Mountain Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Ecology, Economics, and Ethics

Author(s): Sanjay K. Nepal

Source: Mountain Research and Development , May, 2002, Vol. 22, No. 2 (May, 2002), pp.
104-109
Published by: International Mountain Society

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3674310

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Sanjay K. Nepal
104
FIGURE 1 Mt Thamaserku
(6623 m) in eastern Nepal.
Majestic mountains and spec-
tacular views lure thousands of
trekkers to Nepal. Without the
presence of these towering
mountain peaks, remote moun-
tain regions such as Everest
and Annapurna would hardly
have experienced the level of
development they now have.
(Photo by author)
Mountain Research and Development Vol 22 No 2 May 2002: 104-109
Mountain Ecotourism and
Sustainable Development
Ecology, Economics, and Ethics
Many mountain communities around the appreciation of local cultures and traditional
world have promoted ecotourism ventures to lifestyles, and provision of sustainable forms
ameliorate problems of environmental degra- of livelihood for people living in remote areas
dation and underdevelopment. Although and communities. The present article pro-
there is no agreement on what ecotourism is vides a brief overview of the trends in moun-
or should be, it is generally believed that this tain ecotourism in developed and developing
form of tourism in the mountains will foster countries, concluding with a proposed frame-
responsible tourist behavior, conservation of work for designation of mountain ecotourism
important wildlife habitats and ecosystems, sites.
Lack of definition and research
less developed regions such as mountains
(Figure
It is difficult to find successful examples of 1). It is no wonder that govern-
ments in countries where mountains con-
ecotourism in mountains. Any discussion
stitute a major biological and cultural
of mountain ecotourism faces 2 problems:
niche have envisioned ecotourism as a
the lack of consensus among practitioners
panacea for the problems of underdevel-
as to the precise definition of ecotourism
and the dearth of research on mountain opment, marginality, and fragility.
Ecotourism is open to various inter-
ecotourism. Yet, despite controversy, there
is general agreement that properly pretations. Criteria, such as benefits for
planned ecotourism can change the for-
local people, support for conservation,
tunes of people and places in remotelow-scale
and development, low visitor volume,
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 Development

105

and educational experience, suggest that

many mountain tourism destinations may
not qualify as ecotourism venues. Never-
theless, mountain destinations that exhibit
signs of mass tourism increasingly use the
prefix "eco" in their advertising.
Literature on mountain-specific eco-
tourism is lacking, partly because the
focus of ecotourism research is limited to

well-known tropical islands, rainforests,

and national parks and protected areas,
not all of which are located in the moun-
tains. There are hardly any comparable
empirical studies on the impacts of eco-
tourism. Moreover, virtually no economic,
ecological, and social evaluations of the
so-called ecotourism destinations exist.
"Ecotourism," "nature tourism," and "sus-
tainable tourism" are often used inter-
changeably, even though these are distinct
forms of tourism.

In the present context, mountain eco-

tourism is defined as follows:

Tourism that does not degrade the

natural and cultural environment of

mountain regions, provides economic,

environmental, and social benefits to
mountain communities (local resi-
dents), and offers a high-quality expe-
rience for visitors.

This definition could include many

nature-based activities that are not strictly FIGURE 2 Like many other
labeled as ecotourism. Developed countries: The search imposing and forbidding moun-
for niche markets and consolidation tain peaks in Europe and else-
where, the Gransasso in the
Trends in mountain ecotourism, In developed countries many mountain
Italian Apennines is attracting
North and South
tourist destinations have become major
a rapidly increasing number of
nature-loving, adventurous
players in the local economy. With a rela-
tourists. How can ecotourism
tively high volume and value, they have
Although steepness, fragility, and margin- be implemented under such
the characteristics of mass tourism. How-
ality often remain constraints that expose pressure? (Photo by Brigitta
Stillhardt)
mountain areas to pervasive degradation,
ever, recent trends indicate a surge in the
number
there are also opportunities to be tapped, of visitors to ecotourism destina-
tions such as remote wilderness areas,
in particular the pristine natural features,
where access is only possible on foot or by
the spectacular scenery, and the idiosyn-
air (Figure 2). Hiking, camping, mountain
cratic cultures that attract an increasing
number of tourists worldwide. In general,and rock climbing, mountain biking,
the impact of and the issues raised by wildlife viewing, and other forms of non-
mountain tourism development are notconsumptive recreation are in increasing
the same in developing and in developed
demand, particularly in North America.
countries. When considering mountainThe 1994-1995 US National Survey on
Recreation and the Environment, for
ecotourism issues, the striking differences
between mountain destinations in devel-
example, reported that between
1982/1983 and 1994/1995 the number of
oped countries and those in developing
bird-watchers had increased by 155%, hik-
countries must therefore be kept in mind.

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 Sanjay K. Nepal

FIGURE 3 Tourism is also

responsible for the high levels
of firewood consumption in the
mountains, which has resulted
106 in increasing pressure on moun-
tain forests and other natural
resources. (Photo by author)

cepts. Recent reports reveal that 50 tour

operators and travel agencies are involved
in ecotourism operations in the UK. In
Germany an association for alternative
tourism (Forum Anders Reisen) lists more
than 40 small and medium tour operators
and travel agencies catering to "eco-
tourists." The establishment of new
national parks and protected areas in sev-
eral eastern European and central Asian
countries will no doubt increase eco-
tourism activities in these regions, proba-
bly attracting a large number of visitors
from western Europe. In fact, tourism is
considered one of the rationales for estab-
lishing parks and protected areas in these
regions. Within Europe several protected
area initiatives and related ecotourism
activities, particularly in the UK, France,
Italy, and Austria, are the result of a new
philosophy for European parks: encourag-
ing development that is compatible with
nature conservation instead of simply for-
bidding development to maintain the pris
tine condition of an area.
Mountain tourism destinations in
developed countries are characterized by
consolidation of businesses to increase
profits and efficiency through reduced
management costs and internal structura
adjustments. But apart from these meas-
ures, strict regulations and control in the
quality of services and facilities, imple-
mentation of environmental measures
such as emission and pollution standards,
minimization of energy costs, appropriate
measures for solid waste disposal, and
treatment of sewage have become focal
concerns.

ers by 94%, and backpackers by 73%.

Frontier areas such as the Yukon and the Developing countries:
Northwest Territories in Canada and in The dilemmas of development
Alaska, USA, have experienced an In contrast with mountain areas in devel-

oped countries, mountains in developing

increase in tourism, partly as a result of
the growing international demand for
countries are often influenced by the
remote areas. In the Canadian Rockies
countries' high population growth rates
national parks, such as Jasper and Banff,
and characterized by inaccessibility, mar-
are characteristic of mass tourism destina-
ginal development, peripheral locations,
tions, but several lesser known sites in the
high levels of stress on natural resources
Rockies are becoming ecotourism destina- (Figure 3), rampant poverty, and highly
tions. skewed distribution of wealth and prope
In European countries, such as the ty. Historical developments (former colo
UK and Germany, the trend is toward nial rule), political systems (eg, in easter
European and central Asian countries),
small, specialized offers based on "green,"
"nature," and "sustainable tourism" con- and issues of governance (eg, civil wars

Mountain Research and Development Vol 22 No 2 May 2002

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 Development

107

and conflicts such as those in Central and

South America) have marred efforts to
promote mountain development.
However, mountain regions in devel-
oping countries are also characterized by
high biological and cultural diversity.
National and international efforts to con-
serve biodiversity in these mountains have
resulted in an impressive network of
national parks and protected areas, and
the visitor interest that accompanies such
designations. The past few decades have
seen a dramatic increase in visitor num-

bers to areas, such as the world's highest

national park, the Sagarmatha (Mt Ever-
est) National Park in Nepal, the Taman
Negara National Park, a highland rainfor-
est in West Malaysia, the Simen Mountains
National Park in northern Ethiopia, and
the Huascarain National Park in Peru. Sim- FIGURE 4 Many traditional
tion of valuable resources (collection of
ilarly, several recently established national highland communities are con-
parks and protected areas in central firewood
Asia and rare plant specimens), pack fronted with postmodern values
introduced by tourists; howev-
hope to promote tourism. stock grazing, fire hazards, introduction of er, they are also capable of
Mountain tourism in developingnonnative species, and sewage outflow. quickly responding to tourist
demands for local arts and
countries is characterized by haphazard In developed countries the concern crafts and food. Highland eth-
for environmental conservation has led to
planning, lack of environmental standards nic people such as these
and monitoring, price cutting resultingconflicts
in between tourism operators andin the market town of
Quechua
Pisaq, Peru, are likely to be
public interest groups. The ski industries
high volume and low returns, stark season- aware of the potential revenue
ality, and domination of tourism in thein the United States, Canada, Switzerland, to be earned from tourism.

overall economy. Some of the problems of

and Austria Policies for developing moun-
illustrate this problem. In the tain tourism must ensure that
mountain tourism in developing countries
Himalayas the question is not how com- the benefits outweigh the nega-
include competition between small-scalemunities might respond to ecotourism-led tive impacts. (Photo by author)
local operations and large international
development but rather how best to
chains, alienation of local residents as a attract a critical mass of visitors who will

result of a large number of visitors, sharp stay longer, pumping some cash into the
rises in property values, environmental local economy. P. Sharma has identified 6
substantive
damage, and native inhabitants being con- issues that contribute to the

fronted with the values of postindustrial unsustainability of mountain tourism in

society (Figure 4). the Himalayas: exploitation of environ-
mental resources and environmental pol-
lution, lack of linkages with the local or
The challenges of
mountain ecotourism regional production systems, low reten-
tion of benefits, a high degree of seasonal-
There are dangers in promoting moun- ity, sociocultural impacts resulting from
tain destinations for ecotourism, especial- tourism, and policy and institutional
ly if there is no strategic focus on the development
type problems. These are also
and intensity of activities to be promoted, applicable to many other mountain desti-
the benefits and the beneficiaries, and the nations in developing countries.
decisions related to governance, control,
and regulations. Some of the major envi- Recommendations for sound ecotourism
ronmental impacts in many mountain As Hansruedi Muiller argues, mountain
regions around the world with direct tourism must be characterized by a partici-
implications for local mountain communi- patory planning process, efficiency, envi-
ties include overcrowding, noise pollu- ronmental friendliness, authenticity, slow
tion, garbage pollution (Figure 5), extrac- development, high quality, and a humanis-

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 Sanjay K. Nepal
108
FIGURE 5 Heavy visitor traffic
and imported consumption tic (ie, people-centered) philosophy and
habits produce unmanageable management. These requirements are par-
amounts of refuse, as shown
here, near the entrance to
Namche Bazaar, a high-altitude
settlement in the Everest
merit careful consideration:
region. Solving refuse disposal
problems in remote mountain
communities is a difficult task
because of lack of transporta-
tion, recycling facilities, and
institutional support. (Photo by
author)
3. Restructure and reform existing governmen-
tal and nongovernmental institutions. Suc-
cessful ecotourism will hinge on the
implementation of national policies
and strategies formulated in consulta-
tion with local stakeholders because
they are the ones who implement the
strategies in their respective areas.
4. Advance gender equity. Research has indi-
cated that women in development
(WID) models need to be tailored to a
community-specific socioeconomic and
cultural context. Projects and programs
related to ecotourism must consider
equitable opportunities for both men
and women as well as employment for
young people.
5. Foster interdependent local economies. Man
tourism projects have evolved from a
local-global nexus, resulting in enclave
development that does not allow local
regions to link their development
potential to the surrounding regions.
Ecotourism projects should enhance
rather than erode interdependent local
economies.
6. Provide access to training, communicati
and funding. Training in meal prepara
tions, lodge management, etc, shoul
expand to include awareness of the
potential harmful effects of tourism
and knowledge of ecotourism produ
development, product packaging, an
marketing strategies. Access to mode
means of communication such as the
Internet is extremely important for
accessing global markets, as is funding
ticularly relevant to mountain ecotourism. for ecolodge operations.
More specifically, the following measures 7. Promote peace, safety, and security.
Hotbeds of conflict in mountain areas
have seen a decline in tourism in
1. Make ecotourism more sustainable. Moun- recent years. Internal conflicts, insur-
tain communities should invest in gency, political instability, and terror-
mechanisms that allow them to monitor ism are very detrimental to current and
development over time in the environ- future ecotourism destinations in the
ment, in the economy, and in social mountains.
and cultural aspects, with strict regula-
tion and visitor use limits. A proposal: Designating international
mountain ecotourism sites
2. Reduce dependency and increase diversity.
As tourism matures, linkages must beMountain ecotourism could greatly benefit
established with other economic sec- from international collaboration, for exam-
tors, such as agriculture and livestock
ple, by creating an international system to
herding, transport, communication, designate mountain ecotourism sites simi-
and small and medium business enter- lar to the UNESCO World Heritage Site
prises. designation system. Such a program of Des-
Mountain Research and Development Vol 22 No 2 May 2002
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 Development

109

FIGURE 6 Mt Ama Dablam

(6856 m) as seen from Teng-
boche Monastery campgrounds
in the Sagarmatha (Mt Everest)
National Park of Nepal. High
mountains draw thousands of
mountaineers to Nepal's
remote areas, bringing the
much-needed tourism revenues
that can promote mountain
development. (Photo by author)

Conclusions
ignation of International Mountain Eco-
tourism Sites (DIMES) would involve stake- As an alternative to mass tourism, eco- AUTHOR

holders in mountain ecotourism in devel- tourism in mountain regions seems to

Sanjay K. Nepal
oping a set of criteria and indicators to have
pro- a certain appeal for those concerned University of Northern British Columbia
vide a basis for designating a mountain with mountain development and conserva- (UNBC), Prince George, BC, Canada V2N
location as an ecotourism destination. The tion. The global market for ecotourism 4Z9.
nepals@unbc.ca
development of such criteria should (both domestic and international) has
Sanjay K. Nepal is an Assistant Profes-
grown significantly, with a gradual shift in sor at the University of Northern British
involve policymakers, practitioners, local
communities, and the scientific communi-
worldwide travel patterns and preferences Columbia, Prince George, Canada. He
teaches and conducts research on parks
(Figure 6). If mountain regions are to
ty. Each designated site should be required and protected area issues, tourism
to go through periodic evaluation, perhaps
take advantage of ecotourism, efforts must impacts, and visitor impact management.
be focused on developing long-term plans
every 5 years, to monitor whether or not
FURTHER READING
ecotourism projects are implementedand policies necessary for successful
according to the principles laid out by implementation. Key elements of such Godde PM, Price MF, Zimmermann FM.
DIMES. Destinations that adhere to the policies include sustainability criteria, 2000. Tourism and Development in Moun-
tain Regions. Oxon, UK: CABI Publishing.
globally recognized principles should be diversity, institutional reforms, gender Miller H. 1996. Freizeittrends und
rewarded financially and through other equity, local, regional, and global econom- Freizeitverhalten. Stellenwert des alpinen
international forms of recognition and ic integration, local financial incentives, Bergurlaubs. In: Weiermair K, editor.
merit. Those that fail to adhere to estab- and peace and security. Alpine Tourism. Sustainability: Reconsid-
ered and Redesigned. Proceedings of the
lished principles could be delisted. Because the concept of mountain eco- International Conference at the Universi-
Although the World Tourism Organi- tourism tends to be used haphazardly, a ty of Innsbruck; 2-5 May 1996; Inns-
zation (WTO) has identified over 105 eco- clear definition must be developed and a bruck. Innsbruck, Austria: University of
labels and certification schemes for Innsbruck, pp 176-185.
set of criteria and indicators applied to Nepal SK. 1999. Tourism Induced Envi-
tourism, only 5000 companies have joined the evaluation of ecotourism destinations.
ronmental Changes in the Nepalese
such schemes, mainly because they are The vol- international mountain community Himalaya: A Comparative Analysis of the
Everest, Annapurna, and Mustang Regions
untary and offer no distinct benefits. Withshould cooperate to develop such criteria [dissertation]. Berne, Switzerland: Uni-
government involvement at the interna- and indicators. Furthermore, the potential versity of Berne.
tional level, DIMES could be truly instru- for a system of ecotourism site designationNepal SK. 2001. Examining tourism
impacts from an interdisciplinary per-
mental in establishing standards, meas-must also be explored. This will set the
spective: The Himalayan case study.
ures, and guidelines for managing eco- stage for increased compliance and adher- Asiatische Studien 55. 3:777-804.
tourism destinations. It would differ from ence to ecotourism criteria and indicators Sharma P. 2000. Tourism as Develop-
ment: Case Studies from the Himalaya.
WTO eco-labeling in that it would not by ecotour operators, establish monitoring
Kathmandu, Nepal: Himal Books/Inns-
mechanisms, and offer mountain eco-
focus on a particular business or company bruck, Austria: Studien.
but rather on all key ecotourism playerstourism
in destinations a platform for raising Weaver DB. 2001. The Encyclopedia of
the destination area. their profiles at the international level. Ecotourism. Oxon, UK: CABI Publishing.

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