NECES EE306A Finals Notes A.Y. 2014 2015

EE306 A –Notes (Finals) 2014
Thevenin’s Theorem
 Any number of resistors or sources in a circuit can be expressed as a single ideal
voltage source(VTH or ETH) in series with an internal resistance (RTH).
Steps:
Suppose we have a circuit (illustrated below) and we are tasked to find the current
flowing in resistor R.
1. Remove R from the circuit, short-circuit all the voltage sources and open-circuit
all the current sources.
2. Get the equivalent resistance (RTH) from the open points.
RTH
3. Place all the sources again in the circuit and solve for the currents using other
network theorems(Mesh, KCL, KVL etc.). This will serve as your basis in finding
the potential difference (ETH) between the open points.
ETH
4. After finding ETH, use it with RTH to form a new circuit with resistor R. With that,
the current through R can be solved using Ohm’s Law.
RTH
𝑬𝑻𝑯
I 𝑰=
𝑹𝑻𝑯 + 𝑹
ETH R
NECES Academics Committee 2014-2015 Page 1

John Paolo C. Tuazon, Notes from Engr. Mariz Arias’ lecture, Electric Circuits by Johnny Tan
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by C.K. Alexander and M.N.O. Sadiku
Example:
1. Given the circuit below, find the current through the 6Ω resistor.
10 V
3Ω
4A 2Ω 6Ω
12 V
3Ω
Solution:
Solve for RTH :
2Ω
3Ω RTH
3Ω
RTH is the parallel combination of the 3Ω and the 2Ω and 3Ω resistor in series.
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = (2Ω + 3Ω) ∥ 3Ω

1
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝛀
1 1
+ 3Ω
5Ω
Solve for ETH :
10 V
3Ω
a
I1
4A 2Ω I2 ETH
12 V b
3Ω
Using Mesh equations,
I1= 4A, since it is the only current in Mesh 1,
For Mesh 2: −2𝐼1 + (2 + 2 + 3)𝐼2 = −12𝑉 + 10𝑉 which gives
𝐼2 = 0.75𝐴

From these currents, the potential difference from point a to b (or ETH) can now be solved.
𝐸𝑇𝐻 = 3𝐼2 + 12𝑉 = 3(0.75𝐴) + 12𝑉 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝑽
𝑜𝑟
𝐸𝑇𝐻 = 10𝑉 + 2𝐼1 − 2𝐼2 − 3𝐼2
𝐸𝑇𝐻 = 10𝑉 + 2(4) − 2(0.75) − 3(0.75) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝑽
The circuit can now be redrawn with ETH, RTH and the 6Ω resistor.
RTH
1.875Ω I
6Ω
ETH
14.25 V
14.25𝑉
𝐼= = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟏 𝑨
1.875 Ω + 6Ω
Norton’s Theorem
 Any number of resistors or sources in a circuit can be expressed as a single ideal
current source (IN) in parallel with an internal resistance (RN).
Steps:
Suppose we have a circuit (illustrated below) and we are tasked to find the current
flowing in resistor R.
1. Remove R from the circuit, short-circuit all the voltage sources and open-circuit
all the current sources.
2. Get the equivalent resistance (RN) from the open points.
RN

3. Short the points where RN is initially placed. of Place all the sources again in the
circuit and solve for the currents using other network theorems(Mesh, KCL, KVL
etc.). The current solved in the shorted node is the current IN
IN
4. After finding IN, use it with RN to form a new circuit with resistor R. With that,
the current through R can be solved using current divider theorem.
IN R
RN I 𝑹𝑵
𝑰 = 𝑰𝑵
𝑹 + 𝑹𝑵
Example:
1. Using the given circuit in the preceding example, find the current through the 6Ω
resistor.
10 V
3Ω
4A 2Ω 6Ω
12 V
3Ω
Solution:
Solve for RN :
RN is just the same with RTH.
2Ω
3Ω RN
3Ω
RN is the parallel combination of the 3Ω and the 2Ω and 3Ω resistor in series.
𝑅𝑁 = (2Ω + 3Ω) ∥ 3Ω

1
𝑅𝑁 = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝛀
1 1
+ 3Ω
5Ω
Solve for IN:
I1 10 V
3Ω
I3
4A 2Ω I2 IN
12 V
3Ω
Mesh 1:
𝐼1 = 4𝐴
Mesh 2:
−2𝐼1 + 8𝐼2 − 3𝐼3 = −2𝑉
Mesh 3:
−3𝐼2 + 3𝐼3 = 12𝑉
𝐼2 = 3.6𝐴
𝐼3 = 7.6𝐴 = 𝐼𝑁
Redrawing the circuit:
IN RN I
7.6 A 1.875Ω 6Ω
𝑅𝑁 1.875 Ω
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑁 = 7.6𝐴
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑁 6Ω + 1.875 Ω
𝑰 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟏 𝑨
Nodal equations (revisited)
For the given circuit below, there are 2 cases of nodal equation analysis to be used.
4Ω Case 2
I4
V2
V1 V3
2Ω
5V
10 V 8Ω I3 6Ω
I2
I1
Case 1

Case 1: Voltage Source between major node and ground

 In this case, V1 is readily considered equal to the value of the voltage source at that
node.
 Therefore, V1 = 10V (which gives us the 1st equation)
Case 2: Voltage source connected between two major nodes
 This connection is known as a supernode/generalized node.
 The application of KCL/KVL would be used to determine the node voltages.
 It is called a supernode because virtually no current flows in this.
 By KCL of the supernode: I1-I2-I3 +I4 =0
By expansion of this KCL equation, we get
𝑉12 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉13
− − + =0
2Ω 8Ω 6Ω 4Ω
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉1 𝑉3
− − − + − =0
2Ω 2Ω 8Ω 6Ω 4Ω 4Ω
1 1 1 1 1 1
(2 + 4) 𝑉1 − (2 + 8) 𝑉2 − (6 + 4) 𝑉3 = 0 (2nd equation)
By KVL(special procedure)
Consider the loop with the supernode:
+ +
5V
V2 8Ω 6Ω V3
- -
Considering a counterclockwise rotation (without considering the current),
We get,
−5𝑉 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 0𝑉
𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 5𝑉 (3rd equation)
Using the 3 equations:

𝑉1 = 10𝑉
1 1 1 1 1 1
( + ) 𝑉1 − ( + ) 𝑉2 − ( + ) 𝑉3 = 0
2 4 2 8 6 4
𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 5𝑉
We get:
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝑽
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟗𝑽
𝑽𝟑 = 𝟒. 𝟐 𝑽

Example:
1. Determine the potential at nodes a,b and c. Node f is the reference
node.(8.37/Electric Circuits by Johnny Tan)
I1 I2 4Ω 12 V
3Ω f
I3
b
3Ω
6V 2Ω 5Ω
I5 I4
Solution:
KCL at Supernode(node a and node b) , I1 entering node a, I2 leaving node a, I3

leaving node b, I4 entering node b
𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 = 0
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 3𝐼1 − 6𝑉, 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐼1
𝑉𝑐𝑎 + 6𝑉
𝐼1 =
3Ω
𝑉𝑐𝑎 + 6 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑐𝑏
− − + =0
3Ω 4Ω 3Ω 5Ω
1 1 1 1 1 1 6𝑉
− ( + ) 𝑉𝑎 − ( + ) 𝑉𝑏 + ( + ) 𝑉𝑐 = −
3 4 3 5 3 5 3Ω
KVL(considering the supernode)

Considering a clockwise rotation:
+a b
+ 12𝑉 + 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 = 0𝑉
12 V
Va 4Ω 3Ω Vb
f - -
Considering another nodal equation at node c:

−𝐼1 − 𝐼4 + 𝐼5 = 0
𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑎 + 6 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑐
−( )−( )− = 0
3 5 2
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 1 1 1 6
+ − ( + + ) 𝑉𝑐 =
3 5 3 5 2 3

Given these three equations:

1 1 1 1 1 1 6𝑉
− ( + ) 𝑉𝑎 − ( + ) 𝑉𝑏 + ( + ) 𝑉𝑐 = −
3 4 3 5 3 5 3Ω
−𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 = −12
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 1 1 1 6
+ − ( + + ) 𝑉𝑐 =
3 5 3 5 2 3
The nodal voltages can now be solved and are:

𝑽𝒂 = 𝟕. 𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟑 𝑽
𝑽𝒃 = −𝟒. 𝟕𝟏𝟓𝟔 𝑽
𝑽𝒄 = −𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟖𝟒 𝑽
Source Transformation
There is a duality that exists between Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem,
that is:
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝑅𝑁
𝐸𝑇𝐻 = 𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝑁
𝐸𝑇𝐻
𝐼𝑁 =
𝑅𝑇𝐻
With this, the two theorems can be used interchangeably since both would still give
the same answer.
r
I r
E
can be converted to
With:
𝐸
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑟 , 𝑟 = 𝑟 𝐼= ,𝑟 = 𝑟
𝑟
Example:
Using Source transformation, find the indicated current.
10 V
3Ω
4A 6Ω
2Ω
I 12 V
3Ω

Solution:
First transform the 4A current source and its 2Ω internal resistance into a voltage
source.
Which makes E=4A(2 Ω)=8V
10 V
2Ω 3Ω
6Ω
8V 12 V
3Ω
Add the voltage sources and the resistances:
5Ω 3Ω
6Ω
18 V 12 V
Transform the12V voltage source and its 3 Ω internal resistance into a current
source.
12𝑉
𝐼= = 4𝐴
3Ω
5Ω
4A 3Ω 6Ω
18 V
Get the parallel resistance of 3 Ω and 6 Ω
5Ω
4A 2Ω
18 V
Retransform the 4A current source and its 2Ω internal resistance into a voltage
source.
5Ω
2Ω
18 V
8V

Getting the equivalent voltage source and the equivalent resistance:

The current through the 3Ω resistor can
7Ω now be solved as :
10𝑉
𝐼= = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟑𝑨
7Ω
10 V
Superposition theorem
 The current in any resistor is equatl to the algebraic sum of the currents delivered
by each independent sources assuming each source is acting alone independently
with respect to the other sources.
 When the source is acting alone, the voltage sources are shorted while the current
sources are opened.
Example:
1. Find the indicated currents.
10 V
3Ω
4A I1 2Ω I4 I2 6Ω
I3 12 V
3Ω
Solution:
SP 4A:
I3’ 3Ω
4 A I1’ 2Ω I2’ 6Ω
I4’
I3’
3Ω
Simplifying the 3Ω and 6Ω parallel resistors:
I1’ I3’ 2Ω
4A 2Ω
3Ω

I1’ and I3’ can now be solved.
By Current divider theorem:
3Ω + 2Ω
𝐼1′ = 4𝐴 = 2.86 𝐴
3Ω + 2Ω + 2Ω
2Ω
𝐼3′ = 4𝐴 = 1.14 𝐴
2Ω + 3Ω + 2Ω
With this, I4’ and I2’ can now be solved by using current divider theorem
3Ω
𝐼2′ = 𝐼3′ = 0.38 𝐴
3Ω + 6Ω
6Ω
𝐼4′ = 𝐼3′ = 0.76 𝐴
3Ω + 6Ω
SP 10V:
I1’’ 10 V I4’’ 3Ω I2’’

6Ω
2Ω
I3’’
3Ω
By simplifying the 3Ω and the 6Ω resistor, I1’’ can now be solved:
10𝑉
10 V
2Ω 𝐼1′′ = 𝐼3′′ =
I1’’ 3Ω + 2Ω + 2Ω
𝐼1′′ = 𝐼3′′ = 1.43 𝐴
2Ω
I3’’
3Ω
By using the current divider theorem, I4’’ and I2’’ can now be determined.
6Ω
𝐼4′′ = 1.43 𝐴 = 0.9533𝐴
6Ω + 3Ω
3Ω
𝐼2′′ = 1.43 𝐴 = 0.4767𝐴
6Ω + 3Ω

SP 12V:
I4’’’ 3Ω I2’’’
I1’’’ 2Ω 6Ω
12 V
I3’’’
3Ω
First, simplify the circuit:

I1’’’=I3’’’ I4’’’
I2’’’ 3Ω
6Ω
5Ω
12 V
With this the total current I4’’’ can be solved:

12𝑉
𝐼4′′′ = = 2.0952 𝐴
1
3Ω + 1 1
+
5Ω 6Ω
I2’’’, I3’’’ and I1’’’ can now be solved next by using the current divider theorem.
6Ω
𝐼3′′′ = 𝐼1′′′ = 2.0952𝐴 = 1.1429 𝐴
6Ω+5Ω
5Ω
𝐼2′′′ = 2.0952 𝐴 = 0.9524 𝐴
6Ω+5Ω
After all the sources have been considered, the algebraic sum of the currents will
now be solved.
As a general rule, before adding,all the signs of the currents obtained must be
determined with respect to the original current assignments.
10 V
I1 I4 3Ω I2
4A 6Ω
2Ω
I3 12 V
3Ω
With that:
𝐼1 = 𝐼1′ − 𝐼1′′ + 𝐼1′′′ = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟕𝟐𝟗 𝑨
𝐼2 = 𝐼2′ + 𝐼2′′ + 𝐼2′′′ = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝑨
𝐼3 = 𝐼3′ + 𝐼3′′ − 𝐼3′′′ = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝟕𝟏 𝑨
𝐼4 = −𝐼4′ − 𝐼4′′ + 𝐼4′′′ = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟏𝟗 𝑨

Some of the currents obtained (I2 and I3) are almost the same to the currents
obtained at the previous theorems. The values are not that exact due to rounding
errors.
Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors
 Consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator(dielectric).

 It is a passive element which is designed to store energy in its electric field.
(Electrostatic energy)
Capacitance (C)
 The ratio of the charge on one capacitor plate to the voltage
difference between the two plates.
 It is measured in Farads
𝜀𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
Where:
𝜀 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
1𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
Where:
𝑞 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

Voltage and Current relations:
 Capacitors oppose changes in voltage by drawing (or supplying)

current as they charge (or discharge) to a new voltage level.
 This is given by the equation:
𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝐶 = ∫ + 𝑉(𝑡0 )
𝐶
where:
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑉(𝑡0 ) = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
 The flow of charges (electrons) through a capacitor is directly
proportional to the rate of change of voltage across the capacitor.
 That is:
𝑑𝑉𝐶
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
Energy
 The energy stored in the capacitor is:
1
𝑊 = 𝐶𝑣 2
2
Where:
𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟
Important properties
 The capacitor is open to DC
Becomes

 The voltage on a capacitor cannot change abruptly.

Waveforms of the voltage across the capacitor:
Capacitor in Series
 Connecting capacitors in series would mean that the

effective spacing between the end plates would be equal to
the sum of the spaces of the individual capacitors.
 The equivalent capacitance of capacitors in series is
equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual capacitance.
1
𝐶𝑇 =
1 1 1
+ + +⋯
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
Capacitors in Parallel
 The equivalent capacitance of capacitors in parallel is equal to the

sum of the individual capacitance of each capacitor.
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯

Inductors
 Consists of coil of conducting wires

 It is a passive element which is designed to store energy in its magnetic field.
(Electromagnetic energy)
Inductance (L)
 The property where an inductor exhibits opposition to the change of
current flowing through it.
 It is measured in Henrys.
𝑁𝜇2 𝐴
𝐿=
𝑙
Where:
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝜇 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Voltage and Current relations:
 Inductors oppose changes in current by dropping a voltage

proportional to the rate of change of current
 This is given by the equation:
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
where:

𝐿 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑖 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
 The current through an inductor is given by:
1
𝑖𝐿 = ∫ 𝑉𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝑡 (𝑡0 )
𝐿
where:
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑖𝑡 (𝑡0 ) = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Energy
 The energy stored in the inductor is:
1
𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖 2
2
Where:
𝑖 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Important properties
 Theinductor is short to DC
Becomes
 The current on an inductor cannot change abruptly.

Waveforms of the current through the capacitor:

Inductors in Series
• Connecting inductors in series would simply add their inductances together.
• 𝐿𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯
• The current in each inductor is equal to the total current.

• The individual voltage drops across each inductor sums up to the total voltage.
Inductors in Parallel
• When inductors are connected in parallel, the voltage across each inductor is equal to each
other.
• That is , 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐿1 = 𝑉𝐿2 = 𝑉𝐿3 = ⋯

• The total inductance of the circuit is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual inductance.
1
𝐿𝑇 =
1 1 1
+ + +⋯
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3

Examples:
1. Find the equivalent capacitance seen at the terminals(Practice Problem 6.6, Alexander-
Sadiku)
70 𝜇𝐹
Solution:
First simplify the 60uF and 120uF into its equivalent series capacitance, which gives:
1
𝐶𝑒𝑞 1 = = 40 𝜇𝐹
1 1
60 𝜇𝐹 + 120 𝜇𝐹
Then, with Ceq1 in parallel with 20 uF, we get Ceq2
𝐶𝑒𝑞2 = 40𝜇𝐹 + 20𝜇𝐹 = 60𝜇𝐹
Ceq3 is the equivalent capacitance of the 50uF and 70uF in parallel.
𝐶𝑒𝑞3 = 50𝜇𝐹 + 70𝜇𝐹 = 120𝜇𝐹
The equivalent capacitance is the series equivalent of Ceq2 and Ceq3 which is:
1
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = = 𝟒𝟎𝝁𝑭
1 1
+
60 𝜇𝐹 120 𝜇𝐹
2. Find the voltage across each of the capacitors (Practice Problem 6.7, Alexander-Sadiku)
Solution:
Get the equivalent capacitance of the circuit:
C1
V1 40µF
C4
60 V C2
20µF
20µF

Which becomes:
C1
V1 40µF
60 V C2
40µF
Which transforms into

C1
V1 20µF
60 V
To obtain the voltages,

𝑉𝑇 = 60𝑉 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
Using the concept of current divider theorem (since connection in series of capacitors
is like connection of parallel in resistors) we get:
40 𝜇𝐹
𝑣1 = 60𝑉 = 𝟑𝟎𝑽
40 𝜇𝐹 + 40𝜇𝐹
40 𝜇𝐹
𝑣2 = 60𝑉 = 𝟑𝟎𝑽
40 𝜇𝐹 + 40𝜇𝐹
v2 is the voltage across the capacitors 60uF and 30uF in series, with the concept of
current divider theorem we get:
30 𝜇𝐹
𝑣3 = 𝑣2 = 𝟏𝟎𝑽
30 𝜇𝐹 + 60 𝜇𝐹
60 𝜇𝐹
𝑣4 = 𝑣2 = 𝟐𝟎𝑽
60 𝜇𝐹 + 30𝜇𝐹
3. What is the voltage across a 3uF capacitor if the charge on one plate is 0.12mC? How
much energy is stored? (Practice Problem 6.1, Alexander-Sadiku).
Solution:
𝐶 = 3𝑥10−6 𝐹
𝑞 = 0.12 𝑥10−3 𝐶
𝑞 0.12𝑥10−3 𝐶
𝑉= = = 𝟒𝟎𝑽
𝐶 𝐶
3𝑥10−6 𝑉
1 1
𝑊 = 𝐶𝑉 2 = (3𝑢𝐹)(40𝑉)2
2 2
𝑊 = 𝟐. 𝟒 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝐦𝐉
4. If a 10uF capacitor is connected to a voltage source with v(t)=50 sin 2000t V,
determine the current through the capacitor. (Practice Problem 6.2, Alexander-Sadiku).
Solution:
𝐶𝑑𝑉
𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 (50 sin 2000𝑡 𝑉)
𝑖(𝑡) = 10 𝜇𝐹 ( )
𝑑𝑡

𝑖(𝑡) = 500𝑥10−6 (2000) cos 2000 𝑡

𝒊(𝒕) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝑨
5. Determine the voltage across a 2uF capacitor if the current through it is i(t)=6e-3000t
mA. Assume that the initial capacitor voltage is zero. (Example 6.3, Alexander-Sadiku).
Solution:
1
𝑣(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣(𝑡0 ) , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣(𝑡0 ) = 0𝑉, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒:
𝐶
𝑡
1
𝑣(𝑡) = ∫ 6𝑒 −3000𝑡 𝑚𝐴 𝑑𝑡
2 𝜇𝐹 0
1 t
v(t)=3000 e-3000t |
-3000 0
𝑣(𝑡) = −𝑒 −3000𝑡 − (−𝑒 3000(0) )
𝑣 (𝑡 ) = 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝑽
6. Under DC conditions, find the energy stored in the capacitors. (Practice problem 6.5,
Alexander-Sadiku)
Solution:
First obtain the voltages of the 20uF and 10uF capacitors,
Simplify the circuit (opening the nodes of the capacitors)
R2
3kΩ
R1
1.0kΩ
10 V R3
6kΩ
From this, a single current I can be obtained by using Ohm’s Law.

R2
3kΩ
R1
1.0kΩ
10 V I R3
6kΩ

10𝑉
𝐼= = 1𝑚𝐴
1𝑘Ω + 3𝑘Ω + 6𝑘Ω
Then the voltages across the capacitors can be obtained by:
𝑉10𝑢𝐹 = 𝐼(𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) = 1𝑚𝐴 (3𝑘Ω + 6𝑘Ω)
𝑉10𝑢𝐹 = 9𝑉
𝑉20𝑢𝐹 = 𝐼𝑅2 = 1𝑚𝐴(3𝑘Ω)
𝑉20𝑢𝐹 = 3𝑉
1
𝑊10𝑢𝐹 = (10𝑢𝐹)(9𝑉)2 = 𝟒𝟎𝟓 𝝁𝑱
2
1
𝑊20𝑢𝐹 = (20𝑢𝐹)(3𝑉)2 = 𝟗𝟎𝝁𝑱
2
7. Determine the current through a 200uF capacitor whose voltage waveform is shown.
(Example 6.4 Alexander-Sadiku)
Solution:
The change in voltage is
0V to50V (between 0 and 1 sec)
50V to (-50V) (between 1 and 3 sec)
(-50V) to 0V (between 3 and 4 sec)
Using the equation of the line y=mx+b, where, y=voltage, and m=change in voltage,
therefore,
V(t)=mt +b
for 0<t<1 for 1<t<3 for 3<t<4
V(t)=mt+b at t=1, V(t)=50V at t=3, V(t)=-50V
at t=0, V(t)=0V 50V = m(1) +b -50V=m(3)+b
0V = m(0) +b at t=3 , V(t)=-50V at t=4, V(t)=0V
b=0 -50V=m(3) +b 0V=m(4) +b
at t=1, V(t)=50 V solving for m and b: solving for m and b:
50V = m(1)+0 m=-50 m=50
m=50 b=100 b=-200
therefore: the equation Eqn: V(t)=-50t +100
for voltage with respect Eqn: V(t)=50t-200
to time:
V(t)=50t

Therefore, the voltage can be described analytically as:

50 𝑡 𝑉, 0<𝑡<1
−50 𝑡 + 100 𝑉, 1<𝑡<3
𝑉(𝑡) = {
50 𝑡 + 200 𝑉, 3<𝑡<4
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
The current can now be obtained by using:
𝑑𝑉
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
50 𝑡 𝑉, 0 < 𝑡 < 1
−50 𝑡 + 100 𝑉, 1 < 𝑡 < 3
𝑑 ({ )
50 𝑡 + 200 𝑉, 3 < 𝑡 < 4
𝑖(𝑡) = 200 𝑥10−6 𝐹 x
𝑑𝑡
50 , 0<𝑡<1
−6 −50 , 1<𝑡<3
𝑖(𝑡) = 200𝑥10 𝐹x {
50 , 3<𝑡<4
10 𝑚𝐴 , 0<𝑡<1
−10 𝑚𝐴 , 1<𝑡<3
𝑖(𝑡) = {
10 𝑚𝐴 , 3<𝑡<4
0 𝐴, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
The current waveform can be plotted using the relations above:

8. Calculate the equivalent inductance for the inductive ladder network shown. (Practice
Problem 6.11, Alexander-Sadiku)
Solution:
------=Series
-------=Parallel
20mH 100mH 40mH 60mH

50mH 40mH 30mH 20mH
20mH 100mH 20mH

50mH 40mH 30mH 60mH
20mH 100mH 120mH

50mH 40mH 20mH
20mH 30mH
50mH 40mH 120mH
20mH 50mH
50mH 30mH
25mH
50mH 50mH
𝑳𝒆𝒒 = 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑯

9. If the current through a 1mH inductor is i(t)=20 cos 100 t mA, find the terminal voltage
and the energy stored.
Solution:
𝑑𝑖 𝑑
𝑉 = 𝐿 = 1𝑥10−3 𝐻 (20 cos 100𝑡 𝑚𝐴)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 = −𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏 𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝑽
1
𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖 2
2
1
𝑊 = (1𝑥10−3 𝐻)(20 cos 100 𝑡 𝑚𝐴)2
2
𝑊 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕 𝒖𝑱
10. The terminal voltage of a 2H inductor is v=10(1-t) V. Find the current flowing through
it at t=4s and the energy stored in it within 0<t<4 s. Assume i(0) =2A. (Practice
Solution:
1
𝑖𝐿 = ∫ 𝑉𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝑡 (𝑡0 )
𝐿
1 4𝑠
𝑖𝐿 = ∫ 10(1 − 𝑡)𝑉 𝑑𝑡 + 2𝐴
2𝐻 0
10 4𝑠
𝑖𝐿 = ∫ (1 − 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 2𝐴
2 0
𝑡 2 4𝑠
𝑖𝐿 = 5 (𝑡 − ) | + 2𝐴
2 0
42 02
𝑖𝐿 = 5 [(4 − ) − (0 − )] + 2𝐴
2 2
𝑖𝐿 = −20 𝐴 + 2𝐴
𝑖𝐿 = −𝟏𝟖𝑨
1 1 2
𝑊 = 𝐿(𝑖𝐿 )2 − 𝐿(𝑖(0))
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 0 𝑡𝑜 4 𝑠.
1 1
𝑊 = (2𝐻)(−18𝐴)2 − (2𝐻)(2𝐴)2
2 2
𝑊 = 324 𝐽 − 4𝐽
𝑊 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝑱

11. Determine vc, iL, and the energy stored in the capacitor and inductor in the circuit
shown under DC conditions (Practice Problem 6.10 , Alexander-Sadiku)
Solution:
Redraw the circuit in DC conditions: (DISCO) = DC Inductor Shorted Capacitor Open
iL
4A 3Ω 1Ω
The current in the inductor can now be solved as:

3Ω
𝑖𝐿 = 4𝐴 = 𝟑𝑨
3Ω + 1Ω
The voltage in the capacitor is the same as the voltage in the1Ω resistor
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑖𝑙 (1Ω) = 𝟑𝐕
The energy stored in the capacitor and the inductor are:
1 1
𝑊𝐶 = 𝐶𝑣𝑐2 = (2𝐹)(3𝑉)2 = 𝟗𝑱
2 2
1 2 1
𝑊𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖𝐿 = (0.25𝐻)(3𝐴)2 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑱
2 2

Summary of the important characteristics of the basic elements:
First-Order Circuit
 A circuit that can only contain one energy storage element (either a capacitor or an
inductor) that also has resistance.
 It is a circuit characterized by a first-order differential equation.
 There are two types: RC circuits and RL circuits
 There are also two ways to excite the circuit
a. By initial conditions of the capacitors or inductors
b. By independent sources
Source-Free circuit
 A circuit where all independent sources are disconnected from the circuit
(by a switch).
 This causes the voltage and current to have some transient response due to
initial conditions(initial capacitor voltage and initial inductor current) that
are set before disconnection.
Source-Free RC Circuit
 A circuit consisting of a resistor, capacitor and a source in which the
source is suddenly disconnected.
 This causes the capacitor to discharge its stored energy to the
resistors.

Becomes:
Derivation:
Using the circuit below:
By the application of KCL: 𝑐 = ln 𝐴 (𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

𝑖𝐶 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0 𝑡
ln 𝑣 = − + ln 𝐴
𝐶𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑅𝐶
+ =0 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 ln 𝑣 − ln 𝐴 = −
1 𝐶𝑑𝑣 𝑣 1 𝑅𝐶
[ + = 0] 𝑣 𝑡
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝐶 ln = −
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝐴 𝑅𝐶
+ =0 𝑣 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑒 ln𝐴 = 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑡
=− = 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝐴
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑡 −
𝑡
=− 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑅𝐶 , 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑣 𝑅𝐶 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑉0 ,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑡
∫ = −∫ 𝑣(0) = 𝐴 = 𝑉0
𝑣 𝑅𝐶
𝑡 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆−𝒕/𝑹𝑪
ln 𝑣 = − +𝑐
𝑅𝐶
Natural response
 Refers to the behavior of the circuit itself (in terms of voltages and currents ) ,
with no external sources of excitation.
 This response is just from the energy stored in the capacitor and not from
external sources.
Time constant
 The rapidity at which the voltage in a capacitor decreases is described by the
time constant.
 It is the time required for the response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8
percent of its initial value.
 The graph below can visualize the effects of varying the time constants to the
decay of the response

 It is denoted by τ, which is given by the product of the resistance and

capacitance. Thus τ=RC
Source-Free RC circuit
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
 The key to working with source-free RC circuits is to know the initial voltage V0
and the time constant τ.
Examples:
1. Let vc(0)=15V. Find vc, vx and ix for t>0. (Example 7.1, Alexander-Sadiku)
Solution:
Simplify the circuit into a single RC circuit (that is the components are just 1
resistor and 1 capacitor).
8Ω
12Ω
5Ω 0.1F 4Ω 0.1F
to
Since Req = 4Ω, the time constant can be solved as:
𝜏 = (4Ω)(0.1F) = 0.4s
which gives the voltage across the capacitor as:
𝑡 𝑡
𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝜏 = 15𝑒 −0.4𝑠 = 𝟏𝟓𝒆−𝟐.𝟓𝒕 𝑽
𝑣𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚:
12 12
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 15𝑒 −2.5𝑡 = 𝟗𝒆−𝟐.𝟓𝒕 𝑽
12 + 8 20
𝑖𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) 9𝑒 −2.5𝑡
𝑖𝑥 = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒆−𝟐.𝟓𝒕 𝑨
12 Ω 12 Ω
2. For the given circuit, let vc(0)=30V. Determine vc, vx and i0 for t>0. (Practice
Solution:
Simplify the circuit to get the equivalent resistance, that is:
12Ω 0.3333F
The time constant is:

1
𝜏 = 12Ω ( 𝐹) = 4𝑠
3
From here we can determine:
𝑡
𝑣𝑐 = 30𝑒 −4 = 𝟑𝟎𝒆−𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝒕 𝑽
6Ω ∥ 12 Ω
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑐 = 𝟏𝟎𝒆−𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝒕 𝑽
(6Ω ∥ 12 Ω) + 8Ω
𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑐
−𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) −30𝑒 −0.25𝑡 𝑉

𝑖𝑜 = = = −𝟐. 𝟓𝐞−𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝐭 𝐀
𝑅𝑒𝑞 12Ω
3. The switch in the circuit opens at t=0. Find v(t) for t≥0 and wc (0). (Practice
Problem 7.2 , Alexander-Sadiku)
Solution:
First get the equivalent resistance of the circuit at t>0, that is:
12Ω 4Ω
This parallel resistance is equivalent to 3Ω.

Then, get the voltage of the capacitor at t<0. Use the voltage divider theorem.
6Ω +
24 V 12Ω 4Ω
v
_
12𝛺 ∥ 4𝛺
𝑣 = 24 𝑉 = 8𝑉
(12𝛺 ∥ 4𝛺) + 6𝛺
𝑣 = 𝑣𝐶 (0) = 8𝑉
1
𝜏 = 3Ω ( 𝐹) = 0.5𝑆
6
𝑡
𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 8𝑒 −0.5 = 𝟖𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝑽
1 2
𝑤𝑐 (0) = 𝐶(𝑣𝐶 (0))
2
1 1
𝑤𝑐 (0) = ( 𝐹) (8𝑉)2
2 6
𝑤𝑐 (0) = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟑𝑱
4. The switch has been in position a for a long time until t=4s when it is moved to
position b and left there. Determine v(t) for t=10s.
a b
80Ω
C1
24 V 0.1F 20Ω
Solution:
Consider the circuit at t<4s.
80Ω
C2
24 V 0.1F
At t<4s, the capacitor is charged fully to 24V (having said that the switch has
been in that position for a long time). Therefore at t=4s, the intial voltage v(0) of
the capacitor is 24V.
Considering the circuit at t>4s

0.1F 20Ω
The circuit is now a source-free RC circuit. The time constant

can now be obtained.
𝜏 = 20Ω(0.1𝐹) = 2𝑠
With these values obtained, v(t) can now be determined.
𝑣(𝑡) = 24𝑒 −𝑡/2 𝑉 = 24𝑒 −0.5𝑡 𝑉
But since the initial voltage of 24V is just valid for t=4s and not for t=0, therefore
the ‘t’ in the equation must be replaced by ‘t-4’.
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝟐𝟒𝒆−𝟎.𝟓(𝒕−𝟒) 𝑽
To find v(10), substitute 10s into the equation:
𝑣(10) = 24𝑒 −0.5(10−4) 𝑉 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟒𝟗𝑽
Source-Free RL Circuit
 A circuit consisting of a resistor, inductor and a source in which the source is
suddenly disconnected.
 This causes the inductor to discharge its initial current stored to the resistors.
Derivation:
Using the circuit below
By Applying 𝑑𝑖 𝑅
= − 𝑑𝑡
KVL: 𝑖 𝐿
𝑣𝐿 + 𝑣𝑅 = 0 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑅
𝐿𝑑𝑖 ∫ = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑖𝑅 = 0 𝐼0 𝑖 0 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝑖 1 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑅𝑡
[𝐿 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0] ln =−
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐼0 𝐿
𝑑𝑖 𝑖𝑅 𝑹𝒕
+ =0 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆− 𝑳
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼0 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

Natural response of RL circuit

 Shows that the natural response of the RL circuit is an exponential decay
of the initial current.
Time constant of RL circuit
𝐿
 𝜏=𝑅
Source-Free RL circuit
 A key to working with source-free RL circuit is to know the initial
current I0 and the time constant τ.
Examples:
1. For the given circuit, find i(t) for t>0. (Practice Problem 7.4, Alexander-Sadiku)
Solution:
First analyze the circuit for t<0
The 2H inductor acts as a short for the 5Ω resistor.
5A 12Ω 8Ω
5Ω
This would simplify the circuit into:
5A 8Ω
12Ω
Which means that the current i(0) indicated in the

circuit is the current flowing through the 12Ω resistor.
8Ω
𝑖(0) = 5𝐴 = 2𝐴
8Ω + 12Ω
Analyzing the circuit for t>0:

12Ω 8Ω
5Ω
2H
This means that the equivalent resistance for the circuit is:
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 5Ω ∥ (12Ω + 8Ω)
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4Ω
𝐿 2𝐻
𝜏= = = 0.5𝑠
𝑅 4Ω
Therefore i(t) is:
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 = 2𝑒 −𝑡/0.5 = 𝟐𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝑨
2. Determine i, i0, and v0 for all t in the circuit. Assume that the switch was closed
for a long time. (Practice Problem 7.5, Alexander-Sadiku)
Solution:
Consider the circuit for t<0.
3Ω
i
1H
6A io 4Ω 2Ωvo
At t<0, the 1H inductor acts as a short circuit to the 3ohm resistor therefore, the
equivalent circuit would be:
i
6A io 4Ω
2Ωvo
i0, i, and v0 for t<0 can now be solved:

2Ω
𝑖0 = 6𝐴 = 2𝐴
2Ω + 4Ω
4Ω
𝑖 = 6𝐴 = 4𝐴
4Ω + 2Ω
𝑣0 = 2Ω(4A) = 8V
For t>0:
3Ω
i
1H
io 4Ω 2Ωvo
The equivalent resistance is:
3Ω 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 3Ω ∥ (4Ω + 2Ω)

Req 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2Ω
Therefore the time constant is:
4Ω 2Ω 1𝐻
𝜏= = 0.5𝑠
2Ω
From this ‘i’ can be solved:
𝑡
𝑖 = 4𝑒 −0.5 = 𝟒𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝑨
2Ωvo
To solve for i0, the circuit can be oriented as shown

on the left. From there we can use the current
3Ω
1H
divider theorem.
i
Since i0 is in opposite direction with i, its sign

4Ω
would be negative.
io
3Ω 𝟒
𝑖0 = −4𝑒 −2𝑡 𝐴 = − 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝑨
3Ω + (4Ω + 2Ω) 𝟑
−4 −2𝑡 8
v0 can now be obtained: 𝑣0 = 𝑖0 𝑅 = 3
𝑒 𝐴(2Ω) = − 3 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑉
With these, the equations for the currents and voltages for all t can be formulated:
4𝐴, 𝑡<0
𝑖 = { −2𝑡
4𝑒 𝐴, 𝑡≥0
2𝐴, 𝑡<0
𝑖0 = {−4
𝑒 −2𝑡 𝐴, 𝑡≥0
3
4𝑉, 𝑡<0
𝑣0 = {−8 −2𝑡
𝑒 𝑉, 𝑡≥0
3

Singularity Functions
 Functions that are very useful in circuit analysis.
 Also called as switching functions.
 Serves as a good approximation to the switching signals that arise in circuits
with switching operations.
 They are functions that are discontinuous or have derivatives which are
discontinuous.
 The three most widely used singularity functions are: unit step, unit
impulse and unit ramp.
Unit step function , u(t)

 Zero for negative values of t, and 1 for positive values of t.
 In graphical terms:
 In analytical terms:
0, 𝑡<0
𝑢(𝑡) = {
1, 𝑡>0
Unit impulse function δ(t)
 Zero everywhere except at t=0, where it is undefined.
 It is the derivative of the unit step function.
0, 𝑡<0
𝛿(𝑡) = {𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑, 𝑡=0
0, 𝑡>0
Unit ramp function r(t)
 Integrating the unit step function results to the unit ramp function r(t).
 It is zero for negative values of t and has a unit slope for positive values
of t.

0, 𝑡≤0
𝑟(𝑡) = {
𝑡, 𝑡≥0
Step response
 It is the response of the circuit when the excitation is the step
function , which may be a voltage or a current source.
 It is due to the sudden application of a DC voltage or current source.
Considering the circuit below:
By applying KCL: 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑡 𝑡

ln(𝑣 − 𝑉𝑆 ) | =− |
𝑖𝐶 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0 𝑉0 𝑅𝐶 0
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑡
𝐶 + =0 ln(𝑣(𝑡) − 𝑉𝑆 ) − ln(𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑆 ) = − +0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) − 𝑉𝑠 𝑡
+ = ln =− , 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝐶
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0 𝑢(𝑡) = 1 𝑣(𝑡) − 𝑉𝑠 𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶
+ = , 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑉𝑠
=− 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝑺 + (𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽𝑺 )𝒆−𝒕/𝝉
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑡
=− , 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠:
𝑣 − 𝑉𝑆 𝑅𝐶
Natural response
 Also called the transient response.
 It is the response of the circuit that will die out with time
 (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑆 )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
Forced response
 Also called the steady state response.
 The behavior of the circuit for a long time after an external excitation
is applied.
 VS

Step response of the RC Circuit

𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣(∞) + [𝑣(0) − 𝑣(∞)]𝑒 −𝜏
Steps in finding the Step Response of the RC Circuit
1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage v(∞)
3. The time constant τ.
Examples:
1. Find v(t) for t>0 in the circuit. Assume the switch has been open for a
long time and is closed at t=0. Calculate v(t) at t=0.5s. (Practice Problem
7.10, Alexander-Sadiku)
Solution:
Consider the circuit at t<0.
2Ω
10 V 0.3333F
With the capacitor connected with the source for a long time, it will be
assumed that it has been charged to the voltage of the source.
Therefore, v(0)=10V.
Consider the circuit for t>0
2Ω 6Ω
0.3333F 50 V
10 V
The capacitor will be considered as open (DC conditions) from which we

can obtain its voltage in the circuit.
2Ω + 6Ω
v
10 V _ I 50 V

50𝑉 + 10𝑉
𝐼= = 7.5𝐴
2Ω + 6Ω
𝑣(∞) = 6𝐼 − 50𝑉 = −2𝐼 + 10
𝑣(∞) = 6(7.5𝐴) − 50𝑉 = −5𝑉
For t>0, the time constant can be obtained:
2Ω 6Ω
Req
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2Ω ∥ 6Ω
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 1.5Ω
1
𝜏 = 1.5Ω ( 𝐹) = 0.5𝑠
3
𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣(∞) + [𝑣(0) − 𝑣(∞)]𝑒 −𝜏
𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = −5 + [10 − (−5)]𝑒 −0.5
𝑣(𝑡) = −𝟓 + 𝟏𝟓𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝑽
𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0.5𝑠
𝑣(0.5) = −5 + 15𝑒 −2(0.5) 𝑉
𝑣(0.5) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟖𝟐𝑽
2. The switch in the circuit is closed at t=0. Find i(t) and v(t) for all time.
Note that u(-t) =1 for t<0 and 0 for t>0. Also u(-t)=1-u(t). (Practice
Solution:
For t<0
5Ω
0.2F
20u(-t) V
Since at t<0, u(-t) = 1, therefore

the voltage source is effectively equal to 20V(1) =20V.
Also, it will be assumed that the capacitor is charged to 20V at t<0.
Therefore v(0)=20V. Because of that, no current flows and i(0)=0A.

For t>0
5Ω
0.2F
10Ω 3A
20u(-t) V
20u(-t) is now equal to 20(0) since, for t>0, u(-t)=0.

therefore the circuit would be:
0.2F
5Ω 10Ω 3A
The capacitor may also be now considered as open.
+
i
5Ω _v 10Ω 3A
From this we can find v and i for t>0.
By source transformation, the 3A current source can be transformed

into a voltage source.
i + 10Ω
5Ω
_v
30 V
30𝑉
𝑖=− = −2𝐴
10 + 5
𝑣(∞) = −5𝑖 = −5(−2𝐴) = 10𝑉
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠:
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 5Ω ∥ 10Ω
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 3.3333 Ω
𝜏 = 3.3333 Ω(0.2F)
2
𝜏= 𝑠
3
𝑡
−2
𝑣(𝑡) = 10𝑉 + [20 − 10]𝑒 3
𝑣(𝑡) = 10 + 10𝑒 −1.5𝑡 𝑉
𝑣(𝑡) (10 + 10𝑒 −1.5𝑡 𝑉)
𝑖(𝑡) = − =−
5Ω 5Ω
𝑖(𝑡) = −2 − 2𝑒 −1.5𝑡 𝐴

Therefore:
For all t:
20𝑉, 𝑡<0
𝑣(𝑡) = { −1.5𝑡
10 + 10𝑒 𝑉, 𝑡≥0
0𝐴, 𝑡<0
𝑖(𝑡) = {
−2 − 2𝑒 −1.5𝑡 𝐴, 𝑡≥0
Step response of the RL Circuit
𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖(∞) + [𝑖(0) − 𝑖(∞)]𝑒 −𝜏
Steps in finding the Step Response of the RC Circuit
4. The initial inductor current i(0).
5. The final inductor current i(∞)
6. The time constant τ.
Examples:
1. Find i(t) in the circuit for t>0. Assume the switch has been closed for a
long time. (Example 7.12, Alexander-Sadiku)
Solution:
At t<0:
The 3Ohm resistor is shorted and because of that the circuit just reduces
to the voltage source 2Ohm resistor and the 1/3 H inductor (which also
acts as a short circuit).
Therefore, the initial current i(0) is:
10𝑉
𝑖(0) = = 5𝐴
2Ω
for t>0:
2Ω 3Ω
10 V 0.3333H
Since the inductor acts again as a short, the final current i(∞) is:
10𝑉
𝑖(∞) = = 2𝐴
2Ω + 3Ω
The equivalent resistance is just the series resistance of 2Ω and 3Ω:
Therefore the time constant is:
1
𝐿 3𝐻 1
𝜏= = = 𝑠
𝑅 5Ω 15
i(t) can now be computed as:
𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖(∞) + [𝑖(0) − 𝑖(∞)]𝑒 −𝜏
𝑡
−1
𝑖(𝑡) = 2𝐴 +[5 − 2]𝑒 15
−𝟏𝟓𝒕
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝟐 + 𝟑𝒆 𝑨
2. The switch in the circuit has been closed for a long time. It opens at t=0.
Find i(t) for t>0.
Solution:
Consider the circuit for t<0
1.5H
5Ω 10Ω 3A
The 5Ω resistor is shorted and since the circuit is in DC conditions, it just

reduces to:
10Ω 3A
Which means that the 10Ω resistor

is also shorted:
This brings to:
3A
Which gives that i(0)=3A.
At t>0:
1.5H
5Ω 10Ω 3A
which reduces to:

i
5Ω 10Ω 3A
Therefore: i(∞) can be obtained by using current divider theorem.

10Ω
𝑖(∞) = 3𝐴 = 2𝐴
10Ω + 5Ω
The equivalent resistance is the series combination of 5Ω and 10Ω which
is 15Ω. (Current source opened)
Req
5Ω 10Ω

1.5𝐻 1
𝜏= = 𝑠
15Ω 10
i(t) can now be determined:
𝑡
−1
𝑖(𝑡) = 2 + [3 − 2]𝑒 10
−𝟏𝟎𝒕
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝟐 + 𝒆 𝑨


NECES EE306A Finals Notes A.Y. 2014 2015

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EE306 A –Notes (Finals) 2014

2. Get the equivalent resistance (RTH) from the open points.

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Solve for RTH :

𝑅𝑇𝐻 = (2Ω + 3Ω) ∥ 3Ω

Solve for ETH :

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2. Get the equivalent resistance (RN) from the open points.

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Solve for IN:

Nodal equations (revisited)

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Case 1: Voltage Source between major node and ground

Using the 3 equations:

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KCL at Supernode(node a and node b) , I1 entering node a, I2 leaving node a, I3

KVL(considering the supernode)

Considering another nodal equation at node c:

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Given these three equations:

The nodal voltages can now be solved and are:

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Get the parallel resistance of 3 Ω and 6 Ω

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Getting the equivalent voltage source and the equivalent resistance:

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I1’ and I3’ can now be solved.

By Current divider theorem:

I1’’ 10 V I4’’ 3Ω I2’’

By simplifying the 3Ω and the 6Ω resistor, I1’’ can now be solved:

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First, simplify the circuit:

With this the total current I4’’’ can be solved:

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Capacitors and Inductors

 Consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator(dielectric).

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Voltage and Current relations:

 Capacitors oppose changes in voltage by drawing (or supplying)

𝑖𝑐 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟

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 The voltage on a capacitor cannot change abruptly.

 Connecting capacitors in series would mean that the

 The equivalent capacitance of capacitors in parallel is equal to the

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 Consists of coil of conducting wires

Voltage and Current relations:

 Inductors oppose changes in current by dropping a voltage

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 The current on an inductor cannot change abruptly.

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• The current in each inductor is equal to the total current.

• That is , 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐿1 = 𝑉𝐿2 = 𝑉𝐿3 = ⋯

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Which transforms into

To obtain the voltages,

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𝑖(𝑡) = 500𝑥10−6 (2000) cos 2000 𝑡

From this, a single current I can be obtained by using Ohm’s Law.

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