Hierarchical Clustering-Based Collapse Mode

Identification and Design Optimization of

Energy-Dissipation Braces Inspired by the
Triangular Resch Pattern
Yao Chen, Ph.D., M.ASCE 1; Jiayao Shi 2; Chenhao Lu 3;
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Jian Feng, Ph.D. 4; and Pooya Sareh, Ph.D. 5

Abstract: In recent years, energy-dissipation devices have gained significant attention in seismic protection engineering because of their
effectiveness in mitigating the destructive effects of earthquakes. Inspired by an origami pattern invented by Ron Resch, in this study, we
propose a novel type of energy-dissipation brace to guide the deformation process and prevent the global buckling of engineering structures.
To this end, a parametric geometric model is developed, followed by exploring the effects of different geometric parameters on structural
collapse modes. Subsequently, by using hierarchical clustering, the collapse modes are classified into four groups. Finally, an optimal design
is introduced to improve energy absorption during quasi-static axial crushing while reducing the initial peak force. The results show specific
parameters play a decisive role in determining the collapse modes of the structures. Each group is associated with a particular force-
displacement curve characterized by specific properties. We demonstrate that the proposed structural design optimization process reduces
the initial peak force by 15.6% without affecting the specific energy absorption. This study provides insights into the application of origami-
inspired structures in the design and development of high-performance energy-dissipation braces. DOI: 10.1061/JSENDH.STENG-12805.
© 2024 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Energy-dissipation brace; Origami/Kirigami; Collapse mode; Design optimization; Hierarchical clustering.

Introduction with CBFs is their vulnerability to buckling, especially if the brac-

Natural disasters such as earthquakes pose significant threats to the
safety of people and their infrastructures. In an earthquake, struc-
tures are subjected to seismic waves and dynamic loads that can
cause significant damage, particularly in the absence of appropriate
protection mechanisms. Energy-dissipation devices are designed to
dissipate this type of energy, reducing the seismic response of struc-
tures and minimizing losses and damages (Li et al. 2020; Wang
et al. 2020, 2021).
Concentrically braced frames (CBFs) are a traditional type of
structural system used in earthquake-resistant design. CBFs consist
of diagonal braces, which are designed to resist lateral forces
caused by earthquakes (Uang et al. 2004). One of the main issues
1 achieve higher energy dissipation.
Professor, Key Laboratory of Concrete and Prestressed Concrete
Structures of Ministry of Education, and National Prestress Engineering
Research Center, Southeast Univ., Nanjing 211189, China (corresponding
author). ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0924-8945. Email: chenyao@
seu.edu.cn
2
Graduate Student, School of Civil Engineering, Southeast Univ.,
Nanjing 211189, China.
3
Graduate Student, School of Civil Engineering, Southeast Univ.,
Nanjing 211189, China.
4
Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Southeast Univ., Nanjing
211189, China.
5
Associate Professor, Creative Design Engineering Lab (Cdel), School
of Engineering, Newcastle Univ., Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on May 24, 2023; approved on
November 28, 2023; published online on February 29, 2024. Discussion
period open until July 29, 2024; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural En-
gineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445.
ing members are slender and highly loaded. This leads to a decrease
in their strength and stiffness, which can compromise the overall
structural integrity (Dunn and Pantelides 2022). To overcome
this difficulty, buckling-restrained braces (BRBs) were invented in
Japan in the 1970s (Iwata and Murai 2006). BRBs consist of an
internal core member and an external restraint system. The inner
core member is designed to yield under compression without buck-
ling. The external restraint system is adopted to prevent lateral de-
formation of the internal core member, which allows the brace to
maintain its strength and stiffness even under severe seismic load-
ings (Das and Deb 2022; Rafi et al. 2022). In addition, different
defects in components, such as corrugations (Chen and Ozaki
2009), grooves (Danesbi and Hosseinipour 2002), and window pat-
terns (Song 2013; Song et al. 2013), can avoid overall buckling and
In a recent investigation, Zhou et al. (2021) obtained promising
results by incorporating origami principles in brace design. Origami
structures can transform from two-dimensional sheets into three-
dimensional configurations based on predefined creases without
cutting or stretching (Chen et al. 2022; Ji et al. 2021; Sareh 2019).
Although origami is a traditional form of art (Chen et al. 2020a), in
recent years, owing to its geometric versatility and interesting
mechanical properties (Chen et al. 2023b, c), it has gradually de-
veloped into an emerging and promising area of research across
various engineering fields (Ballard et al. 2016; Cai et al. 2015;
Chen et al. 2020b, 2021). In general, to fold a sheet into a desired
planar or spatial configuration, designers need to methodically as-
sign certain creases based on origami theories. In particular, when
origami patterns are effectively applied to the design of braces, the
creases can trigger the predefined deformation mode to achieve the
desired energy-dissipation performance.

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J. Struct. Eng., 2024, 150(5): 04024037

 Over the past two decades, various types of origami crease pat-
terns have been applied to the geometric design of tubular structures.
Yang et al. (2016) introduced diamond and full diamond origami
patterns into circular tubes. The results showed that, for tubes with
small thicknesses, prefolded origami tubes exhibited better energy
absorption than conventional circular tubes. Zhang et al. (2007)
introduced surface patterns to thin-walled square tubes to enhance
energy absorption under axial compression. On this basis, Ma and
You (2014) incorporated prefolded origami patterns into square
tubes to guide an efficient collapse mode, resulting in a reduced
level of vulnerability to defects. Wang et al. (2018, 2019a) pre-
sented a unified parametric design for origami-based tubular
structures and performed quasi-static experiments on a range of
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polymeric origami tubes. They demonstrated that nonuniformities
could be utilized as geometric defects to alter the collapse modes
of the structures.
An ideal structure often needs to simultaneously satisfy multi-
ple performance requirements. However, many traditional design
processes primarily rely on empirical formulas or trial-and-error
approaches (Chen et al. 2018; Zhai et al. 2022), which lead to in-
efficiencies in the design and development processes. To tackle
such challenges, multi-objective optimization can provide a power-
ful tool to gain a better understanding of the design problem and
explore the design space (Bader and Zitzler 2011; Chen and Feng
2014). For example, Liu et al. (2019) employed a multi-objective
optimization algorithm to simultaneously optimize the fundamental
frequency and minimize the dynamic displacement of Miura tubes.
In another study, Yang et al. (2018) performed a multi-objective
optimization of several multi-unit tubular origami structures using
a linear weighting method; they indicated that different origami
patterns corresponded to different buckling processes. As another
example, Wang et al. (2019b) proposed a protective structural sys-
tem for vehicle collision scenarios utilizing energy-absorbing ori-
gami structures. The initial peak crushing force was reduced using a
multi-objective optimization to provide a higher safety standard.
Fig. 1. Parameterization of EDBs-GTRP: (a) a GTRP; (b) initial state; (c) a typical state with the characteristic angle lower than the critical angle;
(d) critical state; (e) a typical state with the characteristic angle higher than the critical angle; (f) termination state; and (g) three different forms of
EDBs-GTRP.
© ASCE
J. Struct. Eng., 2024, 150(5): 04024037
Nevertheless, the existing designs of energy dissipative braces
generally focus on a few mechanical properties, without evaluating
different design concepts from multiple perspectives.
This study reports the design and analysis of a novel type of
energy-dissipation brace (EDB) inspired by the generalized tri-
angular Resch pattern (GTRP). These structures utilize creases
to guide structural deformations and prevent global buckling with-
out adopting external restraint systems, to limit the deformation
of internal core members. The energy generated by the earthquake
will be dissipated through the deformation of the folded regions. To
account for the influence of different geometric specifications, the
relationship between the geometrical parameters and the boundary
dimensions is derived and the structure is parametrically modeled.
Furthermore, the influences of various parameters on the energy-
dissipation performance of the structures are investigated. The
collapse modes of the energy-dissipation braces inspired by the
generalized triangular Resch pattern (EDBs-GTRP) are classified
and analyzed based on numerical results through hierarchical
clustering. Finally, the Nondominated-dominated Sorting Genetic
Algorithm II (NSGA-II) method is utilized for multi-objective
optimization. During optimization, the response surface method
(RSM) will be applied to specify the objective function, aiming to
find the optimal design with the lowest initial peak force and the
highest specific energy absorption.
Geometric Analysis and Design
Geometric Modeling
As illustrated in Fig. 1(a), the GTRP unit consists of an origami unit
(OU) and a kirigami unit (KU). More specifically, based on the
geometry of a kirigami structure composed of rotating triangular
elements (Chen et al. 2023d; Jalali et al. 2022; Li et al. 2022; Shi
et al. 2023), the gaps in the KU are filled with an appropriate OU.
Then, the structural units are arrayed according to the specified
04024037-2 J. Struct. Eng.
 geometric boundary conditions. Finally, all units are enclosed into a
tubular structure, forming the energy-dissipation braces inspired by
the generalized triangular Resch pattern, as depicted in Fig. 1(g).
From the perspective of symmetry, KU actively adjusts the side
lengths of the basic unit of a two-dimensional (2D) low-order sym-
metric rotating triangle. By reducing the symmetry of the unit cell,
we obtain a rotating triangular kirigami structure. The repetitive
element of this structure takes the form of an isosceles triangle,
where a and b denote its leg and base, respectively, and θ represents
the angle between adjacent KUs. The vertices of an OU coincide
with the geometric center of the unfilled area of the corresponding
KU. The height of OU is h and the creases are formed by connect-
ing the center point and the vertices of isosceles triangles. The size
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fixed in practice, the outer boundary lengths L and H of the struc-
ture are taken as constants, while parameters a, b, θ, h, x, and y are
variable. As can be seen from Fig. 1, the design space can be di-
vided into five zones depending on different values of the character-
istic angle θ between every two adjacent isosceles triangles. It is
important to note that there exists a critical state for the character-
istic angle in which the legs of the two isosceles triangles at the top
coincide with the boundary line L, as illustrated in Fig. 1(d). We
call this angle the critical characteristic angle, denoted by θcr.
At the beginning [θ ¼ 0; see Fig. 1(b)], all rotating triangles are
fully closed. When θ < θcr [see Fig. 1(c)], the relationships among
the geometric parameters can be expressed as
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

of the overall structure is determined by the number of horizontal



(x) and vertical (y) units. θ θ b2
b cos ðy þ 1Þ þ 2ay sin 1− 2 ¼H
2 2 4a





Parametric Geometric Analysis θ θ π b
2x 2b sin þ a cos þ − acos ¼L ð1Þ
2 2 2 2a
By adopting a parametric geometric analysis approach, the model-
ing process is described as a multi-stage geometric transformation
process. Given that the overall dimensions of a structure are often which give

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
     
H2 − 2Hby cos 2θ − 2Hb cos 2θ þ b2 y2 cos 2θ 2 þ b2 y2 sin 2θ 2 þ 2b2 y cos 2θ 2 þ b2 cos 2θ 2
a¼  ð2Þ
2y sin 2θ

 
2Hx cos 2θ − 2Ly sin 2θ
b¼      ð3Þ
x 8y cos 2θ 2 − 6y þ 2 cos 2θ 2

When θ ¼ θcr [see Fig. 1(d)], we can write


θ b
sin ¼ ð4Þ
2 2a

Then, we can express the critical angle as

0sp ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
−12H 2 x2 þ 4L2 y2 þ 4L2 y þ L2 þ 4Hxi A
θcr ¼ −2 log@ i ð5Þ
L þ 2Ly þ 2Hxi

where i represents the imaginary unit.

On the other hand, when θ > θcr [see Fig. 1(e)], the relationships among the geometric parameters are rewritten as
0 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1





θ π b θ θ b2
a sin þ − acos þ y@b cos þ 2a sin 1− 2A¼H
2 2 2a 2 2 4a





θ θ π b
2x 2b sin þ a cos þ − acos ¼L ð6Þ
2 2 2 2a

which give
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 
4H 2 − 8Hby cos 2θ − 4Hb cos 2θ þ 4b2 y2 σ2 þ 4b2 y2 σ1 þ 4b2 yσ2 þ 4b2 yσ1 þ b2 σ2 þ b2 σ1
a¼   ð7Þ
2 sin 2θ þ 4y sin 2θ

  
L sin 2θ − 2Hx cos 2θ þ 2Ly sin 2θ
b¼−     ð8Þ
x 2y þ 1 2 cos 2θ 2 − 3

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Fig. 2. Fabrication of a tubular structure: (a) flat sheet and male/female molds; (b) stamping process; and (c) physical model.

2
2
θ θ which give
σ1 ¼ sin and σ2 ¼ cos ð9Þ
2 2

  pffiffiffi   
When b ¼ 0 [see Fig. 1(f)], the structure reaches its terminal 2 tan α4 þ 3 tan α4 − 1
θ ¼ −4atan α pffiffiffi
configuration and the characteristic angle is θf . We can write tan 4 þ 3 þ 2
   qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
α 4 pffiffiffi     pffiffiffi  
L sin 2θ − 2Hx cos 2θ þ 2Ly sin 2θ a − tan 4 − 4 3 tan α4 3 þ 6 tan α4 2 þ 4 3 tan α4 − 1
b¼−    θ 2  ¼0 ð10Þ
x 2y þ 1 2 cos 2 − 3 h¼ pffiffiffi   pffiffiffi
3 tan α4 2 þ 3
Thus, we obtain ð13Þ
ffi

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2
−4H x − 4L y − 4L y − L2 2 2 2
θf ¼ −2 log i ð11Þ The material for the flat sheet, which is placed for stamping be-
Li þ 2Hx þ 2Lyi
tween the male and female molds, can be steel. Then, the stamped
sheet is bent to form a tubular structure, with the joints being riv-
Fabrication Process eted or welded together to add strength and durability. As shown in
Fig. 2, a flat sheet is utilized to demonstrate the fabrication process.
Common techniques for fabricating thin-walled energy-dissipation When a is not equal to b, the structure cannot be flattened.
braces include stamping, injection molding, extrusion, and three- Thereafter, 3D-printing technology can be utilized, which is an ad-
dimensional (3D) printing (Liu et al. 2019; Yang et al. 2016; ditive manufacturing process that involves creating parts layer-by-
Zhou et al. 2016). In general, the selection of appropriate methods layer using computer-aided design. This technique offers several
depends on the required properties of the final component, produc- advantages, including the ability to produce complex geometries.
tion volume, and available resources. The stamping process is a Alternatively, the production can be achieved by first cutting the
manufacturing technique applied to transform flat metal sheets into desired unit components from steel and then proceeding with direct
desired shapes by applying pressure with stamping dies. Stamping welding.
enables the production of complex shapes with high precision, ac- Importantly, although introducing additional crease patterns may
curacy, and consistency at a relatively low cost. require extra manufacturing processes and costs, it could signifi-
When a ¼ b, the structure is flat-foldable; therefore, the sheet cantly improve the mechanical performance of the structure. On
can be stamped using a pair of male and female molds. First, the the other hand, through optimized design and efficient manufactur-
geometric specifications of the structure in the flattened configura- ing, we can further reduce the costs. As a result, introducing origami
tion are calculated, assuming the value of θ in this state is α. Then, patterns into braces could become a viable and rewarding design
the following equations can be obtained considering the constant approach.
side length:
  
4a2 sin 2θ 2 4a2 sin α2 2
þ h2 ¼ Numerical Simulation and Parametric Study
3 3


 pffiffiffi  

 pffiffiffi  
2 θ 3 a sin 2θ 2 α 3a sin α2 2
h þ a cos þ ¼ a cos þ Finite Element Modeling
2 3 2 3
To reveal the influence of different parameters on the energy-
ð12Þ dissipation efficiency of the structure, Abaqus/Explicit (2020) is

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Fig. 3. Representative finite element model.
used to simulate the quasi-static axial crushing process (Lv et al.
2019; Xiang et al. 2018). As shown in Fig. 3, similar to the work by
Li et al. (2021), the model is placed between two rigid plates. The
compression is accomplished by axially displacing the upper rigid
plate downward while the lower rigid plate remains fixed. The ul-
timate displacement μz is 80 mm, which corresponds to 80% of the
initial height, μ0 , of the specimen, i.e., μz ¼ 0.8μ0 . General con-
tact is utilized with a friction coefficient of 0.3. Four-node shell
(S4R) elements with an average mesh size of 2 mm are utilized
for meshing the tubes. The ratio of kinetic energy to internal en-
ergy is ensured to be less than 5%. The ratio of artificial energy to
internal energy is less than 10% to avoid the hourglass effect. The
material is selected as 6061-T6 aluminum alloy and the specific
parameters are as follows: density ρ ¼ 2,750 kg=m3 ; Young’s
modulus E ¼ 70 GPa; Poisson’s ratio ν ¼ 0.3; and yield strength
σy ¼ 300 MPa.
Influence of Different Parameters on the
Force-Displacement Curve
By changing the geometric parameters, we can produce different
structural configurations with different energy-dissipation proper-
ties. Therefore, this section explores the effect of geometric param-
eters on the force-displacement curve under the same boundary
(i.e., L ¼ 200 mm and H ¼ 100 mm).
It can be observed from Fig. 4(a) that θ affects the collapse
mode. When θ ≥ 20°, the results show a typical force-displacement
curve, where the force rises from zero to a peak value and then
experiences a significant drop; this is followed by the plateau stage,
where the force undulates slightly without significant changes.
Finally, the structure is compressed into a dense state. When
θ < 20°, a notable change in the collapse mode of the structure is
observed. First, the initial peak force, Fpeak , of the structure in-
creases substantially, while there are noteworthy fluctuations in
the plateau stage. Subsequently, the force-displacement curve will
have a significant secondary lift. This can be attributed to the
© ASCE 04024037-5
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additional creases that act as an out-of-plane support, leading to
a substantial enhancement in the load-bearing capacity of the struc-
ture. In summary, when θ is large, the structural integrity maintains
the conventional collapse mode and the creases do not play a sig-
nificant role. Conversely, when θ is small, the displacement value at
the initial peak force, denoted by Dpeak, decreases and the force-
displacement curve exhibits significant fluctuations. Hence, it is
recommended to consider a range of values between 5° and 15°
for the characteristic angle θ.
As can be seen from Fig. 4(b), the variation of h leads to a
distinct categorization of collapse modes. Specifically, when h
takes the values of 3 and 4, the results exhibit a typical force-
displacement curve. As h increases, both Fpeak and Dpeak exhibit
a substantial augmentation. During the plateau stage, there are dis-
tinct fluctuations that signify the progressive damage occurring
layer-by-layer. Another noteworthy point is that, as h increases,
Fpeak exhibits an upward trend. However, this phenomenon occurs
at a displacement of around 25 mm. This observation highlights
the significant influence of h on the collapse mode and the mag-
nitude of Fpeak , while its impact on Dpeak remains limited. In gen-
eral, a small value of h will render the creases ineffective, whereas a
large value of h will result in an increased size (and consequently an
increased structural mass) of the facets of the origami structure.
Therefore, it is advisable to consider a range of values for h be-
tween 5 and 9 mm.
Fig. 4(c) shows that an increase in x engenders a concomitant
reduction in Dpeak , but a corresponding escalation in Fpeak . More-
over, such alterations in x lead to an earlier onset of folding. When x
is small (e.g., x ¼ 3), the size of a single facet in the origami struc-
ture would be large. This makes it susceptible to buckling and
unable to act as an out-of-plane support. Conversely, if x is large
(e.g., x ¼ 6 or 7), the structure will undergo global buckling in the
later stages of compression. Consequently, x should take values of
4 or 5 at this boundary condition.
As illustrated in Fig. 4(d), an increase in y engenders corre-
sponding increases in both Dpeak and Fpeak , which indicates similar
collapse modes. However, when y is large or small, the envelope
area of the force-displacement curve is reduced. Therefore, it is rec-
ommended to consider y to be either 5 or 6.
Fig. 4(e) demonstrates that thickness t also plays a significant
role in determining the collapse mode. When t ≥ 2 mm, the force
increases from zero to a peak value. Then, the structure undergoes
buckling, leading to a noticeable decrease in the load-bearing
capacity, while additional creases do not contribute to out-of-
plane stiffness. Eventually, the structure collapses into a compact
state. When t ≤ 1 mm, Dpeak significantly moves forward along
the horizontal axis and noticeable fluctuations occur at the pla-
teau stage. This reveals that the additional creases play a role in
providing out-of-plane stiffness and the structure experiences
a progressive collapse mode layer-by-layer. However, a small
value of t may pose manufacturing challenges; therefore, t is set
to 1 mm.
Classification of Collapse Modes
Classifying and identifying potential collapse modes of structures
can provide effective information for the designers to identify
critical areas prone to collapse, therefore enhancing the safety
and performance of the structures. The characteristic angle θ is
the parameter that controls the angle of KU, while h is the key
parameter that controls the geometry of OU. Both parameters dis-
play a substantial coupling effect on the structural behavior and have
a pronounced influence on the collapse mode. Parameters x and y
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Fig. 4. Effects of various design variables on the force-displacement curve: (a) θ; (b) h; (c) x; (d) y; and (e and f) t.

alter the number of units and their impact on the collapse modes is
insignificant. In the context of a constrained region with H ¼
100 mm and L ¼ 200 mm, combined with the conclusions drawn
from the parametric analysis, we set x ¼ y ¼ 5 and t ¼ 1 mm, with
h constrained within the range of 5 to 9 mm and θ limited between 5°
and 15°.
Latin hypercube sampling (LHS) is chosen for sampling
(Vamvatsikos 2014). The idea of LHS sampling is to divide the
parameter space into several sub-regions. Then, a sample point is
taken from each sub-region, ensuring a uniform distribution of
sample points in the parameter space. The reliability of the analy-
sis can be guaranteed even when fewer sample points are selected.
A total of 25 sets of parameter values are extracted and the cor-
responding force-displacement curves are obtained. These curves
serve as the basis for the classification of the data.
Clustering Method
Due to the unpredictable number of collapse modes that may occur
in the aforementioned parameter space, such a problem belongs to
unsupervised learning. Hierarchical clustering (Xie et al. 2023) is a
common unsupervised learning method that enables the hierarchi-
cal grouping of data sets without labels or predefined categories.
Its ability to capture complex cluster shapes and handle diverse
data types makes it particularly versatile. The dendrogram that it
generates enhances interpretability and it is robust to initialization,
setting it apart as a valuable choice for a wide range of clustering
tasks. The main steps are as follows; First, it is necessary to cal-
culate the distance or similarity between each pair of data points
in the given data set. Here, we uniformly sample 30 data points
from the force-displacement curves as cluster features. Then, each

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Fig. 5. The elbow method for the selection of the optimal K-clusters.
force-displacement curve is considered a cluster and adjacent
clusters are merged into new and larger clusters based on their sim-
ilarity. In the process of merging clusters, the distance matrix needs
to be updated, to reflect the distance or similarity between the
new clusters. The merging process is repeated until all force-
displacement curves are clustered into the same cluster or the pre-
determined number of clusters is reached. Finally, the hierarchical
structure of the data set can be built through the record of the merg-
ing process.
Decision-Making on the Number of Clusters
It is important to note that the quality of clustering results depends
on the choice of distance calculation and clustering method, as well
as the predetermined number of clusters. In this study, the squared
Euclidean distance is adopted for the distance calculation and
the intercluster joining method is chosen as the clustering method.
The approximate optimal number of clusters is estimated using the
elbow method.
The elbow method is a common technique in clustering analysis
to determine the optimal number of clusters in a data set. This
method is widely utilized as it determines the number of clusters
without relying on external criteria. The method involves plotting
Fig. 6. Clustering results at K ¼ 4: (a) mean force-displacement curves for various clustering categories; and (b) mean parameter values for various
clustering categories.
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the sum of squared distances between each point and its closest
cluster center (J), against the number of clusters (K). The resulting
plot resembles an arm and the “elbow” point where the plot starts to
flatten is considered the optimal number of clusters. Mathemati-
cally speaking, we have
X
K X
J¼ jxi − uk j2 ð14Þ
k¼1 i∈Ck
where Ck ¼ kth cluster (k ¼ 1; 2; : : : ; K), the position of the center
of this cluster is uk ; and xi represents the data within each cluster.
According to Fig. 5, the highest variation in J is observed for the
values of K ranging from 1 to 4. For the values of K greater than 4,
the change in J decreases significantly and the slope of the curve
decreases gradually. Therefore, the optimal number of clusters can
be taken as 4.
Identification of Collapse Modes
The average force-displacement curves for different clustering
categories are depicted in Fig. 6(a). Additionally, Fig. 6(b) illus-
trates the average parameter values for each category. The dispar-
ities among the four groups are attributed to geometric variations.
Specifically, the first cluster exhibits the maximum θ and the mini-
mum h, while the fourth cluster features the maximum h and the
minimum θ. The geometric parameters of the second and third clus-
ters both fall within intermediate ranges. It is worth noting that the
unique features exhibited by the average force-displacement curves
for the four categories provide further confirmation of the reliability
of the clustering analysis.
The creases belonging to the first category exhibit a gradual
folding behavior under compression, as demonstrated in Fig. 7(a).
Once the force reaches its initial peak, a local buckling occurs
first in the uppermost layer, resulting in a slight reduction in the
bearing capacity. However, the remaining layers retain their bearing
capacity thanks to the external origami structure. As compression
progresses, the intermediate layers will collapse. Based on the dis-
tribution of parameters, this particular category exhibits the largest
θ, indicating that the ultimate collapse might be attributed to exces-
sive angles. During compression, the brace structure experiences
potential buckling before the creases are fully folded.
The average force-displacement curve of the second category, as
illustrated in Fig. 7(b), displays a resemblance to that of the pre-
vious category. Following the attainment of the initial peak load,
the second category also demonstrates local buckling phenomena.
J. Struct. Eng.
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Fig. 7. Classification results: force-displacement curve and collapse mode of (a) Cluster 1; (b) Cluster 2; (c) Cluster 3; and (d) Cluster 4.

However, in this case, the buckling behavior is confined to the
bottommost layer, leading to a sequential layer-by-layer collapse
mechanism that does not involve a global buckling of the entire
structure. The bearing capacity will remain within a relatively sta-
ble range until the final collapse. Notably, both parameters h and θ
are positioned in the intermediate range, thereby contributing to the
distinctive characteristics observed within this category.
The third classification shown in Fig. 7(c) distinctly deviates
from global buckling. Instead, it exhibits slight fluctuations in
the bearing capacity during the plateau stage. This behavior is
attributed to a layer-by-layer crushing deformation mode. The
parameters associated with this classification possess larger values
of h and θ. The crease provides more lateral support and prevents
global buckling.
The final category of creases, depicted in Fig. 7(d), exhibits the
smallest Dpeak among the analyzed categories. It can be observed
that θ assumes its smallest value within this category, enabling ef-
fective folding. This observation aligns with the conclusions drawn

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J. Struct. Eng., 2024, 150(5): 04024037

 from the parametric analysis. Additionally, this category has the
largest h, resulting in a significantly larger Fpeak compared to the
other categories. However, the structure will experience global
buckling within the middle layer, resulting in a substantial reduc-
tion in the overall load-bearing capacity.
In summary, the force-displacement curves of the four catego-
ries exhibit noticeable distinctions. Parameter θ provides a conven-
ient means for adjusting the displacement at the initial peak point
of the structure, while h facilitates the swift modulation of the ini-
tial peak force magnitude. These attributes hold significant value in
the design of brace structures tailored to specific structural perfor-
mance. However, it is important to note that the overall energy
absorption behavior of the structure exhibits pronounced nonlinear-
ity in response to the combination of h and θ. This underscores the
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where Eb and m = plastic energy dissipation and total mass of the
model, respectively.
Thin-walled structures typically require a large peak force to
trigger an initial deformation, while the magnitude of Fpeak is,
in general, substantially higher than the subsequent fluctuation
sizes. Excessive values of Fpeak may cause serious injury or damage
(Ahmad and Thambiratnam 2009). Therefore, in the structural de-
sign process, the optimized structure will be expected to have the
smallest Fpeak and the largest SEA. That is
Minimize ½Fpeak ðh; θÞ; −SEAðh; θÞ
subject to 5 mm ≤ h ≤ 9 mm 5° ≤ θ ≤ 15° ð16Þ

necessity for further studies toward the design optimization of the

structures to achieve the highest level of structural performance.
Design Optimization
Problem Statement
A multi-objective optimization algorithm (Toutou et al. 2018) for
the structural design optimization of the origami-inspired energy-
dissipation braces. In this study, specific energy absorption (SEA)
and peak force (Fpeak ) are adopted as the quantitative measures to
evaluate the energy-dissipation performance of the structures,
where SEA is defined as
Eb
SEA ¼ ð15Þ
m Fpeak in terms of θ and h are obtained by applying the RSM.
Establishment and Analysis of a Response Surface
Model
In general, the mathematical formulation of energy-dissipation
properties and design parameters of engineering structures that in-
volve nonlinear impact behavior can be challenging. To overcome
this problem, an RSM has been utilized as an effective method for
optimization in the design process. An RSM typically employs re-
gression analysis to fit a model to experimental data. A surface that
represents the relationship between the predictor variables and the
response variable can be generated using the regression model. This
surface is then employed to visualize and analyze the behavior of
the structure.
The parameter space is sampled uniformly. Each set of param-
eters and their corresponding SEA and Fpeak values are represented
as points in Figs. 8(a and b). The objective functions for SEA and

Fig. 8. Response surfaces of the FEM results and validation: (a) SEA response surface; (b) Fpeak response surface; (c) distribution diagram of SEA;
and (d) distribution diagram of Fpeak . FEM = finite element modeling.

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 The quadratic RSM is established for both objective functions in
MATLAB (R2021a), which can be mathematically given by
SEAðh; θÞ ¼ −547 þ 331.8h þ 9.384θ − 72.88h2 − 0.6745hθ
− 0.9981θ2 þ 6.863h3 þ 0.4891h2 θ − 0.3025hθ2
þ 0.1181θ3 − 0.2359h4 − 0.03461h3 θ þ 0.01305h2 θ2
þ 0.004793hθ3 − 0.003388θ4 ð17Þ
Pi ðh; θÞ ¼ −109.2 þ 90.49h − 1.449θ − 13.93h2 − 6.153hθ
þ 2.155θ2 þ 0.9891h3 þ 0.648h2 θ þ 0.1767hθ2
− 0.1963θ3 − 0.02753h4 − 0.02255h3 θ − 0.007301h2 θ2
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− 0.002609hθ3 þ 0.005573θ4 ð18Þ
As can be seen from Figs. 8(a and b), a total of 25 sampling
points are smoothly distributed around the response surface.
Considering the response surface of SEA, it can be noticed that
a larger θ will lead to a smaller SEA. This phenomenon arises be-
cause a wider separation angle between the cells of KU positions
the embedded part of OU closer to the flat plate, resulting in a di-
minished impact on energy dissipation. When θ is larger, SEA gen-
erally exhibits an increasing trend with rising h. However, when θ
ranges from 5° to 7.5°, SEA and h deviate from monotonicity.
Furthermore, SEA demonstrates higher values at both ends of the
h range. Additionally, a small peak appears in the region where
both θ and h are small. This phenomenon can be attributed to
the fact that, if θ assumes smaller values, even a slight increase
in h leads to a significant increase in the mass. However, the cor-
responding effect on energy dissipation is relatively insignificant,
leading to a decrease in SEA. This observation highlights the
presence of a high degree of nonlinearity between the design
parameters and SEA. Concerning the response surface of Fpeak ,
it exhibits a relatively smooth behavior. The value of Fpeak exhibits
an increasing trend with rising h and demonstrates a decreasing
trend with increasing θ.
Validation of the Response Surface Model
To assess the reliability and validity of the RSM, a critical evalu-
ation between the predicted and actual values of SEA and Fpeak is
conducted. Notably, a scatter plot in which the data points are pre-
dominantly distributed proximate to the diagonal line is presented
in Fig. 8(c). This observation suggests a close alignment between
the predicted and actual SEA values. Similarly, Fig. 8(d) demon-
strates the convergence of the predicted Fpeak values toward the
actual values.
Quantitative evaluation measures further reinforce the fidelity of
the surrogate model. To evaluate the error between the surrogate
model and the simulation results, the R-squared (R2 ) and root-
mean-squared error (RMSE) are adopted, expressed as
P tion in Fpeak can be achieved by reducing SEA around point A.
ðy − y~ k Þ2
R ¼1−P k
2 ð19Þ
ðyk − ȳk Þ2
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X ðyk − y~ k Þ2
RMSE ¼ ð20Þ
n
where y~ k = predicted value of the response surface; yk = value
of finite element modeling (FEM); ȳk = average value of the
FEM results; and n = total number of data points. Normally,
larger R2 values and smaller RMSE values indicate better RSM
approximations.
© ASCE 04024037-10
J. Struct. Eng., 2024, 150(5): 04024037
Based on the numerical results, the values of R2 and RMSE for
SEA are computed as 0.9534 and 0.6285, respectively. Likewise,
the values of R2 and RMSE for Fpeak are calculated as 0.9979 and
0.5894, respectively. As all error metric values fall within accept-
able thresholds, the surrogate model shows a satisfactory level of
accuracy for optimization.
Structural Design Optimization Algorithm
To achieve a trade-off design considering multiple objectives,
the NSGA-II algorithm (Deb et al. 2002) is employed in this sec-
tion. NSGA-II is a popular multi-objective optimization algorithm
that is commonly used in structural design optimization problems
(Mirjalili et al. 2017; Nazari et al. 2023; Zhou et al. 2023). It can be
utilized to identify energy-dissipation supports that have large SEA
and small Fpeak values. The main steps of NSGA-II include initial-
ization, evaluation of fitness, fast nondomination ranking, calcula-
tion of crowding distance, selection operation, variation operation,
and crossover operation. Among them, the fast nondomination
ranking represents a pivotal step in the NSGA-II algorithm. Being
‘dominated’ means that a solution is inferior to at least another sol-
ution in terms of the considered objectives. Using this step, indi-
viduals can be effectively sorted based on the frequency with which
they are dominated by other individuals. This classification allows
the set of nondominated solutions to be divided into different
classes; thereafter, the efficiency of the algorithm would be signifi-
cantly improved. The algorithm will ultimately identify solutions
that belong to the Pareto front (Deb et al. 2005). The Pareto front
represents a set of solutions in which no single solution outper-
forms all others in every objective. It defines the trade-offs among
conflicting objectives (Chen et al. 2023a).
Results and Discussion
The NSGA-II algorithm was used to optimize the design of the
energy-dissipation braces by adjusting the parameters h and θ. The
midpoints of the respective ranges of variation for the two param-
eters were selected as the original design for comparing the opti-
mization results. The objectives of the optimization process were
defined as maximizing SEA and minimizing Fpeak . The resulting
Pareto front is illustrated in Fig. 9, providing a range of alternative
design choices. It is evident from the results that larger values of
SEA consistently correspond to larger values of Fpeak . Conse-
quently, a compromise solution must be sought, taking into account
both objective functions.
Notably, the Pareto frontier can be divided into three segments,
with the turning points denoted by B (SEA ¼ 32.0252 J=g;
Fpeak ¼ 51.6872 kN) and D (SEA ¼ 27.9964 J=g; Fpeak ¼
39.3486 kN). The extremities of the Pareto front are marked as
points A and E. In the segments AB and DE, the value of SEA
decreases while Fpeak decreases; however, the rate of decrease in
Fpeak gradually slows down. This indicates that a significant reduc-
Similarly, a substantial reduction in SEA can be accomplished
by reducing Fpeak around point E. However, in the DB segment,
SEA and Fpeak are almost linearly related. The selected point
on the Pareto front (SEA ¼ 30.0053 J=g; Fpeak ¼ 46.3825 kN)
is determined as the optimal design. In comparison with the origi-
nal design (SEA ¼ 29.9651 J=g; Fpeak ¼ 54.9460 kN), the opti-
mized structure exhibits an unchanged SEA and a significantly
reduced Fpeak . Hence, the optimized design demonstrates superior-
ity to the original design.
Table 1 presents the results of a comparative analysis between
the optimal design and the original design. The findings reveal that
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Fig. 9. Original response and Pareto solutions obtained using the NSGA-II algorithm.

Table 1. Comparison between optimized and original design By analyzing the Pareto solution, it was found that the responses
h θ SEA Fpeak
of SEA and Fpeak contradict each other. Therefore, a compromise
Parameter (mm) (degrees) (J/g) (kN) needed to be reached between the two conflicting objective func-
tions. Subsequently, the Pareto solution was divided into three
Original design 7.00 10.00 30.00 54.95 parts. It was demonstrated that the proposed method was effective
Optimized design 5.25 10.04 30.00 46.38
in improving Fpeak . The best design chosen from the Pareto solution
Optimized percentage (%) — — 0.00 −15.60
Verified optimization by FEM 5.25 10.04 28.35 46.51 was θ ¼ 10.04° and h ¼ 5.25 mm. The results showed that Fpeak
Relative error (%) — — −5.5 0.28 was reduced by 15.60%, while the energy dissipation was the same
as that of the original design, demonstrating that the optimized
structure could reduce the peak force without affecting the energy
dissipation capacity. Moreover, to verify the optimal design, a finite
the chosen point on the Pareto front (h ¼ 5.25 mm; θ ¼ 10.04°) element analysis was performed. The comparison between the
and the original design (h ¼ 7.00 mm; θ ¼ 10.00°) exhibit an iden- numerical optimization results and the corresponding finite element
tical performance in terms of SEA. However, for the optimal de- analysis demonstrated excellent agreement.
sign, a notable reduction of approximately 15.6% in Fpeak is It was shown that by an appropriate selection and optimization
observed in comparison with the original design. To further validate of the geometric design parameters of the EDBs-GTRP, the struc-
the effectiveness and suitability of the optimal design, a corre- tures can be guided to deform along predetermined folding patterns.
sponding finite element model is established and evaluated. The This allows for more efficient dissipation of seismic energy and
simulation results, as summarized in Table 1, support the accuracy could lead to reduced damage to people and structures. The findings
and efficacy of the proposed optimal solution. Notably, all the er- contribute to the advancement of seismic protection engineering
rors fall within acceptable levels (Baroutaji et al. 2015). This con- and offer insights into the development of innovative origami-
firms that the optimal design is effective in reducing Fpeak . inspired structural solutions in the field.

Conclusions Data Availability Statement

In this study, we designed and investigated a type of energy-
dissipation braces based on the generalized triangular Resch pat-
tern. First, the geometry of the proposed structural concept was
studied, where the geometric parameters a, b, θ, h, x, and y were
selected as variables for parametric modeling. The relationships
among the parameters under specified geometric boundary condi-
tions were derived. To investigate the influences of different param-
eters on the collapse modes of the structures, a parametric study
was performed. Subsequently, the collapse modes of the EDBs-
GTRP were classified using a hierarchical clustering approach.
The optimal number of classifications was obtained as four using
the elbow principle and the classification results were analyzed for
each group. Finally, the NSGA-II algorithm and RSM were
adopted for multi-objective optimization, to obtain the optimal de-
sign with the highest SEA and the lowest Fpeak .
Some or all data, models, or codes that support the findings of this
study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable
request.
Acknowledgments
This work has been supported by the Natural Science Foundation
of Jiangsu Province for Distinguished Young Scientists (Grant No.
BK20231517), the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grants Nos. 51978150 and 52050410334), and the Fundamental
Research Funds for the Central Universities. The authors are grate-
ful to the editors and anonymous reviewers for their useful com-
ments and valuable suggestions which contributed to improving
the quality of the paper.

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