ALLAM IQBAL OPEN

UNIVERSITY

Educational leadership and

Management
SPRING
(8605)
2023
SUBMITTED TO Abbas Ali
SUBMITTED BY Kashaf Ul Huda
UNI ID 0000466065
PROGRAM B.ED 1.5 YEAR
Q.1 Describe the aims, objectives and importance of administration. Also highlight
the approaches of educational administration.

Administration functions comprise vital parts of an organization’s structure,

helping the organization to manage resources and people in an efficient
manner. Planning, budgeting and organizing are the three primary administration
functions in any company, and a lack of quality in any of these is quite often detrimental
to the health of the company.

Planning is vital to the success of any venture. This does not just refer to plans for the
next month, quarter or year, but also to five, 10 and 25 years down the road. When IBM’s
leadership said in the early 1970s that it was unlikely that anyone would ever want to use
a home computer, this showed a lack of foresight that would plague the company for
years to come.

Budgeting is in part an element within planning, but the financial organization within a
company must have its own infrastructure to maintain a valid degree of control over the
organization. Large ideas are an important part of any successful company, but without
the budget in place to fund these large ideas, they remain just that, ideas rather than
reality.

Organizing is the third part of major administration functions. Much of this has to do with
assigning particular people and departments to specific tasks and ensuring that all of the
many subsidiary tasks for a larger goal get accomplished.
Administration has been described as a social process involving responsibility for
economical and effective planning & regulation of operation of an enterprise in the
fulfillment of given purposes.

It is a dynamic process consisting of various elements and activities. These activities are
different from operative functions like marketing, finance, purchase etc. Rather these
activities are common to each and every manger irrespective of his level or status.

Different experts have classified functions of Administration.

According to George & Jerry, “There are four fundamental functions of administration
i.e. planning, organizing, actuating and controlling”.

According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command,
& to control”.

Whereas Luther Gullick has given a keyword ’POSDCORB’ where P stands for
Planning, O for Organizing, S for Staffing, D for Directing, Co for Co-ordination, R for
reporting & B for Budgeting.
1. Planning

It is the basic function of administration. It deals with chalking out a future

course of action & deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions
for achievement of pre-determined goals.

According to KOONTZ, “Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when

to do & how to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to
be”.

A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in problem solving &

decision making.

Planning is administration of courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus,

planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of
pre-determined goals.
 Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human
resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in
avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.

2. Organizing

It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources

and developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement of
organizational goals.

According to Henry Fayol, “To organize a business is to provide it with

everything useful or its functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and
personnel’s”.

To organize a business involves determining & providing human and non-

human resources to the organizational structure. Organizing as a process
involves:

o Identification of activities.
o Classification of grouping of activities.
o Assignment of duties.
o Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.
o Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.

3. Staffing
 It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned.
Staffing has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to
advancement of technology, increase in size of business, complexity of human
behavior etc.

The main purpose of staffing is to put right man/woman on right job i.e.
square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes.

According to Koontz & O’Donell, “Managerial function of staffing involves

manning the organization structure through proper and effective selection,
appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles designed un the
structure”. Staffing involves:

o Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching,

choose the person and giving the right place).
o Recruitment, Selection & Placement.
o Training & Development.
o Remuneration.
o Performance Appraisal.

o Promotions & Transfer.

4. Directing

It is that part of administration function which actuates the organizational

methods to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes.

It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion and action of

people, because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for
doing the work.
 Direction is that inter-personnel aspect of administration which deals directly
with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the
achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:

o Supervision
o Motivation
o Leadership
o Communication

Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It

is the act of watching & directing work & workers.

Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates

with zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may
be used for this purpose.

Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and

influences the work of subordinates in desired direction.

Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion

etc from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding.

5. Controlling

It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and

correction of deviation if any to ensure achievement of organizational goals.

The purpose of controlling is to ensure that everything occurs in conformities

with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to predict deviations
before they actually occur.
 According to Theo Haimann, “Controlling is the process of checking whether
or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and
acting if necessary, to correct any deviation”.

According to Koontz & O’Donell “Controlling is the measurement &

correction of performance activities of subordinates in order to make sure that
the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being
accomplished”. Therefore controlling has following steps:

o Establishment of standard performance.

o Measurement of actual performance.

o Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out

deviation if any.
o Corrective action.

Educational Administration

Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate

human and material resources that are made available and made effective for achieving
the purposes of a programme of an educational institution.

The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any single process or act. It is like a broad
umbrella encompassing a number of processes such as: planning, organizing, directing,
coordinating, controlling and evaluating the performance. The same situation occurs in
the field of educational administration. The concept of educational administration is
applicable in case of an educational organisation which has certain purposes or goals to
fulfill.

In order to achieve these purposes or goals, the head of the educational organisation plans
carefully various programmes and activities. Here the educational organisation may be a
school, college or university. The head of the school/college/university organizes these
programmes and activities with co-operation from other teachers, parents and students.
He/She motivates them and co- ordinates the efforts of teachers as well as directs and
exercises control over them. He/She evaluates their performance and progress in
achieving the purposes of the programme.

He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if required in the plans and
programmes of the school or college or university. So the totality of these processes
which are directed towards realizing or achieving the purposes or goals of the
school/college/university is called educational administration.

Nature of Educational Administration:

The Educational Administration has the following nature:

1. Educational administration doesn’t refer to any single process rather different
processes or aspects constitute administration. These are planning, organizing, directing,
Coordinating and evaluation.

2. Educational administration is a non-profit making task.

3. Educational administration is primarily a social enterprise as it is more concerned with

human resources than with material resources.

4. Educational administration is more an art than a science. The reason is that human
relationship prevailed here can’t be maintained by any set of formulae.

5. Educational administration is similar to general administration in many ways, but it is

also dissimilar to general administration in many more ways.
6. Educational administration is a complex affair.

Objectives of Educational Administration:

As we know the very fact that educational administration needs integration and co-
ordination of all the physical and human resources and educational elements. Besides this
it requires a great efficiency with it based on human sympathy, understanding, knowledge
and skill. The physical resources mainly contribute building equipment’s and
instructional materials.
The human resources include pupils, teachers, supervisors, administrators and parents.
The additional elements comprise the various aspects of educational theory and practice
including philosophy of education, objectives of education, curriculum, method of
teaching, discipline, role of the teacher, rules and regulations etc.
These elements are “parts, made into whole” and are components brought into
harmonious relationship. So the purpose of doing such vital task is to fulfill different
purposes which are known as the objectives of educational administration.
These are:
1. To provide proper education to students:
This objective seeks to mention the fact that good education doesn’t mean education at a
very high cost as is practiced in modern public schools. Rather it means the right type of
education from the right type of teachers within reasonable cost. This objective also
implies quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement of education.

2. To Ensure Adequate Utilization Of All Resources:

For adequate realization of the various purposes of educational programme there is the
need of ensuring adequate utilization of all available resources-human, material and
financial.

3. To Ensure Professional Ethics And Professional Development Among Teachers:

As teachers are the senior and mature human elements to accelerate the programme in
time their role is highly felt in this regard. They are to be encouraged and given the
facility to devise and try out innovative ideas on instruction and to participate in service
education programmes. In this context, it can be visualized that educational
administration should aim at developing a desire for hard work, dedication and
commitment for their job among teachers.

4. To organize educational programmes for acquainting students with the art of

democratic living and giving them excellent training in democratic citizenship.

5. To mobilize the community:

Like general administration, educational administration seeks to maintain and improve
the relations with the community. For this it should seek community support and co-
operation for quantitative expansion, qualitative improvements, smooth and fair
examination in the educational system.

6. To organize co-curricular activities effectively for developing talents of students and

work efficiency of educational teachers.

7. To get the work done:

The most important objective of administration is to get the work done effectively,
efficiently and with satisfaction to the individuals and benefits to the society.
8. To prepare students for taking their places in various vocations and avenues of life.

9. To train the students in developing scientific attitude and objective outlook among
them towards all aspects and activities of life.

10. To ensure qualitative improvement of education:

Good education can be provided to students by bringing qualitative improvement in
instruction. Regular supervision of teaching and guidance of teachers help to ensure
quality teaching in schools.

Scope of Educational Administration:

1. The educational administration encompasses all the levels of education in its
jurisdiction.

These are:
a. Pre-primary or pre-school Education.

b. Elementary or primary Education.

c. Secondary Education.

d. Higher Secondary or Post secondary Education and,

e. Higher or tertiary Education.

It is educational administration that determines what should be the nature and system of
administration for all the above levels of education.

2. It covers all forms of education such as:

a. Formal Education
b. Non-formal Education and Adult Education

c. General Education

d. Vocational Education

e. Special Education

f. Teacher Education

g. Integrated Education and

h. Technical and professional Education including Engineering, Medical, MBA, and

Computer Education.

Here the educational administration sets the systems of administration in accordance to

the objectives and nature of all the levels of education.

3. It includes all types and strategies of management that encompasses the

following:
a. Democratic Administration

b. Autocratic Administration

c. Nominal Administration

d. Real Administration

4. Educational administration covers the following aspects relating to management

in its jurisdiction:
a. Planning
b. Organizing

c. Directing

d. Coordinating

e. Supervising

f. Controlling and

g. Evaluating

5. Educational Administration takes place at various levels such as:

a. Central level

b. State level

c. District level

d. Block level and

e. Institutional level

Out of these above levels, educational administration has its ground reality and
importance at the institutional level. Because it is the practical ground to test the
significance of educational administration in practice.
Q.2 Write down detailed note on types of leaves.

For many companies, a leave policy consists of letting their employees know about their
paid leave days and the national holidays they get. But, leave policies are more important
than you’d realize. One of the first questions from most candidates who are being
recruited by a company is about the organization’s leave policy. Besides the number of
leaves, potential employees also want to know the types of leaves that the company has
provided, for different needs and emergencies that the employee has.

Leave policy :
A leave policy helps you define the number of leaves your employees have, the types of
leaves that they are eligible for, and how to apply for leaves. With a leave policy, you can
give them assurance that you will provide them with the essential time off to take care of
any issues they have or take time off to vacation, recover from an illness, celebrate their
festivals, deal with life events, or simply relax.

Here are 10 types of leaves you need to accommodate within your leave policy:
1. Sick leave
Sick leave is time off given by the company to allow employees to recover from an
illness and take care of their health. Sick leaves are crucial to allow employees to get the
rest they need without worrying about losing pay. Sick leave is a mandatory requirement
in many countries to ensure the well-being of the employee.
Companies must provide 15 days of sick leave in a year to their employees. However,
you must also be flexible with your sick leaves and allow employees to take longer ones
if they have severe health issues.
In many companies, any sick leaves that have not been taken by the end of the year can
be carried forward to the next year. However, it’s important you ask your employees to
take the day off if they are sick.

2. Casual leave
Casual leave is taken by an employee for travel, vacation, rest, and family events. Such
leaves are given to allow the employee to take time off for any life events they have like
traveling to another country or weddings they have to attend. Giving the employee paid
casual leave will allow them to prioritize their private life when required, making them
feel appreciated in the company.
In most companies, employees can take a maximum of 8 to 15 days of casual leave in a
year.

3. Public holiday
Public holidays are days that are given as leave by the government. Such holidays must
be observed by every institution— schools, banks, government offices, and even private
companies. Public holidays include Independence Day, Memorial Day, Labor Day, bank
holidays and any nationally-recognized day like the death of a prominent leader of the
country.
Include these leaves within your leave policy by looking into the holidays that your
government has mandated for your country.
4. Religious holidays
Christmas, Eid, Easter, Holi, Yom Kippur— your employee is sure to place importance
on religious holidays that they celebrate and would want the day off to spend time with
their family and observe the festival. It’s important that you accommodate these holidays
they have by providing them with the option to take leave on the day of the festival.
Take note of every religious holiday from resources online and ask employees to send a
message to you every year, listing the religious holidays that they want time off for.
5. Maternity leave
From taking care of the newborn to recovering from the delivery, maternity leave is an
important time for new mothers. Ensure you have accommodated this type of leave in
your policy to help employees to not worry about their work while they are busy with
their newborn.
Maternity leave is provided to the new mother for a period of 7 to 17 weeks, depending
on the country that the company is based. Ideally, 14 weeks is a good amount of time to
be given to the mother, allowing them to take care of their newborn for the first 3 months.
You should also be open to providing extra leave days in case of any postnatal
complications.

6. Paternity leave
Paternity leave is granted to new fathers— husbands or partners of a pregnant woman,
surrogate parent, or someone who adopted a child— to take care of their newborns
without any worry.
Unlike maternity leaves, new fathers usually get 2 weeks of leave to take care of their
child post-delivery. Some countries mandate 1 to 2 weeks of paternity leave for new
fathers.
Companies rarely provide paternity leave for the birth of their child since such leaves are
not mandatory by law. However, it is important that HRs recognize the stresses of
adjusting to the newborn and taking care of the child in their first few days.
7. Bereavement leave
Losing a loved one is an unavoidable situation and in such events, employees take sudden
leave. As HR, you need to have a bereavement leave policy that provides the employee
with the time to grieve their loss, manage any responsibilities they may have due to the
death, and allow them to ask for a bereavement leave without any hassle.
Most HRs give their employees 3 to 7 days as bereavement leave, depending on the
closeness of the relative. If you aren’t sure how to create a bereavement leave policy, you
can read our guide about it.

8. Compensatory leave
Employees who have clocked in more hours than they were required to can be eligible for
compensatory days off. Ensure that any employee who has put more time in or come to
work on days they were off (like Saturday) are given a compensatory day off or “comp
off”.
Compensatory time-off must be automatically recorded within your backend and
employees must be informed that they have an extra day of leave for the time they put in.

9. Sabbatical leave
Simply put, sabbatical leaves are “a break from work” where employees can pursue
interests they have or take time off for physical and mental health reasons. Unlike other
leaves, sabbaticals are long leave periods, from six months to a year. Sabbaticals are
commonly taken by employees at educational institutions where professors may want to
take a break from their teaching role to do research on their projects.
Companies whose employees have served them for more than 3 years often give these
employees a sabbatical leave to reward them for their loyalty and hard work.
10. Unpaid Leave (or leave without pay)
Now, if your employee has exceeded the number of leaves they were eligible for and are
taking a leave that doesn’t fall under special leaves like maternity or bereavement leave,
they can still take a leave with a pay cut. Any leaves taken in the year outside of the paid
leaves will result in a pay cut for the employee. Ensure that you’ve made clear the
number of leaves the employee has and let them know how much pay is cut per leave day
they take outside their eligible leaves.
Note: Companies with an unlimited leave policy don’t have to define unpaid leaves.
However, you should be able to track and ensure employees aren’t taking advantage of
your policy.
Q.3 Discuss the purpose of inspection. Also highlight the qualities of supervision.

An inspection involves checking something, i.e., examining and assessing something.

We may inspect a building or organization to make sure that it meets specific standards.
The inspectors need to ensure that nothing is faulty and that nobody is breaking any laws.
They also have to make sure that whatever they are inspecting is safe.

In the world of business, inspection is the critical appraisal of materials, items, or systems
involving examination, testing, and gauging. Inspectors take measurements and make
comparisons. Inspections are formal evaluations or organized examination exercises.

The inspectors determine whether the item or material is in proper condition and of the
right quantity. They also determine whether it conforms to the company’s, industry’s,
local, or national rules and regulations.

Inspector – to inspect

We refer to somebody who carries out an inspection as an inspector. The verb

is to inspect. The verb means to view, observe, or check something carefully or critically.
To inspect is to carry out an official or formal viewing or examination.

In manufacturing, for example, inspections are an important component in quality

control.
An inspection is a careful examination.

The inspectors may perform a visual examination, or use sensing technologies such as
heat sensors or ultrasonic equipment.

Inspections may occur in a variety of settings. For example, they may occur on site or
remotely (remote visual inspection), automatically (automatic optical inspection), or
manually.

According to lexicon, an inspection is:

“A visit to a factory or other building to check that everything is satisfactory and all
rules are being obeyed. An official check done on something to see that it is of the
right standard or quality, or whether it is safe to use.”
Etymology

Etymology is the study of the origin of words and how their meanings evolved.

The Online Etymology Dictionary says that the term first appeared in the English
language in the British Isles in the fourteenth century.

It came from Old French Inspection, meaning ‘examination, inspection,’ which

became Inspection in Modern French.

The French word came from Latin Inspectional (nominative Inspectio), meaning ‘a
looking into,’ the noun of action from past participle stem of Inspicere, meaning
‘observe, look at, view, inspect, examine, look into.’

A surprise inspection

A surprise inspection occurs when nobody knew that the inspectors were coming. Hence,
the term. Senior management sometimes orders surprise inspections to find out what is
really going on.
One of the main reasons we carry out so many inspections is that we do not trust each
other. Train companies have ticket inspectors to check that everybody has paid their fare.
If they did not employ inspectors, would train companies be able to survive
economically?

Some government departments – if their laws allow it – carry out surprise inspections of
hospitals and prisons. Some also carry out surprise inspections of schools.

Most assessors say that surprise inspections are more realistic than those for which
people had time to prepare.

For example, if a prison knows you are coming, those in charge have time to clean and
paint the place. They might also change what the prisoners eat during your visit.

Surprise inspections enhance external confidence in the inspection process.

A home inspection

A home inspection is a non-invasive examination of a home’s physical condition. Home

inspections (UK/Ireland: surveys) are common when somebody wants to buy a house.

Home inspectors (UK/Ireland: chartered surveyors) carry out home inspections.

After inspecting the property, the inspector then prepares and delivers a written report to
the client. The client then uses the information to secure approval for a mortgage.

The client may also use the report to negotiate a lower price for the house.

Home inspectors can provide extensive information on the current state of properties.
However, they do not guarantee their future condition or life expectancy.
Purpose of Inspection
The main purpose of inspection is to provide the client with objective, independent, and
impartial information regarding the condition of the systems and components of the home
that are defective and need immediate attention or are anticipated, that could have a
deleterious effect on the building and its occupants or economic value or marketability
of the property. Conditions may be safety concerns, damage or deterioration of building
components or equipment, anticipated problem due to existing defects or age of building
component and equipment, City Building and Safety visible code violations applicable to
the age of the structure, or City ordinances and State laws.
Buying a home could be the largest single investment you will ever make. Knowing the
true condition of the property will enable you to determine the true cost of buying it and
as well as to repair or correct minor problems before they become major ones. After the
inspection, you will know more about the house, which will allow you to make decisions
with confidence.
The building(s) on the property should not necessarily be in perfect condition before you
buy it however, since there is no such a perfect building even how well it has been
maintained over the years. Even new houses have some problems.
The true value of the property is the purchase price plus the costs of replacement or
repairs so that the property is at similar condition to its closest comparable house. You
might be getting a good buy if the market value is higher than the purchase price. The
house can be valued by comparing it to other houses recently sold in the neighborhood by
adjusting its value base on proximity, living area, type of sale, location, lot area, view,
style, quality of construction, age, condition, appliances, energy efficiency,
garage/carport, and porch/patio/deck.
Skills For Supervisors: 15 Qualities Of A Good Supervisor

There are 15 essential leadership qualities of a good supervisor. This post will walk you
through the hard and soft skills needed to operate as an effective supervisor.

These proficiencies are essential because they set the tone for the workplace. If someone
is a good supervisor, they can perform their job more efficiently and gain more respect
from their peers and subordinates. Learning all the management skills needed to be an
effective leader can be challenging, but you should note a few essential items.

A "supervisor" is anyone who directs and is responsible for the work of others. This
person is familiar with their staff's daily work and receives direction from those who are
responsible for decision-making and more significant strategy shifts for the company.
Overall, they need to be able to:

 Communicate well with diverse groups in and out of the organization

 Utilize problem-solving skills, creativity, and critical thinking
 Demonstrate qualities like empathy, support, and concern
 Be able to develop their new employees based on their strengths

There are 15 essential skills supervisors need to possess to do their job as successfully as
possible.

Effective Communication

Communication skills are one of a good supervisor's most important assets. They need to
assign projects clearly and communicate important information to staff regularly.
Transparency is essential, and supervisors should strive to keep an open door for
employees to approach them with their needs or issues.

Conflict Resolution

Conflict can happen in a work environment. A good manager recognizes this and creates
an effective method of minimizing friction and dealing with it when it takes place. Being
a good listener and mediator is also vital in tricky situations.

Strong Leadership

The supervisor should serve as an example to their staff. They must assert leadership and
make their employees want to follow them as they take their organization through regular
business changes. A strong leader will encourage their group, improve teamwork and
lead the way to success.

Critical Thinking

There are many tasks that a supervisor needs to deal with that require excellent critical
thinking skills. With a high-level position comes more responsibilities and more
decisions to be made. Critical thinking skills make the decision process more
manageable.

Time Management

Time management is essential in a business with deadlines and deliverables. Being able
to juggle timelines and meet goals regularly means supervisors must be aware of when
things need to be completed and how much time it takes to do them – plus getting their
team to work on the same timeline.
Priority Management

Managers must also be able to structure the workload to ensure all projects are given the
correct amount of priority and that high-priority projects are finished first. They need to
be familiar with all company goals in order to determine which tasks are the most
important.

Diversity Awareness

Diversity is crucial in organizations today. A great manager recognizes this and

encourages their company to continue working on company diversity and inclusion
(D&I). The supervisor may even decide to join the team that works on D&I to help with
the initiative more.

Problem Solving

When issues in the workplace arise, supervisors should use their skills to handle them.
Excellent problem-solving skills help a manager assess the situation at hand and develop
an effective plan on how to tackle it.

Guiding Workloads

Supervisors need to guide the overall work of their employees. Their view of work must
be broader than that of their employees. Being an effective supervisor means
understanding the bigger picture and adjusting work to accommodate that. They must
give direction and carry it out purposefully, plan the workflow and give active direction
to staff members.

Workload Organization
Constantly changing office priorities means that a supervisor must continually organize
the work. They need to consider the demands placed on the employees when they are
organizing the workload. They should also recognize the employees' needs and listen to
feedback when making work and organizational decisions.

Staff Development

A large role of a supervisor is developing personnel. Thorough and strategic employee

development is essential for happy and satisfied staff, so supervisors should get to know
their subordinates' strengths and ambitions so they can help them grow as valuable assets
within the company. They should have a plan for the employee's development and set
goals for how they can work on their weaknesses and contribute to projects where they
are likely to succeed.

Managing Performance

The supervisor is responsible for managing employee performance. They should

continually coach direct reports on achieving their potential and set appropriate
expectations. Managers should look at future projects, determine how well the employee
should perform, and manage them accordingly. Occasionally, there may be performance
problems with a team member. In this situation, the supervisor must calmly approach the
issue and discuss a plan to overcome it.

Interpersonal Skills

Developing and maintaining good relationships with other departments is also vital. The
supervisor wants to ensure both their employees and the organization meet their goals, so
they should recognize the importance of working together cohesively.

Openness to Advice
Supervisors should look to their peers for advice and guidance when faced with a
problem outside of their expertise. Issues can be assuaged when they have a mentor in
their organization or field willing to offer advice when requested.

Willingness to Learn

The last trait that supervisors should have is the willingness to learn and grow. While
their team is learning, they too should be developing themselves in their careers and
trying to learn as much as they can about both their subject matter and about supervising
their employees in the best way possible.

Conclusion

With these essential core competencies, managers can effectively solve any supervisory
issues they may encounter and prepare for future situations that require the oversight of a
knowledgeable and dedicated supervisor.
Q.4 Elaborate the types and approaches of educational planning.

Meaning:
There is a saying that if there is a will there is a way. It signifies the will of an individual
comes into picture after thinking which can be done through planning in mental level.
The term planning is the major guideline for development of any individual, institution,
organization and society in every respect. ‘Now our country India is a democratic,
dynamic and developing one marching to become a country of super power by 2020 A.D.
Behind this target there is a systematic and deliberate planning.

Planning is essential for development of every nation and according to which changes
would have been brought in social, political, economic, cultural and educational sphere in
a systematic and orderly manner. Simply speaking planning means to think before acting,
and to act according to facts, not, conjectures or speculation.

Definitions:
“Planning is to design some action to be done before hand.”

Oxford English Dictionary

“Planning selects among alternatives explores, routes before travel begins and identifies
possible or probable outcomes or action before the executive and his organisation
committed to any.”

Hugman and Schwartz

“Planning is regarded as the process of setting out in advance a pattern of action to bring
about overall national policies by the closest possible articulation of means and ends.”
Philips

In the light of above definitions, it can be highly stated that planning is the process of
preparing a set of decisions for action in the future and directed towards realizing some
goals by the best possible means. Hence the essence of planning is the assessment of as
many operational alternatives as possible and then selecting the best for launching action.

In another context planning is considered as a process of thinking which refers to many

possible alternatives of action which are likely to achieve the goals of a programme,
institution or organization. It has to choose or decide the best alternative of future action
in relation to both the goals and available resources.

Planning is essential in the field of education entitled as “Educational Planning” which is

a major requirement in the contemporary society. The complexities of the present
scientifically developed and technologically advanced society have given special position
to the need for planning in education.

Like planning in any field, educational planning has to explore the best possible means of
making the greatest use of available resources leading to the maximum realization of the
educational aims and objectives, both individual and social.

So educational planning may be defined as a systematic design of action for realization of

educational aims and objectives for individual and social development through maximum
utilization of available resources. In practical perspective, educational planning is defined
as a process utilized by an administrator while performing the role of a leader, decision-
maker, change agent and so on.

Significance of Educational Planning:

1. To make every programme of an educational institution or organisation grand success.
2. Proper educational planning saves time, effort and money as planning in every field is
a time-saving, an effort-saving and a money-saving activity.

3. Educational planning is a sound method of solving educational problems by avoiding

the trial and error method of doing things.

4. Educational planning is essential for the best utilization of available resources.

5. Educational planning checks wastage and failure and contributes to the smoothness,
ease and efficiency of the administrative process in the field of education.

6. Through proper planning in education, education can be the best means by which
society will preserve and develop its future value system, way of life of an individual,
knowledge, skills and applications, and culture of the country.

7. Through proper educational planning, the means and ends of the society can be
properly interacted through educational system. It implies that the educational system
utilizes a large proportion of the country’s educated talents and a major part of public
expenditure.

8. Educational planning is highly essential for preparing a blueprint or plan of action for
every programme of an educational institution or organisation.

9. Planning in education is necessary for making one’s educational journey goal-oriented

and purposeful.

10. It is essential to maintain, sustain and enhance the thinking process of an individual,
institution or organization.
11. Planning in education is necessary to highlight the universal aims of education
required for every nation for its development in every respect.

12. To bring total development of a nation in time, in which educational development is

one among its various aspects.

13. To reflect the modern developments like explosion of knowledge, advancement of

science and technology, development of research and innovation while reformulating the
aims and objectives of education in the light of the particular situation a country is facing.

14. It explores and provides the best possible means of making the wide use of available
resources leading to maximum realization of the educational goals.

15. Educational planning facilitates gathering of educational experts, teachers,

supervisors and administrators for taking decision in relation to the realisation of
purposes of educational programme.

16. Educational planning gives equal importance to the purposes of different classes of
experts such as sociologists, economists, scientists, politicians, educationists etc.

Types of Educational Planning:

1. Administrative Planning:
Generally speaking administrative planning refers to planning in administrative
perspective. In the field of education, administrative planning relates to distribution of
responsibilities and powers for different levels of education. In administrative educational
planning, the administrative responsibilities and powers are phase-wise planned in
relation to the level of different educational administrators.
This planning of education makes a detail plan on structure and organisation of education
at different levels – primary, secondary, higher secondary, higher – general, technical and
professional. This planning prepares planning on duration of an educational programme,
organization and co-ordination of educational programmes, financial allocation or budget
for the programme, engagement of educational officials in the programme, and smooth
management of the programme etc.

2. Academic or Curricular Planning:

This type of educational planning refers to planning for smooth academic transaction of
the syllabus for any course at any level of education. It encompasses planning on
education in relation to needs and demands of the individual and society.

Formulation of educational goals, formation of curriculum committee for development of

curriculum and selection of appropriate strategies and methods of teaching, planning of
content units, planning for evaluation, planning for review of the curriculum, planning for
use of library, planning for special provision for the gifted and remedial instruction for
slow learners etc.

3. Co-curricular Planning:
This planning of education is necessary for bringing total development of a student in one
point and total development of an educational institution or organisation in another point.
This planning includes planning for student welfare services, planning for sports and
games, planning for social activities and programmes, planning for cultural activities and
programmes, planning for hobbies etc.
4. Instructional Planning:
This sort of planning in education is macro-level in nature as its deals with planning in
classroom situation in relation to a particular topic of a concerned subject. This planning
refers to emotional and organizational climate of the classroom.

It includes planning for specification or instructional objectives, selection and

organisation of learning activities, selection of appropriate means for presentation of
learning experiences, monitoring of the learning or instructional progress, selection of
suitable evaluation techniques for learning outcomes etc.

5. Institutional Planning:
This type of educational planning gives a practical shape to the meaning of educational
planning. In this context educational planning refers to the needs and requirements of
every institution to be achieved through creation and maintenance of a planning
atmosphere in the institution.

Although institutional planning includes all types of planning cited above by focusing on
curricular and co-curricular planning, but there is the need of having a discussion on
institutional planning. This situation occurs because of two basic purposes. Such as-to
give a practical meaning, shape and form to educational planning and to start educational
planning at the grass-root level.

By “Institutional Planning” we mean the plans initiated, formulated and implemented by

individual educational institutions. Certifying it as a planning at grass-root levels it
includes all types of planning in its jurisdiction.

These are:
a. Planning for administration.
b. Planning for academic or curricular development.

c. Planning for non-academic or co-curricular activities

d. Planning for school-community relations.

e. Planning for discipline.

f. Planning for developmental activities or programmes.

g. Planning for proper utilization of community resources for total development of the
institution.

4 Major Approaches to Educational Planning – Explained!

There are four major approaches to educational planning.

1. Social Demand Approach:

This approach was used in the Robbins Committee Report on Higher Education in
Britain. In India too, this approach is a popular one while opening new schools and
colleges in particular.

In this method are involved the following steps:

 To estimate the proportion of students completing school education and are

likely to enter into higher education.
 To estimate how many of these successful school leaving students would
actually apply for admission to colleges.
 To determine how many of the applicants should be given admission to higher
education.
 To determine the length and duration of the study.
Thus, the major issue involved in this approach is to forecast future demands for seats
keeping in mind social and educational trends as well as demographic changes. The
underlying assumption in this approach is that expansion of education is beneficial to the
economy and thus, additional expenditure on education would not create a burden too
heavy to bear.

This approach is more prevalent in those societies which favour traditional cultural
values, where decisions are taken on the basis of public opinions (in a fragile polity and
sometimes in a democracy) and in societies where the social environment is generally
pessimistic in nature.

The approach is based on currently expressed preferences and does not take into account
public expenditure on education vis-a-vis the benefits as the demand for education may
far exceed the resources available in a vast country like India. Also, it sometimes leads to
a mismatch between the output of higher education and the demands of the economy.

2. Social Justice Approach:

This approach emphasizes justice to the disadvantaged sections of society and is based on
Article 45 of the Indian Constitution. This approach is aimed at making special
provisions for the socially, economically and educationally disadvantaged communities
for a longer duration. This includes opening Ashram schools for tribal areas, special
concessions and scholarships, incentives and relaxation.

3. Rate of Returns Approach:

According to this approach, investment in education should take place in such a way that
the returns from the investment are equal to the returns from other kinds of investment of
capital, e.g., investment in industry. This principle is known as ‘equi-marginal returns’ in
economic theory and could be extended to educational sector.

This approach treats education as an investment in human capital and uses rate of returns
as a criterion in allocation of financial resources. The approach implies that if the rate of
return is low, expenditure on education should be curtailed.

However, in reality, it is difficult to apply this approach to education due to problems

associated with measuring rate of returns in education.

An educated person’s earnings or rate of returns depend upon his/her innate intelligence,
parental socio-economic status, motivation and aspirations. Hence, it is not easy to
attribute the rate of returns only to education acquired. Hence, this approach is least
frequently applied to education.

4. Manpower Planning Approach:

In this method, the general demand for and the capacity of supply of human resources in
different streams of and at different levels of the educational sector are estimated.

The approach asserts that the system of education produces the right quality of human
resources with desirable knowledge, attitudes and skills in the right numbers and thus,
education is directly linked with economic development.

The application of the manpower planning approach depends on these factors:

(a) An appraisal and analysis of the existing employment conditions and the system of
education,

(b) Planning the system of education vis-a-vis the manpower needs of the economy, and
(c) Using the financial resources (which are limited) in an optimum way so as to fulfill
the demands of the employment sector without incurring wastage on account of
unemployment.

(d) Making an appraisal of the number of students enrolled, the number of existing
teachers and their qualifications, enrolment in teacher education institutions (availability
of future teachers), as well as the existing number of school buildings, equipment’s,
infrastructure and other facilities.

(e) The requirements of the employers regarding occupational and/ or professional

qualifications for employees, their levels of training and abilities should also be assessed.

The manpower planning approach takes note of the fact that the teaching profession
requires approximately 60% of the highly qualified human resources of a country which
competes with the demand for manpower in other economic sectors.

A detailed projection of the demand for human resources is difficult due to the
uncertainty of productivity trends. Some developed countries such as Norway, France
and Sweden estimate their future manpower needs so as to meet the demands of the
economy whereas others such as Great Britain estimate the numbers to be educated on
the basis of students’ demands.
Q.5 Discuss the purpose of school discipline and criteria for learners classification.

School discipline is the system of rules, punishments and behavioral strategies

appropriate to the regulation of children and the maintenance of order in schools. Its aim
is to create a safe and conducive learning environment in the classroom.

School discipline has two main goals:

(1) ensure the safety of staff and students, and

(2) create an environment conducive to learning.

Serious student misconduct involving violent or criminal behavior defeats these goals and
often makes headlines in the process. However, the commonest discipline problems
involve noncriminal student behavior.

It is important to keep the ultimate goal in mind while working to improve school
discipline. As education researcher Daniel Duke (1989) points out, "the goal of good
behavior is necessary, but not sufficient to ensure academic growth." Effective school
discipline strategies seek to encourage responsible behavior and to provide all students
with a satisfying school experience as well as to discourage misconduct.

The word “discipline’ is derived from the Latin root “disciples” meaning a pupil or
disciple. Naturally, the problem of discipline was taken to consist in bringing the conduct
of the pupils into conformity with ideas and standards of the master. The pupil had to
develop the virtue of docility and plasticity so that the teacher might impress his
personality on them and mold them in his own image. This was the conception of the
relationship between pupil and teacher everywhere. Its modern concept is very broad and
inclusive one. It does not recognize difference between mental and moral behavior for the
purpose of control, nor, in fact for any other purpose.
In fact, the individual mind is conceived of “as a function of social life-as not capable of
operating by itself but as requiring continual stimulus from social agencies and finding its
nutrition in social purpose”.

Modern view of discipline is to bring the same unity in the educative process and
educative material as we find in real life. School must be a social organism in which
social situations should be provided to stimulate and direct the impulses of the pupils in
the pursuit of the common purposes through cooperative or shared activity. To obtain
good result is also another view. Cooperation should improve the intellectual, moral,
social and physical activities of the students in school environment and these must be
directed towards the realization of the certain goals.

Purpose of the discipline is also develop the attitudes, habits, ideas, and code of conduct
through the medium of the social life of the school which should be organized on a
cooperative basis and inspired by higher ethical teaching of religion.

The purpose of discipline is to help the individual to acquire knowledge, habits, interests
and ideals which conduce to the well being of himself, his fellows and society as a whole.
It gives realization to the school that it must be reconstructed on the lines of the
development and conscious pursuit of common ends in a cooperative spirit, each member
contributing to the common good in accordance with special gifts. Life in the school thus
organized becomes similar to the, and continuous with, life in democratic society, and
discipline becomes co-extensive with the whole of school life.

Purpose of School Discipline

· Discipline gives children a feeling of security by telling them what they may
and may not do.
 · It helps children to avoid from frequent feelings of guilt and shame for misbehavior-
feelings that inevitably lead to unhappiness and poor adjustment.

· Discipline enables children to live according to standards approved by the social

group and thus to win social approval.

· Through discipline, children learn to behave in a way that leads to praise that, they
interpret as indications of love and acceptance which is essential to successful adjustment
and happiness.

· Discipline serves as an ego-bolstering motivation, which encourages children to

accomplish what is required of them.

· Discipline helps children to develop a conscious the “internalized voice” that

guides them in making their own decisions and controlling their own behavior.

Criteria for Student Classification

a. History (Some plans for Students)

b. General Criteria for Student Classification

c. Common Pattern

(a). History (Some Plans for Student Classification)

i. Background

ii. Winnetka Plan

iii. Unit Plan

iv. Techniques of Instruction

 v. Summer School

vi. Grouping

vii. Non-Grading Elementary School

(i). Backgrounds

· Purpose of the school is to serve the needs of the pupils

· Administrator is to organize the school and classify the pupils to facilitate the
achievement of this purpose

· Division of the grades helped to solve the problems related to the textbook, facilities,
materials and methods

· New problem “Lock Step” system created

· “Lock Step” means “Grade Standard” which created difficulties to meet the needs of
the individual pupils

· Administrator use different methods to adjust the students through different teachers,
grades, or subjects etc

· Administration needs to classify the pupil by keeping the view of individual

differences

· Many innovations in curriculum, teaching method & organization have been tried.

(ii). Winnetka Plan

· Plan of individual instruction for elementary school children within the grade was
inaugurated at Winnetka, Illinois.

· Curriculum divided into two parts;

1. Common essentials

2. Group activities

1. Common Essentials

Ø Knowledge 7 Skills are considered necessary elements for pupils( Division was into units
or “Goals”)

Ø Assignment sheets, work sheets, diagnostic practice test, and test for each unit were
considered

Ø Emphasis on each pupil to get mastery in each unit

Ø Promotion to the next unit were provided until the mastery of the previous one

2. Group Activities

Ø Designed on part of the pupil

Ø Activities like art & crafts, music, physical education for standard goals to be met

Ø Activities provide socialism & creative experience

(iii). Unit Plan

· It is a teaching procedure & requires no changes in school organization

· Different methods are to be used like project, activity & problem assignment

· All methods are of the distinct departures from the traditional subject matter recitation
type of teaching

· It has great influence in elementary schools by focusing upon the attention upon
organization of the subject matter for the purpose of meeting the needs of the individual
pupils
· It has influence upon the curriculum being offered in many schools

(iv). Techniques of Instruction

· Needs can be met through the changed curriculum but it also requires techniques of
instruction

· Few suggestions are related to the instruction to meet the individual needs are;

1. Develop units on life problems rather than on abstract subject matter problems

2. Teach to focus on the satisfaction of needs recognized by the learners

3. Provide adequate counseling and guidance services

4. Utilize more fully teaching resources such as films, radio, television, teaching
machines and the local community environment

5. Use wide variety of printed material

(v). Summer School

· Many school districts operated for adjusting the pupils

· Operated primarily for those students who have failed or for those who wish to make
additional credits in order to complete high schools in three years

· Treated the failure students of regular terms in the school

· Used to get measurable grade standard or subject if they are achieving before

· Mostly emphasized on the subjects like music, arts, sports and games, but recently
few more added like math, science and foreign languages

(vi). Grouping

· Emphasis was given for chronological age grouping

· Homogeneous grouping usually be done according to the mental abilities, or
achievement in the subject matter

· Mental abilities tested through different tests or teacher’s judgment

· Great emphasis as given on the achievement of the subject matter

· More preference was on the homogeneous grouping because instruction can be done
effectively

Few arguments were for making homogeneous grouping;

· Usually be taught by the same method

· Saves the teacher’s time and energy

· Subject may be covered in same period of time

· Poor students are not discouraged

· Specially trained teachers can be used for proper pupils

· Homogeneous group can be taught as an individually

· Brighter students are encouraged

· Loafing on the part of superior pupil is reduced or eliminated

Some suggestions were against of the homogeneous grouping;

· No basis for grouping has been developed which is sufficiently objective

· Unwholesome competition may be engendered

· People are not strictly grouped in their life occupations according to ability

· Status distinctions, characteristics of the class society, may be fostered

· Group can not be formed which are homogeneous in each curriculum area because
abilities of the single student vary from subject to subject

· No practical way has been found to group on the basis of special ability

· Grouping according to the ability often cases jealousy and resentment (anger) on the
part of the pupils and parents

(vii). Non-Graded Elementary School

· It was the movement which was slowly gaining supporters

· Classifying the students was attributed to the results of the child study movement
which reveals that students differ in different way

· It classified the students according to the levels rather than to the grade numbers

· Levels usually based on reading abilities and consists of 10-12 levels in the first three
grades

· Pupils progress through the levels at their own rate without usual stigma (disagree)

· Pupils may complete their work of three years in two or may take 4 years

· Plans used extensively at primary grades

· Provide three major organizational advantages in classifying students;

1. A unit plan of ears that is adaptable to the lags and sports normally accompanying the
development of child

2. Progress levels that permit a child to pick up after an absence from school at the point
where he previously left off
3. A time range that permit children of approximately the same chronological age to
remain together while progressing at different academic rates suited to individual
capacities

(b). General Criteria for Student Classification

· In the past teacher dealt all students of different ages and subject equally, but with the
increase of population more teacher hired for then and children were divided into groups

· Age was common selection factor

· Age 1-12 handed over to one teacher and age 12- above handed over to the next
teacher

· As population grew then more classification be done

· Major purpose for grouping is individualization

· Classification was due to the individual differences, academic and social

characteristics

· Age was used originally for the selection of the candidates because it is correlated
with social characteristics

· When age selection factor came into use then student were being differentiated on the
basis of their academic achievements which was named as homogeneous grouping, which
based on the performance, reading readiness tests etc

· Students were divided in two classrooms, one for those who achieved above the
standard readiness score and those who were below of that

(c). Common Patterns

1. Ungraded Grouping
2. Inter- Classroom Subject Grouping

3. Inter- Classroom Ability Grouping

4. Split-half Grouping

5. Intra-Classroom Ability Grouping

6. Special Ability Grouping

7. Inter-Classroom Individualized Grouping

1. Ungraded Grouping

· Grade levels were abandoned (neglected)

· There was no classification of the students in one classroom

· Usually ungraded grouping were distinguished between lower elementary and upper
elementary, upgraded primary & Upgraded intermediate

· First three year schooling were assigned to ungraded primary then promotion was on
the basis of age, social maturity, academic ability or some combination of factors

· School might have three or more ungraded primary classrooms and teacher might stay
with the same students for three years for knowing them

2. Inter-Classroom Subject Grouping

· Grouping based on subject matter

· Most common pattern in grouping junior and senior high schools

· Used in elementary schools when teacher train them for different subjects
· During the 2hr period teacher A has reading with class A for the first hour and
reading with the class B for second hour and teacher B follows the opposite schedule for
mathematics

3. Inter- Classroom Ability Grouping

· Classification based on their performance in intelligence and achievement tests

· Those scoring from grade level or higher are assigned to one classroom while all those
scoring from grade level or below are assigned to another

· A higher school might use placement tests for assigning English or Mathematics
courses or even totally different tracks

· Assignment may be for one day or for the subjects, or to pull the disabled readers
from their classes for instruction

4. Split- Half Grouping

· Students were divided into split half day schedule for reducing the class size for
critical subjects

· Commonly used in the primary grades means when half of the class receives
instruction for few hours and then 2nd class will receive instruction after that time

5. Intra-Classroom Ability Grouping

· Students are to be classified on the basis of their abilities

· Pattern is mostly common in reading when they are given reading achievement tests
and then do grouping as per their level as high group, middle group and low group.

· This ability had been used at all grads from kindergarten through high schools

6. Special Ability Grouping

· Students are assigned for short period

· Promotion is to be done on their ability

· Teacher uses remedial instruction for half an hour below a certain reading level and an
enrichment teacher might work with students above a certain level

7. Intra- Classroom Individualized Grouping

· One time instruction for one pupil

· Reading programmes called “Individualized Reading” follow this pattern

· This pattern has become popular for the last 10 years because of the availability of
published, sub-instructional material

· The best use of the continuous progress selecting students into individual group varies
widely and sometimes name is used , student just work alone

……… The End……….