FINAL ESSAY (PW4):

INTRODUCTIONS,
ARGUMENTS,
CONCLUSIONS

Study Skills: Session 8

THINKING ABOUT ESSAY
STRUCTURE…
• Once upon a time [in a far off
symphonic kingdom]…there lived a
composer…
…and his ten symphonies…
BASIC ESSAY STRUCTURE...
• Introduction

• ‘Main Body’
• Arguments
• Evidence
• How organised…?
• Organised around sub-topics…?
• A sense of proportion…?

• Conclusion
 PART 1:
INTRODUCTIONS
 INTRODUCTIONS: GETTING STARTED…

• What are the necessary ‘ingredients’ in an

introduction…?

• What should an introduction include…?

• What should an introduction not include…?

 WRITING AN INTRODUCTION

Do:
• Tiny (!) bit of context (but only relevant points)
• Thesis statement
• Briefly outline the topic (1 performance issue, 2 time periods, 3-4 subtopics…and relevant
repertoire)
• Indicate the overall plan of the essay (introduce and explain your sub-topics…?)
• Note: Keep it short (8-10% of total, ca.225 words)

Do not:
• Include a mini biography of composers or other general background information that is
not directly relevant

***Suggestion: write the introduction after you have written the main part of the essay…
 EXAMPLE 1: IS THIS CLEAR…?

The Romantic period was much more free and emotional than the Baroque period, and so
performers had a lot more freedom to respond to the music in their own unique way since
they were no longer governed by the rules of the church or court. This enabled a wider
variety of performance interpretations in many areas, especially tempo. It is commonly
believed that Romantic performers played everything with lots of rubato and composers
approved of this approach. It also meant they could ignore some of the dynamic or
articulation markings as long as they were capturing the character of the work like in
character pieces by Schumann. The invention of the metronome also made it easier for
performers to know how fast to play, something that Baroque performers didn’t have yet, so
they often had to rely on their teacher to tell them how fast or slow to play or look at the
dance steps of the music. This essay is going to show how these two periods are different.
The Romantic period was much more free and emotional than the Baroque period, and so
performers had a lot more freedom to respond to the music in their own unique way since
they were no longer governed by the rules of the church or court. This enabled a wider
variety of performance interpretations in many areas, especially tempo. It is commonly
believed that Romantic performers played everything with lots of rubato and composers
approved of this approach. It also meant they could ignore some of the dynamic or
articulation markings as long as they were capturing the character of the work like in
character pieces by Schumann. The invention of the metronome also made it easier for
performers to know how fast to play, something that Baroque performers didn’t have yet, so
they often had to rely on their teacher to tell them how fast or slow to play or look at the
dance steps of the music. This essay is going to show how these two periods are different.
• Periods?
• Context?
• Thesis statement?
• Subtopics and outline?
• Repertoire under consideration?
• Overall structure and clarity of the introduction?
 EXAMPLE 2: IS THIS CLEAR…?
The Baroque and Romantic periods represent two contrasting eras in which music and its functions
reflected the changing status of music and its place within European society. In many ways, the nature of
the courts and churches in which much Baroque repertoire was performed, provided an arguably more
controlled setting for musical expression (Smith, 2000: p. 10). By contrast, the often overtly virtuosic
repertoire of the 19th century and the increasingly accessible public venues in which it appeared (Jones,
1999: p. 2), gave rise to a multitude of new means by which performers could express themselves and
their musical ideas. Specifically, a comparison of changing approaches to the performance traditions
associated with tempo in the Baroque and Romantic periods reveals several fundamental changes in the
way performers approached the making of tempo decisions (specifically within solo keyboard works).
Obviously, 17th- and 18th-century notational practice in many ways was not radically different from that
of the 19th century (see Brown, 1984: pp. 43-65); but, several subtle distinctions are identified and
discussed in the essay below. First, one must consider the extent to which Baroque composers may have
used tempo indications differently than later composers (or in some cases, omitted these terms
entirely), and this raises important questions about other evidence that must be assessed to help guide
a performer’s interpretation. Thus, the second area explored in this essay focuses by extension on what
clues are potentially given within the music itself (e.g., time signatures, note values, or dance rhythms).
Lastly, I will examine the extent to which performers in these two stylistically very distinct periods
would have approached un-notated tempo fluctuations or rubato very differently.
The Baroque and Romantic periods represent two contrasting eras in which music and its functions reflected
the changing status of music and its place within European society. In many ways, the nature of the courts and
churches in which much Baroque repertoire was performed, provided an arguably more controlled setting for
musical expression. By contrast, the often overtly virtuosic repertoire of the 19th century and the increasingly
accessible public venues in which it appeared, gave rise to a multitude of new means by which performers
could express themselves and their musical ideas. Specifically, a comparison of changing approaches to the
performance traditions associated with tempo in the Baroque and Romantic periods reveals several
fundamental changes in the way performers approached the making of tempo decisions (specifically within
solo keyboard works). Obviously, 17th- and 18th-century notational practice in many ways was not radically
different from that of the 19th century; but, several subtle distinctions are identified and discussed in the essay
below. First, one must consider the extent to which Baroque composers may have used tempo indications
differently than later composers (or in some cases, omitted these terms entirely), and this raises important
questions about other evidence that must be assessed to help guide a performer’s interpretation. Thus, the
second area explored in this essay focuses by extension on what clues are potentially given within the music
itself (e.g., time signatures, note values, or dance rhythms). Lastly, I will examine the extent to which
performers in these two stylistically very distinct periods would have approached un-notated tempo
fluctuations or rubato very differently.
• Periods?
• Context?
• Thesis statement?
• Subtopics and outline?
• Repertoire under consideration?
• Overall structure and clarity of the introduction?
The Baroque and Romantic periods represent two contrasting eras in which music and its functions reflected
the changing status of music and its place within European society. In many ways, the nature of the courts and
churches in which much Baroque repertoire was performed, provided an arguably more controlled setting for
musical expression. By contrast, the often overtly virtuosic repertoire of the 19th century and the increasingly
accessible public venues in which it appeared, gave rise to a multitude of new means by which performers
could express themselves and their musical ideas. Specifically, a comparison of changing approaches to the
performance traditions associated with tempo in the Baroque and Romantic periods reveals several
fundamental changes in the way performers approached the making of tempo decisions (specifically within
solo keyboard works). Obviously, 17th- and 18th-century notational practice in many ways was not radically
different from that of the 19th century; but, several subtle distinctions are identified and discussed in the essay
below. First, one must consider the extent to which Baroque composers may have used tempo indications
differently than later composers (or in some cases, omitted these terms entirely), and this raises important
questions about other evidence that must be assessed to help guide a performer’s interpretation. Thus, the
second area explored in this essay focuses by extension on what clues are potentially given within the music
itself (e.g., time signatures, note values, or dance rhythms). Lastly, I will examine the extent to which
performers in these two stylistically very distinct periods would have approached un-notated tempo
fluctuations or rubato very differently.
• Periods?
• Context?
• Thesis statement?
• Subtopics and outline?
• Repertoire under consideration?
• Overall structure and clarity of the introduction?
The Baroque and Romantic periods represent two contrasting eras in which music and its functions reflected
the changing status of music and its place within European society. In many ways, the nature of the courts and
churches in which much Baroque repertoire was performed, provided an arguably more controlled setting for
musical expression. By contrast, the often overtly virtuosic repertoire of the 19th century and the increasingly
accessible public venues in which it appeared, gave rise to a multitude of new means by which performers
could express themselves and their musical ideas. Specifically, a comparison of changing approaches to the
performance traditions associated with tempo in the Baroque and Romantic periods reveals several
fundamental changes in the way performers approached the making of tempo decisions (specifically within
solo keyboard works). Obviously, 17th- and 18th-century notational practice in many ways was not radically
different from that of the 19th century; but, several subtle distinctions are identified and discussed in the essay
below. First, one must consider the extent to which Baroque composers may have used tempo indications
differently than later composers (or in some cases, omitted these terms entirely), and this raises important
questions about other evidence that must be assessed to help guide a performer’s interpretation. Thus, the
second area explored in this essay focuses by extension on what clues are potentially given within the music
itself (e.g., time signatures, note values, or dance rhythms). Lastly, I will examine the extent to which
performers in these two stylistically very distinct periods would have approached un-notated tempo
fluctuations or rubato very differently.
• Periods?
• Context?
• Thesis statement?
• Subtopics and outline?
• Repertoire under consideration?
• Overall structure and clarity of the introduction?
The Baroque and Romantic periods represent two contrasting eras in which music and its functions reflected
the changing status of music and its place within European society. In many ways, the nature of the courts and
churches in which much Baroque repertoire was performed, provided an arguably more controlled setting for
musical expression. By contrast, the often overtly virtuosic repertoire of the 19th century and the increasingly
accessible public venues in which it appeared, gave rise to a multitude of new means by which performers
could express themselves and their musical ideas. Specifically, a comparison of changing approaches to the
performance traditions associated with tempo in the Baroque and Romantic periods reveals several
fundamental changes in the way performers approached the making of tempo decisions (specifically within
solo keyboard works). Obviously, 17th- and 18th-century notational practice in many ways was not radically
different from that of the 19th century; but, several subtle distinctions are identified and discussed in the essay
below. First, one must consider the extent to which Baroque composers may have used tempo indications
differently than later composers (or in some cases, omitted these terms entirely), and this raises important
questions about other evidence that must be assessed to help guide a performer’s interpretation. Thus, the
second area explored in this essay focuses by extension on what clues are potentially given within the music
itself (e.g., time signatures, note values, or dance rhythms). Lastly, I will examine the extent to which
performers in these two stylistically very distinct periods would have approached un-notated tempo
fluctuations or rubato very differently.
• Periods?
• Context?
• Thesis statement?
• Subtopics and outline?
• Repertoire under consideration?
• Overall structure and clarity of the introduction?
The Baroque and Romantic periods represent two contrasting eras in which music and its functions reflected
the changing status of music and its place within European society. In many ways, the nature of the courts and
churches in which much Baroque repertoire was performed, provided an arguably more controlled setting for
musical expression. By contrast, the often overtly virtuosic repertoire of the 19th century and the increasingly
accessible public venues in which it appeared, gave rise to a multitude of new means by which performers
could express themselves and their musical ideas. Specifically, a comparison of changing approaches to the
performance traditions associated with tempo in the Baroque and Romantic periods reveals several
fundamental changes in the way performers approached the making of tempo decisions (specifically within
solo keyboard works). Obviously, 17th- and 18th-century notational practice in many ways was not radically
different from that of the 19th century; but, several subtle distinctions are identified and discussed in the essay
below. First, one must consider the extent to which Baroque composers may have used tempo indications
differently than later composers (or in some cases, omitted these terms entirely), and this raises important
questions about other evidence that must be assessed to help guide a performer’s interpretation. Thus, the
second area explored in this essay focuses by extension on what clues are potentially given within the music
itself (e.g., time signatures, note values, or dance rhythms). Lastly, I will examine the extent to which
performers in these two stylistically very distinct periods would have approached un-notated tempo
fluctuations or rubato very differently.
• Periods?
• Context?
• Thesis statement?
• Subtopics and outline?
• Repertoire under consideration?
• Overall structure and clarity of the introduction?
The Baroque and Romantic periods represent two contrasting eras in which music and its functions reflected
the changing status of music and its place within European society. In many ways, the nature of the courts and
churches in which much Baroque repertoire was performed, provided an arguably more controlled setting for
musical expression. By contrast, the often overtly virtuosic repertoire of the 19th century and the increasingly
accessible public venues in which it appeared, gave rise to a multitude of new means by which performers
could express themselves and their musical ideas. Specifically, a comparison of changing approaches to the
performance traditions associated with tempo in the Baroque and Romantic periods reveals several
fundamental changes in the way performers approached the making of tempo decisions (specifically within
solo keyboard works). Obviously, 17th- and 18th-century notational practice in many ways was not radically
different from that of the 19th century; but, several subtle distinctions are identified and discussed in the essay
below. First, one must consider the extent to which Baroque composers may have used tempo indications
differently than later composers (or in some cases, omitted these terms entirely), and this raises important
questions about other evidence that must be assessed to help guide a performer’s interpretation. Thus, the
second area explored in this essay focuses by extension on what clues are potentially given within the music
itself (e.g., time signatures, note values, or dance rhythms). Lastly, I will examine the extent to which
performers in these two stylistically very distinct periods would have approached un-notated tempo
fluctuations or rubato very differently.
• Periods?
• Context?
• Thesis statement?
• Subtopics and outline?
• Repertoire under consideration?
• Overall structure and clarity of the introduction?
 PART 2:
ARGUMENTS
 CONSTRUCTING ARGUMENTS…
• Narrative…Guide your reader…

• 1. Expectations / Conventions
• Begin by making any relevant contextual point(s) (identify the conventions and expectations!
References…?)

• 2. Argument / Hypothesis
• What point are you trying prove? (for each single subtopic!)

• 3. Give Sufficient Evidence

• Show (and describe, analyze, annotate, explain!!!) musical examples
• Use quotes from authoritative sources that support your argument

• 4. Summary / Conclusion

• 5. Transition… (and avoiding the dreaded ‘topical whiplash’…)

 STRUCTURE AND SUB-TOPICS
• One thesis…
• …proven via 3-4 different aspects (subtopics) relating to the main thesis/topic:

• How do we arrive at subtopics…?

• ASK QUESTIONS!!!!

• For example: Tempo

• Thesis: How have approaches to tempo changed between periods A and B?

• Subtopics (for example):

• 1. What tempo words/terms were used in each period and how did these guide a performer’s choices
or practice in each time period?
• 2. How might rhythms (such as dance rhythms or note values) help guide a performer’s choices or
practice in each time period?
• 3. How might un-notated tempo fluctuations or rubato have been approached in each time period?
 3 TYPES OF EVIDENCE…?

• Scores / notation

• Primary sources (e.g., treatises, contemporary accounts)

• Secondary sources (modern writers today discussing the

issues)
 SIDE NOTE: USING YOUR SOURCES

• Engaging (critically!) with ideas drawn from sources

1. Introduce quotations (engage in a ‘dialogue’…)

2. Quote (and reference)
3. Respond, question, react…
• How / why is the quotation / idea / concept relevant to your argument?
• Does it support your argument?
• Do you disagree with the quotation?
• Is it different than something another source has written?
• Can you lead directly from a quote into a score example to help illustrate it…?
 FORGING LINKS!

• What makes convincing arguments…?

• Does a quote from a treatise clarify a changing performance tradition?

• Does a quote from a book/article on performance practice indicate how a performance
tradition has changed?
• Does a music/score example demonstrate a changing performing tradition?
• Does a recording support an argument about a changing performance tradition?

• Or….do we need a COMBINATION of information, examples,

and several types of evidence to support a convincing
argument….?
 ARGUMENT: NOT JUST DESCRIPTION!

Period 1 Period 2 Conclusion

Defining the tradition for this period Defining the tradition for this period How performance tradition is
different or has evolved?
Supporting evidence Supporting evidence

Examples Examples
Drawing attention to relevant
Quotes Quotes
similarities and differences between
Periods 1 and 2!
 STRUCTURE, STRUCTURE, STRUCTURE!!!

Subtopic 1 Subtopic 2 Subtopic 3

1. Introduce subtopic (and 1. Introduce subtopic (and 1. Introduce subtopic (and
context) context) context)

2. Define what is known about 2. Define what is known about 2. Define what is known about
period 1 (with evidence, period 1 (with evidence, period 1 (with evidence,
quotes, examples) quotes, examples) quotes, examples)

3. Define what is known about 3. Define what is known about 3. Define what is known about
period 2 (with evidence, period 2 (with evidence, period 2 (with evidence,
quotes, examples) quotes, examples) quotes, examples)

4. Clarify how these are 4. Clarify how these are 4. Clarify how these are
different (and consider any different (and consider any different (and consider any
reason WHY the tradition has reason WHY the tradition has reason WHY the tradition has
changed) changed) changed)

5. Transition to next subtopic 5. Transition to next subtopic 5. Transition to next subtopic

(or final conclusions)
 EXAMPLE 1 (TERRIBLE!)

Farwald uses the trombones to good effect in his symphonies. In the first
movement of the 6th symphony they play an important part of the main
theme, building up to a big climax with the full orchestra in a way nobody
had done before. He also uses the trombone in his fourth symphony to
make a darker sound and play in keys the horns and trumpets couldn’t.
 EXAMPLE 2 (BAD!)

Before Cipriani, concertos were simply structured and had basic

textures. Cipriani wrote his Neapolitan concertos as a way of applying
for a job in Naples. They show a variety of forms and textures, each
being for a different line-up of instruments. As Benjamin Jones says
‘Their diverse nature abundantly shows that they were never intended to
be a unified set.’ The first concerto exists in two versions and there is
imaginative use of woodwind colours in the trios. There is no soloist in
the third concerto, which is unusual.
 EXAMPLE 3 (BETTER!)
The very early string quartets, such as those by Vogel (1717-75) had very
simple textures; the melodic interest is entirely in the first violin, while the other
instruments simply accompany (Smith, 2000: 10). Gosswitz’s Op. 23 quartets
were crucial in the development of the quartet texture. As Jones argues, in the
first movement of Quartet No. 1 ‘[at bar 7] the cello is singing in its tenor regions
… with an effect which instantly shows … the sound of the cello as something
more than a mere amenable bass to the harmony’ (Jones, 1999: 23). The
independence described by Jones may also be heard in the opening of Op. 35,
No. 2, for example, which begins with a simple accompaniment texture in the
lower strings, after which melodic ideas are then distributed among the
instruments, initially the 2nd violin and viola (bar 5-6), then all four instruments
(bar 12-13). Similarly, the first movement of Op. 78, No. 6 unexpectedly gives the
whole melodic line to the 2nd violin, with the 1st violin acting as the only
accompaniment (bar 37-52).
 PART 3:
CONCLUSIONS
 CONCLUSIONS: MORE THAN A SUMMARY…

Bringing your narrative to a close…

• Emphasize / reinforce your main ideas / findings

• Remind me again…what were your sub-topics…? And how do they relate to the
central argument…?

• So…you proved your point…But why do we care…?

• Explain the consequences of your argument (e.g., the significance of how and
why this performance tradition has changed)

Do not:
• Include completely new ideas or focus on minor points
• Be vague or sound apologetic
 EXAMPLE 1 (TERRIBLE!)

In conclusion, Riccardo Carretiere was key to the development of opera. His

use of new instruments allowing him to create new and more interesting
sounds, textures and memorable motifs that return throughout the operas that
he writes. These developments have allowed later composers to use
instruments, and the scale of the orchestra was never a set size but was
workable for the composer themselves.
 EXAMPLE 2 (BAD!)
Dupont’s etudes are important works and many composers merely add on top
of what ground Dupont had broken in his own artistic way. As time went on,
composers responded to the technical challenge of Dupont’s études, which had
set a new benchmark for this genre by making incredibly difficult impressions
of what an étude could be. Composers like John Cage and Olivier Messiaen
came along during the modern age and employed extended techniques like
plucking and atonal concepts which took it to a whole new level. Music as a
whole was progressing and as the boundaries were pushed, the étude found its
way into the contemporary artists output and whatever was happening in the
music world, the same ideals are always reflected in the étude.
 EXAMPLE 3 (BETTER!)
In conclusion, through his innovative orchestration, Sokolov added a new
dimension to his themes, turning the orchestra into a character itself which
interacts with the dancers by playing these themes. His skilful yet subtle use of
reminiscence motifs provides focus for the narrative of the plot. Overall, his
creative melodic and rhythmic writing with the added Russian influence helped
to develop the new sounding ballet score of the 19th century. Sokolov still
achieved “an overall impression of noble simplicity, while leaving room within
that framework for musical invention” (Brown, 2003: 148). He did this by simply
experimenting rhythmically within the limits he was given. To many, this can be
said to have been “a crucial step in the aesthetic revaluation of ballet music”
(Brown, 2003: 148) and clearly influenced the rhythmic creativity of 20th century
ballet music composers such as Stravinsky and Prokofiev.
BUILDING AN ARGUMENT:
FOLLOW-UP EXERCISE
(handout also available on Moodle)
STUDY SKILLS SESSION 7: FOLLOW-UP TASK
• Converting Separate ‘Pieces’ of Evidence into a Single Cohesive Argument….

• Can you take the following pieces of information (below) and arrange them in a logical order so
that you would end up with a strong, clear, and well-argued subtopic….?

• Bear in mind, of course, that the ‘pieces’ presented here are just that – one small part of the
available evidence (and often there is much more that can be said about each one)!

• But, there is enough detail here to put together a basic plan for the subtopic of an essay (and
remember, an argument will need to use your contextual information, score examples, quotes,
and other references IN COMBINATION, not separately in isolation as presented here)

• So, can you spot logical ways you could link up the pieces of contextual information with the
conclusions? Or link up the quotes with the score examples so that they work in combination
rather than separately….?
 AND NOW…CONSTRUCTING A
CONCLUSION IN RESPONSE TO THE
SAMPLE INTRODUCTION AND ARGUMENT
EXERCISE…?

For next time: write a sample introduction for your own essay
topic (and as discussed above, define the thesis, introduce your 3
sub-topics, provide a little relevant context, and outline the structure
that your essay will likely take)
• Questions…?

• Concerns…?

• Planning…?