Phys 321: Lecture 3

Stellar Spectra and HR Diagram

Prof. Bin Chen

Tiernan Hall 101
bin.chen@njit.edu
Stellar Spectra
 Spectral Type of Stars
• Earlier the spectra were
classified based on the Balmer
lines (A, B)
• Later the spectra are re-
ordered in surface temperature
using the continuum as the
guide (Annie J. Cannon) Annie Jump Cannon
Who classified over 200,000
stellar spectra included in the
O, B, A, F, G, K, M (Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy Kiss Me) Henry Draper Catalogue
(early) (late)

...B7, B8, B9, A0, A1, A2, A3, ..., A7, A8, A9, F0, F1... etc.
(early A) (late A)
 Physics behind different spectral types

Temperature

Temperature
Difference in
atomic structure

Strong/weak lines Lines appear/disappear

Questions
As a function of temperature
• In what orbitals are electrons most likely to be
found?
• What are the relative numbers of atoms in various
stages of ionization?

Statistical Mechanics
 ar spectra for main-sequence classes O9–F5. Note that these spectra are displayed
tion lines appear bright. Wavelengths are given in angstroms. (Figure from Abt,
ow-Dispersion Grating Stellar Spectra, Kitt Peak National Observatory, Tucson,

Maxwell-Boltzmann velocity distribution

as is not rapidly increasing or decreasing in temperature, for instance), the
ann velocity distribution function5 describes the fraction of particles
ge of speeds. The number of gas particles per unit volume having speeds
+ dv is given by
Particle mass
! m "3/2
−mv 2 /2kT
nv dv = n e 4πv 2 dv, (1)
2πkT

mes Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906), the latter of whom is considered
al mechanics.
Total number Temperature Velocity
density (# per m3)
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of molecular speeds in terms
A8V
having a speed between v and v + dv. The exponent of the
1 2
o of a gas particle’s kinetic energy,A9-F0V 2 mv , to the characteristic
Maxwell-Boltzmann velocity distribution
cult for a significant number of particles to have an energy
thermal
500
energy;
600
the700distribution peaks
The Classification
800
when these energies
900 of Stellar Spectra
speedMostofWavelength
probable(nm)
speed 7
Hydrogen atoms with T = 10,000 K
of main sequence classes
! O5–F0 displayed in terms of relative flux vmp = 1.29 ¥ 10 4 m s–1
ern spectravobtained by2kT
digital detectors
6
(as opposed to photographic vrms = 1.57 ¥ 10 4 m s–1
mp = . (2)
aphically. (Data from Silva
m and Cornell, Ap.5 J. Suppl., 81, 865, 1992.)

nv /n (10 –5 s m–1)
4

ail” of the distribution function results

3 in a somewhat higher

speed6Root-mean-square
of
2
(average) speed
! 1
3kT
vrms = . 0
(3)
m 0 1 vmp vrms 2 3 4
Speed (104 m s–1)

FIGURE 6 Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution function, nv /n, for hydrogen atoms at a te

der the curve between two speeds
of 10,000 isfraction
K. The equaloftohydrogen
the fraction
atoms inof
thegas
gas having velocities between 2 × 104
 electrons.
nd for the specific set of quantum numbers that identifies
The Boltzmann
of particles. Similarly, let sbEquation
stand for the set of quantum nu
ergy Eb . For example, Ea = −13.6 eV for the lowest or
a = {n = 1, ℓof=
• Orbitals 0, menergy
higher ℓ = 0,aremless
s =likely
+1/2} to beidentifying a
occupied5.4
recall Section by electrons
for a discussion of quantum numbers). T
(sb ) that the system is in state sb to the probability P (sa )
venProbability
by of the system in state S
b Energy in state S
b

Temperature

P (sb ) e−Eb /kT

= −E /kT = e−(Eb −Ea )/kT ,
P (sa ) e a
he Probability
common of the temperature
system in state S
a
of theEnergy
two systems. The term e
in state S
a
actor.7
= ±1/2).8 In the same manner, the “first excited state” actually co
ate quantum states with the same energy of −3.40 eV.
The Boltzmann Equation
2 shows the set of quantum numbers {n, ℓ, mℓ , ms } that identifie
ws each state’s energy. Notice that there are g1 = 2 ground states w
Often
13.6• eV, andmore
g2 = than
8 firstone statestates
excited can have theenergy
with the same E2 = −3.40
energy – the energy levels may be degenerate
• E.g., in a hydrogen atom
• n = 1 (-13.6 eV) state is two fold degenerate -> g = 2
• nprobability
atio of the = 2 (-3.40 eV)
P state
(Eb )isthat
eight
thefold degenerate
system will be-> g = 8in any of th
found
th energy Eb to the probability P (Ea ) that the system is in any of the
Probability of the system in Energy E
ith energy Ea is given by b Statistical weight of Eb state(s)
Temperature

P (Eb ) gb e−Eb /kT gb −(Eb −Ea )/kT

= −E /kT
= e .
P (Ea ) ga e a ga

tmospheres contain a vast number of atoms, so the ratio of probab

Probability of the system in energy Ea Statistical weight of Ea state(s)
able from the ratio of the number of atoms. Thus, for the atoms of a
 2 1 0 +1/2 −3.40
2 1 0 −1/2 −3.40
2 1 −1 +1/2 −3.40
The Boltzmann Equation
2 1 −1 −1/2 −3.40

• For a large number of atoms (as in stellar

atmosphere), the ratio of probabilities is
mber of indistinguishable from
atoms Na with energy Ea the ratio ofstates
in different numbers of
of excitation is given
atoms:
mann equation,

Nb gb e−Eb /kT gb −(Eb −Ea )/kT

= −E /kT
= e .
Na ga e a ga

ple 1.3. For a gas of neutral hydrogen atoms, at what temperature wil
rs of atoms have electrons in the ground state (n = 1) and in the first excite
)?9 Recall from Example 1.2 that the degeneracy of the nth energy leve
 2 0 1 −1 −3.40
0 2 +1/2 −1/2 −3.40
2 0 0 −1/2 −3.40

Example
2 1
2 1
1 +1/2
1 −1/2
−3.40
−3.40
1 Na0with+1/2
the number of2 atoms energy Ea −3.40
in different states of excitation is given by the
• Degeneracy
Boltzmann 2 1
equation, 0 −1/2of hydrogen −3.40 atoms of energy level n is
2 12 −1 +1/2 −3.40
g=2n2 1 −1 −1/2 −E /kT−3.40
Nb gb e b gb −(Eb −Ea )/kT
• At what temperature
Na
=
ga e−Ea /kT
= (in
ga K) will equal numbers of H
e . (6)

I atoms have electrons in the ground state (n = 1, g

ofExample =a with
atoms N1.3. 2, Eenergy
For=a-13.6 eV) and
in neutral
Ea of
gas different statesinofatoms,
hydrogen the first
excitation is excited
at what given by thestate
temperature (n =
will equal
equation,
numbers of2, g
atoms= 8,
have E = -3.40
electrons in the eV)?
ground state (n = 1) and in the first excited state
(n = 2)?9 Recall from Example 1.2 that the degeneracy of the nth energy level of the
−E2b./kT
hydrogen atom Nbis gng= be
2n Associating
gb −(Estate a with the ground state and
b −Ea )/kT k = 1.38 x 10
state b with the
-23 J/K,
first excited state,=setting−ENa2/kT
=N=1 on the (6)the equation
e left-hand .side of Eq. (6), and using
Na ga e ga 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J
for the energy levels lead to
The Classification of Stellar Spectra
2(2)2 −[(−13.6 eV/22 )−(−13.6 eV/12 )]/kT
3. 1 = hydrogen
For a gas of neutral e atoms, at what
Solving for temperature , willyields
the temperature equal10
2(1)2
atoms have electrons in the ground state (n = 1) and in the first excited state
ecall
or from Example 1.2 that the degeneracy of the nth energy level of T =the10.2 eV = 8.54 × 104 K.
om is gn = 2n2 . Associating state a with the ground state and state b with thek ln (4)
10.2
state, setting N2 = N1 on the left-hand eVof Eq. (6), and using the equation
side = ln (4).
High temperatures are required for a significant number of h
y levels lead to kT
trons in the first excited state. Figure 7 shows the relative oc
 Strength of Hydrogen Balmer lines
Balmer series: n = 2 -> n = 2, 3, 4, …

Temperature
Higher T
-> more electrons populate n = 2 level
-> more transitions from n = 2 level
Balmer lines strongest at A0 (~9520
-> stronger Balmer lines? Why? K). Weaker for later and earlier
spectral types.
Strength of Hydrogen Balmer lines
• Higher T
-> more electrons populate n = 2 level
-> stronger Balmer lines
• Even higher T, atoms become ionized!
-> less atoms have any electrons at all
-> weaker Balmer lines

Ionization Stages:
H I = neutral hydrogen
H II = ionized hydrogen
He I = neutral helium
He II = singly-ionized helium
He III = doubly-ionized helium
Ionization of hydrogen from the ground n=1 state
requires photons with wavelength less than 91 nm.
What is the minimum wavelength to ionize from the
n=2 level?

A. 45.5 nm
B. 125 nm
C. 182 nm
D. 364 nm
The Saha Equation
• To get a hydrogen atom’sThe electron fromofnStellar
Classification = 1 to n = 2, it
Spectra
needs 10.2 eV of energy
ion) in the ground state, thus taking it from ionization stage i to stage (i + 1
• To get thethesame electron
ionization energy to
of n = ∞ (and
hydrogen, the becomes
energy needed a HtoIIconvert it from
atom), itχonly needs
I = 13.6 3.4 eV more
eV. However, it may energy!
be that the initial and final ions are not in th
An average must be taken over the orbital energies to allow for the possible
• Let χ i bethe
the energy needed to remove an electron from an
atom’s electrons among its orbitals. This procedure involves calculatin
atom (orfunctions,
ion) in the ground
Z, for state,
the initial taking
and final it from
atoms. ionization
The partition function is simp
stage i tosum
stage i +number
of the 1. Forofhydrogen
ways the atomatoms, it is 13.6
can arrange eV. with the sam
its electrons
more energetic (and therefore less likely) configurations receiving less w
Boltzmann factor when the N sum is taken.
i: Number of If Ej isinthe
atoms energy of
ionization the ij th ener
stage
N i+1 Zis the degeneracy of that level, then the function
Z : partition partition for
function Z isstage
ionization defined
i as
~ i+1 exp(− χ i / kT ) i

Ni Zi ∞
gj e−(Ej −E1 )/kT .
!
Z=
j =1
 ∞
−(Ej −E1 )/kT
!
Z= gj e .
The Saha Equation
j =1

• Extra contribution from free electrons:

tition ->
functions i and Zi+1
more freeZelectrons, forchance
more the atom in Nits initial a
for the i+1
tio ofstage
the number of atoms
to recombine to Ni in stage (i + 1) to the number
stage
• Full Saha Equation:

#3/2
2Zi+1 2π me kT
"
Ni+1 −χi /kT
= e .
Ni ne Z i h2

known as the Saha

Electron equation,
number density after the Indian astroph
on) in the ground state, thus taking it from ionization stage i to stage (i + 1). For example,
he ionization energy of hydrogen, the energy needed to convert it from H I to H II, is
χI = 13.6 eV. However, it may be that the initial and final ions are not in the ground state.
Example: H between 5,000 and 25,000 K
An average must be taken over the orbital energies to allow for the possible partitioning of
he atom’s electrons among its orbitals. This procedure involves calculating the partition
unctions, Z, for the initial and final atoms. The partition function is simply the weighted
• Partition
um of the number of ways function forarrange
the atom can H II isitsZelectrons
II = 1, since
with thethere is nowith
same energy,
more energetic (and therefore less likely) configurations receiving less weight from the
Boltzmanndegeneracy
factor when the sumforisataken.
bareIf Eproton
j is the energy of the j th energy level and gj

• Partition
s the degeneracy of that function
level, then thefor H I: function Z is defined as
partition

∞
gj e−(Ej −E1 )/kT .
!
Z= (7)
j =1

f we use theLet’s justfunctions

partition take theZi first
and Ztwo terms
i+1 for (Why?)
the atom in its initial and final stages of
onization, the ratio of the number of atoms in stage (i + 1) to the number of atoms in stage
is Z ≈ 2+ 8exp(−[(−3.4eV )−(−13.6eV )]/kT ) = 2+ 8exp(−10.2eV / KT )
I

The thermal
Ni+1energy
2Zi+1kT for
2π m5,000 to 25,000
3/2
K is
" #
e kT −χ /kT
= e . i
(8)
from ~0.5 eV
Ni to 2.5
ne ZeV,
i so h2Z I ≈ 2
 II
of hydrogen is E2 − E1 = 10.2 eV above the ground state energy. Because 10.2
for the temperature regime under consideration, the Boltzmann factor e−(E2 −E
Nearly all of the H I atoms are therefore in the ground state (recall the previous
so Eq. ( 7) for the partition function simplifies to ZI ≃g1 = 2(1)2 = 2.
Example: H between 5,000 and 25,000 K
Inserting these values into the Saha equation with χI = 13.6 eV gives the ratio
to neutral hydrogen, NII /NI . This ratio is then used to find the fraction of ionized
NII /Ntotal , by writing
• Inserting the values we get NII/NI
NII NII NII /NI
• Sometimes we want N
The Classification of Stellar Spectra =
NI + NII
=
1 + NII /NI
;
total
1.0

0.9
the results are displayed in Fig. 8. This figure shows that when T = 5000 K,
none of the hydrogen atoms are ionized. At about 8300 K, 5% of the atoms ha
0.8
ionized. Half of the hydrogen is ionized at a temperature of 9600 K, and when T
0.7
11,300 K, all but 5% of the hydrogen is in the form of H II. Thus the ionization o
0.6
takes place within a temperature interval of Above T ~ 9,600
approximately 3000K,K.more
This range o
NII /Ntotal

0.5 tures is quite limited compared to the temperatures

than 50% of tens of millions of degree
of hydrogen
0.4 encountered inside stars. The narrow region inside a star where hydrogen is pa
0.3
atoms are ionized!
ized is called a hydrogen partial ionization zone and has a characteristic tem
0.2 approximately 10,000 K for a wide range of stellar parameters.
Now we can see why the Balmer lines are observed to attain their maximum
0.1
For Pe=nekT = 20 N m-2
0.0 a temperature of 9520 K, instead of at the much higher characteristic temperatu
5000
order10,000
of 85,00015,000
K) required 20,000
to excite25,000
electrons to the n = 2 energy level of hyd
Temperature (K)
strength of the Balmer lines depends on N2 /Ntotal , the fraction of all hydrogen
ow region inside totala star I whereII hydrogenII I is partially ion-
takes place within a temperature interval of approximately 3000 K. This range of
ionization
s are displayedtures zone
in Fig.is and has
8. This
quite a characteristic
figure
limited shows thattowhen
compared Ttemperature
= 5000 K, of
the temperatures of of millions of degrees
essentially
tens
he hydrogen atoms are ionized. At about 8300 K, 5% of the atoms have become
e range of stellar encountered parameters.
inside stars. The narrow region inside a star where hydrogen is parti
Half of the hydrogen is ionized at a temperature of 9600 K, and when T has risen to
er, alllines Combining
but 5% are izedhydrogen
is calledis
observed
of the toainBoltzmann
hydrogen
attain
the formtheir
partial
of H II. Thusand
maximumionization Saha
zone of
intensity
the ionization
and Equations
has
at a characteristic tempe
hydrogen
ce within a approximately
temperature interval 10,000
of K for a wide
approximately 3000 range
K. of stellar
This range parameters.
of tempera-
of at the muchNow higher characteristic temperatures (on the
uite limited compared towe thecan see why the
temperatures Balmer
of tens lines are
of millions of observed to attain their maximum in
degrees routinely
ite inside
red electrons
stars.a Theto narrow
the n region
temperature =of 29520
energy level
K, instead
inside a star of of
where hydrogen.
athydrogen
the muchishigher The
partially characteristic
ion- temperature
ds on •NLet’s order evaluate
, the K)what
fraction zoneof
fraction
all hydrogen of atoms
atoms theare
n = 2in
that the level
HI of hydro
lled a hydrogen
2 /N totalof
partial 85,000
ionization requiredand tohasexcite electrons
a characteristic to
temperature energy
of
s ately 10,000
found nbyK=strength
2 astate
for wide
combining responsible
of range
the Balmer lines
of stellar
the fortheBalmer
depends
parameters.
results of on lines
N2 /Ntotal
Boltzmann , theandN2/Ntotal
fraction of all hydrogen at
we can see whyare the in
Balmer linesexcited
the first are observed
state. to
This attain their maximum
is found by combiningintensitytheatresults of the Boltzm
all
atureof • Nearly
ofthe
9520 neutral
K,Saha
instead allof the
hydrogen neutral
at theBecause
equations. muchatomshigher hydrogen
are inalleither
characteristic
virtually atoms
the ground
of thetemperatures
neutral are either
(on the
hydrogen atoms arein in either th
an employ
85,000 n =state
K) required 1 toor
the or n =first
approximation
excite
the 2 excited
state
electrons Nn1 =+
to state,
the we2N 2 ≃N
energy
can leveland
employ write The N1 + N2 ≃NI a
of hydrogen.
I the approximation
of the Balmer lines depends on N2 /Ntotal , the fraction of all hydrogen atoms that
!first excited " state. ! This is found N2 by"combining
!!
N2 the results
" ! "of
NI
" the!Boltzmann and
N2 /N1
"!
1
"
ations. NIBecause virtually Nall2 /N =
1 neutral
of the hydrogen 1 atoms are in = either the ground .
= Ntotal N1 + N 2 Ntotal . 1 + N2 /N1 1 + NII /NI
he N first excited state,1we
total +can N2employ 1 + NII /NNI 1 + N2 ≃NI and write
/N1 the approximation
1 continued
! "! " ! "! "
N2 N2 NI N2 /N1
= = .
Ntotal N1 + N 2 Ntotal 1 + N2 /N1 1 + NII /NI
continued

Boltzmann Equation Saha Equation

 order of 85,000 K) required to excite electrons to the n
tate, then why do the Balmer lines reach their maximum intensity at a much lower
ure of 9520 K? Clearly, according to Eq. ( 6), at temperatures higher than 9520 K0.1
strength of the Balmer lines depends on N2 /Ntotal , the f
greater proportion of the electrons will be in the first excited state rather than in the
tate. If this is the case, then what is responsible for the diminishing strength of the0.0
are in the first 10,000
excited state. This is found20,000by combinin
ines at higher temperatures?

a Equation
Combining Boltzmann and Saha Equations 5000
Saha equations. Because
15,000
virtually
Temperature
25,000
(K)all of the neutral hydro

Nstate or the first excited state, we can employ the approx

wer lies in also considering the relative number of atoms in different stages of
−2
FIGURE
n. Let χ be the ionization energy needed to remove 8 an atom
an electron from II /Ntotal for hydrogen from the Saha equation when Pe = 20 N m
(or
N2/(N1+N2) ionization occurs at T ≃ 9600 K.
i

! "! " !
0.04
N2 N2 NI N2 /N
= =
0.03
Ntotal N1 + N 2 Ntotal 1 + N2
9
N2 /(N1 + N2)

0.02
8

0.01 7

6
N2 /Ntotal (10 –6 )
0.00
5000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Temperature (K) 5
URE 7 NII/Ntotal
The Classification of Stellar Spectra
N2 /(N1 + N2 ) for the hydrogen atom obtained via the Boltzmann equation.

1.0 4
0.9with electron volts, the Boltzmann constant can be expressed in the convenient form
e are working
3423 × 10−5 eV K −1 .
0.8
emainder of this section, we will use a = 1 for the ground state energy and b = 2 for the energy of the
3
d state. 0.7

0.6 2
NII /Ntotal

0.5

0.4 1
0.3

0.2
0
5000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
0.1
0.0
Temperature (K)
5000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Temperature (K)
 Strength of Different Spectral Lines
Question: For each calcium atom, there are 500,000 hydrogen atoms! But why in
The Classification of Stellar Spectra
the solar spectrum, the Ca II (H & K) lines are more profound than the Balmer lines?
Temperature (K)
50,000 25,000 10,000 8000 6000 5000 4000 3000

H
Ca II
Line strength

He II He I TiO

Ca I
Mg II Fe II Fe I
Si III
Si II
Si IV

O5 B0 A0 F0 G0 K0 M0 M7
Spectral type
Temperature Luminosity
Wien’s Law Stefan-Boltzmann Law

500nm L = 4π R 2σ T 4
T ≈ 6000K
λ peak
Color index Flux-distance relation
L
B-V F=
4π d 2
Spectral type Absolute magnitude

OBAFGKM ⎛ d ⎞
m − M = 5log10 ⎜ ⎟
T ⎝ 10 pc ⎠
 Hertzprung-Russell Diagram The Classification of Stellar Spectra

Hertzprung-Russell Diagram
• X axis: B-V color index or
spectral type
• Y axis: absolute magnitude

FIGURE 12 Henry Norris Russell’s first diagram, with spectral types listed along the top and
absolute magnitudes on the left-hand side. (Figure from Russell, Nature, 93, 252, 1914.)

Henry N. Russell’s first diagram (1914)

√
radius of the more luminous star is 100 = 10 times larger. On a logarithmically plotted
H–R diagram, the locations of stars having the same radii fall along diagonal lines that run
The Classification of Stellar Spectra
Hertzprung-Russell Diagram
O5 B0 A0 F0 G0 K0 M0 M7
–8

Supergiants
–4

nts
Gia
MV

4
Ma
in seq
uen
8 c e

12 Wh
ite
dw
arfs
16
–0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
B–V
The Classification of Stellar Spectra
Which star is the hottest?
O5 B0 A0 F0 G0 K0 M0 M7
–8

–4
A
Supergiants

0
B
nts
Gia
MV

4
Ma
in seq
8
uen
c e C
12 Wh
D
ite
dw
arfs
16
–0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
B–V
 The Classification of Stellar Spectra
Which star is the most luminous?
O5 B0 A0 F0 G0 K0 M0 M7
–8

–4
A
Supergiants

0
B
nts
Gia
MV

4
Ma
in seq
8
uen
c e C
12 Wh
D
ite
dw
arfs
16
–0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
B–V
 The Classification of Stellar Spectra
Which star has the largest radius?
O5 B0 A0 F0 G0 K0 M0 M7
–8

–4
A
Supergiants

0
B
nts
Gia
MV

4
Ma
in seq
8
uen
c e C
12 Wh
D
ite
dw
arfs
16
–0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
B–V
 3700 stars are included here with parallax measurements determined to better than 20%. (
of the European Space Agency.)

Theorist’s HR Diagram
7
100
A theorist’s HR diagram: 6 O5 R
• X axis: Temperature Supergiants
5
• Y axis: Luminosity B0
4 1R Ma
in seq
3 uen
c e
Log10 (L /L )

2 A0
2 4 Giants
L = 4π R σ T 1
F0
G0
K0
0 0.01
R M0
–1
Wh
ite d
–2 w arfs M7
–3
–4
40,000 20,000 10,000 6000 3000
Te (K)
 BRIGHT

HOT COOL

FAINT
 Luminosity Class
• For a given spectral type (or color index/temperature),
there are stars with different luminosities and hence, sizes
– dwarf, giant, supergiant

A comparison of the strengths of the hydrogen Balmer lines in types A0 Ia, A0 Ib,
• Correspond to the Luminosity Class, categorized by subtle
differences in the spectra with the same spectral class
The Classification of Stellar Spectra

Width of spectral lines gets narrower for

more luminous (or larger) stars
 Luminosity Class
The Classification of Stellar Spectra

–Keenan Luminosity Classes.

Class Type of Star
Ia-O Extreme, luminous supergiants
Ia Luminous supergiants
Ib Less luminous supergiants
II Bright giants
III Normal giants
IV Subgiants
V Main-sequence (dwarf) stars
VI, sd Subdwarfs
D White dwarfs

DING