessels and Very
High Frequency (VHF) traffic outside the Belgian coast and on the river Scheldt. The VTS is very accurate and
can for example assist vessels in difficulties (with or without a pilot on board). The use and importance of the
VTS will probably increase in the future, but it is important to remember that the VTS has no general obligation
to control vessel traffic and that the initiative to use the VTS has to come from the vessel, even when the vessel
has a pilot on board. Experience in the last few years shows that most collisions could have been avoided if VTS
assistance had been sought.

Before arrival in Belgian waters it is mandatory to provide the vessel’s ETA and ETD to the pilot station. Failing
this, the Master can be fined. Pilotage assistance (be it on the vessel or from land) is mandatory in most cases.
Only very small vessels (less than 60/70 metres) or vessels commanded by an officer with necessary dispensation
are exempt from the mandatory pilotage (for example regular ferry services). If the rules about mandatory
pilotage are not complied with the vessel must stop further navigation and the commanding officer will be fined.
Pilotage dues are payable even when no pilot has been used.
Liability: The pilot or VTS has only an advisory role. The Master remains in full control over his vessel and its
manoeuvres, and the vessel remains liable for all damages, even if the vessel in fact is under the effective
command of a pilot. The pilot, his employer and the VTS system are all exempt from liability. However, the pilot
can in cases of wilful misconduct or gross negligence be held liable for an amount up to BEF 500,000 (USD
15,000).

Canada

Pilotage in Canada is governed by the Federal Pilotage Act. The Act creates four regional pilotage authorities –
Atlantic, Laurentian, Great Lakes, and Pacific. The Chairman of each authority is appointed by the Federal
Cabinet, and additional members of each authority are appointed by the Minister of Transport.

Pilots must qualify and meet prescribed criteria before a pilotage licence may be issued to them. Only Canadian
citizens or permanent residents of Canada, subject to certain restrictions, may become licensed pilots.

A number of compulsory pilotage areas are prescribed by regulations made under the Act, and in such areas, no
person shall have conduct of a ship which is subject to compulsory pilotage unless that person is a licensed pilot.
Such a pilot with the conduct of a ship is responsible to the ship’s Master for its safe navigation. Where the
Master believes on reasonable grounds that the actions of a licensed pilot on board are in any way endangering the
safety of the ship, the Master may in the interests of safety of the ship take conduct away from the pilot, but
within three days must file a written report giving the reasons.

Ships which are subject to compulsory pilotage vary from region to region, and within some regions, but will
generally reflect size, use, manoeuvring and other criteria considered appropriate to safe local navigation.

Liability: The Pilotage Act provides that neither the government nor a pilotage authority is liable for any damage
or loss occasioned by the fault, neglect, want of skill or wilful and wrongful act of a licensed pilot, and that the
licensed pilot personally is not liable in damages in excess of CAD 1,000 (USD 704) for any damage or loss
occasioned by his fault, neglect or want of skill.

Employment of the pilot does not exempt the owner or Master of the ship from liability for damage or loss
occasioned by the ship on the ground that the ship was under the conduct of a licensed pilot or that the damage or
loss was occasioned by the fault, neglect, want of skill or wilful and wrongful act of a licensed pilot. The
Canadian courts have held that the Pilotage Act effectively imposes liability for the acts of the pilot on the owner
and Master, even where the pilotage services are accepted and performed under statutory compulsion and in a
compulsory pilotage area.

Payment of pilotage charges are the joint and several liability of the owner, Master and agent of any ship. Where a
ship is led in a compulsory pilotage area, pilotage charges still apply, and if a ship proceeds through a compulsory
pilotage area not under the conduct of a licensed pilot, unless the authority specifically waives compulsory
pilotage, pilotage charges are still payable, and the Master liable to prosecution and a fine of up to CAD 5,000.
Where pilotage charges are outstanding for a ship and the local customs officer so advised, no clearance will be
issued to the ship until all outstanding charges are paid.

Brazil

Brazilian legislation defines pilotage as professional advisory activities provided to ships’ masters, which are
required in local areas whose peculiarities hinder the free and safe movement of the ship.

Pilotage in Brazilian waters is regulated by the Rules of Maritime Authority no. 12/2003 (NORMAM 12/2003)
and monitored by the Navy. In addition, Law no. 9.357/1997, commonly referred to as ‘LESTA’, provides for the
security of maritime traffic in waters under national jurisdiction and also regulates some pilotage issues.
Conselho Nacional de Praticagem (CONAPRA) is the national pilotage counsel, responsible for the control and
inspection of the execution of pilotage activities. CONAPRA also moderates price negotiations regarding pilotage
services. The issue of pricing is controversial in Brazil.

Pilotage charges

The level of fees charged for pilotage services will take into consideration not only the execution of the service
itself, but also the pilot’s boat and the pilot look-out post (operational structure). The actual price is agreed
between the parties involved. If agreement is not reached between the parties, the Public Administration may
moderate over this negotiation.

NORMAM 12/2003 provides under item 0501 that maximum pilotage rates shall be fixed in accordance with the
resolutions enacted by the National Commission for Pilotage Matters (Comissão Nacional de Assuntos de
Praticagem – CNAP). However, there has been resistance by the industry to what is viewed as state intervention
influencing pricing in what is otherwise a private and independent service.

For the time being, ship owners should anticipate high pilotage fees following negotiation with the pilot provider.

Categories of pilots

In Brazil, there are two categories of pilots: pilot practitioners and pilots. The pilot practitioner, as defined in
Chapter 2, Section I of NORMAM 12/2003, is the waterway professional who is not a crewmember and aspires to
become a pilot. NORMAM 12/2003 sets out the requirements to qualify as a pilot practitioner, which involves
passing a public examination and undergoing a ‘qualification period’.

In due course, the aspiring pilot will be eligible to apply for a pilot licence. The pilot certificate will expire if the
pilot cannot demonstrate a minimum frequency of pilotage engagements.

Law no. 9.357/1997, Article 13, states that pilotage will be executed by duly certified pilots, individually,
organised in associations or hired by pilotage companies. The most common structure is pilots belonging to
associations. Individual pilots are rarely encountered due to the high cost of pilotage equipment. The option to
hire a pilot from a private company has been controversial, with some critics viewing this arrangement as being
contrary to the nature of pilotage services.

Compulsory/mandatory pilotage

In respect to pilotage activities, it is important to bear in mind, first of all, that pilotage is considered to be an
essential activity and must be permanently available in the designated pilotage zones, as per Article 14 of Law no.
9.357/1997.

The Maritime Authority sets the minimum necessary number of pilots per zone and is authorised to fix a price for
the pilotage service. Additionally, pilots are not entitled to refuse to offer pilotage services, under the penalty of
suspension of their licence or, in case of recidivism, cancellation of their licence.

In Brazil, ports, terminals and waterway passages in which pilotage is considered to be obligatory are listed in
NORMAM 12/2003, as well as the areas in which pilotage services are deemed optional, as per Annex 4-E. As
determined by item 0404 from NORMAM 12/2003, some types of ships are exempt from the obligation to engage
pilotage services.

Vessel Tracking Systems (VTS) or any other relevant systems Each pilotage zone has its own Vessel Tracking
System. For instance, the pilotage zone of São Paulo operates a system called ‘Centro de Coordenação,
Comunicações e Operações de Tráfego’ (C3OT) – Centre for Coordination, Communication and Traffic
Operations – which monitors and provides live information and images concerning meteorological and
oceanographic conditions, as well as information and images on ships in the port area indicating information such
as location, dimensions, position, course, speed, final destination and type of cargo.

Liability/exemptions from liability : The NORMAM 12/2013 sets out the obligations applicable to pilots,
including:

(i) to promptly and efficiently provide advice on local pilotage issues to the master of the ship under pilotage;

(ii) to be available to provide a pilotage service for any kind of ship through the entire pilotage zone; and

(iii) to transmit and respond to the necessary safety signals with other ships, to communicate the conditions and to
cooperate with rescuing and salvage operations.

Article 25 of Decree No. 2.596/98 provides that a pilot shall be deemed liable if he refuses to provide pilotage
services or breaches one of the Maritime Authority’s rules.

There is no specific regulation concerning the possible liability of pilots for accidents or navigational incidents.
The only relevant instrument is the Brussels Collision Convention (1910), ratified by Brazil, which has been
interpreted by the local courts as exonerating pilots from civil liability, but allowing for pilot liability in the
administrative and criminal spheres.

Notwithstanding the above, pilots can be held liable in a redress lawsuit if it can be proven that the accident was
caused due to a direct mistake of the pilot. On the other hand, in respect of the obligations of the master of the
ship towards the pilot, item 0230 from NORMAM 12/2003 highlights that:

(i) The presence of a pilot on the ship does not relieve the master and his crew of their duties and obligations as to
the safety of the ship, and the pilot’s actions should be permanently monitored;

(ii) The master of the ship, when using a pilotage service, has the following duties:

• to inform the pilot about the manoeuvring conditions of the ship;

• to provide the pilot with all the necessary material elements and information in order to execute his
service;
• to monitor the execution of the pilotage service;
• to disregard the advice of the pilot if the master is convinced the pilot is executing his service in a
dangerous manner;
• to provide the pilot with similar conditions provided to the other crewmembers;
• to comply with national and international safety rules; and
• not to dispense with a pilot in circumstances in which pilotage is mandatory.

Singapore

The Maritime and Port Authority (MPA) is empowered by legislation to regulate local pilotage activities. A ship
requiring pilotage services must complete and furnish a checklist to the MPA, failing which the owner, agent,
master or person in charge may be fined up to S$10,000 (approximately$7,150). Failure to employ a pilot where
required may further expose the owner, agent or master of the ship to a fine of up to S$5,000 and double the
amount of pilotage dues that would have been payable had the ship been under pilotage. If an owner, agent or
master knowingly employs an unauthorised pilot, he may be liable to a fine of up to S$5,000.

Most pilotage services are provided by commercial provider PSA Marine. The Pilotage District, as defined by the
Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore (Pilotage District) Notification 2010, is divided into three areas, A, B
and C. Generally, ships of 300gt or above must have a pilot, except for area B, where a 5,000gt threshold applies.
Ships may be exempted on application to the MPA, with the basic requirement that the master must have
successfully completed a Pilotage Exemption Course for the relevant class of ship and that the ship is equipped
with VHF. Depending on the size of the ship and the pilotage area, the master may also be required to have had
prior experience with bringing the ship in and out of the subject pilotage area.

Liability/exemptions from liability: Legislation requires that a pilot must exercise care and diligence to prevent
any accident or damage to the ship he is piloting, to any other ship or to any kind of property. However, the MPA
Act stipulates that a pilot’s liability is limited to S$1,000 where the pilot has given a bond in favour of the MPA.
The Act exempts the Pilotage Committee and the MPA from any liability as a result of their issuing pilot licences.
In particular, an authorised pilot is deemed to be the employee only of the master/ owner of the ship under
pilotage. The Act further states that the master or owner of a ship navigating under compulsory pilotage is
answerable for any loss or damage caused by the ship or by any fault of the navigation of the ship in the same
manner as he would if pilotage were not compulsory. These are reinforced in the General Operating Conditions of
PSA Marine.

The MPA has two Port Operations Control Centres, where a sophisticated Vessel Traffic Information Service
(VTIS) is used to manage ship traffic within the port and with Malaysia in the Straits of Malacca.

Pilotage Exemption certificates (PEC)

There are powers and duties which harbour authorities have to exempt certain ships officers from their
requirements to take an authorised pilot. The use of these powers should follow these general principles:

- The standards for exemption certificates must not be more onerous than those required for an authorised
pilot; but they should be equivalent.
- Exemption certificate holders and their employers are accountable to the issuing harbour authority for the
proper use of any certificate.
- Harbour authorities should have formal written agreements with certificate holders and their employers to
regulate the use of certificates.

• Eligibility for a PEC

Harbour authorities grant a PEC only to a person who is a bona fide deck officer of the ship or ships specified on
the certificate. In practice, a large proportion of commercial shipping movements, especially ferries, are
conducted by such officers with a PEC. Many are experienced not only to be familiar with their ship but also
harbours which they visit regularly. The arrangements whereby applicants may qualify, obtain, and use a PEC
should be laid down in the pilotage regulations, which normally accompany the pilotage directions. The pilotage
directions will specify the type and size of vessels which are subject to pilotage and therefore, by definition, the
vessels to which a PEC applies.

• Award of Certificates
It should be noted that harbour authorities are not allowed to withhold certification for reasons unconnected with
an applicant’s skill and experience, local knowledge and knowledge of English. A risk assessment may show for
example that special requirements apply if the vessel were to take tugs. In that case, the authority has to choose
whether it is reasonable to make the related skills a requirement for exemption; or whether to adopt an alternative
risk management device. If the ship for which the master holds a PEC requires the services of tugs on a regular
basis then this particular experience and ability should be covered with other relevant matters in the assessment
prior to granting a PEC.

• Responsibility of the Authority

A PEC is valid for one year from date of issue. Renewal should depend upon the harbour authorities being
satisfied with the conduct of the PEC holder. The PEC should only be renewed on confirmation that the holder’s
certificate of competency remains valid. The harbour authorities should also ensure that the skill and local
knowledge is still sufficient, and one way of doing this might be satisfy itself that the applicant has conducted
pilotage on similar vessels in the pilotage area, on a predetermined number of occasions. There must be
procedures to ensure that a PEC holder’s local knowledge is kept permanently up to date.

• Skill, experience and local knowledge

The granting of a PEC is dependent upon the harbour authorities being satisfied, by examination or otherwise,
that the applicant’s skill, experience and local knowledge is sufficient for him to pilot his ship safely within the
whole of the area of the harbour to which the authority’s directions apply, or a specified part.

Qualifying for a PEC should not be more onerous than qualifying for an authorisation as a pilot in the same
district; but the requirements should be ‘equivalent’. However, it should be noted that a PEC relates to a particular
vessel or vessels and may be restricted to a particular berth whereas a pilot’s authorisation can cover a wide range
of different vessel types and sizes and a range of different berths.

• Responsibility of the Authority

Harbour authorities should provide PEC applicants with a clear statement of its requirements for exemption.
These might be accompanied by a full set of byelaws, general directions and other documentation necessary for
safe navigation within the port.

• Suspension or revocation of a PEC

Harbour authorities may suspend or revoke a PEC where:

a) The Authority is no longer satisfied that the PEC holder has the required Skill, experience or local knowledge
as a consequence either of an accident, incident or near miss or because it thinks that the person has provided false
information;

b) The Authority thinks that the person has been guilty of professional misconduct while piloting a ship; or

c) The Authority was notified that a person’s certificate was to be used but in reality the pilotage was carried out
by a person who was neither an authorised pilot nor acting in accordance with a pilotage exemption certificate.

Written notice must be given of the suspension or revocation of a PEC. While suspension of a PEC may have
immediate effect, before revoking a person’s certificate, a harbour authority must have given that person written
warning stating the reasons for the proposed revocation and allowing them reasonable opportunity to make
representations.

The maximum period for which a pilotage exemption certificate may be suspended is 28 days though this may be
extended by another 28 days (again given written notice) if necessary. It is recommended that the procedure for
suspending or revoking a PEC is documented in the pilotage directions.

Qualification, Certification and Standardisation of Marine Pilots

Under the provisions of the Pilotage Acts, the duty of the competent harbour authorities is to provide pilotage
service to the appropriate vessels in appropriate locations. Harbour authorities are accountable for the duty to
provide a pilotage service while keeping the need for pilotage and the service provided under constant review.
Harbour authorities exercise control over various provisions of the service, including the publication of local
pilotage regulations, use of pilotage directions, qualification and training of pilots. Pilotage should be fully
integrated with other port safety services under harbour authority control. Pilotage services need to be provided to
secure the safety of ships navigating in or in the approaches to its harbour.

In the interests of safety, pilotage should be compulsory for ships navigating in any part of that harbour or its
approaches. If so, for which ships under which circumstances and what pilotage services need to be provided for
those ships. The hazards involved in the carriage of dangerous goods, pollutants or harmful substances by ship
have to be particularly considered.

Harbour Authorities has responsibilities for the regulation of shipping, and the safety of navigation. It is likely
that pilotage will need to be managed in the context of such wider responsibilities. For the purposes of the safety
management system, the provision of pilotage is to be treated as a risk reduction measure, to be considered with
other possible measures to mitigate the risks.

Training and Qualifications Maritime Pilots

IMO Resolution A.485 (12) Annex-1 : Recommendation on Minimum standards for training and Qualification
of Maritime Pilots other than Deep Sea Pilots.

1* The maritime pilots referred to in this recommendation do not include deep-sea pilots or ships' masters or
crew who are certificated or licensed to carry out pilotage duties in particular areas. The competent authority
may, as appropriate, exempt persons who only carry out berthing duties.

2* Every pilot should hold an appropriate pilotage certificate or licence issued by the competent authority. In
addition to stating the pilotage area for which it is issued, the certificate or licence should also state any
requirements or local limitations which the competent authority may specify such as maximum size, draught or
tonnage of ships which the holder is qualified to pilot.

3* Every pilot should also:

1. satisfy the competent authority that his medical fitness, particularly regarding eyesight and hearing,
meets the standards required for certification of masters, chief mates and officers in charge of a
navigational watch under the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and
Watch keeping for Seafarers1878/95;
2. meet the standards of the Appendix to this Annex.

4* The specific content of training and certification or licensing standards is the responsibility of the competent
authority. However, the standards should be sufficiently high to enable the pilot to carry out his duties safely and
efficiently, and the training should include practical experience gained under the close supervision of experienced
pilots.

5* In order to ensure the continued proficiency of pilots and updating of their knowledge, the competent authority
should satisfy itself, at regular intervals not exceeding five yea.rs, that all pilots under· its jurisdiction:
1. continue to possess recent navigational knowledge of the local area to which the certificate or licence
applies;
2. continue to meet the medical fitness standards of paragraph 3.1 above;
3. possess knowledge of the current international, national and local laws, regulations and other
requirements and provisions relevant to the pilotage area or duties. Possession of the knowledge required
by sub-paragraphs 5.1 and 5.3 may be proved by an appropriate method such as personal service records
or by an examination.

6* Where a pilot in cases of absence from duty, for whatever reason, is lacking recent experience in the pilotage
area, the competent authority should satisfy itself that the pilot regains familiarity with the area on his return. If
the lack of experience has been due to absence on account of serious ill health, there should also be a re-
evaluation of the pilot's medical fitness.

7* Within the context of this document, and to maintain a safe and efficient pilotage service meeting the special
conditions of the pilot~ area, a competent authority should have control over pilot training and certification or
licensing. The competent authority should:
1. develop the standards for obtaining a certificate or licence in order to perform pilotage services within
the area under its jurisdiction;
2. administer whatever prerequisites, experience or examination are necessary to ensure that applicants for
certification or licensing as pilots a.re properly trained and qualified;
3. arrange for investigations of incidents involving pilotage.

APPENDIX

1. The assessment of the experience, qualifications and suitability of an applicant for certification or licensing as
a pilot is the responsibility of each competent authority and should be left to their discretion.

2. SYLLABUS FOR PILOTAGE CERTIFICATION OR LICENSING

2.1. In this syllabus, "area" means the waters for which the applicant is to be certificated or licensed.
2.2. Applicants should demonstrate that they have knowledge of the following:
1. Limits of local pilotage areas
2. International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, and also such other national and local
navigational safety and pollution prevention rules as may apply in the area
3. Systems of buoyage used in the area
4. Characteristics of the lights and their angles of visibility and the fog signals, racons. and radio beacons
in use in the area
5. Names, positions and characteristics of the light vessels, buoys, beacons, structures and other marks in
the area
6. Names and characteristics of the channels, shoals, headlands and points in the area
7. Proper courses and distances in the area
8. Traffic separation schemes, ship traffic services and similar ship traffic management systems in the area
9. Depths of water throughout the area, including tidal effects and similar factors
10. General set, rate, rise and duration of the tides and use of the tide tables for the area
11. Anchorages in the area
12. Bridge equipment and aids to navigation
13. Use and limitations of radar and automatic radar plotting aids (ARPA), and radar plotting
14. Communications and availability of navigational information.
15. Systems of radio navigational warning broadcasts in the area and the type of information likely to be
included
16. Manoeuvring behaviour of the types of ships expected to be piloted, and the limitations imposed by
particular propulsion and steering systems
17. Factors affecting ship performance such as wind, current, tide, channel configuration, water depth,
bottom, bank and ship interaction
18. Use and limitation of tugs.
19. The English language to a standard adequate to enable the pilot to express himself clearly in his
communications
20. Any other knowledge that the competent authority considers necessary
 Administration by Harbour Master

Authorisations may relate to ships of a particular description and to particular parts of the port. The authority
determines the eligibility criteria in respect of age, medical fitness standards, time of service, local knowledge,
skill, character and otherwise.

Authorities should establish proper arrangements for assessing competence, in accordance with the National
labour laws while keeping fitness under review. They decide using appropriate procedures to determine that a
pilot is appropriately qualified and fit to pilot any ship on any occasion. Authorities are accountable for these
decisions.

An authority may also suspend or revoke an authorisation after giving notice and allowing a reasonable
opportunity for representations to be made, if it appears to the authority that the authorised person is guilty of any
incompetence or misconduct affecting their capability as a pilot. Authorities should have formal procedures for
these circumstances

Every port should have a defined assessment process within its safety management system. Assessors should have
received an appropriate level of training prior to conducting any assessment. On completion of the assessment
process, a full debrief should take place. This should include a record of the assessment, feedback from the
candidate and identify areas of further training.

Grading of Pilots - Pilots are generally graded as per their experience. After certain years of service their grades
are revised upward. Depending on their grades they are allowed to carry out specific types of operations. Critical
pilotage operations are being taken over by senior grade pilots. Depending upon the challenges and risks involved
in the operations, there may be requirements to have more than one pilots to carry out one movement.

Pilot duty Roster - Generally the pilots work on shifts - sometimes day and sometimes in night. And the shifts
keep on changing regularly. Thus the sleep pattern of the pilots generally gets disturbed due to change in the
sleeping times. The shift patterns for any given pilotage service will vary depending on local circumstances,
including the length of act, density of shipping, proximity of boarding and landing areas, etc. In designing shift
patterns, care should be taken to ensure that pilots are suitably rested before commencing an act of pilotage, and
that time has been allocated for the proper development of the pilotage passage plan.

Incident & disciplinary procedures - Each port authority has a formal incident and discipline procedure in the
event of a marine incident. It is good practice for harbour authorities to make provision for ship masters to make
reports, including confidential ones, of unsatisfactory performance by an authorised pilot, whether or not there has
been an incident. Such provision must, however, be coupled with an equitable investigation procedure.

Reporting Substandard Performance - Pilots have a statutory duty to report ship deficiencies that may adversely
affect its safe navigation to the Competent Harbour Authority who should inform Administration for appropriate
action.

***
 Chapter-21

Legal Standing of a Marine Pilot in

Various Situations
Pilot-Master Relationship related to Responsibility
Legally Speaking, Who is a Pilot?
Risks of having an Adviser – Risks While Pilot is On Board a Vessel
Pilot – An integral part of the bridge team or An outsider?
Accidents and the Aftermath during pilotage

It is evident that the effective use of pilotage services is crucial in safe berthing, un-berthing, movements of
vessels in harbour limits and avoiding accidents. It is therefore important to discuss and know the legal
responsibilities of pilots. Despite having local knowledge and expertise, due to other reasons, there are many
instances where navigational related accidents happen with marine pilots. Such navigational incidents may
include- property damage, grounding, infrastructure damage, collision with the vessels etc. The primary problems
in such cases involve the role, responsibility and authority of the pilot on-board.

Pilot-Master Relationship Related to Responsibility

The relationship between the master and the pilot is a positive one marked with proactive and cordialness, but
sometimes also with potential difficulties and conflict. The pilot directs the navigation of the ship, but the master
still retains overall command and control.

The freedom that the master gives to the pilot varies from master to master but also depends upon the
circumstances in which the pilotage takes place. The master of a large foreign-going ship entering a difficult
channel will tend to follow the pilot silently than a coastal master who knows the area thoroughly.

• In addition, the Master and/or OOW should communicate manoeuvring capabilities during the voyage, as
necessary. The Master and OOW should never feel hesitant to discuss these matters with the pilot if they
feel it necessary to do so.
• The OOW should always closely monitor the activities of the pilot. Many times, the pilot will not
necessarily communicate with the OOW regarding the vessel and/or voyage. The OOW should not
hesitate to communicate with the pilot on any relevant matters regarding the vessel or the voyage.
• The OOW should not only be diligent with regard to his duties to ensure the pilot’s orders are properly
followed but also to monitor the pilot’s activities. If the OOW has concerns regarding the pilot’s
activities, he should contact the Master immediately.
• The vessel should have clear procedures and instructions to Master’s and OOWs on what to do with a
pilot on-board. These should be included as part of the ships safety management system (SMS).
• If the pilot is to command tugs and/or personnel at a berth in a language that is foreign to the crew, the
Master must demand that the pilot communicates with the Master and/or OOW in a common language
• The ship’s crew is normally the most knowledgeable regarding the manoeuvring capabilities of the ship.
Detailed descriptions of the ship’s manoeuvring characteristics should be communicated during the
voyage planning stage.
Authority

• The Master is in command of the ship at all times with only one exception: when transiting through the
Panama Canal.
• There is therefore a divided authority, with both the master and the pilot continuing to have active roles
that may potentially conflict.
• Whilst the pilot may assume control of the navigation of the ship, this does not relieve the master of his
command of the ship.
• The master therefore retains both the right and the responsibility to intervene in the actions of the pilot,
for example, where he perceives the threat of an imminent danger to the ship or when the pilot is
obviously incapacitated in some way.

Responsibility

• The pilot is the servant of the master and is responsible for giving advice on navigation, speed, course,
stopping and reversing.
• The ship’s master is responsible for the ship and the entire operation including difficulties, monitoring the
pilot’s actions and maintaining a proper lookout.
• The pilot in turn should expect a well-regulated and seaworthy ship with competent bridge personnel that
provide him with proper assistance and information.
• It is always the duty of the Master and OOW to keep a situational awareness of all activities of the pilot.
• Though the pilot is knowledgeable about local waters, it is the responsibility of the Master / OOW to
verify position through proper use of charts, radars and other position fixing devices and follow local
rules on speed and routing.
• Voyage planning is crucial in all situations including when pilots are on board. Sufficient time should be
allowed for proper communication between the Master, pilots and OOWs. This voyage plan should
include every important activity starting from the embarkation of the pilot, in and out of the berth, and
finally the disembarkation of the pilot.
• Ensure that the vessel is equipped with the necessary updated charts for the intended voyage. It is not
sufficient to rely on the pilot to provide this information.

Legally Speaking, Who is a Pilot?

Engagement of Pilots

• the master is only legally bound to employ a pilot in an area of compulsory pilotage.
• However, the master may be found liable for not employing a pilot where it can be shown that such
failure caused or contributed to an accident.

In Case of Error in Navigation and consequent Damage

The pilot owes a professional duty of care to those whom he serves, which assumes a knowledge and awareness
of local conditions.
• The pilot is therefore generally liable to the shipowner, and to third parties, for a failure to exercise such
care.
• In practice, however, such a responsibility is largely illusory since the pilot, as an individual, has few
assets with which to satisfy any award of damages.
• The extent of his liability is often restricted at law or limited in amount, although he may also be subject
to criminal sanctions under any relevant legislation as a result of his actions.
• Where there is injury or damage to the property of a third party caused by the pilot’s negligence, the third
party looks to the shipowner for compensation.
 • The pilot is seen as the servant or agent of the master/shipowner. His faults or errors are therefore taken to
be those of the master/shipowner.
• There may be a possibility of a recourse action against the harbour authority, port commission or
Company that employs the negligent pilot. If, however, the relevant body merely acts as a licensing
authority, it will not be liable for pilot error.
• Pilot associations are also generally immune from liability for the actions of their members.

The way in which the law interprets this relationship, and the rights and responsibilities of each to the other and to
third parties, obviously differs from country to country. In many places, the rules and statutory enactments
provide a confused and sometimes contradictory picture. When considering how to operate with a pilot, master
should be guided more by common sense and self-preservation than by precise legal principles. BRM is an
important activity to ensure safety. Any BRM training should include how to handle the change in
communication, command, and control when a pilot takes over navigation of the ship

Pilot – An Integral Part of the Bridge Team or An Outsiders?

As soon as the vessel enters in the pilotage waters to pick up a pilot at pilot boarding point, a new member joins in
the bridge. This member is equipped with in-depth local knowledge, experience in handling vessels in confined
waters and with powers to get external assistance for the vessel almost immediately when required.
But the question is whether he fits in to the bridge team on a common platform.
- May not be immediately!!!
It is the job of the master to integrate the resourceful pilot into his bridge team to ensure the safety of the vessel
while navigating in the restricted waters. Thus the pilot comes to the vessel to help and facilitate the vessel in safe
berthing and un-berthing manoeuvring. Now it is the in the best interest of the master to rightly utilise his
expertise for safe navigation of the vessel.

But the answer is Yes, after integration of the pilot into the bridge team by the master.

It’s like the master of a vessel is equivalent to captain of a cricket team where then pilot is a fine match winning
all-rounder. If the captain wants to win the game he has to integrate the pilt into his team.

Bridge team and its responsibilities

There are many combinations of environmental and other factors for setting different watch conditions, but as a
minimum, the bridge team consists of the master, the officer on watch (OOW) and a sailor as helmsman and
lookout.
The Bridge Team’s responsibility is to ensure a well-functioning Bridge Resource Management (BRM). Some of
the main objectives of BRM are to:
– assist the ship master in managing the vessel’s bridge team for each voyage.
– help the ship master recognise workload demands that may affect decisions.
– ensure bridge team members are aware of their responsibilities.
– help bridge team members interact with and support the master and/or the pilot.

Barriers in integrating the Pilot to the Bridge Team

Despite all good efforts from the pilot for ensuring the safety of the vessel, There are some factors those
contribute to the unwanted unsafe practices - fatigue, language barriers, lack of co-operation, an open loop and,
external disturbances are threats to ships’ safety.

1. Fatigue

Many places the pilot’s work environment is very repressive which contribute to the fatige of the pilots. Such
factors include:
• irregular and lengthy working hours,
 • working at night,
• unpredictable duty rosters, and
• Travelling to and from their jobs
• Frustration due to improper working conditions
• Improper management form their managers

Moving a large vessel in confined waters is a high-risk task and the pilot assigned to that task has a responsibility
to the state, the port authority and the ship’s master.
Pilots are managers of high-risk situations that require intense concentration and skill levels so that any decrease
in performance can potentially lead to a catastrophe.
A pilot error caused by fatigue can endanger the ship, crew, port and the environment. Only national rules apply
to pilots and they are not subject to the same regulations as the ship-board crew.

2. Improper communication between pilot and Bridge Team

There are following points where there is a deliberate failure of communication

- The first point of contact of the vessel when she arrives in the port limits is with the VTS. If there is no
reply he will continue with repeated calls on all possible means, OOW goes back into the publications to
double check the passage plan information and take the focus away from his main duty to navigate. This
in turn again increases the stress level.
- Then the communications between the pilot and the bridge when the pilot boat is approaching the vessel
when the pilot boat is approaching, the information related to te pilot ladder and boarding speed and
course ar important information.
- When the pilot is on the bridge, how the master and the pilot meet and greet each other is the key to how
the rest of the passage will be.
- In many cases the pilots board at close to the channel, not giving the bridge team time to meet and greet at
all, forcing me more or less to disregard the pilot as there is no time to discuss or exchange information.
- In general the pilots are on the bridge in due time in order to allow for a thorough information exchange.
In this case the master has a vital role in making the pilot feel welcome, and the pilot needs to understand
the reservations of master if the vessel is coming into a new port for the first time.
- A lot of information has to be exchanged between the pilot during MPiX and the master in a relatively
short time. At this stage it is very important that the chemistry between the pilot and the master is good.
Otherwise it might lead to dangerous situations.
- The next step is transition of “the conn” from the master to the pilot. There are many instances where
pilots come on the bridge and, without acknowledging anyone, giving the helmsman orders based on the
ship’s heading when he left the pilot boat, not realising we were on the correct heading for the approach.
- After the exchange of information, the master must inform the bridge team that “Pilot has the conn” and
in turn the OOW and helmsman acknowledge the information..

3. Language

It is vital that all the pilots and the bridge team members to talk in an agreed common language for better
understanding on a common platform. Sometimes it is not possible to avoid two teams due to communication
difficulties, either on the crew or on the pilot’s side.

It is a common practice that “closed loop” is a communication protocol is being followed in the bridge
communications. In closed loop communication, when information is given, repeated by the receiver and
normally confirmed by the issuer.
There would be a understanding gap if the common working language is not understood bay all members of the
bridge team. There will be a broken link in the closed loop system of communication.
 Risks of having an Adviser – Risks While Pilot is On Board a Vessel
Pilots prevent far more accidents than they cause – This is an important observation bay many authorities.
That is why a pilot is sent on board despite the fact that a large percentage of navigation-related accidents occurs
when a pilot is on board. It is also important to note that pilot requirements are at each individual country’s
discretion. Rules may and will therefore vary from country to country. In some countries the master’s experience
is assessed, after a number of pilot-assisted port calls the master may be approved for entry without pilot.
Despite the pilot’s duties and responsibilities, his presence on board does not exempt the Master and the OOW
from their duties and responsibilities for the ship’s safety” - A quotation from the IMO Code of Nautical
Procedures and Practices.

As indicated above, a pilot is sent on board because the authorities have assessed that there is an increased risk in
the area. This risk can be related to:
- navigational hazards,
- geographical areas that are vulnerable to pollution,
- There can be special regulations related to the cargo that the ship is carrying.
- Military installations nearby,
- installations of national importance near by

So there are situations where the navigational risk exceeds a certain limit, when the national or local authorities
decide to send pilot on board the incoming and outgoing vessels.

Indifference attitude

• Bridge team management training focuses on co-operation among the bridge team and less emphasis is
placed on situations where a pilot is introduced.
• Pilot is expected to deliver the service he is paid to deliver and limited consideration is given to his co-
operation with the bridge team. For that reason in many situations one does not achieve the desired
increased level of safety;
• The responsibility for navigation is simply transferred from one person to another.

Communication

• limited or no communication between the master and the pilot.

• the bridge personnel may be over-confident about the pilot’s abilities.
• pilot may not be familiar with the particular design of the navigational systems available on board.

Voyage planning

This used to be a critical factor and the common response from the crew was
• It is also imperative that the pilot be briefed about the vessel’s manoeuvring capabilities. This includes
rate of turn, propeller arrangement, output on the various manoeuvring orders and general ship data.
• In short, any information that can improve the pilot’s performance must be available. pilot cards” for that
purpose. These have proved to be effective and greatly appreciated by the pilots.

Language barriers

• This have been and will continue to be a challenge; these can be related to communication between the
pilot and the crew, as well as understanding the communication between the pilot and assisting parties
such as shore staff, mooring boats and/ or tugs.
• The pilot can also be requested to communicate with external parties in a common language, or to
translate his communication with them for the bridge team. Many accidents are rooted in surprises and
 unexpected situations that could have been avoided if the pilot and the bridge team had a common
understanding about how the passage would be carried out.

Commercial Pressures

The impact of commercial pressure should not be underestimated. This may result from a variety of reasons:
• the terminal wishes to maximise utilisation of the piers and requires effective (high speed) approach to the
terminal;
• some pilots are paid per pilotage and increase speed for that reason;
• charterers require maximum utilisation of the ship, and under keel clearance may be challenged.
• Unavailability and suitability of tugs and mooring boats should also be considered: in many situations
these are too small or too few for the purpose, but are accepted due to the commercial pressure.

Cultural differences
• The pilot is perceived as an authority and in many cultures it is difficult to correct or even question a
decision made by an authority.
• Corrections to obvious errors may therefore be delayed and in some cases not put forward at all.
Reluctance to get involved in a situation has contributed to several severe marine accidents.
• In particular, this may be a problem when the master is not on the bridge. It is therefore important that all
members of the bridge team have the necessary authority and confidence to interfere if they are in doubt.
• This can only be achieved by active leadership and involvement by the master. The IMO Code of
Nautical Procedures and Practices also states: “If in any doubt as to the pilot’s actions or intentions, the
officer in charge of the navigational watch shall seek clarification from the pilot and, if doubt still exists,
shall notify the master immediately and take whatever action is necessary before the master arrives”.

Accidents and the Aftermath during pilotage

Accidents related to navigation are mainly categorised into three main groups - collisions, groundings and contact
damage. Despite having more advanced technology, the implementation of STCW 95 and a strong focus on the
human element as well as fatigue, number of accidents still in appreciable amount.

It is noticed that there is an increase in cases involving significant contact damage to fixed objects by vessels
manoeuvring in confined waters, mostly within port. Fixed objects include berths, docks, locks and shore side
equipment such as cranes. The contact damage has resulted in some very large claims for the repair and/or loss of
use of such objects.

When a vessel involves in any grounding or collision or any damage to ports structure causing loss of life or
property, it creates direct and consequential claims on the vessel. Sometimes the claims are very high. Though the
claims are supposed to be covered by the ship owner’s insurance policies, the investigation runs to find the cause
of damage.

a. Damage to fixed objects when manoeuvring

After studying so many accidents happened during pilotage in harbour limits, careful observation shows that there
are some important factors those mostly contribute to the accidents. Though the reasons for accidents are
numerous creating a chain of errors that lead to a major accident, there are some predominant factor those prop up
in most investigation result. These reasons contribute to 80% of accidents happens in harbour limits. Below are
the five of the most common factors involving damage to fixed objects in restricted waters.

1. Improper assessment of Weather conditions

Though the wind and tidal forces are relatively easier to estimate in any given situation by careful observations,
the information on current and river streams and some other factors are relatively unavailable to the pilot to make
a wise and well considered decision and execute perfect manoeuvres. Any such errors are corrected during the
manoeuvres itself after realising the strength of those unknown factors. In the meantime sometimes there is a late
realisation and late action by the pilot creates an accident situation. The combined effect of wind, sea, current and
tidal conditions on the ship sometimes is not fully appreciated by the pilot or the master in some tight situations.

As a result, sufficient allowances are not made for the combined effect of the forces and thus the vessel can
experience difficulties in manoeuvring within safe limits. Sometimes due to insufficient dat on the external forces,
insufficient number of tugs and their cumulative power are employed to handle the vessel.
Sometimes there are instances where manoeuvrings are deferred due to strong weather conditions or reduced
visibility conditions.

2. No agreed manoeuvring plan

As explained earlier in the MPiX chapter before commencement of the passage, the pilot need to plan almost
everything. There plans include also the plan of manoeuvres.
Many cases the pilot fails to make a proper plan on how the vessel will manoeuvre when in close proximity to
fixed objects. If there is no discussion between the master and the pilot regarding such plan, the likeliness of
unplanned movement arises. If such plans are discussed and agreed upon between the master and the pilot, there
is little chance of being deviated from the plan.

Often, insufficient time is invested in advance to consider how the vessel can be expected to behave, given its
manoeuvring characteristics and the prevailing conditions. The minimum safe distances are not calculated.

3. Unfamiliarity with the ship’s manoeuvrability

The master is more familiar with his vessel’s manoeuvrability; the pilot will know the local waters best. It is
important to include information as to the vessel’s manoeuvrability in the master/pilot information exchange
before the commencement of the pilotage.
Many times due newly joined crew, familiarity with the ship’s own manoeuvring systems may also be lacking. As
technology and computerisation is becoming more in use these days, requirement for training has been increased
to ensure that crew members are familiar with the vessel’s systems.

4. Inadequately executed Manoeuvres

As explained earlier, there are many ways to execute a manoeuvre, to get the desired results. However “putting
the best way in use” needs experience, in-depth knowledge and clear understanding and on the part of the pilots.
However there are times when even the best ship handlers go wrong due to several reasons.
There are some common factors such as:
- Excessive speed
- Misunderstanding due to excessive communication with tugs, terminals and mooring crews.
- Amendment of plans is not done in changed circumstances.
- Little time to react to any newly developed situations
- Aborting a planned manoeuvre considered too late.
- Reluctance of the bridge team to intervene when the pilot is clearly making mistakes.

5. Engine or Steering Failure

There are many instances when the loss of engines, steering happens in the middle of a manoeuvre. This accounts
for a major reason for accidents. Though the pilots are tuned and trained to handle such situations and mostly they
successfully manage to avert any accidents due to same.
Such emergency situation tests – “How much is in reserve as well as the capability to put the reserve to effective
use”

Control tests prior arrival or prior sailings are carried tot to figure out any problems with the critical machineries
before conducting any passage. These are important especially after a long ocean passage or stationary period.
Regular tests, exercises, drills must be carried out to check the emergency systems of manoeuvring.

b. Who is to blame?
The investigation points out who to blame in such incidents. There are conclusions arise after such investigations,
such as:

• The master is in command of the ship at all times with only one exception: when transiting through the
Panama Canal.
• Therefore, it is always the duty of the master and the officer of the watch (OOW) to be aware of all
actions of the pilot. Although the pilot is knowledgeable about local waters, it is the responsibility of the
master/ OOW to verify the position through the proper use of charts, radars and other position fixing
devices and follow local rules on speed and routing.
• Voyage planning is crucial in all situations including when pilots are on board. Sufficient time should be
allowed for proper communication between the master, pilots and OOWs. This voyage plan should
include every important activity starting from the embarkation of the pilot, entry and exit from the berth
and finally the disembarkation of the pilot.
• If the pilot communicates with tugs, etc., in the local language, the master should ask him to explain what
was said in a common language.
• The ship’s crew is normally the most knowledgeable regarding the manoeuvring capabilities of the ship.
Detailed descriptions of the ship’s manoeuvring characteristics should be communicated during the
voyage planning stage.
• The master and/or OOW should communicate manoeuvring capabilities during the voyage, as necessary.
The master and OOW should never hesitate to discuss these matters with the pilot if they feel it necessary
to do so.
• The OOW should always closely monitor the activities of the pilot. Many times the pilot will not
communicate with the OOW regarding the vessel and/or voyage as necessary. The OOW should not
hesitate to communicate with the pilot on any relevant matters regarding the vessel or the voyage.
• The OOW should not only be diligent with regard to his duties to ensure that the pilot’s orders are
properly followed, but should also monitor the pilot’s activities. If the OOW has concerns regarding the
pilot’s activities, he should contact the master immediately.
• The vessel should have clear procedures and instructions to masters and OOWs on what to do with a pilot
on board. These should be included as part of the ship’s safety management system (SMS).
• Bridge resource management (BRM) is important to ensure safety. Any BRM training should include
how to handle the change in communication, command, and control when a pilot takes over navigation of
the ship.

Who is then to blame? In practice, both, master and pilot, but it is important to keep in mind that as the master is
in command of the ship, he is the one who gets the blame!

c. Pilot’s Recourse after a casualty?

When a vessel with a pilot on board is involved in an accident, the usual practice is that the pilot leaves the vessel
as soon as possible, often being replaced by a new pilot. However in major casualties, pilot will be asked to give
evidence and to be cross-examined. In such cases, the pilot or the port authority on behalf of pilot demand a
written letter of indemnity from the ship-owner before any hearing or cross-examination.
However, the main employer of the pilot like the port authority or the pilots’ association or the pilot’s company
has their own internal investigations following a casualty. In many places the administration also carries out
investigations to find the facts and to put correction measures in place.

In some cases after investigation by relevant pilots’ association concluded that the pilot was responsible for some
of following reasons:
– wrong understanding of the distances between the piloted vessel and berthed vessel being
collided,
– Improper assessment of swing in relation to the speed of vessel in executing a turn,
– His decision taking ability was impaired to fatigue and unrest due to regular long working hours
in night,
– Fail to give command to tugs in time
– his approach speed was high
– Late wheel over causing late turning
– Made hasty operations due to waiting vessels lined up after the berthing of subject vessel.

In any case thought the pilot is responsible for the error, the claims due to damages by pilot’s error are covered by
the ship owner’s insurers as pilot acts as an adviser to the master and ship-owner or master is the employer of the
pilot to assist the vessel’s movement.

***
Appendices
 Appendix-1

Pilotage Laws
Mumbai Port (Licensing and Control of Pilots) Regulations -2007 is reproduced here for reference purpose.

PART – I

1. Short title and commencement –

(1) These regulations may be called the “MUMBAI PORT TRUST (Licensing and Control of Pilots)
REGULATIONS, 2007”.
(2) They shall come into force on the date of their publication in the official Gazette.
2. Definitions –
In these regulations, unless the context otherwise requires –
(1) “Board”, “Chairman” and “Deputy Chairman” shall have the same meaning as in the Major Port Trusts Act,
1963 (38 of 1963).
(2) “Control Station” means the station through which boarding and Disembarkation of Pilots and other activities
are monitored and controlled.
(3) “Deputy Conservator” means the officer in whom the direction and management of pilotage are vested.
(4) “Dock Master” means an officer appointed to perform such duties, in connection with movements of ships in
the port as may, from time to time, be assigned to him by the Deputy Conservator and includes the Senior Dock
Master.
(5) “Harbour Master” means the officer appointed to perform such duties as may from time to time be assigned to
him by the Deputy Conservator.
(6) “Limits of compulsory pilotage waters” means the limits defined under sub-section (2) of section 4 of the
Indian Ports Act, 1908 (15 of 1908).
(7) “Pilot” means an officer licensed under these regulations to perform pilotage and other duties as may be
assigned to him by the Deputy Conservator and includes Master Pilots.
(8) “Pilot Licence” means licence issued to a person to carry out pilotage of vessels within the port limits of the
Port.
(9) ‘Port’ means the Port of Mumbai.

PART – II

Licensing - Qualifications and Conditions

3. Qualifications of candidates –
(1) A candidate for a Pilot Licence shall –
(a) be an Indian national;
(b) produce certificates of good character and sobriety;
(c) be in possession of a -
(i) Certificate of Competency as Master (Foreign Going) granted by the Government of India or its equivalent and
have preferably experience of six months as First Mate on a foreign-going ship; OR
(ii) certificate as Dredge Master issued by the Directorate General of Shipping and have preferably experience of
two years as a Dredge Master; OR
(iii) have successfully completed training as Pilot under the In-house Training of Pilots at the Port, as may be
decided by the Board from time to time in consultation with the Director General of Shipping;
(d) obtain a certificate of physical fitness from such medical authority as may be prescribed by the Chairman for
the purpose; and
(e) unless the Chairman otherwise determines, serve a period of probationary training of not less than six months
and successfully pass the prescribed examination. Provided that the period of probationary training may be
extended beyond six months for sufficient and valid reasons such as –
(i) candidate is unable to complete required phases of training due to his own illness, or has to proceed on leave
for sufficient and valid reasons or due to any national emergencies, etc.;
(ii) in the interest of the Port or Government of India, the candidate is required to be allotted some other duties
(with prior agreement) such as Dredging Master, Berthing Master, etc., and is thus unable to complete his training
requirement;
(iii)candidate for valid reasons is unable to pass his examination during the stipulated period of twelve months
and in the view of Chairman, needs to be given a fair chance to pass the examination;
(iv) in case of candidates belonging to SC/ST, special extra training/guidance is deemed necessary.

Provided further that the period of probationary training may be curtailed under the following circumstances:
(i) if the candidate has been a Pilot in the said Port Trust and has re-joined subsequently;
(ii) if in future modern technology such as a simulator is used for training.
4. Pilot Licence –
(1) Every Pilot (and Master Pilot) shall hold Pilot Licence to perform the duties of a Pilot at the particular port.
This licence shall be issued on the sanction of the Central Government and under the signature of the Deputy
Conservator.
(2) A Pilot severing his connection with the Port shall forthwith surrender his Pilot Licence to the Deputy
Conservator.
(3) The Pilot Licence may be revoked by the Chairman in circumstances such as :
(a) proven misconduct and/or misconduct under the conduct and discipline rules;
(b) professional misconduct;
(c)shipping casualties (accidents) where professional competence is questioned or negligence proved after
enquiry into the accident;
(d) where formal court of enquiry instituted into marine casualty holds the Pilot responsible for an accident;
(e) on cessation from service if the licence is not surrendered as required under [2] above;
(f) on being medically found unsuitable for pilotage jobs.
(4) A Pilot shall retain licence on subsequent promotions in the Pilotage Service upto the post of Deputy
Conservator and continue to pilot vessels as per the requirement.
5. Conditions for joining the Pilot service in Port –
A person shall not be appointed as a Pilot unless and until he satisfies the Chairman that he fulfils the following
conditions, namely:-
(a) the conditions of eligibility for direct recruitment to posts under the Board as may be laid down by regulations
in this behalf;
(b) on the date of appointment as a probationary pilot, is of an age not below 25 years and not above 35 years,
unless otherwise relaxed by the Chairman; and
(c) possesses the qualifications specified in 3.11

PART – III

Training and Examination

6. Training
(1) During the period of training, probationary pilot will be instructed in the duties of a pilot, the lights,
landmarks, buoyage, etc. of the harbour, the handling of ships within the pilotage waters of the port,
berthing/unberthing of vessels within the dock basins, handling the port trust owned suction Dredger and
operating her dredging equipments, etc.
(2) On completion of the training, the probationary pilot may, subject to the approval of the Deputy Conservator,
apply to be examined as to his qualifications to pilot ships.
7. Subjects of Examination –
The examination shall include the following subjects, namely:-
• regulations and rules framed for navigating in the harbour and approaches to the docks and piers;
 • course and distance between any two places;
• rise and set of tides;
• anchorages, rocks, shoals and other dangers, landmarks, buoys, beacons and lights within the Port;
• management of ships and steamers, how to bring them to anchor and to keep them clear of their anchors
in a tideway;
• to moor and unmoor and to get underway;
• to handle a vessel under all conditions; and
• such other subjects as may be determined by the Examination Committee.
8. Examination Committee –
The examination of the Probationary Pilot shall be conducted by an Examination Committee composed as
follows:-
1) the Deputy Conservator- Chairman
2) the Harbour Master - Member
3) a Dock Master - Member
4) a Master Pilot - Member
5) an Independent (F.G) Master Mariner - Member
9. Failure to pass examination –
In the event of a probationary pilot failing to pass the specified examination within twelve months of his
appointment, he will be liable to be discharged.
10. Issue of Licence -
(1) On successful completion of the examination, the Pilot shall be issued the Pilot Licence under 4 above.
(2) The fee for a Pilot’s Licence, and for renewal thereof in case of loss, shall be prescribed by the Board from
time to time.
11. Classification of Pilots –
(1) A pilot on being licensed will be permitted to pilot vessels as follows:-
(a) during the first six months, attached to the berthing service and perform berthing/ unberthing manoeuvres
within the dock basins of Indira and P&V docks.
(b) during the next six months, vessels not exceeding 10,000 tons gross tonnage and not exceeding 25 feet draft
(excluding tankers and men-of-war)
(c) during the next six months, vessels not exceeding 12,000 tons gross tonnage (excluding loaded petroleum
tankers and men-of-war).
(d) during the next six months, vessels not exceeding 16,000 tons gross tonnage (excludiung tankers proceeding
to Pir Pau and Jawahar Dweep but including tankers from Jawahar Dweep and Pir Pau not exceeding 25 feet
draft)
(e) during the next six months, vessels not exceeding 16,000 tons gross tonnage (including tankers proceeding
to and from Jawahar Dweep and Pir Pau not exceeding 25 feet draft)
(f) during the next six months, vessels not exceeding 20,000 tons gross tonnage (excluding tankers exceeding 30
feet in draft proceeding to and from Jawahar Dweep and Pir Pau)
(g) during the next six months, vessels not exceeding 20,000 tons gross tonnage (excluding tankers exceeding
35 feet draft proceeding to and from Jawahar Dweep and Pir Pau )
(h) during the next six months, vessels not exceeding 60,000 tons gross tonnage.
(i) thereafter unrestricted tonnage.
(2) The transfer of a pilot from one class to the next higher class will be made with the approval of the Deputy
Conservator.
(3) A Pilot who joins with previous Pilotage experience at another Port may be granted accelerated tonnage at the
discretion of the Deputy Conservator.

PART – IV

Shore Station – Monitoring and Control

12. Pilot boarding/disembarkation at the entry point of the Port including identification of Pilot
Launch/Vessel -
(i) The Pilot shall board incoming vessels from pilot launch and disembark from outgoing vessels by pilot launch
at a position due east of the Prongs Reef Buoy position or at any other suitable and safe location as directed by the
Dock Master Control Station.
(ii) The Pilot launch shall have the word “PILOT” amid ships on each side.
(iii) During the day the pilot launch shall exhibit day/ night signal as per international regulations.
13. Dock Masters to do duties at Shore Station -
The Dock Masters at various shore stations shall perform their duties, in rotation for such periods as may from
time to time be ordered by the Deputy Conservator. The Dock Master at the control station shall perform such
duties, including control of the Vessel Traffic Service station, as may be specified by the Deputy Conservator.
14. The Pilot Station and Shore Station
The Dock Master at the Control Station shall monitor the boarding and disembarking of Master pilots / Pilots and
exercise control over them.
15. Operational Control of Pilots
The Harbour Master, and Dock Masters on behalf of the Harbour Master, shall have control over Master Pilots
and Pilots in pilotage charge of vessels while entering or leaving the port, mooring or unmooring and berthing or
unberthing at any anchorage, berth, dock within the port.
16. Boarding inward bound vessels, etc:–
The Dock Master at the Control Station shall ensure that the Master Pilot / Pilot on turn for boarding inwards are
duly boarded upon inbound vessels requiring Pilots. Also ensure that Master Pilot/ Pilot are disembarked from
outbound vessels.
17. Power to direct Pilots to take charge of a vessel of higher tonnage in certain circumstances –
The Dock Master at the Control Station may, if necessary, direct a Pilot to perform the pilotage of a vessel which
exceeds the tonnage for which he is qualified to pilot. In every such case, the Dock Master at the Control Station
shall forthwith send a report in writing to the Deputy Conservator or any other officer nominated by Deputy
Conservator stating the reasons which in his opinion necessitated such action.
18. Regulation of attendance of Pilots on vessels–
The duty Dock Master on at the control station shall detail pilots to vessels requiring their services. He shall be
guided by the Deputy Conservator’s orders issued for such allocation.

PART – V

Duties of Pilots
19. Pilots to obey the orders of the authority –
All the Pilots and Master Pilots shall obey and execute all orders by the Deputy Conservator or the officer
nominated by him relating to the docking, undocking, towing, transporting, berthing, un-berthing, removing of
vessels and/or duties pertaining to the working and handling of the port trust owned suction Dredger.
20. Pilot’s behaviour –
A Pilot shall at all times exercise strict sobriety. He shall throughout the time he is in charge of a vessel use
utmost care and diligence for her safety and the safety of other
vessels and property. He shall, when necessary, monitor the soundings to ascertain the under keel clearance. He
shall not lay by the vessel aground without a written order from the owner or officer in command.
21. Pilots to obtain certificate of services performed by them –
A Pilot shall on boarding the vessel get the pilotage papers signed by the Master (details of arrival/departure of
the ships for the purpose of raising marine related charges).
22. Pilot to go on board vessels in good time –
A Pilot about to take charge of a vessel which is outward bound, or which is about to be moved from the berth in
which she is lying, shall go on board and report himself to the officer in command at the time appointed, i.e., in
sufficient time for her to be moved out to sea or to her destination.
23. Pilots to see that vessel and her equipment are in order -
A Pilot before the taking charge of a vessel shall enquire of the Master of the vessel whether all the main engines,
steering system and other navigational aids are in proper working order.
24. Pilot to acquaint with the movement of vessels -
All pilots, prior to boarding the vessel, acquaint themselves with the movement of vessels in the harbour and the
pilot on board in each of them.
25. Commencement of Pilot’s outward duties –
The duties of a pilot in regard to outward bound vessels shall commence –
(i) in Indira, Princess and Victoria Docks, when the vessel is clear of the lock or dock gates and the “all clear”
signal is given by the Dock Master.
(ii) at Ballard Piers, harbour wall berths, Pir Pau jetties and Jawahar Dweep, when the vessel proceeds to unmoor.
(iii) in the harbour, on boarding the vessel.
26. Termination of Pilot’s outward duties-
(i) The duties of a Pilot in regard to outward bound vessels shall cease when he has piloted the vessel upto the
pilot boarding/disembarking point.
(ii) A Pilot shall ascertain the position of the vessel before leaving the vessel and enter them in the pilotage paper.
27. Commencement of Pilot’s inward duties-
The duties of a Pilot in regard to an inward bound vessel shall commence when he boards the vessel in any
position within the limits of compulsory pilotage waters.
28. Termination of Pilot’s inward duties-
The duties of a Pilot in regard to an inward bound vessel shall cease-
(i) in Indira, Princess and Victoria Docks, when the vessel is safely entered into the lock or dock entrance.
(ii) at Ballard Piers, harbour wall berths, Pir Pau jetties and Jawahar Dweep, when the vessel is safely moored in
her berth.
(iii) in the harbour, when the vessel is safely anchored or moored in her berth.
29. Moving of vessels-
No Pilot shall move or direct the moving of any vessel within the port from one position to another, unless the
following conditions are fulfilled-
(i) if the vessel is underway, the Master shall be on board;
(ii) if the Master leaves the vessel before the movement is completed, the Pilot shall direct the vessel to be
anchored in such safe position as may be most easily reached by the vessel and shall not give directions to
proceed with the moving until the return of the Master to the vessel;
(iii) throughout the moving, the number of officers and crew on board and available for duty shall be sufficient to
perform any duty which may be required, and if the Pilot on boarding considers that the number is not sufficient,
he shall call the Master’s attention to the Port rules and refuse to proceed with the moving unless the Master first
signs a declaration under his own hand expressly assuming entire responsibility.
Explanation- In this regulation, the expression “Master” shall include the first or other officer duly authorised to
act for the Master in the event of the latter being incapacitated from performing the duties of his office.
30. Pilots to report on landing-
On landing, after piloting a vessel inward and/or transporting a vessel in the stream, or returning from the Pilot
launch/vessel, a Pilot shall report without delay to the officer designated by the Deputy Conservator for further
duty.
31. Pilot not to bring vessels into dock when the signal is against him -
A Pilot shall not bring a vessel into dock/alongside a berth unless cleared to do so by the shore station.
32. Pilot when on duty to carry with him his licence, etc.–
A Pilot when on duty shall always have with him an official Tide Table for the Port, a copy of the Port Rules,
Docks Bye- Laws, Pilotage Regulations for the time being in force and his licence.
33. Loss of licence-
A Pilot losing his licence shall forthwith give notice thereof to the Deputy Conservator, stating the circumstances
in which the licence was lost and the Deputy Conservator shall, unless he is satisfied that the loss has been caused
by the Pilot’s misconduct, arrange for the issue of a duplicate licence to the Pilot.
34. Pilots to give information of any alternations in navigational marks, etc. –
A Pilot who has observed any alternation in the depth of the channels, or noticed that any buoys, beacons or light
vessels have been driven away, broken down, damaged, or shifted from position, or become aware of any
circumstance likely to affect the safety of navigational shall forthwith send a detailed report thereof in writing to
the Deputy Conservator.
35. Pilots to report casualties –
(i) A Pilot, whenever any accident has happened to or been caused by a vessel while in his charge, shall as soon as
possible report the facts in writing in the form prescribed for the purpose to the Deputy Conservator.
(ii) In case of any damage caused to port property by the vessel, the Pilot on behalf of the Port, shall issue a letter
to the Master holding the Master of the vessel responsible for the damage as per Indian Ports Act, 1908(15 of
1908) and Major Port Trusts Act, 1963 ( 38 of 1963) and obtain acknowledgement thereof.
36. Pilot to ascertain quarantine and security compliance-
A Pilot, on boarding an inward bound vessel, shall obtain the International Declaration of Health from the Master
and if the answer to all questions in the declaration is in negative, grant free pratique. In case the answer to any
question is in the affirmative or if the pilot is in doubt, he shall appraise the Dock master at the Control Station
immediately who in turn shall pass the information to the Port Health Officer. In the meantime, the pilot shall
anchor the vessel in suitable anchorage and await the Port Health Officer.
Pilot on boarding the vessel shall co-ordinate with the Dock Master at the Control Station or the officer
designated in relation to the International Ship and Port Security compliance.

PART – VI

Administrative Procedures
37. Log book to be kept at Control Station –
The Dock Master at the Control Station shall maintain a log book containing such particulars as may be specified
by the Deputy Conservator. The Officer In charge of the Control Station shall also forward the log book to the
Deputy Conservator for inspection at such intervals as may be ordered by him.
38. Senior Pilots to give instructions to Junior Pilots and Probationary Pilots –
The Senior Pilots shall assist and instruct the Junior Pilots and Probationary Pilots in all branches of a Pilot’s
duty.
39. Pilots giving evidence –
A Pilot shall not attend to give evidence in any trial or enquiry to which he is not a party, unless he is under
subpoena, without the prior permission of the Deputy Conservator and a Pilot under subpoena to give evidence
shall at once report the fact in writing to the Deputy Conservator.
40. Pilot’s examination of charts-
All Pilots will attend frequently at the office of the Deputy Conservator or Harbour Master to examine the latest
plans and charts of the port and other information concerning the port.
41. Uniform-
All officers shall wear uniform when on duty as prescribed by the Port.

Part VII

General
42. Interpretation-
If any question arises relating to the interpretation of these regulations, it shall be referred to the Chairman for
decision. Provided that any Pilot may within sixty days of the receipt of the order of the Chairman make a
representation to the Board and the Board may make such orders thereof as it deems fit.
43. Repeal and Savings-
On commencements of these regulations, Mumbai Port (Licensing and Control of Pilots) Regulations, 1975
stands repealed: Provided that –
(a) such repeal shall not affect the previous operation of the said Regulations or orders or practices or anything
done or actions taken thereunder; and
(b) any proceeding under the said Regulations pending at the commencement of these regulations shall be
conducted and disposed of, as far as may be feasible, in accordance with these regulations.

***
 Appendix-2

Recommendations related to Pilotage

Access and Egress

A. IMO Recommendation on pilot transfer arrangements - Resolution A.1045(27))

This resolutions is over the old one - Resolution A.667(16). The recommendations on pilot transfer
arrangements as per the Resolution A.1045(27) is reproduce below for reference.

1 GENERAL

Ship designers are encouraged to consider all aspects of pilot transfer arrangements at an early stage in design.
Equipment designers and manufacturers are similarly encouraged, particularly with respect to the provisions of
paragraphs 2.1.2, 3.1 and 3.3.

2 PILOT LADDERS

A pilot ladder should be certified by the manufacturer as complying with this section or with the requirements of
an international standard acceptable to the Organization.
2.1 Position and construction
2.1.1 The securing strong points, shackles and securing ropes should be at least as strong as the side ropes
specified in section 2.2 below.
2.1.2 The steps of the pilot ladders should comply with the following requirements:
1. if made of hardwood, they should be made in one piece, free of knots;
2. if made of material other than hardwood, they should be of equivalent strength, stiffness and durability to
the satisfaction of the Administration;
3. the four lowest steps may be of rubber of sufficient strength and stiffness or other material to the
satisfaction of the Administration;
4. they should have an efficient non-slip surface;
5. they should be not less than 400 mm between the side ropes, 115 mm wide and 25 mm in depth,
excluding any non-slip device or grooving;
6. they should be equally spaced not less than 310 mm or more than 350 mm apart; and
7. they should be secured in such a manner that each will remain horizontal.
2.1.3 No pilot ladder should have more than two replacement steps which are secured in position by a method
different from that used in the original construction of the ladder, and any steps so secured should be replaced as
soon as reasonably practicable by steps secured in position by the method used in the original construction of the
pilot ladder.
When any replacement step is secured to the side ropes of the pilot ladder by means of grooves in the sides of the
step, such grooves should be in the longer sides of the step.
2.1.4 Pilot ladders with more than five steps should have spreader steps not less than 1.8 m long provided at such
intervals as will prevent the pilot ladder from twisting. The lowest spreader step should be the fifth step from the
bottom of the ladder and the interval between any spreader step and the next should not exceed nine steps.
2.1.5 When a retrieval line is considered necessary to ensure the safe rigging of a pilot ladder, the line should be
fastened at or above the last spreader step and should lead forward. The retrieval line should not hinder the pilot
nor obstruct the safe approach of the pilot boat.
2.1.6 A permanent marking should be provided at regular intervals (e.g. 1 m) throughout the length of the ladder
consistent with ladder design, use and maintenance in order to facilitate the rigging of the ladder to the required
height.

2.2 Ropes
2.2.1 The side ropes of the pilot ladder should consist of two uncovered ropes not less than 18 mm in diameter on
each side and should be continuous, with no joints and have a breaking strength of at least 24 Kilo Newtons per
side rope. The two side ropes should each consist of one continuous length of rope, the midpoint half-length being
located on a thimble large enough to accommodate at least two passes of side rope.
2.2.2 Side ropes should be made of manila or other material of equivalent strength, durability, elongation
characteristics and grip which has been protected against actinic degradation and is satisfactory to the
Administration.
2.2.3 Each pair of side ropes should be secured together both above and below each step with a mechanical
clamping device properly designed for this purpose, or seizing method with step fixtures (chocks or widgets),
which holds each step level when the ladder is hanging freely. The preferred method is seizing.
3 ACCOMMODATION LADDERS USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH PILOT LADDERS

3.1 Arrangements which may be more suitable for special types of ships may be accepted, provided that they are
equally safe.
3.2 The length of the accommodation ladder should be sufficient to ensure that its angle of slope does not exceed
45°. In ships with large draft ranges, several pilot ladder hanging positions may be provided, resulting in lesser
angles of slope. The accommodation ladder should be at least 600 mm in width.
3.3 The lower platform of the accommodation ladder should be in a horizontal position and secured to the ship's
side when in use. The lower platform should be a minimum of 5 m above sea level.
3.4 Intermediate platforms, if fitted, should be self-levelling. Treads and steps of the accommodation ladder
should be so designed that an adequate and safe foothold is given at the operative angles.
3.5 The ladder and platform should be equipped on both sides with stanchions and rigid handrails, but if hand
ropes are used they should be tight and properly secured. The vertical space between the handrail or hand rope
and the stringers of the ladder should be securely fenced.
3.6 The pilot ladder should be rigged immediately adjacent to the lower platform of the accommodation ladder
and the upper end should extend at least 2 m above the lower platform. The horizontal distance between the pilot
ladder and the lower platform should be between 0.1 and 0.2 m.
3.7 If a trapdoor is fitted in the lower platform to allow access from and to the pilot ladder, the aperture should not
be less than 750 mm x 750 mm. The trapdoor should open upwards and be secured either flat on the embarkation
platform or against the rails at the aft end or outboard side of the platform and should not form part of the
handholds. In this case the after part of the lower platform should also be fenced as specified in paragraph 3.5
above, and the pilot ladder should extend above the lower platform to the height of the handrail and remain in
alignment with and against the ship's side.
3.8 Accommodation ladders, together with any suspension arrangements or attachments fitted and intended for
use in accordance with this recommendation, should be to the satisfaction of the Administration

4 MECHANICAL PILOT HOISTS

The use of mechanical pilot hoists is prohibited by SOLAS regulation V/23.

5 ACCESS TO DECK

Means should be provided to ensure safe, convenient and unobstructed passage for any person embarking on, or
disembarking from, the ship between the head of the pilot ladder, or of any accommodation ladder, and the ship's
deck; such access should be gained directly by a platform securely guarded by handrails. Where such passage is
by means of:
1. a gateway in the rails or bulwark, adequate handholds should be provided at the point of embarking on or
disembarking from the ship on each side which should be not less than 0.7 m or more than 0.8 m apart.
Each handhold should be rigidly secured to the ship's structure at or near its base and also at a higher
point, not less than 32 mm in diameter and extend not less than 1.2 m above the top of the bulwarks.
Stanchions or handrails should not be attached to the bulwark ladder;
2. a bulwark ladder should be securely attached to the ship to prevent overturning. Two handhold stanchions
should be fitted at the point of embarking on or disembarking from the ship on each side which should be
not less than 0.7 m or more than 0.8 m apart. Each stanchion should be rigidly secured to the ship's
structure at or near its base and also at a higher point, should be not less than 32 mm in diameter and
should extend not less than 1.2 m above the top of the bulwarks. Stanchions or handrails should not be
attached to the bulwark ladder.

6. SAFE APPROACH OF THE PILOT BOAT

Where rubbing bands or other constructional features might prevent the safe approach of apilot boat, these should
be cut back to provide at least 6 metres of unobstructed ship's side. Specialized offshore ships less than 90 m or
other similar ships less than 90 m for which a 6 m gap in the rubbing bands would not be practicable, as
determined by the Administration, do not have to comply with this requirement. In this case, other appropriate
measures should be taken to ensure that persons are able to embark and disembark safely.

7.INSTALLATION OF PILOT LADDER WINCH REELS

7.1 Point of access

7.1.1 When a pilot ladder winch reel is provided it should be situated at a position which will ensure persons
embarking on, or disembarking from, the ship between the pilot ladder and the point of access to the ship, have
safe, convenient and unobstructed access to or egress from the ship.
7.1.2 The point of access to or egress from the ship may be by a ship's side opening, an accommodation ladder
when a combination arrangement is provided, or a single section of pilot ladder.
7.1.3 The access position and adjacent area should be clear of obstructions, including the pilot ladder winch reel,
for distances as follows:
1. a distance of 915 mm in width measured longitudinally;
2. a distance of 915 mm in depth, measured from the ship's side plating inwards; and
3. a distance of 2,200 mm in height, measured vertically from the access deck.
7.2 Physical positioning of pilot ladder winch reels
7.2.1 Pilot ladder winch reels are generally fitted on the ship's upper (main) deck or at a ship's side opening which
may include side doors, gangway locations or bunkering points. Winch reels fitted on the upper deck may result
in very long pilot ladders.
7.2.2 Pilot ladder winch reels which are fitted on a ship's upper deck for the purpose of providing a pilot ladder
which services a ship side opening below the upper deck or, alternatively, an accommodation ladder when a
combination arrangement is provided should:
1. be situated at a location on the upper deck from which the pilot ladder is able to be suspended vertically,
in a straight line, to a point adjacent to the ship side opening access point or the lower platform of the
accommodation ladder;
2. be situated at a location which provides a safe, convenient and unobstructed passage for any person
embarking on, or disembarking from, the ship between the pilot ladder and the place of access on the
ship;
3. be situated so that safe and convenient access is provided between the pilot ladder and the ship's side
opening by means of a platform which should extend outboard from the ship's side for a minimum
distance of 750 mm, with a longitudinal length of a minimum of 750 mm. The platform should be
securely guarded by handrails;
 4. safely secure the pilot ladder and manropes to the ship's side at a point on the ships side at a distance of
1,500 mm above the platform access point to the ship side opening or the lower platform of the
accommodation ladder; and
5. if a combination arrangement is provided, have the accommodation ladder secured to the ship's side at or
close to the lower platform so as to ensure that the accommodation ladder rests firmly against the ship's
side.
7.2.3 Pilot ladder winch reels fitted inside a ship's side opening should:
1. be situated at a position which provides a safe, convenient and unobstructed passage for any person
embarking on, or disembarking from, the ship between the pilot ladder and the place of access on the
ship;
2. be situated at a position which provides an unobstructed clear area with a minimum length of 915 mm and
minimum width of 915 mm and minimum vertical height of 2,200 mm; and
3. if situated at a position which necessitates a section of the pilot ladder to be partially secured in a
horizontal position on the deck so as to provide a clear access as described above, then allowance should
be made so that this section of the pilot ladder may be covered with a rigid platform for a minimum
distance of 915 mm measured horizontally from the ship's side inwards.

7.3 Handrails and handgrips

Handrails and handgrips should be provided in accordance with section 5 to assist the pilot to safely transfer
between the pilot ladder and the ship, except as noted in paragraph 7.2.2.3 for arrangements with platforms
extending outboard. The horizontal distance between the handrails and/or the hand grips should be not less than
0.7 m or more than 0.8 m apart.

7.4 Securing of the pilot ladder

Where the pilot ladder is stowed on a pilot ladder winch reel which is located either within the ship's side opening
or on the upper deck:
1. the pilot ladder winch reel should not be relied upon to support the pilot ladder when the pilot ladder is in
use;
2. the pilot ladder should be secured to a strong point, independent of the pilot ladder winch reel; and
3. the pilot ladder should be secured at deck level inside the ship side opening or, when located on the ship's
upper deck, at a distance of not less than 915 mm measured horizontally from the ship's side inwards.

7.5 Mechanical securing of pilot ladder winch reel

7.5.1 All pilot ladder winch reels should have means of preventing the winch reel from being accidentally
operated as a result of mechanical failure or human error.
7.5.2 Pilot ladder winch reels may be manually operated or, alternatively, powered by either electrical, hydraulic
or pneumatic means.
7.5.3 Manually operated pilot ladder winch reels should be provided with a brake or other suitable arrangements
to control the lowering of the pilot ladder and to lock the winch reel in position once the pilot ladder is lowered
into position.
7.5.4 Electrical, hydraulic or pneumatically driven pilot ladder winch reels should be fitted with safety devices
which are capable of cutting off the power supply to the winch reel and thus locking the winch reel in position.
7.5.5 Powered winch reels should have clearly marked control levers or handles which may be locked in a neutral
position.
7.5.6 A mechanical device or locking pin should also be utilized to lock powered winch reels.

B. Guidance on Pilot Access from UKMCA

1. General
1.1 This Regulation applies to any ship which may employ a pilot (SOLAS Ch V/Reg. 23.1.1) with equipment
and arrangements installed on or after 1 July 2012 (23.1.2). It does not apply to: UK ships below 150 GT on any
voyage; UK ships below 500 GT not on international voyages; or fishing vessels, unless they are likely to employ
a pilot. IMO Resolution A.1045 (27) outlines further guidance on applicable standards.
1.2 Equipment and arrangements installed before 1 July 2012 may continue to comply with the SOLAS
requirements in force before that date, but if it is replaced, the new equipment and arrangements must comply
with this Regulation (23.1.3 & 23.1.4).
1.3 The arrangements for the embarkation and disembarkation of pilots should also be considered at the design
stage, particularly where unusual hull forms or the provision of belting is proposed, to ensure full compliance with
the Regulations. Information and guidance on the pilot transfer arrangements is also provided in "ISO 799 Ships
& marine technology - Pilot ladders, 3rd edition 2004".
2. Adequate securing of Pilot ladders
2.1 Adequate arrangements for securing the pilot ladder should be provided. An arrangement conforming to the
Shipbuilding Industry Standard No. SIS 6 or equivalent can be accepted.
2.2 A bulwark ladder should comply with the specifications set out in the Shipbuilding Industry Standard No. SIS
7 or be of an equivalent standard.
3. The Pilot ladder
3.1 Pilot ladder shall be type-approved to MED standards (European Council Directive 96/98/EC of 20 December
1996 on marine equipment, as amended). MSN 1734, as amended, provides more information on the above. A
pilot ladder conforming to BS MA 92 (incorporates ISO 799:2004), can be accepted provided that it meets the
Regulation requirements.
3.2 Steps and spreaders must be of one piece and made from knot free ash, oak, elm, teak or other hardwood of
similar characteristics or of a material of at least equivalent strength, stiffness and durability.
4. Ropes
4.1 Use of synthetic fibre ropes is conditional on:
(I) it is clear of any possible discharges from the ship;
(II) it is within the parallel body length of the ship and, as far as is practicable, within the mid-ship half length of
the ship;
(III) each step rests firmly against the ship's side; where constructional features, such as rubbing bands, would
prevent the implementation of this provision, special arrangements shall, to the satisfaction of the Administration,
be made to ensure that persons are able to embark and disembark safely;
(IV) the single length of pilot ladder is capable of reaching the water from the point of access to, or egress from,
the ship and due allowance is made for all conditions of loading and trim of the ship, and for an adverse list of
15°; the securing strong point, shackles and securing ropes shall be at least as strong as the side ropes;

5. Associated Equipment
5.1 Shipside doors used for pilot transfer shall not open outwards (23-5).With respect to ships constructed before
1 January 1994, this shall apply not later than the first survey on or after 1 July 2012. Where the ladder is rigged
adjacent and to the side of a shipside door, in addition to the requirements in (23.4), provision should be made for
a platform with stanchions and railings in order that a pilot can safely step sideways and into the ship.
5.2 Belting should be cut back in the way of the pilot ladder to ensure that the pilot ladder rests firmly against the
ship's side throughout its length. Tapered fendering should be fitted underneath the belting immediately forward
and abaft the cut-out in the belting to prevent the gunwale of a pilot boat becoming trapped under the belting.
6. Vessels with large freeboard conditions
6.1 Combination Arrangements; When an accommodation ladder is used in combination with a pilot ladder, the
accommodation ladder should comply with the specifications set out in standard BS MA 89:1980 (incorporates
ISO 5488-1979) or be of an equivalent standard.
6.2 Crew Safety; In order to ensure safety of the crew who may be involved with the set-up and rigging of the
pilot transfer arrangement, particularly with a combination arrangement that involves securing of pilot and
accommodation ladders overside, a full risk assessment shall be undertaken. As part of mitigation measures in
view of the work overside, bespoke personnel security arrangements may have to be deployed to ensure safety of
the crew whilst rigging this equipment.
6.3 Further advice on the above securing arrangements can be obtained from International Marine Pilots'
Association (IMPA at http://www.impahq.org).
7. Lighting
7.1 Fixed or portable lights may be used to illuminate the ladder over side. To avoid dazzling the pilot boat crew,
lights should shine from abaft the pilot ladder. The deck area in the vicinity of the pilot ladder should also be
adequately lit. Spot lighting from the wings of the bridge or other suitable position may be accepted.

***