Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education
These also consistent with what UNESCO
UNIFYING FRAMEWORK
In 2002, Booth and Ainscow came up with an Index for Inclusion,
which aims to direct educational institutions toward developing
their own next steps and actions plans if they want restructure
into becoming more inclusive.
"It takes on the social model of disability as its starting point,
builds on good practice, and then organizes the index work
around a cycle of activities which guide schools through stages
of preparation, investigation, development, and review"
(UNESCO, 2005)
1. CREATING INCLUSIVE CULTURES
2. PRODUCING INCLUSIVE POLICIES
3. EVOLVING INCLUSIVE PRACTICES
UNIFYING FRAMEWORK
Booth and Ainscow (2002) explained that these three dimensions
- creating inclusive cultures, evolving inclusive practices, and
producing inclusive policies are interconnected and "chosen to
direct thinking about school change"
DIMENSION A: CREATING INCLUSIVE CULTURES
This dimension creates a secure, accepting, collaborating, and
stimulating community, in which everyone is valued as the
foundation for the highest achievements of all. It develops
shared inclusive values that are conveyed to all new staff,
students, governors, and parents/carers. The principles and
values, in inclusive school cultures, guide decisions about policies
and moment to moment practice in classrooms, so that school
development becomes continuous process.
In educational reform, stakeholders are those who are "invested
in the welfare and success of a school and its students". These
are teachers, administrators, school staff, officials and other
workers, the parents and their families, the community, and the
government. They may also be collective entities like local
businesses, advocacy groups, the media, sociocultural
institutions, and other organizations that have direct and indirect
involvement in education.
In 2017, UNESCO reported that there has been significant global
improvement in accessing education, specifically in the primary
level for the last 15 years. However, its 2016 Global Education
Monitoring Report reveals that there are still an estimated 263
million children and youth aged 6-17 around the world who are
not still at school.
• WHAT STAKEHOLDER CAN DO
The rights-based approach to educational programming "insists
that no right can exist without a corresponding governmental
obligation" (Van den Brule-Balescut & Sandkull, 2009). Thus,
governments and communities are starting to understand how
they are accountable to children with additional needs in
fulfilling their right to education and providing access to quality
education that is also safe, welcoming, and inclusive.
o SET PARAMETERS FOR INCLUSION
- The government has identified key people and professions
and highlighted important factors leading to the success
of inclusive education placement process, committees,
staffing and responsibilities, teacher training and
compensation, incentives for private sector participations,
and collaboration if the DepEd with other branches of
government.
- These clearly show not just an attempt to centralize
inclusive practices, but an initiative to make the welfare
and development of children with additional needs the
responsibility of all.
pushes for in terms of getting every stakeholder involved.
o BUILD KEY PEOPLE
- The government recognizes the need for teacher training,
both in special needs education and general education
levels. It also pushes for the use of evidence-based
teaching frameworks, provision of student assistance, and
access to instructional materials. Most importantly calls are
made for continuing research and forming policies to be
initiated by agencies such as DepEd to further refine the
inclusive process and have it tailored to fit to the needs of
children with educational needs.
- Educational frameworks cannot just be lifted and copy-
pasted with the expectations that what worked for one
country will work for another.
o IDENTIFY AND ERADICATE BARRIERS
- UNESCO's Guide for Inclusion (2005) advocates for the
identification and removal of obstacles that have to do
with transforming prevailing attitudes and values on a
systematic level. Common barriers to inclusion; Attitudes,
values system, misconceptions, and societal norms,
physical barriers, curriculum, lack of teacher training and
low teacher efficacy, poor language and communication,
lack of funding and policies, organization of educational
systems, and too much focus on performance-based
standards.
DIMENSION B: PRODUCING INCLUSIVE POLICIES
• This dimension makes sure that inclusion permeates all
school plans. Policies encourage that participation of
students and staff from that moment they join the school,
reach out all students in the locality, and minimize
exclusionary pressures. All policies involve clear strategies for
change. Support is all activities which increase the capacity
of a school to respond to student diversity. All forms of
support are developed according to inclusive principles
and are brought together within a single framework.
• UNESCO (2005) realistically acknowledges that a societal
change in attitude needs to be initially present in a
community before inclusion can be fully practiced. Without
this realization, difference in standards and quality of
education may surface as potential problems.
• INVOLVE OTHER SECTORS OF THE SOCIETY
- Current training and awareness campaigns seems to limit
the movement of inclusion to mere home-school
relationship. At most, these are extended to the
departments for social welfare and health.
- However, for an inclusive set-up to truly be successful,
active involvement of the entire community must be
ensured. For instance, those in business, commercial,
security, and religious sectors must also be given
representation in trainings wide enough and specific.
• COLLABORATE
- Whether creating an academic program specific to a
child with additional needs or creating a new legislative bill
for the PWD community, collaboration is crucial. Each
member of the inclusive education team would have their
own strengths and weaknesses, and these must be used
wisely to benefit the child with additional needs. True
collaboration would guarantee an inclusive program that
would cover as many areas as possible.
• RECOGNIZE THE SHIFT IN ROLES OF THE TEACHERS
- With the shift to inclusive education, the role of SPED
teachers suddenly seems to be reduced to only "as
 needed." As a result, the SPED teacher's role no longer
becomes that of an implementer but that of a consultative
nature instead.
- It also becomes the responsibility of the general education
teacher to know what to do when faced with a learner
with additional needs in his or her classroom.
- The SPED teacher's role must neither be diminished nor
disregarded but to ensure a good inclusive program is
provided to children with additional needs. General
education teachers must go through skills training and
capacity building workshops to ensure that they are
supporting all types of learners.
• INCLUDE TRANSITIONS IN PLANNING
- An abrupt systematic change that is not well-planned or
that disregard practices - whether existing or implied - may
hinder the shift to inclusion and cause resentment from all
stakeholders. Instead, current practices must be respected
and honored to facilitate a gradual shift to inclusive.
- Booth and Ainscow (2002) recommend that schools reflect
on their current policies and practices to check their
readiness for an inclusive set-up. A move that would
greatly help in informing policy would be to examine
different aspects of the school and the delivery of its
services. Specifically, schools may look at the following:
✓ Student admission
✓ Accessibility to utilities and facilities
✓ Supports available to students, parents, and school
personnel
✓ Learner accommodations
✓ Exclusionary or discriminatory incidents
✓ Number of bullying cases
✓ Faculty and staff promotions
DIMENSION C: EVOLVING INCLUSIVE PRACTICES
• This dimension develops school practices which reflect the
inclusive cultures and policies of the school. Lessons are
made responsive to student diversity. Students are
encouraged to be actively involved in all aspects of their
education, which draws on their knowledge and
experience outside school. Staff identify material resources
and resources within each other, students, parents/carers,
and local communities which can be mobilized to support
learning and participation.
• Evolving inclusive practices is the third dimension to Booth
and Ainscow's framework for schools (2002), where
administrators must first try to create an inclusive culture
among its stakeholders, then build better and a more all-
encompassing policy.
• The goal of the first two steps is to ascertain habit-forming
conditions, which make procedures that are otherwise
unfamiliar feel like second nature to us.
• Two effective evidence-based inclusive practices that can
be used in the classroom are Universal Design for Learning
(UDL) and Differentiated Instruction.
• UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING
- In architecture, universal designs refer to structures that
were made in such a way that they can be used by
customers or clients with a wide range of needs (Dukes &
Lamar-Dukes, 2009).
- Such is the mechanics of a Universal Design for Learning
(UDL) approach to instruction. UDL refers to the design of
instructional materials and activities to make the content
information accessible to all children.
- It is best used in general education classroom where
learners are different. Through the provision of delivering
content and allowing student construct learning in more
than one way, UDL ensures that all students learn genuinely.
There are three elements to UDL:
1. Multiple means of representation
2. Multiple means of actions and expression
3. Multiple means of engagement
UDL PRINCIPLES ADAPTED FROM SALEND (2011)
In UDL, teachers are supposed to present information and
materials in many ways taking into consideration that some
students may have not fully absorbed the lessons.
UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING (UDL)
(Fix the Lesson)
• A proactive approach that designs flexible goals, methods,
materials, and assessment by anticipating the full range of
learner needs from the outset.
• Plan the lesson in anticipation to student needs.
Principle 1: Equitable Use
- Inclusive practices are designed to be useful appealing,
and safe for all students, families, and professionals to use.
Individual differences and various contexts are respected.
Principle 2: Flexible Use
- Inclusive practices are designed to accommodate the
individual preferences, abilities, and needs of all students’
families, and professionals. Flexibility on providing choices
for methods and pacing are exercised.
Principle 3: Simple and Intuitive Use
- Inclusive practices are designed to be easy for all to use
and understand.
Principle 4: Perceptible Information
- Inclusive practices are designed so that they
communicate valuable information to all through various
formats.
Principle 5: Tolerance of Error
Principle 6: Low Physical Effort
Principle 7: Size and Space for Approach and Use
- Inclusive practices are designed to be used comfortably
and efficiently without much effort from all.
Principle 8: Community of Learners
Inclusive practices are designed to promote social interaction
and communication for all.
Principle 9: Inclusive Environment
Inclusive practices are designed to foster acceptance and a
sense of belongingness for all.
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
- According to Tomlinson (2010), differentiated (or
differentiating) instruction is a teacher's response to
students' varying needs, interests, and learning styles.
- "It refers to a systematic approach to planning curriculum
and instruction for academically diverse learners. It is a
way of thinking about the classroom with the dual goals of
honoring each student's learning needs and maximizing
student's learning capacity."
- When teachers differentiate instruction, they use a variety
of teaching and learning strategies that are necessary to
meet the diverse needs of students in any class.
- HOW IS INSTRUCTION DIFFERENTIATED?
As a teacher:
1. You must know your curriculum.
2. You must know your students.
3. You must identify and plan what and how to
differentiate your material
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION (DI)
(Fix the Student)
- A proactive approach that responds to specific student
assessment information regarding students' readiness,
interests, and learning preferences
- Modification in response to learner needs of preferences
as they are identified during and after instruction.
DIFFERENTIATION STRATEGIES
CONTENT
• What is taught?
• What is learned?
PROCESS
• How is taught?
• How is it learned?
PRODUCT
• How is it assessed?
• How is learning demonstrated
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
• How is the classroom arranged?
COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE- REFERRAL PROCESS
- Referral for evaluation and special education services
begins by identifying students who have additional needs
and who may be at risk for developmental disabilities.
- School guidance counselors, early childhood teachers,
primary school teachers, and community-based daycare
workers are often the first to notice such developmental
delays in children. In other instances, the parents
themselves notice the delays and seek consultations with
pediatricians and other specialists.
PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS
- Children with noted developmental delays and difficulties
are identified through observations and use of norm- and
criterion-referenced tests.
- Overy young students who are at-risk or suspected to have
additional needs may also be identified through
community- based screening. Child development and
social workers use developmental screening tools such as
Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD).
- Once program of pre-referral intervention has been
designed, implementation and evaluation follow to
determine how effective it is.
• Initial Identification
- Recognition of potential problems
- Parent or teacher Observation
- Review of school records, classroom observations
• Determination of Teaching Areas and Strategies
- Small group instruction
- Direct instruction
• Implementation of Teaching Programs
- Additional in-class or after-school support
- Modification of classroom environment and behavior
- Modification of instruction to address potential needs
• Evaluation of Teaching Programs
- Determine effectiveness of programs on learning and
behavior.
• Examples of pre-referral strategies are:
- Observation of child's behavior (interaction with
parents, teachers, and peers)
- Interview of parents and teachers
- Review of school records
- Analysis of child's academic output (error analysis,
portfolio assessment, and criterion referenced and
curriculum-based assessment)
• If despite provision of additional support, struggles and
difficulties persist, then the child is referred for assessment
either within the school, if such services are available, or
referred to a professional for further assessment.
• What is essential at this point, is that teachers have
implemented a variety of approaches and practices to
ensure that support is provided before formal assessment.
ASSESSMENT
▪ Assessment is the process of collecting information about a
child's strengths and needs. It uses a problem-solving
process that involves a systematic collection as well as
interpretation of data gathered (Salvia et al., 2013).
Teachers and administrators make instructional decisions
based on the assessment results.
ASSESSMENT PURPOSE
▪ The results of an assessment are used to decide in a child's
educational placement and to plan instructional programs
for a child identified to have educational needs.
▪ Progress monitoring and evaluation of teaching programs
and services. To determine the effectiveness of programs
are to assist the inclusive teacher and the special education
teacher (Guiliani & Pieranglo 2012)
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
▪ TESTS. School psychologists, educational diagnosticians, and
other related professionals use a variety of assessment tools
to ensure that results are RELIABLE AND VALID.
▪ A test is used to examine someone's knowledge of
something to determine what that person knows or has
learned. It measures the level of skill or knowledge that has
been reached. An evaluative device or procedure in which
a sample of an examinee's behavior in a specified domain
is obtained and subsequently evaluated and scored using a
standardized process (The Standards for Educational and
Psychological Testing, 1999)
▪ NORM-REFERENCED TESTS
- These are standardized assessments that compare a
child's performance with a representative sample of
students of the same chronological age.
- Results are reported in percentile ranks, age, and
grade equivalent scores. (Examples: Intelligence tests
and achievement tests)
- While such quantitative reporting makes it easier to
compare the test performance of children in a class, it
has its limitations in terms of use in instructional planning.
▪ CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS
- These tests compare a child's performance based on
established standards and competencies and can be
used to describe student performance (Jennings et al.,
2006)
- Scores are typically reported as simple numerical scores,
percentage of score responses, letter grades, or
graphic score reports. Such assessment data are more
useful and relevant as these provides specific skills a
child has mastered and those that need additional
instruction (Gargiulo, 2012).
- These tests allow students' performances to be
compared to criterion or benchmarks to determine
mastery of a skill or standard.
- This type of assessment is typically pass/fail based on
whether students meet the predetermined criteria.
 - The student scores are usually shown as percentages
- Examples:
• District Common Formative Assessments developed
around the Common Core State Standards
• Everyday Math Unit Assessments
▪ Norm-Referenced Tests
- These tests allow us to compare students' performances
with each other.
- Are students performing how children their age is
normally expected to perform?
- Percentiles, scaled scores, stanines, and grade
equivalents. are the norms often used.
- Examples:
▪ STAR Reading Assessment
▪ STAR Math Assessment
▪ WI Forward Exam
▪ INFORMAL ASSESSMENT
- Professionals also use informal or non-standardized
assessments, which are considered more authentic and
thus can be used primarily to describe performance
and inform instruction.
- Such assessments can be curriculum-based, or
performance based, such as the teacher made
instruments used in classrooms and portfolio
assessments.
ACCOMMODATIONS AND CURRICULAR MODIFICATIONS
ACCOMMODATIONS
• Accommodations are supports provided to students to help
gain full access to class content and instruction, without
altering the curriculum standards and competencies
expected and to demonstrate actively what they know.
• Examples of accommodations are altering instruments, toys,
or materials, changing the room during specific activities,
providing time extensions or allowances for tests and tasks,
and changing response formats in worksheets.
• Accommodations may be provided both during assessment
and instruction, depending on the learning profile and
needs of a child and may vary in terms of presentation,
response, setting, and scheduling.
• PRESENTATION ACCOMMODATIONS
- Children with disabilities may need specialized
presentation formats especially those with sensory
impairments so they can learn the same content
alongside typically developing peers.
• VISUAL SUPPORT
- Minimize visual distraction, Visual cues, larger print
materials, sing language, and videos w/ closed
captioning.
• AUDITORY AND COMPREHENSION SUPPORT
- Reading aloud, audio books, text-to-speech software,
advance organizer, or story guide, highlighting or color
coding.
• LISTENING AND FOCUSING
- Advance organizer, explicit verbal or visual cues,
repeat/clarify directions, note taking support, copy of
directions.
• RESPONSE ACCOMMODATIONS
- Response accommodations allow students with
disabilities and additional needs a variety of ways to
complete assignments, written tests, performance tasks,
and other activities.
- Providing such instructional and assessment supports
allows them to access the same learning experiences
as other students in a general education classroom.
• SETTING ACCOMMODATIONS
- Changes in the location or conditions of the
educational setting or environment may be necessary
for students who need support in terms of behavior,
attention, and organization of space and materials.
- Accommodation is a setting may allow a child who
gets easily distracted to work in a quiet corner of the
classroom in his own study carrel so that he will not be
sidetracked by environmental stimuli. Or a child who is
still unable to read fluently may be allowed to take
silent reading comprehension test with a supervising
adult in a separate room.
• SCHEDULING ACCOMMODATIONS
- Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and
assessments, and management of time are some types of
scheduling accommodations. Some examples of
accommodations that can modify scheduling are:
1. Extending time for assignments and assessments
2. Providing breaks in between tasks
3. Providing visual schedule or a checklist of individual
responsibilities
4. Providing predictable routines and procedures
5. Providing an electronic device with alarms and cues
MODIFICATIONS
• Curriculum modifications are provided for students with
significant or severe disabilities where content is altered,
and the performance outcomes are changed in relation to
what are expected of typically developing students of the
same age.
• Curriculum modifications include changes in instructional
level, content, and performance criteria, as well as the
breadth and depth of content being learned by students.
Students with disabilities or additional needs may be given
more, less, or different content and resource materials
altogether.
• They may also be assessed using different standards that
are more appropriate to the student's needs and abilities,
such as being provided with fewer objectives, shorter
lessons, or a smaller number of vocabulary words to learn.
• PARENT INVOLVEMENT
- This is anchored on Bronfenbrenner's Human Ecological
Theory, which states that there are five environmental
systems that comprise a child's social context.
- For this purpose, focus is given on the microsystem, where
the child and his/her family belong, along with peers,
schools, and immediate community.
- Microsystems, a child has direct interactions (parents,
teachers, peers, and others)
- Mesosystem refers to the linkages or relationships between
microsystems such as connections between family
experiences and school experiences, and between family
and peers.
- Parent involvement has been found to be directly related
academic achievement and improvements in the school
performance of children. Educational support and
collaboration with teachers have been found to promote
child success in school. Moreover, programs for children
with disabilities become more effective and successful
when children and families are involved.
HOME SCHOOL COMMUNICATION
1. PARENT-TEACHER CONFERENCES
2. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
3. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
4. HOME - SCHOOL CONTRACTS
OTHER WAYS TO INVOLVE PARENTS
1. PARENT EDUCATION
2. PARENT SUPPORT GROUPS
CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY BY JEAN PIAGET
• SCHEMA. Piaget used the term to refer the cognitive
structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and
organize their environment. It is the individual's way to
understand or create meaning about a thing or experience.
• ASSIMILATION. This is the process of fitting a new experience
into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or
schema.
• ACCOMMODATION. This is the process of creating a new
schema.
• DEQUILIBRATION. Achieving proper balance between
assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences
do not match, we experience COGNITIVE DISEQUILIBRIUM.
STAGE 1: SENSORY-MOTOR STAGE
BIRTH TO INFANCY
This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping,
sucking, and reaching becomes more organized in his
movement and activity. This focuses on the prominence of the
senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes
to learn.
- OBJECT PERMENANCE
This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists
even without of sight.
STAGE 2: PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE
TWO TO SEVEN YEARS OLD (PRESCHOOL YEARS)
Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. In this stage, the
child can now make mental representations and is able to
pretend, the child is now ever closer to use of symbols. This stage
is highlighted by the following:
1. SYMBOLIC FUNCTION. This is the ability to represent objects
and events,
2. EGOCENTRISM. This is the tendency of the child to only see his
point of view and to assume that everyone also has his same
point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others.
3. CENTRATION. This refers to the tendency of the child to only
focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other
aspects.
4. IRREVERSABILITY. Pre-operational children still have the inability
to reverse their thinking.
5. ANIMISM. This is the tendency of children to attribute human
like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.
6. TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING. Reasoning that is neither inductive
nor deductive. Reasoning appears from particular to.
STAGE 3: CONCRETE- OPERATIONAL STAGE
BETWEEN 8 TO 11 YEARS OLD (ELEMENTARY SCHOOL)
This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think
logically but only in terms of concrete objects. The concrete-
operational stage is marked by the following:
1. DECENTERING. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive
the different features of objects and situations. No longer is the
child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows
the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects
and situations.
2. REVERSIBILITY. During this stage of concrete operations, the
child can now follow those certain operations can be done in
reverse.
3. CONSERVATION. This ability to know that certain properties of
objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not change in
appearance. Because of the development of the child's ability
of decentering and reversibility, child can now judge rightly.
4. SERIATION. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in
a series based on one dimension such as weight, volume, or size.
STAGE 4: FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
BETWEEN 12 TO 15 YEARS OLD
In this final stage of formal operations, thinking becomes more
logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can
hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the following:
1. HYPOTHETICAL REASONING. This is the ability to come up with
different hypothesis about a problem to gather and weigh data
to make a final decision or judgement.
2. ANALOGICAL REASONING. This is the ability to perceive the
relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to
narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or
problem.
3. DEDUCTIVE RESONING. This ability is to think logically by
applying a general rule to a particular instance or situation.
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY BY LEV VYGOTSKY
• SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
- This theory believes that children learn actively through
hands-on experiences. Vygotsky highlights the importance
of other people such as parents, caregivers, and peers in
the development of children.
- Interaction with others allows learning to be integrated in
the child’s understanding of the world. Also included in the
theory is the zone of proximal development, which is the
portion between what one can do on his or her own and
with help.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY BY ALBERT BANDURA
• theory believes that learning takes place through
observation and modeling. As a child observe the actions of
the people in his or her environment, new information and
new skills are developed.
• Social Learning Theory
Attention Retention
- Stimuli Focus - Rehearse encode
Motor Reproduction Motivation
- Practice Feedback - Reward reinforce
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY BY ERIK ERIKSON
• Erikson's theory outlines 8 stages of psychosocial
development from infancy to late adulthood. At each
stage, individuals face a conflict between two opposing
states that shapes personality. Successfully resolving the
conflicts leads to virtues like hope, will, purpose, and
 integrity. Failure leads to outcomes like mistrust, guilt, role
confusion, and despair.
TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD
• TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT
- The development of a child usually follows a predictable
pattern. There are certain skills and abilities that are
absorbed to gauge a child's development and are called
developmental milestone. Example, sitting, babbling, and
following directions However, each child is unique. With this,
not all reach a milestone at the same time, thus the terms
typical and atypical development.
- TYPICAL DEVELOPMENT - refers to the normal progression
where children grow by acquiring knowledge, skills, and
behavior called milestones at a certain time frame
- ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT - is a term used when
development does not follow the normal course When a
child is developing atypically when he/she reaches a
milestone earlier or later than other children his/her age.
- There is no clear way to identify is a child is developing
typically or atypically. However, there are three commonly
accepted principles of child development that one should
investigate.
- The principles are as follows:
1. Rate of development differs among children.
2. Development occurs in a relatively orderly process.
3. Development takes place gradually.
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
• The developmental milestones are categorized into four
domains namely, physical, social, and emotional, language,
and cognitive.
➢ Physical domains refer to the development of physical
changes such as size and strength. The development occurs
in both gross and fine motor skills. The development of the
senses and their uses are also part of the physical domain
which is influenced by illness and nutrition.
➢ A child's experience, expression, and management of
emotions along with the ability to establish positive
relationships with others refer to the social-emotional
development. This includes both the intrapersonal and
interpersonal processes.
➢ Language domain refers to the processing of acquiring
language in consistent order without the need for explicit
teaching from environment.
➢ Construction of thought process which includes
remembering, problem solving, and decision making refers
to the cognitive domain.
• STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
- Stages, along with age are used as ranges to mark
significant periods in a human development timeline. In
each stage, growth and development occur in the four
domains. The stages are as follows:
A. Infancy (birth to 2 years)
B. Early Childhood (3 to 8 years)
C. Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years)
D. Adolescence (12 to 18 years)
INFANCY (BIRTH TO 2 YEARS)
- This is a critical stage in child development because
growth is rapid. Manny believe that this stage is the most
important stage in one's life since the changes that occur
in infancy will affect later stages of development.
- This stage is also known as the building block for the
succeeding stages in the attainment of crucial
knowledge, skills, and behaviors.
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (9 TO 11 YEARS)
- This is a stage that brings various changes in a child's life.
Independence is a characteristic that children in this
stage asserts. Developing friendships is another milestone
that is evident in this stage.
ADOLESCENCE (12 TO 18 YEARS)
- This is a period where puberty begins. By the end of this
stage, most will have completed puberty. The child is now
called a teen during this stage.
TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS, AND IDENTIFICATION OF GIFTED AND
TALENTED LEARNERS
• DEFINITION OF GIFTEDNESS
- The terms "gifted" and "talented" covey different
meanings to different people. Nevertheless, it is
considered acceptable to use the terms, such as when
we say "gifted learners" or "talented learners" when
pertaining to the same person (Davis, Rimm, and Siegle,
2014).
- For uniformity, we will refer gifted and talented learners as
"gifted learners" and we will refer to their characteristics as
"giftedness"
• FIVE CATEGORIES OF GIFTEDNESS
(DAVIS ET AL., 2014; STANKOWSKI, 1978)
1. AFTER-THE-FACT DEFINITION.
- Those who consistently perform outstandingly and
achieve in a valuable are considered gifted and
talented
2. IQ DEFINITIONS.
- Those who get scores above a certain cut-off point in
an intelligence test are considered gifted or talented.
Examples Binet-Simon test by Alfred Binet (Father of
Modern IQ Test) and Theodore Simon today is call
Stanford-Binet Test. Limitations of IQ Tests:
a) It focuses on traditionally defined intelligence, and
ignores creative and artistic gifts
b) It does not consider gifts in specific areas.
c) It discriminates against disadvantaged students
d) Students who are just a few points below the cut-off
score are automatically not considered gifted.
3. PERCENTAGE DEFINITIONS.
- Those who belong to fixed proportion that school districts
sets are considered gifted or talented. Example, school
districts considering the top 5%. Challenges, different
school districts may set different standards.
4. TALENT DEFINITIONS.
- Those who excel in specific aesthetics, arts and music, or
academic areas, science and math, area considered
gifted or talented.
5. CREATIVITY DEFINITION.
- Those who possess superior creative abilities are
considered gifted or talented. However, whether creativity
is an acceptable selection criterion for giftedness is still
debatable.
IMPORTANCE OF RECOGNIZING GIFTED LEARNERS
a) When gifted learners’ needs are not met, the student
might become demotivated to work, which could lead
to resistance or working in a sloppy and careless
manner.
b) Frustrations may also arise as one may perceive regular
class pace to be slow.
c) Because of the high need to understand, one may ask
d) embarrassing questions or questions why things need to
be done in a certain way.
 e) A student may become impatient and a tendency to
become intolerant of one's own or other's imperfections.
f) May act bossy, refuse to conform, and may rebel and
not cooperative with others.
g) A possibility of monopolizing class discussion.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED LEARNERS
• Intellectual Characteristics
❖ Having reasoning ability.
❖ Being curios intellectually.
❖ Learning quickly.
❖ Being able abstractions.
❖ Having complex thought process.
❖ Having vivid imaginations
❖ Shows early moral concern
❖ Has passion for learning
❖ Has the ability to concentrate.
❖ Thinks analytically and creatively.
❖ Has keen sense of justice.
❖ Has a capacity to reflect deeply
• Non - Intellectual Characteristics
❖ May not always follow rules.
❖ Tend to be domineering and argumentative.
❖ Tends to tune-out and is excessively competitive.
❖ Be excited very easily.
❖ May have a sharp sense of humor.
❖ And usually has the tendency to become a collector.
• Personality Wise
❖ ls insightful.
❖ Has a strong need to understand and to be stimulated
mentally.
❖ Has a possibility towards perfectionism.
❖ One may demand for explanations as to why thing works
that way due to high need for precision and logic.
❖ May also entail having excellent sense of humor as well as
sensitivity to others.
❖ May also show intensity, perseverance, and have acute
self- awareness
❖ May exhibit non-conformity, tendency to question
rules/authority, and become an introvert.
PROFILES OF GIFTED LEARNERS
• Betts and Neihart (2004; 2007) did a profiling of gifted,
talented, and creative learners and were able to arrive at
six types.
TYPE 1: THE SUCCESSFUL
- Most gifted and talented learners fall under this type. This
type of learner discovers that "sells" at home and at school.
This learner is a convergent thinker who learns easily and
excels in exams, one who is eager to gain the approval of
parents and teachers, and to be liked by peers. This learner
also possesses positive self-concept but is unaware of
deficiencies.
TYPE 2: THE CREATIVE
- This learner is divergently gifted. However, it can be
challenging when this learner's needs are not met. There is
a tendency for one to go unidentified, question authority,
and be nonconforming. Due to the little recognition this
type of learner receives, one usually experiences self-
esteem issues and is at high risk for eventual drop out from
school.
TYPE 3: THE UNDERGROUND
- Due to social pressure, this learner may hide giftedness to
fit in with non-gifted friends. This could lead to a sudden
decline in grades, and this learner may experience conflict
between one's needs and the expectations of one's
parents and teachers.
TYPE 4: THE AT-RISK
- The giftedness needs of this learner have not been met,
resulting to defensiveness and anger toward adults or
oneself. This could lead to symptoms of depression and
withdrawal as well as acting out. This learner usually
develops interests that are outside of the school's regular
curriculum and has a poor self-concept.
TYPE 5: TWICE EXCEPTIONAL
- This learner possesses giftedness at the same time as being
physically or emotionally challenged. Because of learning
abilities or poor verbal abilities, this learner is not typically
identified as gifted. Since school programs usually do not
attend to his learner's needs, it could lead to one being
discouraged, frustrated, rejected, helpless, powerless, or
isolated.
TYPE 6: THE AUTONOMOUS LEARNER
- This learner adapts easily to the school system and can
create oneself new opportunities. This learner has positive
self-concept and receives positive regard from adults and
peers and is often put at leadership roles. This learner is
independent and self-directed, which is usually the end
goal for all learners.
PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING AND DESIGNING IEP
FOR GIFTED AND TALENTED LEARNERS
• The Department of Education through DepEd Order no. 72, s.
2009, also known as the Inclusive Education as Strategy for
Increasing Participation Rate of Children, organized a
comprehensive inclusive program for learners with
disabilities, giftedness, and talents the following components:
• CHILD FIND
- It is about locating learners with disabilities, giftedness and
talents who are not in school, through the family mapping
survey, advocacy campaigns and networking with local
health workers, to be enrolled in SpEd centers or schools
nearer to their home.
• ASSESSMENT
- This is a continuous process of identifying the strengths and
limitations of learners with disabilities, giftedness, and
talents using formal and informal tools for level placement,
with the help of existing SpEd centers.
• PROGRAM OPTIONS
- Schools, with or without trained SpEd teachers, shall make
education accessible to learners with disabilities, giftedness,
and talents. The program options are as follows:
a) Self-contained class for learners with similar disabilities
or conditions.
b) Inclusion or placement of learners in general education
or regular class
c) Resource room
• CURRICULUM MODIFICATIONS
- This means adaptations and accommodation in classroom
instructions and activities, and delivery options.
• PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT
- This is involving parents or guardians in observing the child's
performance, volunteering aide in the classroom, and
serving academic, moral, and spiritual support to their
child.
• PROGRAM OPTIONS
- There are many types of programs and services designed
to fit in the education needs of those gifted and talented
 learners. According to Davis, Rimm, and Siegle (2014) this
includes several ways:
1. A teacher providing additional instructional materials to
teach those who finish lesson's tasks easily.
2. Enriching the curriculum by teacher supplying extra time
for bright students to work at resource centers or interest-
based projects.
3. Part-time acceleration to a higher grade for one or two
subjects.
4. Full-time acceleration or grade-skipping.
5. Cluster grouping of all gifted learners at each grade
level in a single classroom for special services.
6. Implementing school-wide plans to accommodate
every gifted learner in every regular classroom.
7. Implementing pullout programs
8. Conducting part-time special gifted classes.
9. Assigning full-time special gifted classes at every grade
level.
10. Opening special schools for the gifted
• ACCELERATION
- It the advance placement of learners from a current level
to higher level.
• ENRICHMENT
- Learners are taught of topic's depth and intensity of
content that go beyond their prescribed grade-level
curriculum, without providing them advance placement.
- Reis, Westberg, Kulikovich, and Purcell (1998) underscored
four principle of enrichment teaching and learning:
a) Each student is different.
b) Learning is more effective when students enjoy what they
do.
c) Learning is more meaningful when students learn content
and while solving a real problem.
d) Whereas some formal instruction is necessary, a major
goal is promoting knowledge and thinking skills via the
application of what students have learned; they
construct their own meaningfulness.
Both acceleration and enrichment strategies require grouping
gifted and talented learners. Three grouping options provided to
these learners are:
1. FULL-TIME HOMOGENOUS GROUPING SPECIAL SCHOOLS
FOR THE GIFTED
- These schools cater to elementary or secondary gifted
learners with a curriculum that include both prescribed
academic content that is based on DepEd guidelines and
requirements, with a special enriched and accelerated
training in academic, scientific, artistic, and other areas of
development the school opted to highlight,
- An example of this school is the Philippine High School for
the Arts that implements a general secondary level
program, combined with special curriculum for the arts.
1.1 FULL-TIME HOMOGENOUS GROUPING SPECIAL CLASSES
- These are school-within-a-school concept here gifted
children of the same level attend a class together in a full-
time basis. In the public school system, under DepEd,
special classes usually occur at the elementary level,
jumping from grade three to five, where their curriculum
covers prescribed grade level objectives and extending
beyond them with variety of enrichment, personal
development, and advanced classes.
2. FULL-TIME HETEROGENOUS GROUPING CLUSTER GROUPS
- Cluster grouping refers to placing five to ten high ability
students in one regular class per grade, along with ither 15
to 20 regular students. This grouping is handled by a trained
professional teacher and could be divided further in
individual groups.
- Enrichment activities are used in this kind of grouping
which include in-depth lessons on content on
metacognitive skills, collaboration, and independent
learning activities which include research presentation or
mastery of advanced skills in math, music, and others.
2.1 FULL-TIME HETEROGENOUS GROUPING CLUSTER GROUPS
- Cluster grouping refers to placing five to ten high ability
students in one regular class per grade, along with ither 15
to 20 regular students. This grouping is handled by a trained
professional teacher and could be divided further in
individual groups.
- Enrichment activities are used in this kind of grouping
which include in-depth lessons on content on
metacognitive skills, collaboration, and independent
learning activities which include research presentation or
mastery of advanced skills in math, music, and others.
2.2 FULL-TIME HETEROGENOUS GROUPING HETEROGENOUS
CLASSES
- These classes combine prescribed and differentiated
curriculum for the benefit of both regular and gifted
students. Kaplan (2001) through paralleling and clustering.
- PARALLELING. Covering both prescribed and differentiated
curriculum in tandem.
- CLUSTERING. Is using core concepts and skills of the
prescribed curriculum as the centerpiece, while
differentiated skills and concepts reinforce the core.
3. PART-TIME AND TEMPORARY GROUPING PULLOUT
PROGRAMS
- In this setup, learners are pulled out of their regular
mainstreamed classes once or twice a week to spend two
to three hours per session in special enrichment activities
guided by a teacher of gifted and talented education.
- The session usually takes place in a resource room or center
where supplementary materials are provided. Through the
pullout activities, gifted and talented learners acquire
knowledge and skills apart from the regular curriculum
which helps them strengthen their creativity, metacognitive
skills, communication, and other personal areas of
development.
3.1 PART-TIME AND TEMPORARY GROUPING PART-TIME SPECIAL
CLASSES
- This school-within-a-school concept can also be offered in
part-time basis. In this option, gifted and talented learners
enjoy 50% to 70% of prescribed curriculum in the regular
classes and attend differentiated curriculum in special
classes.
- Part-time special classes include independent projects and
research, accelerated subjects, and small group
collaboration that aim to heighten creativity and higher-
level thinking skills.
3.2 PART-TIME AND TEMPORARY GROUPING ENRICHMENT
CLUSTERS
- This kind of grouping works for different level learners with
common interests such as journalism, literature, engineering,
baking, and others.
- These group of learners meet with experts in the interest
area at designated times for 6-12 weeks. The topic of
interest is explained in depth.
3.3 PART-TIME AND TEMPORARY GROUPING SPECIAL INTEREST
GROUPS AND CLUBS
- This type of grouping is more common among secondary
students where enrichment activities in different clubs exist,
such as drama, chess, math, religious, and others.
• CURRICULUM MODIFICATIONS
- Differentiation strategies is a least intrusive intervention that
helps gifted and talented learners the best environment for
their high abilities and achievement.
• DIFFERENTIATION
- It is an effective teaching strategy for inclusive special
education, which involves giving all learners in the regular
classroom choices based in how best they could achieve
their greatest potentials, not creating a separate level for
each student.
- Tomlinson & Jarvis (2009) emphasized that differentiation is
being proactive in planning curriculum and instruction that
fit students' learning profiles, interests, and learning levels.
- "it is a process of creating multiple, 'differentiated' learning
opportunities within a high-quality curriculum, to maximize
the probability that all students will become engage in
learning, experience efficiency of learning, and experience
cognitive growth"
- Ann Lewis (1992) identified 11 forms of differentiation, which
teachers may use in order to support learning.
1. DIFFERENTIATION OF CONTENT
• This involves the design of different curriculum materials and
resources.
2. DIFFERENTIATION BY INTEREST
• This is said to be particularly important for poorly motivated
learners.
3. DIFFERENTIATION OF PACE
• This means (1) allowing some student more time to complete
core work; (2) providing for extension activities for others; (3)
sometimes involving teaching certain groups at a very brick
pace to accelerate the learning rate of low learners.
4. DIFFERENTIATION OF ACCESS
• This means allowing learners different pathways (materials or
methods) into specific topic.
5. DIFFERENTIATION OF OUTCOME
• This involves allowing students to present their responses in
different ways.
6. DIFFERENTIATION OF CURRICULAR SEQUENCE
• This involves changing the order in which sub-topics are
presented.
7. DIFFERENTIATION OF STRUCTURE
• All learners work on the same topic, but the teacher provides
step- by-step coverage for some learners while others progress
more independently.
8. DIFFERENTIATION OF TEACHER TIME
• The teacher will devote more (or less) attention to individual
learners during the lesson and in follow-ups.
9. DIFFERENTIATION OF TEACHING STYLE
• This involves varying the way in which topics are presented.
10. DIFFERENTIATION OF LEVEL
• All learners study the same topic, but the teacher sets different
degrees of complexity in what students are asked to do.
11. DIFFERENTIATION OF GROUPING
• This involves using one's knowledge of learner characteristics
• DIFFERENTIATION TIERED INSTRUCTION
- Tiering is an example of instructional strategy. As
differentiation starts with assessment of learner skills, learners
will then be identified based on how advanced their skills
are.
- This strategy involves the process of creating the best
possible lesson and making it fit based on the learners' levels
of readiness. The levels could be divided into three or five,
paralleled with corresponding tasks or with a partner and
present their own works reflecting the best practices in the
content are.
ENRICHMENT STRATEGIES
• Library and Internet Research Projects
• Scientific and Research Projects
• Art, Drama, Creative Writing, and Other Independent Projects
• Mentorships
• Peer Tutoring
• Questioning
TRENDS AND ISSUES IN TEACHING GIFTED AND TALENTED LEARNERS
- The gifted learners with learning disabilities are individuals
with exceptional potentials who have capabilities of
performing high ability skills even with the presence of
impairments and/or disabilities.
- These conditions are not limited to learning disabilities,
emotional and behavioral disorders, hearing impairments,
visual impairments, physical disabilities are often called
twice exceptional, double labeled, or those with dual
exceptionalities.
• GIFTED WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
- The prevalence of twice exceptional learners is difficult to
identify, mainly because they are usually clustered with
groups of learners with disabilities.
- Current research suggests that intellectually gifted learners
often have learning disabilities, which is often hard to
recognize. The most common and significant feature of GLD
is having an inconsistent, unpredictable, and inexplicable
academic performance.
• GIFTED WITH AUTISM
- Another unique intersection happens between giftedness
and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological and
developmental disorder that affects how people interact
with others, communicate, learn, and behave.
- Some characteristics of these learners include extreme
ability to concentrate, poor social skills, and extraordinary
visual talents. Some learners with this condition exhibit
repetitive motor mannerisms, have an unusual but
passionate interest on the topic and often lack empathy for
other and may tend to disengage in social activities.
• GIFTED WITH ADHD
- Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Impulsive-
Hyperactive, and Inattentive types, are the new catch-all
diagnoses for children, gifted or otherwise (Rimm, 2008).
- Learners with this condition are characterized by difficulty
with concentration, distractibility, impulsivity, and
hyperactive. Learners with this condition tend to be
disorganized and forgetful.
- Rimm (2008) claims that giftedness may mask ADHD, and
ADHD may mask giftedness.
- Likewise, Flint (2001) gave two important things: (1) that
double exceptionality of giftedness and ADHD is common,
and (2) that giftedness does not provide protection from the
difficult symptoms of ADHD.
- Just like typical learners with ADHD, they lag two to three
years behind their age peers in social and emotional
maturity.
• The combination of giftedness and disability can deliver a
double disadvantage that can make learners hide their
giftedness, or become unable to know their talents, causing
them not to be identified for gifted programs. Moon (2004)
claimed that their high intellectual abilities might mask their
disabilities, causing them to be overlooks for special
education programs. In the case of gifted learners with
learning disabilities, Robinson (2009) argued that students
are doubly at risk because the characteristics of the two
categories influence one another, talents must be nurtured
and learning strategies must be taught.
TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS, AND IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS WITH
DIFFICULTY SEEING, HEARING, AND COMMUNICATING
• LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING
- There are number of terms that are often used in association
with having difficulty seeing Here are the legal definition on
some (Heward, 2017)
• VISUAL ACUITY. Refers to the ability to distinguish forms or
discriminate among details It usually measured by reading
letters, numbers, or other symbols from the Snellen Eye Chart.
When one is said to have a vision of 20/20, this means that
at 20 feet, one can also be considered legally blind.
• LEGAL BLINDNESS. Refers to having a visual acuity of 20/200
or less in the better eye with the use of corrective lens When
one's field of vision is restricted to an area no greater than
20 degrees, one can also be considered legally blind.
• The following are educational definition of terms related to
having difficulty seeing.
- When someone has visual impairment, from the educational
perspective, that means having impairment in vision that,
even with correction, adversely affects a learner's
educational performance. This includes both partial sight
and blindness.
o Total blindness refers to receiving no useful information
through the sense of vision. In this case, a learner uses
tactile and auditory senses for all learning.
o Functional blindness means having so little vision that
one learns primarily through tactile and auditory senses.
However, limited vision may still be used to supplement
the information one receives from the other senses
(Heward, 2017)
• CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING
- The following are the characteristics of learners with
difficulty seeing (Heward, 2017).
- COGNITION AND LANGUAGE. Learners with difficulty seeing
usually perform more poorly compared to those with normal
vision in terms of cognitive tasks that require comprehension
or relating various kinds of information. Because of their poor
vision, it is more difficult for them to see and understand the
relationships among various experiences.
- MOTOR DEVELOPMENT AND MOBILITY. Blindness may result to
delays and deficits in motor development for instance, with
babies, purposeful movements involved reading for objects
that they could see Without adequate vision, the motivation
of babies to perform these purposeful movements may be
lessened. Vision is also important in telling the distance of
objects and direction of movement.
- SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND INTERACTION. Children with visual
impairment may engage in less play, which could affect
their social skills development. Among adolescents, having
visual impairment may increase social isolation, and more
effort on the part of individual with visual impairment is
needed to be able to make and keep friendships. Their
condition also keeps them from benefitting from role models
due to their inability to observe them. Due to their lack of
vision, it is also difficult for them to see and respond to social
signals of others, which reduces opportunities for reciprocal
interaction.
• TYPES AND CAUSES OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
- AMBYOPIA
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
o Reduction in or loss of vision in the weaker eye from
lack of use, by strabismus, unequal refractive errors, or
opacity of the lens or cornea
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
o Close work may result in eye fatigue, loss of place, or
poor concentration, seating should favor the functional
eye.
- ASTIGMATISM
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
o Distorted or blurred vision caused by irregularities in the
cornea or other surfaces of the eye that produce
images on retina not in equal focus.
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
o Loss of accommodation when objects are brought
close to the face; avoid long periods of reading or
close tasks that cause discomfort; child may complain
of headaches and fluctuation vision.
- CORTICAL VISUAL IMPAIRMENT (CVI)
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
o Impaired vision caused by damage to or malfunction
of the visual cortex or optic nerve (or both), causes
include anoxia, head injury, and infections of the
central nervous system, many children with CVI have
additional disabilities. such as cerebral palsy, seizure
disorders, or intellectual disability.
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
 o Visual functioning may fluctuate depending on lighting
conditions and attention, vision usually does not
deteriorate, improvement sometimes occur over a
period, some children with CVI use their peripheral
vision, some are photophobic, some are attracted to
bright light, may fail to blink at threatening motions,
visual images should be simple and presented singly.
- HYPEROPIA (FARSIGHTEDNESS)
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
o Difficulty seeing near objects clearly but able to focus
on distant objects, caused by a shorter that normal eye
- STRABISMUS
that prevents light rays converging on the retina
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
(refractive error)
o Inability to focus on the same object with both eyes
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
because of an inward or outward deviation of one or
o Loss of accommodation when objects are brought
both eyes; caused by muscle imbalance, secondary to
close to the face; avoid long periods of reading or
other visual impairments.
close tasks that cause discomfort.
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
- MYOPIA (NEARSIGHTEDNESS)
o Classroom seating should favor students’ stronger eye,
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
some students may use one eye for distance tasks,
o Distant objects are blurred or not seen at all but near
frequent rest periods may be needed during close work;
objects are seem clearly, caused by an elongated eve
may need more time to adjust to unfamiliar visual tasks.
that focuses images in front of the retina refractive
femur)
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
o Encourage the child to wear prescribed glasses or
contact lens, for near tasks, child may be more
comfortable working without glasses and bringing work
close to face.

• LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY COMMUNICATING

- MUSCULAR DEGENERATION
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
o Central area of the retina gradually deteriorates,
causing loss of clear vision in the center of the visual
field, common in older adults but rare in children
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
o Task such as reading and writing are difficult,
prescribed low vision aid or closed-circuit TV, provide
good illumination, avoid glare.
- NYSTAGMUS
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
o Rapid involuntary back-and-forth movement of the
eyes which makes it difficult to focus on objects, when
the two eyes cannot focus simultaneously the brain
avoids a double image by suppressing the visual input
from one eye the weaker eye con lose its ability to see
con occur on its own but associated with other visual
impairments.
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
o Close tasks for extended period can lead fatigue, some
children turn or tilt head to obtain the best focus, do
not criticize this.
- Communication refers to all aspects which make up
exchange in meaning, including speech, language, voice,
fluency, and nonverbal and pragmatic communication
behaviors. It is the interactive exchange of information,
ideas, feelings, needs, and desires.
• The elements of communication are message, sender, and
receiver.
➢ LANGUAGE is a formalized code used by a group of
people to communicate with one another. Dimensions
of language:
a) Phonology or the linguistic rules governing a
language's sound system. The rules of speech
sounds.
b) Morphology or the language's basic units of
meaning and how these units are combined into
words. The rules of word structure.
c) Syntax or the system or rules that govern the
meaningful arrangement of words. The rules of
sentence structure.
d) Semantics or the meaning of words and
combination of words. The rules relating to the
meaning of language; the actual meaning behind
each word within a sentence within a message.
e) Pragmatics or the social use of language. The rules
of language that occur within social situations.
• COMMUNICATION DISORDER refers to impairment in the
ability to receive, send, process, and comprehend
concepts or verbal, non-verbal, and graphic symbol systems.
• SPEECH OR LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT refers to
communication disorder, including stuttering, impaired
articulation, language impairment or voice impairment.
• LANGUAGE DISORDER refers to impaired comprehension
and/or use of spoken, written, and/or another symbol. This
could involve the form of language; the content of
language; and/or function of language in communication.
• SPEECH IMPAIRMENT includes articulation disorders (errors in
speech sound production), fluency disorders (difficulties with
the flow of rhythm), and voice disorders (problem with the
quality or use of one's voice)
• DYSARTHIA refers to the lack of ability to execute
movements involved in speech, which is a motor planning
disorder. Dysarthria occurs when a patient's muscles do not
coordinate together to produce speech.
• APRAXIA is a neurologic disorder that makes it difficult for
people to perform certain movements and gestures. People
who live with apraxia have difficulty putting words together
in the correct order or 'reaching' for the correct word while
speaking. Some examples of apraxia include:
▪ Motor apraxia: Difficulty performing everyday tasks like
making a hot drink
▪ Oral apraxia: Excessive drooling, teeth grinding, tongue
protrusion, and swallowing food without chewing
▪ Constructional apraxia: Difficulty drawing or copying
simple diagrams
▪ Ideomotor apraxia: Inability to perform common motor
tasks
• DELAYED LANGUAGE pertains to the language of a child
who is slow to develop language skills, in the context of
typical development of motor and other cognitive skills.
• CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY
COMMUNICATING
- SPEECH SOUND ERRORS. This includes the following:
✓ Distortions. When someone produces speech sounds in
an imprecise or unclear way.
✓ Substitutions. When one sound is used as substitute for
another.
✓ Omissions. When certain sounds are omitted.
✓ Additions. When extra sounds are added.
- ARTICULATION DISORDER. Inability to correctly produce
speech sounds (phonemes) because of imprecise
placement, timing, pressure, speed, or flow of movement of
the lips, tongue, or throat.
- PHONOLOGICAL DISORDER. When one can produce a given
sound but does so inconsistently.
- STUTTERING. When there is rapid-fire repetitions of
consonants or vowel sounds.
- CLUTTERING. When there is excessive speech rate,
repetitions, extra sounds, mispronounced sounds, and poor
and absent use of pauses.
- VOICE DISORDERS. Affect the ability to speak normally.
These disorders can include laryngitis, paralyzed vocal cords,
and a nerve problem that causes the vocal cords to spasm.
➢ Phonation disorder. Voice sounds breathy, hoarse, and
husky or strained.
➢ Resonance disorder. Sounds come through the air
passages of the nose, or not enough resonance of nasal
passage.
• LEARNERS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
- Autism is a developmental disability that affects one's verbal
and nonverbal communication and social interaction. This is
usually evident before a child turns 3.
- AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER or ASD refers to persistent
deficits in social communication and social interaction
across various contexts. Those with ASD also have restricted,
repetitive patterns of behavior, interest, or activities.
▪ Stereotype or repetitive behavior.
▪ hyper-or hypo-reactivity
DOMAIN: SOCIAL COMMUNICATION IMPAIRMENTS
- Social Difficulties Include
o Demonstrating appropriate play skills
o Some may reject or ignore the social approaches of
others
o Responding to and initiating joint attention for social
purposes
o Using and interpreting body language
o Staying on topic, turn-taking, asking related or
appropriate questions during conversations
o Taking other people's perspective
DOMAIN: IMPAIRMENTS SPEECH/LANGUAGE
- For those who are nonverbal
o Delay in, or lack of, spoken speech language
o Lack of an effective way to communicate
- For those who are verbal
o Delayed or immediate echolalia
o Stereotyped or repetitive use of non-echolalic language
routines
o Use of idiosyncratic speech
o Immature grammatical structure
o Abnormal use of pitch, intonation, rhythm or stress
- For both verbal and nonverbal
o Delayed vocabulary development
o Difficulty following directions
o Difficulty interpreting language social
DOMAIN: RESTRICTED REPETITIVE AND STEREOTYPED PATTERNS OF
BEHAVIOR, INTERESTS, AND ACTIVITIES
o Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements such as hand
flapping or finger licking
o Excessive adherences to routines and sameness
o Ritualized patterns of behavior
o Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in
intensity or focus.
DOMAIN: SENSORY DIFFERENCES
o Visual Input Sensitivities - Staring at spinning objects,
being bothered by fluorescent lights.
o Auditory input sensitivities - covering ears during loud
noises, preferring laud music or none
o Tactile input sensitivities - disliking getting hands and feet
messy, avoiding/preferring certain surfaces, textures, or
fabrics.
o Taste/smell sensitivities - not eating certain foods, licking,
or tasting non-food items.
DOMAIN: COMMON LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS
o Demonstrate exceptional rote memory skills
o Being better able to process information when presented
visually
o Difficulty with unstructured time or extensive waiting
o Difficulty generalizing learned skill from one setting to
another
o Difficulty with organization of materials and activities.
o Highly achieving in some specific areas and doing poorly
in the rest.
- CAUSES OF AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
 ➢ The following are the risk factors for autism spectrum
disorder (ASD) according to American Psychiatric
Association (2013).
❖ Environmental risk factors include parental age,
low birth weights, or fetal exposure to substances
such as valproate.
❖ Genetic and Physiological - ASD is heritable to
some extent and having a family member with
ASD increased the risk of developing it. However,
there are no clear medical or physiological
markers of autism. Most of the cases are idiopathic,
that is, case is unknown.
PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING AND DESIGNING IEP
FOR LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING, HEARING, AND
COMMUNICATING
EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES: LEARNERS WITH BLINDNESS
• BRAILLE - is a tactile reading and writing system and is the
primary means of literacy for learners who are blind. It
consists of letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and other
systems arranged is raised dots.
• BRAILLE TECHNOLOGICAL AIDS - These are materials that
develop Braille system made readily available to those
learners with blindness an example is Braille Note that uses
Perkins-style keyboard, which can translate braille into
synthesized speech or print.
• TACTILE AIDS AND MANIPULATIVES
- These are materials used to describe objects and the world
around us.
- Experience book is based on the learner's experience such
as attending birthday parties and field trips.
- Object book is a book containing real objects taken from
the learner's activities where some materials are pasted on
each page of the book.
- Routine book is an organizer of learner's classroom
activities where step- by-step procedure is done.
- Theme book is a book that focuses on an area and is used
to supplementary instruction on topics.
LEARNERS WITH LOW VISION
• OPTICAL AIDS - These are the most famous aids used by
learners with low vision where professionals such as
ophthalmologists and optometrists assess, treat and
recommend these aids based on the visual needs. Some
optical aids include glasses, contact lenses, handheld
telescopes, and magnifiers.
• LARGE PRINT MATERIALS - Books, handouts, mast especially
visual aids posted on the board should be readable by all
learners in the classroom. Large print materials are printed or
handwritten with bigger font size, legible font style, with
wider spacing.
• CLASSROOM ADAPTATIONS - Classroom lighting is important
for learners with low vision. Photocopied handouts and
worksheets can also be difficult for them, so it is better to
give them original copies. It is also recommended that
learners are given freedom in choosing their seats in class.
LEARNERS WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT
• HEARING AIDS - This device was developed to improve
hearing of those people with difficulty hearing. Its volume
and tone could be adjusted to fit in the needs of its user
and can be worn in either one or both ears.
• ASSISTIVE LEARNING SYSTEM (ALS) - ALS work as amplifiers
directly connected through a radio link from the teacher to
the learners. It reduces the unnecessary noise or
background sound for the learners to stay focused only to
the speaker.
LEARNERS WITH COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
• DICRIMINATION ACTIVITIES - These activities are developed
to help learners produce and discriminate between similar
sounds. (Bin-pin, cheap-jeep, cheese-she's)
• VOCABULARY BUILDING - Specialists as well as classroom
teachers use variety of techniques in building learners'
vocabulary. Among these include development of graphic
organizes, mnemonics, repetition, word walls, vocabulary
journals, and using context clues.
LEARNERS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER (ASD)
• APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS (ABA) - ABA is a therapy
based on the science of learning and behavior with the
goal of increasing positive behaviors, through positive
reinforcements, and decreasing harmful ones that
negatively affect learning.
• PICTURE EXCHANGE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM - The PECS
aims to help learners to request things or activities form
others with the use of pictures. Learners exchange picture or
a symbol representing an item or activity.
LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WALKING AND MOVING (TYPES,
CHARACTERISTICS, AND IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS WITH
DIFFICULTY WALKING AND MOVING)
TYPES AND CAUSES OF HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS, PHYSICAL
DISABILITIES, AND NEUROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
• EPILEPSY
- Epilepsy or seizure disorder that occurs when abnormal
electrical discharges in the brain cause a disturbance
of movement, sensation, behavior, or consciousness.
There are many possible causes for epilepsy. These
include:
o Cerebral palsy; infections of the brain and central
nervous system; metabolic disorders; lesion due to
scar tissue from head injury; high fever; interruption
in blood supply in the brain; shaken-baby
syndrome Among the conditions that can trigger
seizures are fatigue, extreme emotion,
hyperventilation, hormonal change.
• ASTHMA
- Asthma is a chronic lung disease. Its symptoms include
wheezing, coughing, and difficulty breathing.
- An asthma attack is usually caused by allergens, irritants,
exercise, or emotional stress. During asthma attack, the
airways in the lungs narrow, and the resistance in the
airflow in and out of lungs increases.
• CEREBRAL PALSY
- Cerebral palsy is a disorder of movement and posture. It is
a disorder that affects a person's ability to move and
 maintain balance and posture. It is a permanent condition
that results from having a lesion in the brain or abnormality
in brain growth. CP affects the cerebral motor cortex. This is
the part of the brain that directs muscle movement.
- Among symptoms of cerebral palsy are disturbances in
voluntary motor functions such as paralysis, extreme
weakness, and lack of coordination involuntary convulsions.
- Triplegia – three limbs are affected
- Paraplegia – only legs are affected
- Double hemiplegia – primarily involves the arms, with less
severity of the legs
• SPINA BIFIDA
- Spina bifida is a neural tube defect (NTD) that affects the
spine. It occurs when a baby's spine and spinal cord don't
develop properly in the womb. This causes a gap in the
spine. Thus, a portion of the spinal cord and nerve
controlling muscles and feeling in the lower part of the
body fails to develop normally. Spina bifida is usually
apparent at birth. People with spina bifida may have
different ways ofgetting around, including:
✓ Walking without assistance
✓ Walking with braces, crutches, or walkers
✓ Using wheelchairs
✓ People with spina bifida higher on the spine may have
paralyzed legs.
- One of the most important factors that can increase the
chances of having a child with spina bifida is not having
enough folic acid during pregnancy. Folic acid, also
known as vitamin B9, occurs naturally in some foods, such
as: Broccoli, Peas, Brown rice.
• MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
- muscular dystrophy is a group of diseases that cause
progressive weakness and loss of muscle mass. In muscular
dystrophy, abnormal genes (mutations) interfere with the
production of proteins needed to form healthy muscle. MD
is caused by gene mutations that affect muscle proteins.
These mutations are usually inherited, but can also occur
spontaneously. There are many types of MD, each
affecting specific muscle groups. Signs and symptoms
include:
o Weakness in the head, neck, and face
o A long, thin face with hollow temples
o Drooping eyelids
o Frontal balding in men
o Duchenne MD, one of the most common and severe
forms, usually affects boys in early childhood
CHARACTERITICS OF LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WALKING AND
MOVING
❑Student has unique needs in terms of physical space or has
difficulty using chairs/tables in the classroom or lab.
❑Student needs specialized transportation.
❑Student often physically unable to hold a pen and write for
extended periods of time or may experience challenges with
input, output, and information processing.
❑Student experiences fatigue and limited mobility when
speaking to a person for a long period of time.
❑Student requires extra time to obtain formats compatible with
assistive technology.
❑Student experiences challenges with daily living activities and
mobility.
IDENTIFYING LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WALKING AND MOVING
• EPILEPSY is usually tested using electroencephalogram
(EGG). A test that measures electrical activity in the brain.
• ASTHMA. An Asthma and Allergies Symptom test was made
available.
• CEREBRAL PALSY. Early diagnoses like tracking child growth,
developmental screening.
• SPINA BIFIDA can be diagnosed prenatally using blood tests,
ultrasound, and amniocentesis. Or postnatally, ultrasound
and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• MUSCULAR DYSTHROPHY. Enzyme tests, electromyography,
genetic testing, muscle biopsy.
PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING AND DESIGNING IEP
FOR LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WALKING AND MOVING
• HEALTH PROFESSIONALS
- PHYSICAL THERAPISTS (PTs). These are licensed professional
that use treatment techniques to help promote mobility,
reduce pain, restore function, and prevent further
disabilities of learners with difficulty walking and moving.
PTs motivates learners to be independent as possible and
suggest sitting positions and classroom activities, exercises,
or programs that both learners with and without disability
can do.
 - OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS (OTs). These professionals
determine the learners’ goals in life and help them perform
daily activities such as self-help, employment, recreation,
communication, aspects of daily living to reach their goals.
OTs guide learners develop their motor skills through
activities such as baking and typing on computer
keyboards.
• ENVIRONMENTAL MODIFICATIONS
- Aside from creating barrier-free building, the following are
ways to make schools accessible to learners with physical
disabilities.
✓ Have classrooms located in more accessible building
levels
✓ Relocate activities to more spacious areas.
✓ In grouping activities, let the abled learners move to the
location of the learner with physical disabilities and make
sure that they have enough space to collaborate.
✓ Adjust desks, chairs, and tables appropriate to the height
of learners that use wheelchairs.
✓ Provide adequate floor space for learners that use
wheelchairs.
• ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGIES
- MOBILITY varies with each person. Some can access their
devices easily while others cannot.
✓ Mouth stick. This is a device manipulated with mouth that
allows users to control input.
✓ Head wand. This device is like mouth stick, except that the
head manipulates it.
✓ Other mobility aids include scooters, walkers, canes,
crutches, and orthotic devices.
- COMMUNICATION. These are aids used to communicate
either in person or online.
✓ Speech recognition software. This is a software that
creates text and navigates online by voice commands,
usually by learners with limited mobility.
✓ Speech generating device. This is a stand-alone device or
software that is installed in tablets or phones, where users
who are not able to speak on their own can
communicate with others.
LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING AND FOCUSING (TYPES,
CHARACTERISTICS, AND IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS WITH
DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING AND FOCUSING)
CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
• READING PROBLEM (DYSLEXIA). Learners have difficulties
with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor
spelling and decoding abilities.
• WRITTEN LANGUAGE DEFICIT. Learners’ ability in terms of
mechanics of writing (spelling, punctuating) is way below
what is expected of their age. They also have problem
communicating their ideas through writing.
o DYSGRAPHIA. A neurological disorder that affects a
person's ability to write. It can impact handwriting,
typing, and spelling. Dysgraphia can make writing slow
and difficult, and the writing may be hard to read.
• POOR SOCIAL SKILLS. They are prone to interpersonal
problem, which often lead to rejection, low social status,
unpleasant interaction with teachers, difficulty making
friends, and loneliness.
• ATTENTION DEFICIT AND HYPERACTIVITY. They have difficulty
paying attention to a particular task or become overly
active. It is possible that a learner who exhibits this may
have attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD).
• BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS. Incidences of behavior problems
among those with learning disability are higher than usual.
Upon adolescence, those with learning disabilities are more
likely to show risk taking behaviors such as smoking,
marijuana use, delinquency, aggressiveness, and gambling.
• LOW SELF-ESTEEM OR SELF-EFFICACY. Learners with learning
disability are more likely to have low self-efficacy, mood
effort, and hope than their peers.
APA (2013) uses the following specifiers in the diagnosis of
learning disorders.
• With impairment in reading (dyslexia) – word reading
accuracy; reading rate or fluency; reading comprehension.
• With impairment in written expression (dysgraphia) – spelling
accuracy; grammar and punctuation accuracy; clarity or
organization or written expression.
• With impairment in mathematics (dyscalculia) – number
sense; memorization or arithmetic facts; accurate or fluent
calculations; accurate math reasoning.
POSSIBLE CAUSES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
• HEREDITY – Learning disabilities often run in the family. It is
not uncommon for one with learning disabilities to have
parents or other relatives with the same conditions.
• PROBLEMS DURING PREGNANCY AND BIRTH – Learning
disabilities could be due to illness or injury before birth. Also,
it could be caused by low birthweight, lack of oxygen, drug,
and alcohol use during pregnancy, and premature or
prolonged labor.
• INCIDENTS AFTER BIRTH – it could also be due to head injuries,
nutritional deprivation, and exposure to toxic substances
such as lead.
• ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD) is
defined as a persistent patter on inattention and/or
hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or
development (APA, 2013). Its main symptoms include
inattention and hyperactivity and impulsivity.
o INATTENTION manifests in not attending to details;
difficulty keeping one’s attention to tasks or activities;
not listening; not following through instructions; disliking
of tasks requiring sustained mental effort, frequent
losing of things, being easily distracted or being
forgetful.
o HYPERACTIVITY AND IMPULSIVITY could cause one to
fidget and become restless. Children who have these
symptoms may climb on furniture and become too
loud or noisy.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS WITH ADHD
• INATTENTION
- Having trouble staying focused; easily gets distracted or
gets bored with a task before it is completed.
- Appearing to not listen when spoken to.
- Having difficulty remembering things and following
instructions; not paying attention to details or making
careless mistakes.
- Having trouble staying organized, planning, and finishing
projects.
- Frequently losing or misplacing homework, books, toys, or
other times.
• HYPERACTIVE
- Constant fidgeting or squirming.
- Having difficulty sitting still, playing quietly, or relaxing.
- Moving around constantly, often running or climbing
inappropriately.
- Talking excessively
 - Having a quick temper or “short fuse” - Most common inherited cause of intellectual disability and
• IMPULSIVITY most common clinical type of intellectual disability after
- Acting without thinking down syndrome
- Guessing rather than taking time to solve a problem or
blurting out answers in class without waiting to be called
on or hearing the whole question.
- Intruding other people’s conversations or games.
- Often interrupting others; saying the wrong thing at the
wrong time.
- Inability keeping powerful emotions in check, resulting in
angry outburst or temper tantrums.
LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WITH SELF-CARE (PRENATAL
CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES)

• DOWN SYNDROME
• PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU)
- Due to chromosomal disability, having three or the 21st set
- People with PKU cannot break down the amino acid
of chromosomal (trisomy 21) instead of a pair.
phenylalanine - The body uses phenylalanine to produce
- Often results in moderate level of intellectual disability,
the neurotransmitter norepinephrine. This neurotransmitter
although some individual function in mild or severe range.
has many important functions, including helping signals
- Incidence increases with the age of the mother.
travel between the brain and the body's nerve cells.
maintaining an awake or alert state, which then builds up
in their blood and brain. This can lead to brain damage.
- At around 5 days old, babies are offered newborn blood
spot screening to test for PKU and many other conditions.
This involves pricking your baby's heel to collect drops of
blood to test.

• FETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDER (FASD)

- FASD incorporates fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), feta
alcohol effect (FAE), and alcohol-related
neurodevelopment disorder (ARND)
- Due to mother’s excessive alcohol use during pregnancy.
- Leading cause of intellectual disability, with higher
incidence that down syndrome and cerebral palsy.
- Aside from cognitive impairments, some children
experience sleep disturbances, motor dysfunctions,
hyperirritability, aggression, and conduct problems.
• PRADER-WILLI SYNDROME
- Prader-Willi syndrome is a complex genetic condition that
affects many parts of the body. In infancy, this condition is
characterized by weak muscle tone (hypotonia), feeding
difficulties, poor growth, and delayed development.
• Prader-Willi syndrome is a rare genetic condition that affects
a child’s metabolism. This condition causes your child to
have a strong appetite and not feel full after meals.
Supportive therapies and diet management help treat PWS
and prevent complications that can affect your child’s
health.
• They have severe low muscle tone and poor feeding during
early infancy, followed by a tremendous appetite that
develops between 2 and 6 years of

• FRAGILE X SYNDROME
- Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is a genetic disorder. FXS is caused
by changes in a gene called Fragile X Messenger
Ribonucleoprotein 1 (FMR1) – is a gene located on the X
chromosome. It's a protein-coding gene that produces a
protein called FMRP. FMRP is important for creating and
maintaining connections between cells in the brain and
nervous system.
- People who have FXS do not make this protein.
- Males are usually affected while females are usually
carriers.
• WILLIAM SYNDROME
- Williams syndrome is a developmental disorder that affects
many parts of the body. This condition is characterized by
mild to moderate intellectual disability or learning problems,
unique personality characteristics, distinctive facial
features, and heart and blood vessel (cardiovascular)
problems.
- People with Williams syndrome typically have difficulty with
visual-spatial tasks such as drawing and assembling puzzles,
but they tend to do well on tasks that involve spoken
language, music, and learning by repetition (rote
memorization). Affected individuals have outgoing,
engaging personalities and tend to take an extreme
interest in other people. Attention deficit disorder (ADD),
problems with anxiety, and phobias are common among
people with this disorder.