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Advanced design of injection/burner systems in electric arc furnaces (EAF)

Conference Paper · June 2011

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Advanced design of burner/injector bined system to melt down scrap and to superheat the
melt. Figure 1 shows the design of the SIS unit com-
systems in electric arc furnaces (EAF) prising the flame generator and the burner/injector
tube. The injector consists of a central supersonic
Authors nozzle (Laval nozzle) and a coaxial annular-gap noz-
1) 1)
Hans-Jürgen Odenthal ; Phong Bui ; zle. The nozzle tip is made of copper. Both nozzles are
1) 1)
Markus Reifferscheid ; Erich Hovestädt ; water cooled. The SIS unit is installed in a copper
2) 2) 2)
Juliane Nies ; Igor Klioutchnikov ; Herbert Olivier panel whose arrangement allows a small distance
between the nozzle and the melt surface. In addition,
1)
SMS Siemag AG, Düsseldorf the position of the nozzle protects the refractory lining
2)
RWTH Aachen University, Shock Wave Laboratory against excessive wear. The split-shell design of the
furnace ensures to replace each SIS unit. Furthermore,
Contact Data the SIS internals may be also replaced separately,
which helps to reduce maintenance cost. The flow
Hans-Jürgen Odenthal, SMS Siemag AG, Eduard- rates (O2, CH4, air) are controlled by the valve station.
Schloemann Str. 4, 40237 Düsseldorf, Germany
The SIS unit operates in three modes, i.e. the pilot,
burner, and injector mode, see Table 1 and Figure 2.
Phone: +49 211 881 4143
Fax: +49 211 881 4997 Table 1: Operating conditions of the SIS unit
Email: hans-juergen.odenthal@sms-siemag.com
Pilot Burner Injector
mode mode mode
Key Words Natural gas CH4
20 200 - 600 20
(shroud) V&
Burner, injector, method of characteristics, supersonic Oxygen O2  m3  - 400 - 1500 500 - 3000
jet, electric arc furnace (EAF), Computational Fluid (nozzle)  
Dynamics (CFD), Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Compressed air  hstp 
200 - 200
(RANS), Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS). (shroud)
Power P [MW] 2-6

Abstract
This paper shows the R&D activities to improve EAF
burner/injector systems. A software program based on
the method of characteristics has been developed to
design supersonic nozzles for metallurgical applica-
tions. The supersonic jet length is increased by the
new nozzle design. As a result the impact of the gas
jet on the melt surface is high. Different types of cen-
tral nozzles are investigated experimentally and
numerically. A comparison between 2D/3D-RANS
simulation and 2D-DNS is given, in which the RANS
results show a smaller supersonic jet length compared
to the DNS. The basic influence of a shroud jet on the
centre jet is discussed. Based on the results for a
single supersonic jet a CFD simulation for the whole
EAF is shown exemplarily.

Figure 1: Layout of the SIS burner/injector module

Introduction
The costs of producing steel in an electric arc furnace
The pilot mode, Figure 2a, is a standby mode that is
(EAF) are related to the energy input. To increase
provided in case of an inactive injector. In the pilot
productivity and to reduce the amount of electrical
mode, a mixture of natural gas and air is ignited by a
energy, natural gas burners have been used to melt
spark plug. The pilot flame prevents slag and melt
down and superheat iron since the mid-1990s. While
splashes from sticking to the SIS unit. The nozzle ge-
the energy input and thus the melt-down power is
ometry featuring a retracted, central Laval nozzle and
highest at the centre of the furnace, cold spots are
a concentrically arranged annular gap prevents
formed near the furnace walls. Here, burners in the
clogging of the nozzle.
furnace wall can help to add energy and to homoge-
nize the heat distribution inside the furnace. Further- In the burner mode, Figure 2b, thermal energy is
more, the melt is decarburized by the injection of oxy- supplied to the EAF. Oxygen and natural gas are con-
gen. Today, state-of-the-art burner systems consist of veyed unburnt through the injector. Inside the furnace
a combined burner/injector technology. a combustible mixture is generated that is ignited by
the hot atmosphere. The powerful flame supports the
The SIS (SMS Siemag Injection System) unit is a com-
melt-down of scrap in the cold spots.
a) Pilot mode
b) Burner mode
c) Injector mode
Figure 2: SIS burner/injector principle of function
During the flat-bath period, operation is changed over
to the injector mode, Figure 2c. The main factor for a
fast decarburization is an intensive transition of oxygen
into the melt. This is accomplished by a supersonic jet
which exits the nozzle at roughly twice the speed of
sound and hits the melt with a high momentum. Similar
to the pilot mode, the integrated hot gas generator
supplies a shrouded jet of hot combustion gas which
covers the cold oxygen jet and thus increases the
supersonic jet length. With the use of compressed air
and a small amount of natural gas, the costs for the
shroud gas generation are approx. 70 % lower than
with conventional systems.
With its optional oxygen/burner mode, low operating
cost and long jet, the SIS features a high degree of
flexibility. In the slag area, carbon blowing lances are
integrated in the copper blocks. They inject carbon into
the melt and produce a foamy slag. The foamy slag
allows the use of long arcs which introduce a high
specific energy into the melt and are covered by the
slag. The electrode consumption decreases, as long
arcs allow lower currents to be supplied with un-
changed electrical power.
The latest references for SIS units supplied by SMS
Siemag AG include the 120-ton EAF of Forpost Man-
agement with three SIS units and the 120-ton EAF of
Peiner Träger with four SIS units.
At a given inlet pressure p0 and volumetric flow rate V& 0
it is important that the supersonic jet is as long as pos-
sible. With a low melt level, distances of up to 2.5 m
may have to be covered before the jet hits the melt.
Nozzles for the use in steel plants have normally
tapered walls in the convergent and divergent section,
whereas the throat section has a constant diameter.
These nozzles are prone to pressure disturbances,
albeit small ones, that deteriorate the jet quality. The
focus of the investigation is to optimize the shape of
the central supersonic nozzle and to increase the jet
length by means of experiments and CFD simulations.
Fundamentals
Supersonic nozzle flow
The shape of a supersonic nozzle with parallel outlet
jet can, in terms of the total pressure p0 and total tem-
perature T0 at the inlet, the flow rate V& 0 , and the ambi-
ent pressure p∞ downstream the outlet, be designed
for just one point, Figure 3. This design point is based
on the isentropic theory [3]. If only one of the variables
p0, T0, V& 0 , p∞ differ from the design point at a certain
nozzle geometry, local velocity, temperature, and
density changes arise inside and outside the nozzle.
These disturbances lead either to straight or inclined
compression and/or expansion waves which cause
premature nozzle wear and transient, non-reproducible
operating conditions.
Figure 3: Flow regimes in a convergent-divergent (CD)
nozzle: (0) total inlet value, (*) critical value, (1) exit
value, (∞) ambient value. Design point: p1 = p∞
The jet can be subdivided into a potential core and a
supersonic region. In the potential core, the flow vari-
ables u, p, T, and ρ are constant. The axial length Lsj
of the supersonic jet is characterized by the point
Ma = 1. As a rule of thumb, the dimensionless super-
sonic jet length Lsj/D1 of an expanding gas entering a
cold environment is Lsj/D1 ≈ 10 to 20. In case the gas
enters a hot environment at T∞ = 1600°C it is
Lsj/D1 ≈ 20 to 30.
In the injector mode, oxygen is blown onto the melt
through the central nozzle at an angle of approx. 40°.
The oxygen exits at Ma ≈ 2 and with a high momentum,
impacts the melt after approx. 2 m, induces an oscillat-
ing blowing cavity and therefore decarburizes the melt.
As a result of the expansion in the divergent section,
the gas cools down to approx. -100°C and the copper
wall is cooled from both the water and the gas side. If
the nozzle is well designed, the oxygen attaches to the
nozzle wall up to the outlet, the supply of cooling water
is maintained, and no skulls have formed inside the
nozzle. The nozzle wear will be minimal. However, in
furnace operation, p0 and V& 0 may vary in order to
respond to current process conditions. Accordingly,
the nozzle flow can vary from its design condition.
Complex flow structures arise inside and outside the
nozzle which wear out the nozzle outlet edge.
The flow is referred to as non-adapted if the outlet
pressure p1 does not correspond to the ambient pres-
sure p∞. In contrast to a subsonic jet which always
exits the nozzle at a balanced pressure because p1 is
regulating the flow, the supersonic jet cannot only exit
against balanced pressure and against negative pres-
sure, but also to a certain degree against overpressure.
If p1 > p∞ (under-expansion), a post-expansion takes
place downstream the nozzle. Fan-type expansion
waves are released from the nozzle outlet edge and
the free jet expands further. The intersecting expan-
sion waves are reflected at the jet boundaries jet as
compression waves. In the core jet, the pressure
downstream the expansion waves is lower than the
ambient pressure while it is higher downstream of the
compression waves. The cyclic interaction of expan-
sion and compression continues until subsonic speed
is reached [3].
If p1 < p∞ (over-expansion), oblique shock waves starts
at the outlet edge. Across the shock, p, T, ρ, and S
(S: entropy) rise, whereas Ma and u decrease. The
free jet is narrowed and the pressure inside the jet
centre downstream the crossing shocks rises to levels
above the ambient pressure. The shock waves are
reflected at the boundary of the jet as expansion
waves and the static pressure decreases. This
process is repeated cyclically until the growing mixing
zone at the jet boundary dominates the flow field and
the jet becomes subsonic. It does not matter whether
p∞ or p0 varies because the matching design data p*/p0
and D*/D1 are changed anyway.
Once wear has started at the outlet edge, hot gas can
be entrained into the nozzle. The relevant outlet sur-
face is defined by the line of the separating oxygen
flow. If the flow separates upstream the outlet edge, a
recirculation area is induced. The outlet surface is then
located inside the nozzle and is no longer compatible
with the outlet pressure p1. As a consequence, hot
furnace gas reaches the nozzle wall via the recircula-
tion area. Owing to the permanently growing recircula-
tion area, the nozzle wears more and more and the
risk of a water breakout rises. While the under-
expanding nozzle (p1 > p∞) is uncritical in terms of
wear, the service life of the over-expanding nozzle
(p1 < p∞), i.e. a nozzle which is operated at too low inlet
pressures p0, decreases rapidly due to the absence of
the gas cooling effect.
Under these considerations the knowledge of V& 0 , p0,
and T0 to correctly design the nozzle is vital. For this
purpose, SMS Siemag has developed a calibration
procedure by which the pressure p0 and the tempera-
ture T0 at the nozzle inlet can be detected as a
function of p and T at the valve station.
Method of characteristics – the CARD software
++
To find the optimal nozzle shape, the C software
CARD (Charakteristikenverfahren zur Auslegung Ro-
tationssysmmetrischer Düsen) was developed. The
method of characteristics is used to solve the partial
differential equations for gas-dynamics for steady-state,
isentropic, irrotational, and axisymmetric flows. As it is
well known, the Mach lines, i.e., the lines of weak
pressure disturbances which propagate at the speed
of sound and which are arranged at a defined angle
relative to the local velocity vector, describe the right-
running and left-running characteristics. The Mach
lines are characteristic curves of the gas-dynamic
equation. In the present case the method of char-
acteristics is combined with a boundary layer correc-
tion, by which the momentum-reducing influence of the
boundary layer is taken into account. Within the
boundary layer, the gas is decelerated from maximum
velocity to zero velocity at the wall.
The Laval nozzle shape is shown in Figure 4a. The
nozzle consists of a converging subsonic part and a
diverging supersonic part. The nozzle areas for Ma < 1,
Ma = 1, and Ma > 1 are shown. CARD calculates the
entire nozzle shape for the following set of input pa-
rameters: total pressure p0, total temperature T0, flow
rate V& 0 , ambient pressure p∞, exit pressure p1, heat
capacity ratio κ and specific gas constant R0.
Figure 4: Definitions used for the method of character-
istics (CARD). a) Nozzle regions, b) Left- and right-
running characteristics, c) Subsonic and throat region
The gas dynamic equation for steady-state, isentropic,
irroational, and axisymmetric flows is given by
∂u ∂v  ∂v  a 2 v
(a 2 − u 2 ) − 2u v + (a 2 − v 2 )   + = 0 , (1)
∂x ∂x  ∂r  r
u,v: flow velocity in axial and radial direction,
x,r: axial and radial coordinate,
a: speed of sound.
For certain types of curves, the solution of eq. (1) is
+ -
possible. The curve c and c are shown in Figure 4b
and are referred to as characteristic lines. The charac-
teristics with the flow angle (θ - α) are referred to as
right-running characteristic lines (in flow direction to
the right of the streamline), those with the flow angle
(θ + α) as left-running characteristic lines (in flow
direction to the left of the streamline). The gradient of
the characteristic lines is
 dr   dr 
  c − = tan( θ − α ) ,   c + = tan( θ + α ) ,
 dx   dx 
c-, c+: Right-running, left-running characteristic line,
θ: Flow angle between the local velocity vector
and the system of coordinates,
-1
α: Mach angle with α = sin (1/Ma).
The compatibility conditions along the characteristic
lines are given as
1 dr
d(θ ± ν )c m =± , (3)
Ma − 1 m cot θ r
2
where Ma is the Mach number and ν is the Prandtl-
Meyer angle. To start the calculation the sonic and
initial line are determined based on the equation for
the dimensionless perturbation velocity potential ϕ´(x,r)
for axisymmetric compressible flows
ϕ′r
( κ + 1) ϕ′x ϕ′xx − ϕ′rr − =0.
r A boundary layer correction of the nozzle contour is
This method according to Sauer [15] provides a solu-
tion of the perturbation equation using a power series
expansion. The perturbation velocities u′( x, r ) = ϕ′x and
v ′( x, r ) = ϕ′r are calculated using the critical speed of
sound a*
( κ + 1) b 2r 2 ( κ + 1) b 2 xr ( κ + 1)2 b 3r 3
u′ = bx + , v′ = + , (5)
4 2 16
where b is a constant. CARD calculates the initial
values of the initial line up to the initial characteristic,
uses an iterative method to determine the coordinates
of the grid points and the flow parameters and takes
into account the curvature of the characteristics.
The expansion part of the nozzle is calculated from the
initial to the last expansion characteristic. Flow
parameters are determined using the characteristic
equations and the prescribed shape in the convex part
dr
r = a + bx + cx 2 , = tan θ = b + 2cx ,
dx
where a, b, and c are constants. This part of the con-
tour fulfils geometric boundary conditions at the nozzle
throat and at the junction to the concave contour. The
design Mach number is controlled on the axis for the
case p1 = p∞.
Furthermore, the supersonic part of the nozzle with
negative curvature is calculated between the recent
expansion characteristic and the Mach line originating
from the point on the axis, where Ma = Ma1. The
nozzle contour of this part is determined by means of
backward characteristics and the wall streamline. The
pressure value on the contour is controlled for the
(2) optional case p1> p∞ and the nozzle shape is deter-
mined with a corresponding exit angle θ1.
CARD also determines the subsonic nozzle contour
using predetermined shape functions and generates a
flow-optimized wall configuration of the subsonic part,
Figure 4c. For given values of rk, R1, R2, and β, special
contour functions in the form of circular arcs according
to Pirumov and Roslyako [14] are defined
r = f (xk,rk,R2) for x ≤ x2, (7a)
r = f (x1,x2,r1,r2) for x2 ≤ x ≤ x1, (7b)
r = f (xt,rt,R1,R2) for x1 ≤ x ≤ xt. (7c)
Since no pressure disturbances can occur in the sub-
sonic range, this approach is sufficient. The variables
rk, R1, R2, and β must be adapted to the operating
conditions. The subsonic part has a clear influence on
the supersonic jet length Lsj. Small radii reduce Lsj
whereas large radii, i.e. a slim convergent nozzle
ection, induce large values for Lsj.
(4)
performed by means of a displacement thickness func-
tion [7] based on the reference temperature method [6].
Finally, the contour is smoothed using a Lagrange
polynomial of high order. Besides the optimized nozzle
shape, the iterative CARD calculation gives the exit
Mach number Ma1 [-], exit pressure p1 [Pa], exit
velocity u1 [m/s], exit temperature T1 [K], mass flow
rate m& [kg/s], exit momentum I1 [N], specific exit mo-
2
mentum I1s [N/m ], and supersonic jet length Lsj [m].
Influence of a shroud jet on the supersonic jet
In the EAF supersonic oxygen jets are used to mix the
melt and to accelerate the decarburization. Among
others, an important parameter requiring an accurate
prediction is the potential core length, which is defined
as the distance to the nozzle exit where the centerline
velocity reaches 99 % of the value at the nozzle exit.
For an efficient homogenization, the oxygen jet has to
penetrate into the melt with maximum speed, i.e. both,
potential core length and supersonic jet length restrict
the distance between nozzle and melt surface. Maxi-
mizing these values leads to an increased nozzle life-
(6) time, since the sticking of slag/metal droplets on the
nozzle tip can be reduced with increasing distance to
the melt. Murakami and Papamoschou [11] investi-
gated the influence of a secondary, coflowing stream
on the potential core length of the primary jet with
emphasis to supersonic jet noise production and pro-
posed a semi-empirical model. The impact of the coflow on the primary potential core
To derive the relations for this model, three different length is evident when evaluating eq. (11) with differ-
shear layer configurations are considered, namely ent parameters. Table 3 shows the ratio Lp,coax/Lp,single
a) the single jet in still environmental conditions, b) the with three varying parameter, i.e. the secondary Mach
single jet in an unbounded coflow, and c) the coaxial number Mas,coax = us/as, the ratio H/Dp and the tem-
jet [11]. For each configuration, an expression for the perature of the secondary stream Ts,coax. The flow
different potential core length is given based on experi- conditions of the primary jet at the exit of nozzle B are
mental results and classical shear layer relations. In Map = 1.91, Tp = -108.5°C, T∞ = 1600°C, pp = ps=
the equations below, the indices “p” and “s” stand for p∞=1.23 bar. Note, that in the context of the shroud jet
the primary and secondary jet/stream at the nozzle exit the index “1” for the nozzle exit condition is replaced
position, respectively. Sketches can be taken from [11]. by the index “p”.
a) For the single jet (index “single”), the following rela- In the case of a secondary stream with Ts,coax = T∞ =
tion is used to approximate the potential core length, 1600°C, H/Dp = 0.5, and Mas,coax = 0.3 the potential
see Figure 3, based on the growth rate model in [13] core length Lp,coax/Lp,single is increased by 57 % com-
pared to the single jet case. Based on the model,
eq. (11), it is obvious that the potential core length can
L p,single
Dp
{ [
= 0.14(1 + S ∞p ) 0.23 + 0.77 exp( −3.5Ma c2∞p ) ]}−1 be stretched by increasing 1) Mas,coax, 2) Ts,coax, and
3) H/Dp. The results further show that the spreading
ρ∞ up rate of the primary jet can be reduced by a coaxial jet
with S ∞p = , Ma c∞p = , (8) configuration, thus leading to an increased primary
ρp (a p + a ∞ )
potential core length and an extended region of super-
sonic conditions of the primary jet. In the SIS unit, this
and Mac being the convective Mach number. fact is incorporated; to increase the potential core
length of the primary supersonic jet a secondary co-
b) The potential core length for the single jet in an
flow jet is used which consists of an exhaust gas from
unbounded coflow (index “coflow”) is
the combustion of natural gas with air at stoichiometric
conditions. The hot shroud gas induces a region of low
−1 density around the supersonic central jet and reduces
Lp,coflow  (1 − R sp )(1 + Ssp ) 
= 0.14 [ 2 )
0.23 + 0.77 exp( −3.5Macsp  ] the growth rate of the turbulent mixing layer; the over-
Dp  1 + R sp Ssp  all jet length increases. Results of CFD simulations for
us ρs up − u s nozzle F are presented at the conference.
with R sp = , S sp = , Ma csp = . (9)
up ρp (a p + a s )
Table 2: Influence of three different parameters
(Mas,coax, H/Dp, Ts,coax) on the potential core length of
c) In case of a coaxial jet (index “coaxial”), which is the the primary jet (Map = 1.91, Tp = -108.5°C, T∞ =
standard configuration for the SIS unit, there are two 1600°C, pp = ps= p∞= 1.23 bar)
potential cores. The secondary of which can be ex- Ts,coax= T∞= 1600°C Mas,coax = 0.3 Mas,coax = 0.3
pressed using the previously evaluated quantity Lp,coflow
H/Dp = 0.5 Ts,coax = 827°C H/Dp = 0.5
L p,coax Lp,coax Lp,coax
H  L p,coflow / Dp  Mas,coax H/Dp Ts,coax [°C]
L s,coax L p,sin gle Lp,sin gle Lp,sin gle
=α   , with
Dp Dp  δ sL p,coflow / Dp + 1  0.9 1.74 0.4 1.42 400 1.41
 
0.7 1.66 0.3 1.34 800 1.46
0.5 1.61 0.2 1.24 1200 1.56
[
δ s = 0.14 (1 + S ∞s ) 0.23 + 0.77 exp ( −3.5 Ma c2∞s ) , ] 0.3 1.57 0.1 1.13 1600 1.66

ρ∞ us D s − Dp
S∞s = , Ma c∞s = , H= . (10) Investigated nozzles
ρs (a s + a ∞ ) 2
Figure 5 shows the six nozzle variants investigated.
Nozzle A is a conventional supersonic nozzle as typi-
The factor α = 2.8 has been determined from experi- cally used for metallurgical applications. This nozzle is
mental data [11]. designed according to the isentropic theory and has a
Based on the relations (8) - (10), the potential core tapered subsonic part, a throat section with constant
length of the primary stream of the coaxial jet can be diameter and a tapered supersonic part.
approximated as Nozzle B has the same flow conditions as nozzle A,
but is designed with CARD. For design reasons nozzle
L p,coax  L s,coax   L p,coflow − L p,single  B must be very compact requiring a connecting diame-
= 1 + tanh  β   ter of 57 mm and a short as possible supersonic part.
L p,single  
 L p,coflow  L p,single  Nozzle C has the same flow conditions as nozzle A.
with β = 2.8. (11) However, all CARD input parameters are freely
selectable. This nozzle produces an optimized flow.
Nozzles D and E are made for the experiments and decelerated to approx. zero velocity in the settling
are designed with CARD. Due to the limited generation chamber. The stagnation pressure is assumed to be
of compressed air, both nozzles are manufactured equal to the static pressure which is recorded by a
smaller than conventional SIS nozzles. Kulite XCQ-080-35bar pressure transducer placed
Nozzle F is a variant which is installed in a 120-t EAF inside the chamber wall. The dynamic pressure is
as SIS unit and for which operating data were acquired. measured along the jet axis and in several cross
Nozzle F is currently used to simulate the influence of sections by a fixed Pitot tube with a Kulite XCQ-080-17
the hot shroud jet on the cold central jet. bar pressure transducer.
To visualize the air jet, high-speed photography is
used to obtain highly time-resolved Schlieren images
of the flow. Figure 6 shows the optical setup corres-
ponding to the classic Toepler-Z-configuration. A con-
ventional LED is used as light source. Two spherical
mirrors with a focal length of 2.0 m generate parallel
light beams crossing the jet. A rectangular filter mask
is placed close to the focal plane of the first spherical
A B C D E F
mirror. A vertical razor blade serves as a cut-off device
Designed Isentr. CARD*
in the focal plane of the second spherical mirror. A
Gas O2 O2 O2 air air O2
& 0 m3/hstp
cylindrical lens is used to minimize the astigmatism
V 3068 3068 3068 300 300 3000
error. Moreover, aberration errors introduced by the
Input data
p0 bar 8.4 8.4 8.4 8.4 13.0 10.0 spherical mirrors are minimized by keeping the off-axis
T0 °C 20 20 20 27 27 20
angles small (γ1,2 ≈ 7°). The camera is a high-speed
p∞ bar 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.00 1.00 1.01
Shimadzu HPV-1 digital camera with a frame rate of
T∞ °C 1650 1650 1650 20 20 1650
&
up to 1 million Hertz. A constant spatial resolution of
m kg/s 1.215 1.215 1.215 0.108 0.108 1.190
312 x 260 pixels is maintained for all recordings. For
D* mm 27.1 27.8 28.0 9.5 7.8 25.2
nozzle E, two Schlieren images for an under-
Output data

D1 mm 33.8 35.1 35.5 12.8 11.8 35.7

expanding and over-expanding flow are shown.
θ1 ° 2.4 0 0 0 0 0
Ldiff mm 79 52 73 26 27 61
T1 °C -108 -109 -108 -110 -129 -121
u1 m/s 472 472 472 524 560 508 Numerical methods
Ma1 - 1.91 1.91 1.91 2.05 2.33 2.16 The results of the RANS (Reynolds Averaged Navier-
*) Nozzle contour is boundary layer corrected; throat at x = 0 Stokes) simulations are compared to the Direct
Figure 5: Design data of the nozzles; output data was Numerical Simulations (DNS). It should be empha-
calculated by isentropic theory (A) or by CARD (B - F); sized that a supersonic jet flow is not fixed in terms of
D, E are model nozzles for experiments at SWL space and time, but shows a transient, turbulent be-
havior which cannot be predicted by time-averaged
simulations. However, RANS is used to calculate the
Experimental setup integral, i.e. time-averaged values such as Lsj. The
At the Shock Wave Laboratory (SWL) of the RWTH RANS simulations are carried out with ANSYS
Aachen University nozzles D and E have been studied, FLUENT 12.1.4, the DNS is carried out with the
Figure 6. The nozzle is located on a heavy frame. WENO-DNS code developed at the SWL. Compared
to RANS computations DNS does not require any
turbulence or subgrid models since the complete
range of turbulent scales is resolved.

Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)

Figure 6: Experimental setup for the Schlieren optics
and the dynamic pressure measurement; Schlieren
images for nozzle E
A pressure tube (di = 32 mm) connects the nozzle to a
3
1.425 m tank of pressured air at 50 bar. The mass
flow rate is adjusted by a special valve and the air is
Depending on the application, the compressible
steady-state flow of gas inside and outside the nozzle
is calculated either with an axisymmetric (2D-RANS
with 0.6 million cells for nozzles A, B) or a full three-
dimensional hexahedral grid (3D-RANS with 7.3 mil-
lion cells for nozzles D, E). The grids are adapted to
pressure gradients to capture compression/expansion
waves if needed. The density based solver with implicit
linearization is used. The standard kε-model or SST-
kϖ model with enhanced near-wall treatment is used
for turbulence modeling. In general, pressure boun-
dary conditions are applied to the computational do-
main at the inlet and ambient outlet. Second-order
upwind schemes are used to discretize the governing
equations, i.e. flow, turbulent kinetic energy and turbu-
lent dissipation rate. Pressure gradient and viscous
heating effects are included when solving the energy
equation in the density-based solver. The Courant
criterion is set to be smaller than five. The ANSYS
FLUENT simulations are executed on a Linux cluster
using 5 CPU´s.
Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
For the DNS of the transient supersonic nozzle and
the free jet flow a numerical method of high order in
space and time with shock-capturing properties is
necessary. High-order CFD methods - here larger than
four - are characterized by a low numerical dissipation
and are able to resolve and transport flow structures
with small wavelengths correctly. In general, high-
order methods compared to traditional upwind
methods (TVD - Total Variation Diminishing) of second
or third order are able to resolve smaller flow struc-
tures on the same grid. The computational costs of
such methods are, however, high. In compressible
flows with large flow gradients numerical oscillations of
the residuals are observed. The continuous growth of
such oscillations may lead to a simulation failure.
The numerical oscillations can be prevented by the
introduction of explicit/implicit dissipation terms. This
should be applied only in areas of large flow gradients.
In areas with a smooth solution the numerical dissipa-
tion should be small to correctly transport small-scale
structures. High-order methods with shock-capturing
properties therefore use special algorithms to detect
large gradients in the flow field and then to locally
increase the numerical dissipation.
The applied DNS method is based on WENO
(Weighted Essentially Non-Oscillatory) operators for
the spatial approximation of inviscid fluxes. This
method was successfully applied for unsteady up-
stream moving pressure waves in a transonic airfoil
flow [8]. The comparison with experimental data pro-
vides a good agreement of the observed phenomena.
In the numerical method the compressible NS (Navier-
Stokes) equations for generalized coordinates are
used. The spatial discretization of the fluxes is based
on high order finite differences. The viscous fluxes are
approximated using a central difference method of
tenth order. The inviscid fluxes are approximated using
the WENO operators of ninth order with shock-
capturing characteristics to achieve a stable solution in
the transonic regime. The WENO method is character-
ized by an adaptive stencil based on the grid points for
the approximation. The adaptivity is controlled by the
smoothness of the solution. In areas of a smooth solu-
tion optimal weights are chosen to enable a possible
low-dissipation and low-dispersion solution. An explicit
TVD method, the low-storage Runge-Kutta (RK)
method of third order is used for time integration. The
spectral characteristics of the WENO method for
optimal weights were examined based on the von
Neumann analysis.
The computational domain is subdivided into two
areas, the nozzle and the free jet. Inside the nozzle,
which always corresponds to the designed CARD
nozzle shape, the flow is calculated in axisymmetric
coordinates (150 x 200 cells). The free jet is simulated
as two-dimensional flow (3850 x 600 cells) in order to
reduce the computational effort. Thus, the computa-
tional grid consists of 2.34 million cells. The boundary
and shear layer are highly refined and well resolved.
The DNS code is parallelized using MPI (Message
Passing Interface) and is run on 234 processors of the
Xeon Cluster of the Computing and Communications
Center at the RWTH Aachen University. Compared to
RANS, the DNS is much more time-consuming.
Results
Supersonic nozzles designed with CARD
Exemplarily, Figure 7 shows the result of the design
process for nozzle B using CARD. The subsonic part
was specified empirically by radii functions, see eq. (7).
The supersonic part was calculated from the initial line
up to the last characteristic or Mach line, respectively.
The last Mach line starts on the nozzle axis with
Ma = Ma1 and ends on the wall. The flow downstream
of the last characteristic is homogeneous with
Ma = Ma1. The nozzle works at the design point and
does not show disturbances in the flow field. The dis-
placement effect of the flow boundary layer is also
shown in Figure 7 . Due to the decelerated flow inside
the boundary layer, the mass flow changes slightly. At
a given mass flow, the nozzle diameter predicted with
CARD is always slightly larger than the diameter
predicted with the isentropic theory.
Figure 7: Nozzle B - Mach number distribution calcu-
lated by CARD. Design conditions: p0 = 8.4 bar, T0 =
293 K, V&0 = 3068 m /hstp, p∞ = 1.23 bar, κ = 1.43, R0 =
3
259.83 J/kgK, rk = 2.1, R2 = 4.0, R = R1 = 4.0, β = 30°.
Nozzle shape without/with boundary layer correction
CARD allows the determination of the nozzle shape as
a function of the flow parameters. Within this work a
parameter study has been done. The influence of the
curvature radii R, R1, R2, the stagnation pressure p0,
the exit pressure p1, and the ambient pressure p∞ on
the exit momentum I1 and the specific exit momentum
I1s has been investigated. This study ensures that the
central supersonic jet is always designed for the maxi-
mum outlet momentum (target variable 1) at smallest
possible pressure disturbances (target variable 2).
Figure 8 shows selected results for the total exit
momentum I1 [N] and the specific exit momentum I1s
2
[N/m ], where the exit pressure p1 has been varied
between 1.23 and 1.6 bar and the ambient pressure supersonic jet length than nozzle A with Lsj = 0.662 m
p∞ = 1.23 bar was assumed to be constant. Corres- (Lsj/D1 = 19.6). In the improved nozzle B, the super-
pondingly, the wall angle θ1 at the exit of the nozzle sonic jet length thus increases by around 5 %.
varies with different values of p1. This means that
every point in the diagram represents a nozzle with a
slightly modified shape (length, diameter, outlet angle).
As expected, an increase of the total exit momentum I1
and specific exit momentum I1s is observed with
increasing stagnation pressure p0. Besides, the total
exit momentum I1 decreases and the specific exit mo-
mentum I1s shows a small increase with increasing exit
pressure p1. The latter statement is noteworthy. It
means that the specific outlet momentum I1s for a
slightly under-expanding nozzle (θ1 > 0°) is a little
higher than the one of a nozzle with parallel outlet
(θ1 = 0°). The moderate under-expansion (p1 > p∞,
θ1 arbitrary) may be used to generate a pump mode of Figure 9: Nozzles A, B - 2D-RANS, velocity distribution
the supersonic jet which, according to DNS, seems to in the hot ambience. Design conditions: p0 = 8.4 bar,
be associated with a slightly longer supersonic jet T0 = 20°C, V&0 = 3068 m /hstp, p1 = p∞ = 1.23 bar,
3

length. However, this phenomenon has not yet been T∞ = 1650°C

verified and is currently still under investigation.

Figure 10 shows the situation from Figure 9 in an

Figure 8: Nozzle B - a) Total exit momentum I1 [N],
2
b) specific exit momentum I1s [N/m ] as a function of
the nozzle exit angle θ1 for the variation of the total
pressure p0 and the exit pressure p1 > p∞ ; p∞ = 1.23
bar, T0 = 293 K, V&0 = 3068 m /hstp, κ = 1.43, R0 =
3
enlarged version. Although diameter ratio D*/D1 and
pressure ratio p*/p0 have been exactly matched to one
another, pressure disturbances arise inside and out-
side of nozzle A. The quality of the jet deteriorates.
The more the nozzle is operating outside its design
point, the more intensive the pressure disturbances
are. For nozzle B, flow disturbances do not occur and
the jet exits the nozzle undisturbed. The nozzle B can
be manufactured around 30 % shorter, but still pro-
duces a more efficient supersonic jet than nozzle A.

259.83 J/kgK, rk = 2.1, R2 = 4.0, R = R1 = 4.0, β = 30°

Figure 9 shows results of 2D-RANS simulations for

nozzles A and B. The numerical conditions have been
chosen such that both nozzles are operated at the
same design point. While nozzle A has conventional,
tapered walls, nozzle B has a bell-shaped geometry
designed with CARD for p0 = 8.4 bar, T0 = 20°C, V &0 =
3
3068 m /hstp, and p1 = p∞ = 1.23 bar, see Figure 5 .
In both cases the oxygen jet enters a hot environment Figure 10: Nozzles A, B - 2D-RANS, velocity distribu-
of 1650°C. The length Lp,single of the potential core and tion in the near nozzle region. Design conditions:
p0 = 8.4 bar, T0 = 20°C, V&0 = 3068 m /hstp, p1 = p∞ =
3
the supersonic jet length Lsj are shown. For nozzle A,
the simulation indicates an under-expansion (p1 = 1.32 1.23 bar, T∞ = 1650°C
bar > p∞ = 1.23 bar) and for nozzle B an expansion
roughly to ambient pressure (p1 = 1.24 bar ≈ p∞ = 1.23 Figure 11 shows instantaneous Mach number distribu-
bar). The agreement between the CARD-based outlet tions for the jets of nozzles B and C calculated by
Mach numbers Ma1,CARD, see values in Figure 5, and 2D-DNS. The flow inside the nozzle is very smooth
the CFD values Ma1,RANS is good (nozzle A: Ma1,CARD = without flow disturbances. This proves the quality of
1.91, Ma1,RANS = 1.83; nozzle B: Ma1,CARD = 1.91, the CARD designed nozzle shape. However, the axial
Ma1,RANS = 1.88). Nozzle B already indicates much symmetry and the stability of the jet stream is lost
improved flow characteristics, however, due to the already at x = 0.1 m behind the nozzle due to the mix-
necessary compact design it has not yet been opti- ing of the cold oxygen jet with the hot ambient oxygen.
mized. The diagram clearly shows that nozzle B with With increasing distance from the nozzle the instabili-
Lsj = 0.695 m (Lsj/D1 = 19.8), has a slightly higher
ties grow and the jet becomes asymmetric. A strong
vortex formation is observed. A supersonic jet is char-
acterized by highly transient, turbulent phenomena. It
is only by time-averaging over around 300 DNS time
steps that the stable, almost axisymmetric flow
structures known from RANS simulations are obtained.
Nozzle B Nozzle C
t1 = 0 s
-3
t3 = 3.4⋅10 s
Figure 11: Nozzles B, C - 2D-DNS, instantaneous
Mach number distribution. Design conditions: p0 = 8.4
bar, T0 = 20°C, V&0 = 3068 m /hstp, p1 = p∞ = 1.23 bar,
3
T∞ = 1650°C
Figure 12 shows the time-averaged Mach number in
the case of 2D-RANS and 2D-DNS. Focusing at noz-
zle B, the physical variables at the nozzle exit are cal-
culated very well by both methods. In the case of the
RANS simulation, the jet velocity up to Lp,single = 0.602
m is constant and then decreases steadily due to vis-
cous effects. The supersonic jet length is Lsj = 0.695 m.
Figure 12: Nozzles B, C - 2D-RANS and 2D-DNS; for
2D-DNS time-averaged Mach number distribution is
-3
based on a time period of 8.76⋅10 s. Design condi-
tions: p0 = 8.4 bar, T0 = 20°C, p1 = p∞ = 1.23 bar,
V&0 = 3068 m /hstp, T∞ = 1650°C
3
The two-equation turbulence model obviously calcu-
lates a relatively high level of energy dissipation com-
pared to DNS. The DNS solution shows a potential
core length of Lp,single = 0.249 m and a supersonic jet
length of Lsj = 0.792 m. Downstream this point, the
velocity decreases more slowly than with the RANS
solution. Nozzle C has a CARD-optimized shape
where the subsonic part is long and narrow to mini-
mize disturbances in the boundary layer. This case
was calculated by DNS and shows both an increased
potential core length Lp,single = 0.327 m and an
increased supersonic jet length Lsj = 1.080 m.
Figure 13 shows the Mach number on the jet axis for
nozzles A, B, and C as well as the normalized jet
lengths Lp,single/D1 and Lsj/D1. Not every nozzle was
calculated with every CFD method. The pressure fluc-
tuations in the potential core of nozzle A can be seen.
The supersonic jet length Lsj is predicted more or less
identically by the RANS and DNS method. For
example, for nozzle B, RANS calculates Lsj = 0.695 m
(Lsj/D1 = 19.8) and DNS Lsj = 0.792 m (Lsj/D1 = 22.6).
However, RANS calculates a much larger length
Lp,single of the potential core than DNS (RANS: Lp,single =
0.602 m and Lp,single/D1 = 17.1; DNS: Lp,single = 0.249 m
and Lp,single/D1 = 7.1). In the subsonic region, a reverse
behavior arises. Here, the RANS method yields a
lower velocity and Mach number than the DNS. At
position x = 1.5 m, e. g., it is MaRANS = 0.27 and
MaDNS = 0.74.
Figure 13: Nozzles A, B, C - 2D-RANS and 2D-DNS.
Design conditions p0 = 8.4 bar, T0 = 20°C, V&0 = 3068
3
m /hstp, p1 = p∞ = 1.23 bar, T∞ = 1650°C
The major differences between 2D-RANS and
2D-DNS are on the one hand due to the symmetry
condition along the jet axis, and on the other hand to
the different turbulence treatment. The two-equation
turbulence model affects the dissipation rate and
thereby the jet length. The jet far downstream, e.g.,
widens to a much larger degree with RANS than with
DNS, see Figure 12. This leads to different Mach
number distributions, especially in the subsonic jet
region. In the supersonic region, the transient, asym-
metrical jet behavior in the DNS, considered time-
averaged, leads to a shorter potential core length than
the RANS solution. Further simulations are needed to
clarify the discrepancies between RANS and DNS.
Figure 14 shows the Mach number (full lines, left axis)
and velocity (dotted lines, right axis) along the jet axes
for nozzles D and E. These are downscaled nozzles
that were investigated both by way of experiments and
CFD. As an example, a 3D-RANS simulation was
made for nozzle D (design point p0 = 8.4 bar,
T0 = 27°C, V& 0 = 300 m3/hstp, p1 = p∞ = 1.00 bar) in
which the oxygen enters a) the hot environment
(T∞ = 1500°C) and b) the cold environment (T∞ = 20°C).
In both cases the calculated values at the exit of the
nozzle are nearly the same, see Table 3.
Table 3: Nozzles D, E - 3D-RANS calculation, exit “1”
Nozzle T∞ [°C] p1 [bar] T1 [°C] ρ1 [kg/m3] u1 [m/s] Ma1 [-]
D 1500 / 20 1.00 -103.9 2.29 489 1.98
E 20 1.02 -124.9 2.65 515 2.23
Due to the low ambient density and the associated low
friction between jet and ambiance, the velocity in case
a) is much higher than in case b). At the position
x = 1.0 m downstream the nozzle, the jet velocity is
ucase a) = 120 m/s and ucase B) = 60 m/s, i.e., the velocity
doubles in a hot environment. However, the curve of
the Mach number along the jet axis is the same in both
cases, as it is calculated with the local temperature
(Ma = u/√κRT). At a higher inlet pressure, but un-
changed flow rate, nozzle E (design point p0 = 13.0 bar,
T0 = 27°C, V & 0 = 300 m3/hstp, p1 = p∞ = 1.00 bar)
supplies a 14 % higher outlet Mach number as com-
pared to nozzle D, see Table 3. The advantage of the
higher outlet velocity is compensated with increasing
axial coordinate x. As compared to 2D-RANS,
3D-RANS yields a shorter normalized length Lp,single/D1
for the potential core (Nozzle Dcold: 7.4; Nozzle Dhot:
11.2; Nozzle E: 8.0) and a comparable normalized
supersonic jet length Lsj/D1 (Nozzle Dcold: 20.9; Nozzle
Dhot: 20.9; Nozzle E: 22.8). The potential core length is
in good agreement with the results of Alam et al. [1]
who calculated Lp,single/D1 = 10 for an oxygen jet exiting
at room ambient temperature. For nozzle E, the Mach
number and velocity calculated by 3D-RAND shows a
very good agreement with the experimental results.
Figure 14: Nozzles D, E - 3D-RANS (line) vs. experi-
ment (symbols); distribution of the Mach number (con-
tinuous line) and velocity (dotted line) along the nozzle
axis. Nozzle design conditions according to Figure 5
Simulation for an EAF
The results achieved for single supersonic jets are
implemented in the CFD model for the overall EAF
system. By way of an example, Figure 15 shows the
result of an incompressible, transient, multi-phase, and
non-isothermal CFD simulation for a 250-ton AC
HDRI-EAF (HDRI - Hot Direct Reduced Iron) with
three SIS units (SIS1-3) and three carbon injectors
(C1-3). The arrangement of additional lance manipula-
tors in the slag door or EBT (Eccentric Bottom Tapping)
area is possible. A special feature here is the addition
of HDRI through the fifth hole. According to the fur-
nace operating practice, approx. 600°C hot briquetted
3
HDRI (∅ ≈ 6 - 20 mm, ρ = 2100 kg/m ) is charged into
the hot area between the electrodes. The SIS injectors
are designed for V & 0 = 3300 m3/hstp and p0 = 10 bar
taking into account the metallurgical process inside the
furnace. The distance between the nozzle outlet and
the nominal melt level is between 1.23 m (SIS1,3) and
1.83 m (SIS2). The oxygen is homogeneously distri-
buted in the furnace and the decarburization reaction
[C] + ½ {O2} → {CO} is accelerated by the intensive
motion of the melt. In addition, carbon is injected into
the slag via the carbon injectors, with air used as con-
veying gas. The intention is to produce a foamy slag
that contains CO gas bubbles in order to enable long
arcs and to protect the panels against radiation.
The CFD simulation for the EAF is based on the
URANS (Unsteady RANS) equations in conjunction
with the SST-SAS (Shear Stress Transport - Scale
Adaptive Simulation) model [10]. The SST-SAS model
shows a finer resolution of the stochastic phenomena
than other turbulence models especially at the phase
boundaries. For the multi-phase flow of melt, slag, and
gas the VoF (Volume of Fluid) model is used [4]. The
DPM (Discrete Phase Model) is used to add HDRI
and/or coal particles to the computational domain. The
DPM model performs Lagrangian trajectory calcula-
tions for the dispersed phases, i. e. particles, droplets
or bubbles, including coupling with the continuous
phase. The carbon particles (∅ ≈ 1 to 3 mm,
3
ρ = 600 kg/m ) are injected at a maximum of Ma = 1 in
the form of a Rosin-Rammler distribution from the car-
bon injectors. The boundary conditions are based on a
preceding CFD simulation for a single carbon injector.
The slag door is closed. Air can enter the furnace
through the gaps between electrodes and furnace roof.
Coupling the compressible solver with the multi-phase
model (VoF, DPM) is not practicable for the EAF
system, among others because of the necessary small
time-step size. For this reason, the results for the com-
pressible simulation of the single supersonic jet, e.g.
p1, T1, ρ1, m& , and ρu2 along the jet axis, are used as
fundamental boundary conditions for the incompressi-
ble EAF simulation. This procedure ensures that the
simulated penetration depth of the oxygen jet into the
melt is comparable to the theory according to Koria
and Lange [9]. However, the longer supersonic jet
length with hot shrouding gas is considered by a
velocity gain factor.
In the CFD model the electrodes touch the melt sur-
face, the wall temperature rises to 2500°C towards the
tip of the electrode. The influence of the foamy slag is
taken into account by a 0.5 m thick slag layer. How-
ever, the foaming process itself is not simulated. The
grid consists of 4.6 million tetrahedral cells. The calcu-
lation was executed on a Linux Cluster using 7 CPU´s.
Figure 15 shows the oxygen jets and the velocity
distribution in the melt domain. The slag phase is hid-
den. The jets of the SIS units and carbon injectors can
be recognized as light green iso-volume that includes
the velocity range between 6 and 100 m/s. The SIS
jets induce a transient movement of the melt surface
which is marked yellow. The penetration depth of the
impinging jets varies. Maximum values are approx.
0.41 m (SIS1,3) and 0.25 m (SIS2). Compared with
Koria and Lange [9], who predict values of 0.21 m
(SIS1,3) and 0.14 m (SIS2), the CFD simulation, due
to the transient effects, results in periodically higher
penetration depths. The SIS units are arranged that
the melt gets into a slightly revolving movement, with
the velocity at the melt/slag interface being higher than
in the hot heel. Among others, the CFD simulation
yields statements on the wall shear stress which,
together with the melt temperature and dynamic
2 S.; Porzucek, F.: Theoretical and experimental
pressure ρ/2⋅u can be used to locally predict the
refractory wear rate.
Figure 15: 3D-URANS simulation of a 250 t HDRI
EAF; SIS-injector (oxygen), C-carbon lance (oxygen),
free melt level (yellow); a) melt flow velocity with
oxygen-iso-volume (light green, 6 - 100 m/s)
Summary
Based on the method of characteristics for rotationally
symmetric supersonic nozzles, the CARD software
was developed. It can be used to design the optimal
nozzle shape for SIS units operated in EAF's. The
shape ensures that the nozzle operates undisturbed
and reliable. The jet momentum at the nozzle outlet is
maximized and a large supersonic jet length is induced.
A high oxygen transfer into the melt is realized.
Another benefit is that with improved efficiency, the
nozzle length can be reduced by approx. 30 %,
thereby saving material costs. Various nozzles
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designed with CARD were investigated experimentally
and numerically. On the numerical side, 2D/3D simula-
tions with RANS and DNS solvers were performed.
The RANS simulations supplied shorter jet lengths
than the time-dependant DNS. This can be explained
by the turbulence modeling and the larger energy
dissipation with RANS. The comparison between
experiment and 3D-RANS result is good. The basic
influence of the shroud jet on the central supersonic jet
is discussed as well. Further investigations are
currently under way, especially with respect to the
optimized shrouding jet and to the experimental
validation of the RANS and DNS simulations.
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