Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department

Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

Chapter 1 - Cement
1.1. Introduction:
Concrete is an extremely versatile material, being used in the production of anything
from nuclear radiation shields to playground structures and from bridges to yachts.
It is able to be used in such a wide variety of applications because it can be poured
into any shape, reinforced with steel or glass fibres, precast, coloured, has a variety
of finishes and can even set under water. Modern concrete is made by mixing
aggregate (sand, stones and shingle) with Portland cement and water and allowing it
to set. Of these ingredients, the most important is Portland cement. Portland cement
(often referred to as OPC, from Ordinary Portland Cement) is the most common
type of cement in general use around the world because it is a basic ingredient of
concrete, mortar, stucco and most non-specialty grout.

Cement is a fine grey powder which when reacted with water hardens to form a rigid
chemical mineral structure which gives concrete its high strengths. Cement is in
effect the glue that holds concrete together. The credit for its discovery is given to
the Romans, who mixed lime (CaCO3) with volcanic ash, producing a cement
mortar which was used during construction of such impressive structures as the
colosseum. When the Roman Empire fell, the information on how to make cement
was lost and was not rediscovered until the 16th century.

1.2. The chemistry of cement function:

Concrete mix is a mixture of cement and aggregate – sand and gravel. When water
is added to this the cement undergoes a series of chemical reactions to form a "gel"
(a colloidal system). The fine cement particles are broken down into even smaller
particles (thus increasing the reactive surface) by crystallising out from the
supersaturated solution formed. A series of immensely strong Si-O-Si bonds form
between the particles, making a network in which the aggregates are trapped. In
addition, bonds are formed to the aggregates, but these are much weaker, especially
for smooth, inert, hard aggregates: because they have a smaller surface area than
rough aggregates, a smaller area can be involved in bonding.
These reactions continue to take place for some time (depending on the exact
composition of the cement), and after the initial brief expansion of the cement the
material shrinks as unreacted water is lost. It is rare for all the cement to react:
usually after five months the grains are only hydrated to a depth of 6-9µm, while
cement grains range up to 100µm in diameter.
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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

1.3. Types of cement:

The properties of cement during hydration vary according to:

• Chemical composition
• Degree of fineness
It is possible to manufacture different types of cement by changing the percentages
of their raw materials.

1.3.1. Types of Cement:

• Portland cement
• Natural cement
• Expansive cement
• High-alumina cement

1.3.2. Types of Portland Cement

• Ordinary Portland cement – Type Ι
• Modified cement - Type ΙΙ
• Rapid-hardening Portland cement – Type ΙΙΙ
• Low heat Portland cement – Type ΙV
• Sulfate-resisting Portland cement – Type V
It is possible to add some additive to Portland cement to produce the following types:
• Portland blast furnace cement – Type ΙS
• Pozzolanic cement - Type ΙP
• Air-entrained cement - Type ΙA
• White Portland cement
• Colored Portland cement

1.3.3. Most common types of Portland cement :

• Ordinary Portland cement

This type of cement use in constructions when there is no exposure to sulfates in the
soil or groundwater.

1.3.4. Rapid Hardening Portland Cement

• This type develops strength more rapidly than ordinary Portland cement. The
initial strength is higher, but they equalize at 2-3 months

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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

• Rate of heat evolution is higher than in ordinary Portland cement due to the
increase in C3S and C3A, and due to its higher fineness

1.3.5. Uses

a) The uses of this cement is indicated where a rapid strength development is desired
(to develop high early strength, i.e. its 3 days strength equal that of 7 days ordinary
Portland cement), for example:
i) When formwork is to be removed for re-use
ii) Where sufficient strength for further construction is wanted as quickly as
practicable, such as concrete blocks manufacturing, sidewalks and the places
that cannot be closed for a long time, and repair works needed to construct
quickly.

b) For construction at low temperatures, to prevent the frost damage of the capillary
water.

1.4. Special Types of Rapid Hardening Portland Cement

1.4.1. Ultra High Early Strength Cement

The rapid strength development of this type of cement is achieved by grinding the
cement to a very high fineness.
It is used in structures where early prestressing or putting in service is of importance.

1.4.2. Extra Rapid Hardening Portland Cement

This type is prepared by grinding CaCl2 with rapid hardening Portland cement. The
percentage of CaCl2 should not be more than 2% by weight of the rapid hardening
Portland cement.
By using CaCl2:
• The rate of setting and hardening increases (the mixture is preferred to be
casted within 20 minutes).
• The rate of heat evolution increase in comparison with rapid hardening
Portland cement, so it is more convenient to be use at cold weather.
• The early strength is higher than for rapid hardening Portland cement, but their
strength is equal at 90 days.
• Because CaCl2 is a material that takes the moisture from the atmosphere, care
should be taken to store this cement at dry place and for a storage period not
more than one month so as it does not deteriorate.

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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

1.5. Low Heat Portland Cement

1.5.1. Composition
It contains less C3S and C3A percentage, and higher percentage of C2S in comparison
with ordinary Portland cement.

1.5.2. Properties
1) Reduce and delay the heat of hydration
2) It has lower early strength (half the strength at 7 days age and two third the
strength at 28 days age) compared with ordinary Portland cement.
3) Its fineness is not less than 3200 cm2/g (according to B. S. 1370: 1974).

1.5.3. Uses
It is used in mass concrete constructions: the rise of temperature in mass concrete
due to progression in heat of hydration -- cause serious cracks. So it is important to
limit the rate of heat evolution in this type of construction, by using the low heat
cement.

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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

1.6. Sulfate-resisting Cement

It contains:
• Lower percentage of C3A and C4AF – which considers as the most affected
compounds by sulfates.
• Higher percentage of silicates – in comparison with ordinary Portland cement.

1.6.1. Properties

• Low early strength.

• Its resulted heat of hydration is little higher than that resulted from low heat
cement.
• Its cost is higher than ordinary Portland cement – because of the special
requirements of material composition, including addition of iron powder to
the raw materials.

1.7. Grades of cement:

The type of cement used for construction varies based on its purpose. Certain factors
like functional requirement of structure, design parameters, durability
characteristics, and environmental conditions affect the selection of cement for
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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

appropriate application. However, among many types of cement, Ordinary Portland

Cement (OPC) is used for constructing residential buildings.

The most important part in determining the best quality cement is to check for its
grade. A grade determines the strength of the cement after 28 days of application.

• ORDINARY grade (10-20M) is used for plastering and finishing works in

normal environmental conditions. However, its use is virtually phased out
today.
• STANDARD (25-55MPA) grade OPC, it is the most commonly used grade
for home construction. It has its applications in plastering, finishing works,
precast items, foundations, brick work, and compound wall and so on.
• HIGH STRENGTH (60-80) develops strength very fast. High rise building
constructions. This is applicable for use in structures where high grade
concrete is required.

It is available in different colors like gray and white. The residential building
construction uses gray cement for general constructions and white cement for
architectural beauty, interior and exterior decorations.

1.8. uses of cement:

Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures. Some of them are
listed below:

- Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.

- Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.

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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

- Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings,
bridges. water tanks, tunnels, docks, harbours etc.

- Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone posts, railway sleepers, piles
etc.
- For manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust bins, flower pots etc. cement
is commonly used

- It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths, courts for various sports etc.

1.8.1. Uses of Portland cement (most common type of cement)

1. The most important use of Portland cement is the production of concrete. It plays
a pivotal role in setting and hardening the concrete.
2. On being mixed with other aggregates, Portland cement begins to serve a dual
purpose. One, it provides for the concrete products to be workable when wet and
Two, it provides them to be durable when dry.
3. It is extensively used by the retaining walls and the precast concrete block walls
as a major component to build a strong foundation of concrete.
4. By mixing it with water, Portland cement literally turns into a plastic stone and
thereby it can be used for purposes and in places where stone was to be used and
that too by keeping within the financial limits.
5. It may be molded to obtain a hard and fire-proof material which may further be
employed in designing buildings, shop floors, reservoirs and other foundations.
6. Any kind of iron or timber structure is exposed to corrosion either by air or
water. But with a concrete casing, made by utilizing Portland cement, they can
be effectively protected.
7. Any structure that is meant to support huge amounts of weight will bring
Portland cement into use. These structures range from ground floors of multi-
storey buildings to bridge floors and from bridge spans to dams.
8. Due to its ability to prevent corrosion, it is also put to use in ships, tanks and
bunkers.
9. A blaze or a devastating fire may leave a structure completely burnt but with the
use of Portland cement, this can be prevented.
10.It is also brought into usage in mortars, plasters, screeds and grouts as a material
which can be squeezed into gaps to consolidate the structures.
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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

1.9. Cement hydration:

Cement hydration is the chemical combination of cement and water to form

hydration products; the hydration of cement takes time and may not proceed to 100%
completion.

The formation of hydration products over time leads to:

• Stiffening (loss of workability)

• Setting (solidification)

• Hardening (strength gain)

1.9.1. When water is added to cement, what happens?

The addition of water to cement causes dissolution of cement grains, along with the
growth of ionic concentration in “water” (now a solution), and the formation of
compounds in the solution, after reaching a saturation concentration, the formed
compounds precipitate out as solids (“hydration products”) and in later stages,
products form on or very near the surface of the anhydrous cement.

1.10. Manufacture of Portland cement:

Portland cement (the only type of cement in common use today) is manufactured in
a four step process:

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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

Step 1 – Quarrying

Limestone and a 'cement rock' such as clay or shale are quarried and brought to the
cement works. These rocks contain lime (CaCO3), silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3) and
ferrous oxide (Fe2O3) - the raw materials of cement manufacture.

Step 2 - Raw material preparation

To form a consistent product, it is essential that the same mixture of minerals is used
every time. For this reason the exact composition of the limestone and clay is
determined at this point, and other ingredients added if necessary. The rock is also
ground into fine particles to increase the efficiency of the reaction.

The steps involved here depend on the process used. There are two main cement
Manufacturing processes currently used: the dry process and the wet process. The
dry process uses more energy in grinding but less in the kiln and the wet process has
lower overheads than the dry process

The dry process:

The quarried clay and limestone are crushed separately until nothing bigger than a
tennis ball remains. Samples of both rocks are then sent off to the laboratory for
mineral analysis. If necessary minerals are then added to either the clay or the
limestone to ensure that the correct amounts of aluminium, iron etc. are present. The
clay and limestone are then fed together into a mill where the rock is ground until
more than 85% of the material is less than 90µm in diameter.

The wet process:

The clay is mixed to a paste in a wash mill - a tank in which the clay is pulverised in
the presence of water. Crushed lime is then added and the whole mixture further
ground. Any material which is too coarse is extracted and reground. The slurry is
then tested to ensure that it contains the correct balance of minerals, and any extra
ingredients blended in as necessary.

Step 3 – Clinkering
This is the step which is characteristic of Portland cement. The finely ground
material is dried, heated (to enable the sintering reactions to take place) and then
cooled down again. While it is being heated various chemical reactions take place to
form the major mineral constituents of Portland cement.

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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

The powder from the dry process doesn't contain much moisture, so can be dried in
a pre-heater tower. As it falls through the tower (which takes 30 seconds) it is heated
from 70 to 800oC. The moisture evaporates, up to 20% of the decarbonation (loss of
CO2) occurs and some intermediate phases such as CaO, Al2O3 begin to appear. The
mixture is then fed into the kiln.

The slurry from the wet process contains too much moisture to be successfully dried
in a preheater tower. Instead, the slurry is fed directly into the kiln where it is formed
into dry balls by the heat and rotation of the kiln. Because of this extra role of the
kiln, wet process kilns are generally longer than dry process kilns

The cooler
Immediately following the kiln is a large cooler designed to drop the temperature of
the clinker (as the fused material is now called) from 1000 to 150 degrees (Celsius).
This is achieved by forcing air through a bed of clinker via perforated plates in the
base of the cooler. The plates within the cooler slide back and forth, shuffling the
clinker down the cooler to the discharge point and transport to a storage area.

Step 4 - Cement milling

The 'clinker' that has now been produced will behave just like cement, but it is in
particles up to 3 cm in diameter. These are ground down to a fine powder to turn the
clinker into useful cement.
To produce the final product the clinker is mixed with gypsum which is added as a
set retarder, and ground for approximately 30 minutes in large tube mills. The
cement flows from the inlet to the outlet of the mill (a rotating chamber), being first
ground with 60 mm then 30 mm diameter steel balls. The first grinding breaks up
the material and the second grind it to a fine powder. The amount of grinding is
governed by the volume of cement fed into the mill: the greater the volume the
coarser the grind. This has practical limits, with too much cement clogging up the
mill and not enough actually increasing the particle size. Over time the charge (steel
grinding balls) wear out, so when they reach a certain size they fall through a sieve
and then are replaced.
The cement grinding process is highly energy intensive. Cement production has
several quite serious environmental hazards associated with it: dust and CO2
emissions and contaminated run-off water.

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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

1.11. Health risks and problems due to cement

Employees who work with Portland cement are at risk of developing skin problems,
ranging from mild and brief to severe and chronic.
Any employee who has skin contact with wet Portland cement has the potential to
develop cement-related skin problems. Examples of employees who may be exposed
to the dangers of wet Portland cement products include: bricklayers, cement masons,
laborers, plasterers, tile setters ready-mixed concrete truck drivers, bucket and buggy
operators, and those involved in pouring and finishing work, etc.

Wet Portland cement can cause caustic burns, sometimes referred to as cement
burns. Cement burns may result in blisters, dead or hardened skin or black or green
skin Cement burns can get worse even after skin contact with cement has ended.
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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

Contact with wet Portland cement can cause a non-allergic form of dermatitis which
is related to the caustic, abrasive, and drying properties of Portland cement.

1.11.1. Preventing Cement-Related Skin Problems

The best way to prevent cement-related skin problems is to:
- minimize skin contact with wet Portland cement.
- Provide the proper gloves for employees who may come into contact with wet
Portland cement
-Use only well-fitting gloves. Loose-fitting gloves let cement in

-Wash hands before putting on gloves. Wash hands every time gloves are removed.
-Dry hands with a clean cloth or paper towel before putting on gloves.
-Protect arms and hands by wearing a long sleeved shirt.

1.11.2. Making Portland Cement Products Less Hazardous

Using slag, which is free of Cr (VI), in place of or blended with clinker Adding
ferrous sulfate to Portland cement may lower the Cr(VI) content of the cement.

1.12. Tests of cement quality

A very slight difference in the manufacture may make a great difference in the
character of the material, and rigid testing is necessary in order to secure the best
cement. Before using the cement for important work, the undermentioned points
should be inquired into:

1.12.1. FINENESS:
The fineness of cement has an important bearing on the rate of hydration and hence
on the rate of gain of strength and also on the rate of evolution of heat. Finer cement
offers a greater surface area for hydration and hence faster the development of
strength. The apparatus used are 90µm IS Sieve, Balance capable of weighing 10g
to the nearest 10mg, A nylon or pure bristle brush, preferably with 25 to 40mm,
bristle, for cleaning the sieve.

➢ Procedure to determine fineness of cement

- Weigh approximately 10g of cement to the nearest 0.01g and place it on the sieve.

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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

- Agitate the sieve by swirling, planetary and linear movements, until no more fine
material passes through it.

- Weigh the residue and express its mass as a percentage R1, of the quantity first
placed on the sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent.

- Gently brush all the fine material off the base of the sieve.

- Repeat the whole procedure using a fresh 10g sample to obtain R2. Then
calculate R as the mean of R1 and R2 as a percentage, expressed to the nearest
0.1 percent. When the results differ by more than 1 percent absolute, carry out a
third sieving and calculate the mean of the three values.

➢ Expected Results
About 10 wt% of the cement is made of particles larger than 50 µm, and only a few
wt% is particles larger than 90 µm. On the fine end, less than 10% of the cement is
particles smaller than 2 µm.

➢ Soundness

Soundness provides an index of potential delayed expansion, and provides

information on the volume stability of concrete when Portland Cement is used

➢ Procedure to determine soundness of cement

- Place the mould on a glass sheet and fill it with the cement paste formed by gauging
cement with 0.78 times the water required to give a paste of standard consistency.

- Cover the mould with another piece of glass sheet, place a small weight on this
covering glass sheet and immediately submerge the whole assembly in water at a
temperature of 27 ± 2oC and keep it there for 24hrs.

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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

- Measure the distance separating the indicator points to the nearest 0.5mm (say d1).
iv) Submerge the mould again in water at the temperature prescribed above. Bring
the water to boiling point in 25 to 30 minutes and keep it boiling for 3hrs.

- Remove the mould from the water, allow it to cool and measure the distance
between the indicator points (say d2).

- (d2 – d1) represents the expansion of cement.

➢ Expected results:

This must not exceed 10 mm for ordinary, rapid hardening and low heat Portland
cements. If in case the expansion is more than 10 mm as tested above, the cement is
said to be unsound.

1.13. Consistency

Consistency means amount of water needed to prepare a plastic mix.

The basic aim is to find out the water content required to produce a cement paste of
standard consistency. The principle is that standard consistency of cement is that
consistency at which the vicat plunger penetrates to a point 5-7mm from the bottom
of Vicat mould (pictured below).

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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

1.13.1 Procedure to determine consistency of cement

- Weigh approximately 400g of cement and mix it with a weighed quantity of

water. The time of gauging should be between 3 to 5 minutes.
- Fill the Vicat mould with paste and level it with a trowel.
- Lower the plunger gently till it touches the cement surface.
- Release the plunger allowing it to sink into the paste.
- Note the reading on the gauge.
- Repeat the above procedure taking fresh samples of cement and different
quantities of water until the reading on the gauge is 5 to 7mm.

1.13.2. Reporting of Results

Express the amount of water as a percentage of the weight of dry cement to the first
place of decimal.

Consistency of cement should be less than 30%

1.14. Initial and Final Setting Time

Concrete setting time will depend on the concrete mix (w/c ratio, slump requiring
etc.) and ambient temperature. This is of course for normal mix without adding
special materials to the mix. Roughly stetting time will start from 1.5 hr in height
temp to 18 hrs in cold temp.

1.14.1. Procedure to determine initial and final setting time of cement

- Prepare a cement paste by gauging the cement with 0.85 times the water required
to give a paste of standard consistency.

- Start a stop-watch, the moment water is added to the cement.

- Fill the Vicat mould completely with the cement paste gauged as above, the mould
resting on a non-porous plate and smooth off the surface of the paste making it level
with the top of the mould. The cement block thus prepared in the mould is the test
block.

A) Initial setting time:

Place the test block under the rod bearing the needle. Lower the needle gently in
order to make contact with the surface of the cement paste and release quickly,
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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
Quality Control Courses 2019, by: Dr. Ahmad Mechaymech

allowing it to penetrate the test block. Repeat the procedure till the needle fails to
pierce the test block to a point 5.0 ± 0.5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould.
The time period elapsing between the time water is added to the cement and the time,
the needle fails to pierce the test block by 5.0 ± 0.5 mm, is the initial setting time.

B) Final setting time:

Replace the above needle by the one with an annular attachment. The cement should
be considered as finally set when, upon applying the needle gently to the surface of
the test block, the needle makes an impression therein, while the attachment fails to
do so. The period elapsing between the time, water is added to the cement and the
time, the needle makes an impression on the surface of the test block, while the
attachment fails to do so, is the final setting time.

1.14.2. Best tests for cement in field:

• When you insert your hand in a cement bag, it should give a cool feeling
• It should be greenish gray in color
• There should be no lumps or dust in the cement
• If you throw a small quantity of cement in a bucket of water, the cement
should float for a few minutes before it sinks. The immediate sinking of
cement indicates the presence of impurities
• Take some cement, prepare paste, and place on a plate giving a square shape.
When it is immersed slowly into a bucket of water, ensure that it does not lose
the shape and that it hardens after 24 hours
• When you take a pinch of cement in your hands and rub between the fingers,
it should give a smooth finish.

1.15. The future of cement: low carbon cement

Cement manufacture is responsible for around 5% of CO2 emissions. Increased

pressure on manufacturers from government and consumers to reduce carbon
emissions across all industrial sectors means there is a drive towards finding
sustainable alternatives to current processes.

A British consortium has developed new materials, based on ‘Alkali activated ash’
(AAA) binders that set and bind concrete together. These ‘low carbon binders’ can
be used in concrete products such as tiles and pavers and offer significant benefits,
including 70% fewer carbon emissions compared with traditional cement. As well

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 Lebanese University, Faculty of Engineering III, Civil Department
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as improved durability and strength, AAA is produced from readily available waste
or by-products such as ash materials, which would otherwise end up in landfill.
The new binders are unlikely to fully replace traditional Portland cement but they
will provide a cost-effective and alternative choice in concrete products where low
environmental impact gives the concrete producer a competitive advantage. If
widely adopted, the new binders offer the public benefits of reduced CO2 emissions,
diversion of industrial waste from landfill to beneficial re-use.
The project has produced reliable data on how to produce the binders on an industrial
scale; has created prototype concrete products with 30% less CO2 impact, and has
sufficient critical mass to move the new technology towards commercialisation.
Those behind the project estimate that these new concrete products could be on the
market by 2015.

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