1-1. SURVEYING. arts practiced by man 18 surve the earliest times it has always been necessary nq boundaries and divide tracts of land. Through the to Pr, ve expanded such that toagertun One of the oldest the uses of surveying ha difficult to undertake any type of engineering cone’, ett that does not involve some type of surveying. Plann tect, Ang “s he results of surveys, and tion is controlled by surveying. Professionals in onstr ferent fields of engineering as well a8 geologists the a tects, foresters, agriculturists, and geographers a args! cerned with surveying as a means of planning and exe cat their respective projects. curs Surveys cover a wide range in scope and com " from the staking out of simple structures or the s of small parcels of land to the extensive and digg surveys required in the construction of subdivisions dou) ges, highways, canals, dams, railroads, wharves, miotia and. rocket launching sites, drainage and irrigation Ssi) tems, or the survey of relatively large Portions of earth's surface. Surveying is also required for the la th out of industrial equipment, preparing forestry and gent gical maps, positioning massive and complex machinery Jo the construction of ships and airplanes, as well as in th survey and exploration of extraterrestrial bodies such : the moon and the planets. In the training of a technical student the study 4, surveying is an important part even though he may never ac. tually use it iater in practice. It {gs one course whic trains students to visualize and think logically, to plan to work carefully and accurately, and to arrange the pr. ! duct of these efforts ina neat and orderly manner for ¢r cord or presentation. A surveying course will provide’ the student a worthwhile general experience and also develo, desirable traits and habits because the nature of the sub- ject with ‘:s related field measurements is such that it will develop habits of accuracy, industry, and reliability. In addition, the student will learn a great deal about the relative importance of measurements. He is trained to decide on how accurate and precise measurements should be made, and acquire essential habits of checking numer ical calculations, measurements, and observations. All these attributes are expected to add to the stature and technical petence of a future professional. design are based on t! Plexig Urveys! com 1-2. DEFIMITION OF SURVEYING. All surveying operations have the same basic characteris~ tics - that of delineating a portion of the earth's surface or subsurface or of establishing the position or boundaries of some object upon it. A host of definitions have beer made by different authors, and the following are listed: 4 en OT te @mariomiqueldevillaUU 1. "Surveying 1s che art of determining the positions of polnts on or near the earth's surface by means of mea: i- ements in the three @iements of space; namely, distance airection, and elevation." — Rayner and Schmidt. 2. "Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects, of measuring angles tween Ilnes, of determining the direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear geasurements." - Davis, Foote, Anderson, and Mikhail. 3. "Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative positions of points on tne surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural and artifi- cial features may be exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical relationships." - Clarke. 4. “Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of determining the area of any por- tion of the earth's surface, the length and directions of the boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of ac- curately delineating the whole on paper.” - Webster. 5. "Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements aS are necessary to determine the relative position of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth, ox to establish such points." - Breed, Hosmer, and mene. "Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.” - Brinker and Wolf. From the different definitions given above, it is ob- vious that surveying activities during the earlier part of the decade have only been limited to surveys on or near the surface of the earth. Times, however, have changed and modern surveying techniques are now applied to space explo- ration and in the mapping of extraterrestrial bodies such as the moon, mars, and in the near future the other pla- nets, stars, and other heavenly bodies in the universe. The author believes that the science of surveying is now much wider and complex in extent, and feels that it should be redefined more appropriately as, the art and science of determining angular and linear measurements to establish the form, extent, and relative position of Points, lines, and areas on or near the surface of the earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies through applied mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and tech- niques. 1~3. PLANER AMD GEODETIC SURVEYING. Surveys are divided into two general classifications, plane and geodetic. 1. Plane Surveying - is that type of surveying in which ees coe 5flat surface, and Whe Te the earth 38 consid distances and areas involved are of limited extent ¢ exact shape of the earth JS disreqarded. with regar hat 4 rizontal distances and directions, @ level line ro to ) be gered 45 mathematically straight, the direction 8 congy plumb line vs assumed to be the same at all points of tne Pre limits of the survey, and all angles are consid with be plane angles: erea tn Plane surveying is of wide scope and applicatio ° different methods of plane surveying are employed te he undertaken in engineering, scientific nN val navigational, ana o™ x. geographic, is the required degree of accur acy which forms rolling factor in most surveys Sefinite lame & Fea for the area up to which "° survey May be considered as plane. unless extreme seedn is required, ing is applicable to areas of eacY me plane survey thousands of square kilometers in extent. 2. Geodetic are surveys of wide extent surveying into acc roidal shape of the earth wniteh ount the sphe These surveys employ principles of geodesy, ore coat s involve the solving precision, of equations der m advanced mathematics particular], and some applications of spher jeal tr igonometryr the theory of least squares. Geodetic 5 which are usually of a are dertaken by government i £ accura surveys architec since tural, it rious mercial, oratory work national cha- agencies to te base and and methods yed since these surveys provide a a of the earth's mostly un racter, asis for t serve 25 4 Dy topographic maps- of opservation reterence framewor A number of shed to e usually mean sea level. most geodetic surveys are rence curved sur fac the field measurements for pserved by the use theodolites, tapes, and uring devices. Recently, newly de- s doppler and primari ly 9 distance meas been emplo: electronic vised equipment nave inertial surveying systems: These sophistica capable of achieving high degrees of accuracy in shorter time spans: 1-4- TYPES OF SURVEYS - of the aifferent types of surveys the following are the more commonly executed: 1. Cadastral surveys ~ are usually closed surveys which. are undertaken in urban and rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines and pounder ies, I smears - egcorners, and areas. Thane Surveys are also made to fix the poundertes of aun Jelpalities, towns, and provincial juris- dictions, 2. City surveys ~ are surveys of the ar in and near a city for the purp, jose of planning expansions or improve- nts, locating broperty lines, fixing reference monuments, determining the Dhysical features and configuration of the land, and preparing maps. 3. Construct io; nm Surveys - these are surveys which are undertaken 4 construction site to provide data regarding grade reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration, and the location ana elevation of structures which are of concern to engineers, archit. ts, and builders. 4. Forestry Surveys - a type of survey executed in connection with forest management and mensuration, and the production and Conservation of forest lands 5. Hydrographic Surveys - refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs harbors, oceans, and other bodies of water. These surveys are made to map shore lines, chart the shape of areas underlying water surfaces, and measure the flow of streams. They are of general importance in connec- tion with navigation, development of water Supply and re- sources, £1004 control, irrigation, production of hydro- electric power, subaqueous constructions, and recreation. 6. Industrial surve: ~ sometimes known _ optical tooling. It refers to the use of Surveying techniques in ship building, construction and embly of aircraft, lay- out and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in other industries where very accurate dimensional layouts a required. 7. Mine Surveys - are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all underground excavations and surface mine structures to fix surface boundar les of mining claims, determine geological formations, to calcu- late excavated volumes, and establish lines and grades for other related Bining work. 8. Photogrammetric Surveys - a type of survey which make: use of Photographs tai en with Specially designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations. He. sure- ments are obtained from the Photographs which are used in Conjunction with limited ground surveys. Surveys - involves the grades, earthwork quantities, ficial objects in mear projects. c > are those surveys made for ng the shape of the ground, and the location and elevation of natural and artificial featur, it. The - features shown include such tains, rivers, lakes, and works of man, such as roads, buildings, Municipalities, and bridges. ports, towns, CRESTent OF SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS etruments were geveloped gradually. Tt ty ve use of surveying instruments be, arly days of the Roman empire. Thin) f¢ Romans 18 clearly dem, Te, r tion of structures ona. to exist even UP to these mog, hat many surveying instruments ery e which were earlier used ang nts were the early fore struments. es which cont inve era, Tt Will be noted ¢ devices evolved from thos astronomy whe following instrume runners cf our present day surveying in: astrolabe The astrolabe of Hipparchus is conside, he best known of the measuring Instrument, from ancient times. It was develo 8 and further improved by Ptolemy. me inter hinged at its al circle with a Pp gq at the top, and a cross staff ¢ 1.25 meters long with an adjustable cross. ight angles to it. The known length of the arms o¢ the cross staff allow distances and angles to be determineg by proportion. It was originally designed for determining the altitude of stars. 2. Te . The invention of the telescope in 1607 is generally accredited to Lippershey- In 1609, Galileo cons- tructed 4 refracting telescope for astronomical observa~ tions (Fig-1-1)- However, it was only when cro! hairs for fixing the line of sight were introduced, that the teles- cope we! used in early surveying instruments. 3. Transit. the invention of the transit (Pig. 1-2) is Young and Draper who worked independently from in 1630. Both men were able to put ts of what, has one of t come down are at T credited to each other sometime together in 0! long been known as the on 4. seuicircusferentor. An early survey: (Fig. 1-3) which was used to measure and 1ay off angles, and establish lines of sight by employing peep sights. S. Plane able. One of the oldest types of survey1ng instruments used in field mapping. It consists of & boar uch a way that it can attached to 4 tripod (Fig. 1-4) in si y desired direction. 6. Dioptra, The dioptra (Fig. 1-5), which was perfect- ed by Heron of Alexandrig, was used in leveling and for measar ing horizontal and vertical angles. It consists ¢8- sentially of -@ copper tube supported on & standard and could be rotated in either a torizontal or vertical plane. Por measuring horizontal angles, a flat circular disc with ae at ee s perry An arm containing sighting el cou. apsition on the ‘ise, be rotated to any desired 1 rveyors used the roma _ Roman Grom. The Roman su) (Fig. 1-6) as an instrum ¢ for aligning or sighting id ee1 Farty Transct Fig. 11. Tetesope ra. = Fig. 1-4. Plame Table.Fig. 1-6, Roman Growa, fag. 1-5. Menon s Baopenn.points, [t consisted basically of cross arms fixed at right angles and pivoted eccentrically upon a vertical staff Plumb lines were suspended from the ends of the arms By employing the groma two lines at right angles to each other could be established on the ground wrere it is set op $8. Libella. The Assyrians and &gyptians are believed to be the first users of the libella (Fig. 1-7). The instru- ment had an A-frame with a plumb line suspended from its apex and was used to determine the horizontal. Archeolo- gists are of the belief that the horizontal foundations of the great pyramid, of Egypt were probably defined by this device. 9. Vernier. The vernier (Fig. 1-8) is a short auxillary scale placed alongside the graduated scale of an instru- ment, by means of which fractional parts of the smallest or least division of the main scale can be determined precise- ly without having to interpolate. It was invented in 1631 by a Frenchman name Pierre Vernier. Surveying instruments employ either a direct or retrograde vernier. 10. Diopter. An instrument developed by the Greeks sometime in 130 B.C., and known to be their most famous surveying instrument. The diopter (Fig. 1-9) was used for leveling, laying off right angles, and for measuring hori- zontal and vertical angles. Since the telescope was not yet invented during the. time the diopter was used, peep sights were employed for sighting and in aligning the device. 11. Compass. The magnetic compass (Fig. 1-10) came into wide use during the 13th century for determining the direc- tion of lines and in calculating angles between lines. It was first introduced for use in navigation. The compass consists of a magnetized steel needle mounted on a pivot at the center of a graduated circle. The needle continues to point toward magnetic north and gives a reading which is dependent upon the position of the graduated circle. 12. Gunter‘s Chain. The Gunter's chain (Fig. 1-11), which was invented by Sir Edmund Gunter in 1620, was the forerunner of instruments used for taping distances. It is 66 £t long and contains 100 links, so that distances may be recorded in chains and in decimal parts of the chain. Each part, called a link, is 0.66 ft or 7.92 irches long. 13. Chorobates. This instrument was designed for le- veling work. It consisted of a horizontal straight-edge about 6 meters long with supporting legs, and a groove 2.5 cm deep and 1.5m long on top (Fig. 1-12). Water is poured into the groove and when the bar is leveled so that water stood evenly in the groove without spilling, a horizontal line is established. 14. Mexchet. The merchet was a device for measuring time and meridian. It was first used by the Chaldeans in about 4,000 B.C. It consisted of a slotted palm leaf through which to sight and a bracket from which a plumb bob was suspended. By sighting through the slot and past the plumb bob string, a straight line could be projected. SRAS eee!INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING 2-1. SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS 1. Direct Measurements 2. Indirect Measurements 1-2. THE METER 2-3. INTERNATIOMAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (ST) 2-4. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 1. Linear, Mea, and Volume Measurements 2. Anguiar Measurements a. Sexagesimal Units b. Centesimal Units 2-5. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 1. One Significant Figure 2. Two Significant Figures 3. Three Significant Figures 4. Four Significant Figures 5. Five Significant Figures 12-6. ROUNDING OFF MIBERS 1. Digit is Less than 5 2. Digit is Equal to 5 3. Digit is Greater than 5 Lesson 2 Sears oe | 3,? yvRYING a peasurement is pro’ as of de exmining the sire °F aimens 0° 1a ticul quantity in comaten to @ given tandard n surveyinds measurements are Par gy rencene race’ on angles? elevat tons, mes, ines Bua) on and volumes Makin measurement ® and the pibsequent are, A tat sone pts liting hem are pasic an essential taske ' surveyor The survey’ ris role 18 imax ily to denice ‘ survey en plan out and execute he required field ae : tions n so doing, he gesignate® the type, extent Pera, proces’ ure nts to be undertaken: The mea a pent® opta! r juated and adjusted to chee P the det a results: tat veyind asureme 8 always subject to the perfect one of th instrume and the different An. rors nherent in the proces® 0 ining e measurenen] Ther no uch thing sa er fec asuring instrumets nor 15 there urveyor ose senses are sufficiently > nt fect ¢ measure any quantity ctly. The first thing student urve: mus yearn 3) it measurement is thas no exact of crue yremen is evel possible and the tr, t value of ed quant ty 16 never wn feasurenents are neve exact they 1 al pe imi erfect no aattes hn carefully Mr he pnysic! asurements acquired hi correct witnin ceree pimits P cause errors cannot he totally imine . In surveying’ asurene! 5 may de jrectly oF dn- girectlY: leat nd appreciate ifeerent operations eying it 36 portant for the student to tnderstand ples © rr) peasurene ts or obse pest surveyor is not the one mei urements, butobtained mince it makes use of optical systems for relating a short Known length to the angle it subtends at the dis tance to be determined There are numerous indirect measurements made in sur veying operationa such that it is important for surveyors and students of surveying to have a jood working knowledge of trigonometry and geometry. 2-2. THR METER. The international unit of linear measure is the meter. This was proposed sometime in 1789 by Prench scientists who hoped to establish a System suitable for all times and all Peoples, and which could be based upon permanent natural standards, Originally, the meter vas defined as 1/10,000,000 of the earth's meridional quadrant. The growing use of the meter led to demands for an international organization to insure the uniformity and standardization of its defined length. Several conferences were convened by the French government for this particular objective. Finally, in May 20, 1875, a treaty was signed in Paris by representatives of eighteen countries (13 from Burope, 4 from the American continent, and 1 from the Middle Bast) which created @ permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures. As a direct result of this treaty, the standard for linear measure was established as the International Meter which was initially based on an iron meter bar standardized in Paris in 1799, The meter was defined the distance between two lines engraved across the surface (near the ends) of a bar with an X-shaped Cross-section, composed of 90 percent platinum and 10 per- cent iridium, when the temperature of the bar is 0 degrees Celsius. The otiginal international meter bar was deposited at the International Bureau in Sevres, near Paris, France. The bureau took care of the Prototype standards of the meter and was given the task to grown to 35 membe arch to improve carried on r measurement . all through the follow pace of platinum and irk Owever, many Scientists beli eventually be based upon the aaveyea ies iter permanence, and possibly of Were conceived to adopt a natural the previous man-made physical st would have the age of bere s\n 1954. The bureau also the standards and methods of ing years the metric standards dium served its Purpose well, system should Standards of even Qreater precision. standard in lieu of + Such a standard Oducible and also In October 1960, General Conference on Weights ana Measure. 8 and agreed by 36 countries. The meter is now defined ength eqnet asa length equal i ne oO rr >red light the orange 62.73 vavelength oon fwith an atomic we PEO. 650 ment to t groing ene aaaeeie vel in the spectrum, rite duce a spe fied & feonat Lone now using the Inte; ty ‘ 111 nape ce more accurate M@BUT em a. m meter . et the inte meter bars ay defined length presumaye a well *aUl ppt 2-3. 4 t jay to standardize and simplig. b nevenent OT gent ore sagnout eoeorid. The Internat jon. romulgated in 1960 the jiy known 38 SI. MH genera ic system by intrody. tem Internat onal Sys ize the metr is to moderniz ultimate goa at and rational worldwide system * units, gy cing ee ernow adopted by most countries " 4 state the units are eo agrica and in Asia. The Unite: a’ of widdle East, "bo adopt the International System of america nesitation. units, although with great 83 the English system was offi. January ly san pnased out in the philippines and only the modern trie system was ‘allowed to be usec. Metric conversion or hange-over was signed i December 1978 by former nd E. Marcos. ic system prescribed the its (SI) as establish- pres. Ferdina’ tional System of Un use of the ea eer Weights and Measures and ag a by the General Conference on soai fied py the local Metric system Board to suit Philip- tions. pine sont! o surveying are the meter units in SI of major concern t H (m) for linear measure, the square meter (sq m Or m' ) for the cubic meter (cu m OF mn?) for volumes, and the (rad) for plane angles. There are certain units of SI but are still widely used, hectare, knot, day, hour, and minute. the Philippines since areas, radia which are not part Examples are liter, These are still accepted for use in it is not practical to abandon them yet. For longer distan- ces the kilometer (km) may be used and for larger areas the hectare (ha) is used. Degrees, minutes, and seconds are also acceptable for plane angles measured in SI. 2-4. UMITS OF MEASUREMENT. The usual surveying type of measurement entail both angular and linear measurements. When using SI, all linear measure ments, as earlier stated, are based upon the meter. Larger and smaller units are derived from it in decimal steps and thelr names are formed by adding prefixes. In SI a total set of 18 prefixes are used to form multiples and submulti- ples of different units. The following more commonly used AE mm 1 Ee iprefixes are added to basic names mega = 1 000 000 centi 0 kilo 1 000 milla 0.001 hecto = 100 micro- = 0.000 001 deca = 10 nano = 0.000 000 001 deci = 0.1 1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements. Using the prefixes, the following linear unite are derived: 1 kilometer (km) = 1 000 meters 1 meter (m) 1 000 millimeters 1 millimeter (mm) 1 000 micrometers 1 micrometer (um) 1 000 millimicrometers 1 millimicrometer (mu) 1 000 million micrometers 1 meter (nm) 10 decimeters 1 decimeter (d=) = 10 centimeters 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters The common units for length are the kilometer, meter, centimeter, and the millimeter. Length May also refer to other linear dimensions such as width, depth, thickness, helght, or distance. The kilometer is used for long distan ces and in measuring the sides of large tracts of land. For the measurement of objects such as buildings, structures, residential lots, heights of mountains, tides, pipes and cables, the meter is used. The centimeter and mill eter are not commonly used in surveying. They are suitable for mall dimensions needed in laboratories where very precise but minute measurements are required. The unit of area in SI is the square meter. For very amall areas, square millimeters or square centimeters is used. Areas of small tracts of land, floor areas of build- ings and structures are measured in Square meters. The hec- tare (ha), although not an SI unit, is commonly used for the measurement of large tracts of land such as cities, Provinces, sugar cane Plantations, ricefields, and forests. The squate kilometer is the appropriate SI unit for this purpose. The following are the commonly used relationships: i hectare = 10 000 sq mor 100 ares, 1 are = 100 sq m, 1 sq m= 1 000 000 sq m or 100 hectares. The common metric units for volume are the cubic meter, liter, and the milliliter. Precise volumes, actual physi- cal volumes, and the volumes of solids and liquids should be expressed depending on magnitude, in cubic meters, cubic centimeters, or cubic millimeters. The cubic meter is used for larger volumes which are common in engineering cons- tructions and in measuring various quantities in surveying. 2. Angalar Measurements. The SI unit for plane angles is the radian. The radian is defined as an- angle subtended by an arc of a circle having a length equal to the radius of the circle. Obviously, 2W rad = 360 deg, 1 rad = 57 deg PRT eee! 701745 rad = 1 and 0- a 37,2958 7 4 as follows: 1 det? 44.8 ec or be expresse’ ag 17 Preiat Loneh!P my aan fy.1416/10800) rad, ANG 1 ng, : jementary unit of & ag the eter tottne center of A ap Lig f the surface equal to that of te ° 1 to the radius of a mal units are watt qua : sexages the of thelr practig, 4 i | nts pecause ath it. importance - the sexagesimal unite of anguia, minute, and secont The unit a peasurement tw surveying is the degree whicl 1s ee ed . anete ue jrele. one degree equals 60 m > and of a fo seconds. s of seconds are Given i, 7 thousandths. \ tn Europe and - ourtries ntesimal Units many C! tem where the grad ts th ircumference of a Circle the grad is divide 0.9 degrees. and ie minute 1 seconds or leg 00 mi, is subdivided into esima vecinal a xpressed in ecimals. Po; 32.4 Bec. Grade are usually xP! Oh gse 2 te. rt example, 2-5. SIGUIFICANT FIGURES. m values obtained by measurements it is important to determine which should be retained a5 significant figures. By defint- tion, the number of significant figures in any value in- cludes the number of certain digits plus one digit that is estimated and, therefore, questionable or uncertain. For exemple, if a d with a scale graduated tn one meter increments and recorded a8 3.6 meters, the value has two significant figures - the 3 that is certain and the 6 which is estimated. Any further estimation ma be significant. If the same line is again measured with a scale graduated in tenths of a meter, and recorded with three significant figures, as 3.65 meters, the 3 and 6 are certain, whereas the 5 is estimated or uncertain. the number of significant figures is often confused with the number of decimal places. Decimal places may have "9 be used to maintain the correct number of significant figures, but in themselves they do not indicate significant figures, Some examples are: In recording results fro! and in making computations, 1. One Significant Figure. 100 ; 0.001 400 8000 0.000005 AB ee SES a2. Two @ignificant Figures. 24 0.020 0.0024 0.24 0.000065 3.6 3. Three Significant Figur 365 3.65 0.000249 12.3 10.1 0.0120 4. Four Significant Figures. 7654 0.8742 0.00006712 32.25 15.00 364.0 5. Five Significant Figures. 12345 100.00 40.000 0.86740 46.609 155.28 Some general rules regarding significant figures are: Rule 1 —- Zeroes between other significant figures are significant, as, for example in the following values each of which contains 4 significant figures: 12.03, 35.05, and 4009. Rule 2 - For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of the decimal are not signific, They merely show the position of the decimal such as n the following values which contain three significant figures: 0.00325, 0.000468, and 0.0230. Rule 3 - Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are significant such as: 169.30, 366.00, and 11.000. These three values all have five significant figures. When computations are to be made with values obtained from measurements, it is important that enough figures be retained to insure that the significant figures in the final result are consistent with the precision of the mea- surement. Care must also be taken to prevent picking up figures during computations which lead to a final result containing more significant figures than the precision of the original measurements. Final results from computations couldn't be more precise than the precision of the least precise value used in the computations. It is also important that data resulting from measure- ments are recorded with the correct number of significant figures. If a significant figure is dropped in recording a value, the time and effort spent in attaining a given pre- cision is wasted. If data are recorded with more figures than those which are significant, a false precision is implied. In surveying measurements the proper number of signifi- CEE ee 19,asured ed for every me va wid be recorde oth wich the neanur ect, if a length ny sho! ant £ yres snowed Moreciss b ee xampley nie 18 OO ay e Breated. FO" wotee ae Ca as ma 1 to the arest unger oo m ~ not 65.0 mor 65% aeter shoul pe recorded 8 Meat ion te chat. the ‘ then t as 65 m, the imp eof am an py recor git ea only to the nearest ten oe eter, tance “8 mea’ ure de implicat ton js that the alt only & : ee 1y e nearest meters ' y n rectly tance Was measurre nificant figures 17 a obse me nue oryerated to the recision te ret inengy ved ’ opservation: pe consis 4 hog employe? is essent i? that measure values 4! neon "| en "correct number of significant figures, recorded nb. ROUNDING OFF ‘NUMBERS - i the process of axopping one or mo; pounding off 2 ae o that the value contains only a ot the final ong, required for further computation Or fee) si final results: The ollowing procedures of or ray? , eeend ing ° values generally accepte! igit to be dro i il Than en the d ped 1 ate the number 36 emitten without the digit | hundredth, becomes per a off to the neares) _ nd off 24.24 to the, mus, 24° 24.24 corresponding)¥" i ne nths he value bec’ a2 nearest tes Jue Peignen the digit, £° be dropped iy exactly the nearest even numbez is used for the prece. ging digit. THUS 26.175, rounde off to the nearest hund- s 26.18. Also, 1 6.285 would be 156.28. . When the digit to be drop- tex Thal than 5, the number is written with the pre- Thus, 226.276, rounded off hundredth becomes 226.28 correspondingly, 226.28, rounded off to the nearest tenths would be 226.3. in rounding off values as illustrated in however, Te procedures standard practice. Apparently, 3 and 3 above are many differ when the digit to be dropped is equal to 5 such he process of rounding off 156.285. Some people (ie., 156-29), as in tl always take the next whereas others invariably us: ir 156.28). It should be no’ even digit produces better computations. The so-called values should not be applies rule was apparently devised higher hundredth e the next lower hundredthINTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING 3-1, STUDENT FIELD PRACTICE 3-2. SURVEYING FIELD MOTES 3-3. THE FIELD NOTEBOOK 3-4, TYPES OF NOTES 1. Sketches 4. Computations 2. Tabulations 5. Combination 0§ 3. Explanatory Notes The Above 3-5. INFORMATION FOUND IN FIELD NOTEBOOKS 1. Téthe of the Field Work on Name of Project 2. Time of Day and Date 3. Weather Conditions 4. Names of Group Members and Theia Designations 5. List of Equipment 3-6. THE FIELD SURVEY PARTY 1. Chéeg of Party 8. Rear Tapeman 2. Assistant Chieg of Party 9. Flagmn 3. Instaumendan 10. Rodman 4. Technician 1. Pacer 5. Computer 12. Axeman/Lineman 6. Recorder 13. Aidman 7. Head Taperan 14, Utilitymen Lesson 3 TS eee 21,e student a gs not pos ng, t° develo 8 ected ntman st dent a wor thelr yses* tn eleme e artemptedy splems at which be probleveended gurveys* rties should jes in old the to manip} ft survey ind i nding of put als? a e the only rel e in the field yetely dones 03 the times ney, nd effort ted- Furthermoze, je, wa! gsurement® ar £ some t measur’ ny recorded re oblitera- equir sible.” i a p the’ gyi ’ however” knowlege? ntary gyi but a nul in bran from ty | volved rious ju rod roperly is | aa ulate nstrunent® | the basic fairly an jable and . Tf the in the ga- | no matter | he survey ments are | data is| se in al whichrence, and thelr value will depend largely upon the com- pletenesa and clarity with which they have been recorded. In many engineering applied Surveys the fieia notes are used or referred to by office personnel who have not the field site or who are not familiar with conditions the project site. They rely entirely only upon what has been recorded. It is for this reason that notes should be made completely, Clearly, and systematically. To be com- seen on plete, the notes should show all data, together with a sufficient interpretation to answer all questions that may be raised with respect to any given surv. should keep clearly in mind not only the immediate uses of the data but those which May reasonably be expected to arise at some future time. A completed record written in a @isorderly and confused manner often causes more mistakes and erroneous information. The notes should be recorded in the conventional and generally used format and not according to whims of the field surveycr. The arrangement of notes usually depends upon departmental or office standards, and preferences. There are different forms of field notes in use, but in practice these must be adapted or new forms devised to meet unusual situations. Field notes are sometimes modified to weet special conditiona. Although several systems of note keeping are in general use, certain principles apply to all. The aim is to make the clearest possible notes with the least expenditure of time and .effort. A systematic arrangement of all survey data is important if the record is to be concise and includes all of the required informa- tion. Accuracy is always aided by methodical apportionment ané classification of data. It is essential that notes be intelligible =o others without verbal explanations. Another person reading on the notes should be able to quick ly imagine what has been done in the field. The notekeeper should always put himself in the place of one who is not in the field at the time the survey is made. The field notes “ust then contain all necessary information ana the data recorded in such a man- ner that it will allow only the correct interpretation of gathered data. It is also desirable for students to have_an expertly designed set of noteforms covering their first field work, to set high standards and save time. Gent should strive to improve each Preceding one. He should avail ey. The surveyor The stu- set of notes over the himself of this opportunity 1l as in drafting and preparation of memoranda used in executive or Professional duties. Field work observations should be recorded directly in the notebook at the time observations are made. Notes made later from memory or copied from temporary notes may be useful, but they are not field note: Students are tempted TRS om ee 23,tor later ty pa an, aneets Of Pegg book. Thin pr n rap kK court’: t e field Work Cour, to scribble of te ey in notes under acte® terence : in he purpose | in taking Uay detea xpe tice wide © vidence. Ori vnich 18 a ay be use a are being mat job condi qieid notes e peasuremet identified. Copy,: In com tnose tak t be 8° oe of the poss} notes are ots are cops " court Bel a evidence, wot ail othe pted Jy become “the field book. ny notes Hat field no’ Tow erasing in the field record ey ore ot al ‘J tha’ finished. Insteaq’ sur se 5 Stasure could ae field WEF, manner that they cay eitered after ME og out im SU ry is made while still 4) austakes wed Sra the correc en' still ’ the field pe of good quali the field notebook should | ce cover made ty In practice tite board oF lea tea to i vis “ce ‘and of pocket Size. Peace | Papers hard sage’ ain; some © an available vaich apes cial field notebooks are solq ing ey companies for pectleee gene of -secti for earthwork. Tal or for in fle where the problem server character, 40 exce m™ of pee ine ms generat gut -hand page divided into smal) wet a inj ap the middle, and has jzontal raling- wwe ciig, tas both ruled in columns and has wider in ievatal” spacing than the field book- this is called a eve Lbook . eee he field notebook may be bound in any of three ways: conventional, ring, oF loose-leaf. The ring-type, which consists of many metal rings passing through perforations in the pages, has the advantage over the conventional binding that the book opens quite flat and that the covers can be folded back against each other. Loose-leaf notebooks are more popularly used. Loose leaves are available in either single or double sheets. In some technical schools students are asked to use bond paper instead of field notebooks when preparing and submitting their field notes. The use of bond paper has been popular because it is more readily available thane field notebooks aside from its being cheaper. 3-4. TYPES OF MOTES. The following a practice. ng are the five common types of notes kept 1m 20 ees TES1. Sketches. A good sketch will help to convey a correct impression. Sketches are rarely made to exact acale, but in most cases they are made approximately to scale. They are drawn freehand and of liberal size Many features may be readily shown by conventional symbols. Special symbols may be adapted for the particular organi- zation or job. The student should note that a sketch crowded with unnecessary data 1s often confusing 2. Tabulations. A series of numerical values obser ved in the field are best shown in a tabulated format. Ta bulated form of note keeping conveys the required informa- tion in a simple and definite manner. Tabular forms should be used wherever possible. This format prevents mistakes, allows easy checking, saves time, makes the calculation le- gible to others, and simplifiesthe work of the person check- ing the field notes. However, in other types of surveys, the data may be of such varying character that they cannot be advantageously tabulated, but must be shown on a sketch or sketches. 3. Explanatory Motes. Explanatory notes provide a written description of what has been done in the field. These are employed to make clear what the numerical data and sketches fail to do. Usually they are placed on the right-hand page of the field notebook in the same line with the numerical data that they explain. If sketches are used, the explanatory notes are placed where they will not inter- ‘fere with other data and as close as possible to that which they explain. 4. Computations. Calculations or one kind or ano- ther form a large part of the work of surveying. Most sur- veying-type computations are made algebraically by the use of simple arithmetical steps and trigonometric functions. In some instances, graphical solutions using accurately scaled drawings are used. Electronic hand-held calculators, desk calculators, or digital computers are now used for calculating values. The portrayal of calculations should be clear and orderly in arrangement in order that these will easily be understood by persons other than the one who made the computations. 5. Combination Of The Above. The f’actice used in most extensive surveys is a combination of the above types of notes. The surveyor should be able to determine for him- self which type of combination would be most logical to use in portraying the type of data gathered in the field. In a simple survey, such as one for measuring the distances between points, a sketch showing the lengths is spfficient. On extensive surveys a combination of tabulated numerical values and sketches are used. Wherever there may be any doubt concerning field conditions, a sketch accom- panies the numerical values. In measuring the length of a line forward and backward, a tabulation properly arranged in columns is adequate. The notes for most leveling opera- TRS eee 25,se og A teers wth Jereailar Rovnday 4 ny, Exnepte Woted Oem perenmenina MO age Overcoer " e Ove pera * Vr ne, | eTiLIMEAR AIELP Y a \ hier of vere tne angi ity a HHH LY HA if ! Pte! tH \ aay P p char, Cool, ond WE ope 3/ 8 Bt at comer eye | eee ma we | tee | Lee y . oft Ay Stree raghe8 oth Mor aus ero radi 8 oi as reer er so L oo a ss — iu tI 2 meee Wetations are recorded in tabular form. The location of a refe- rence point may be difficult to identify without a sketch, but often a few lines of explanation are enough. Bench marks and other reference points are usually described in notes, Where many angles and distances are measured from the same point, a sketch showing all observed values would be hopelessly complicated, For this reason the angl and GQistances are recorded in tabular form. Using these me- thods, notes for any surveying operation are greatly sim- plified and the field work undertaken becomes perfectly apparent to one who has a knowledge of surveying. 3-5. INFORMATION FOUND IM FIELD NOTEBOOKS. It is desirable that the following basic information be included in the field notebook as a requirement for documentation. It should be noted, however, that any other important or informative data relevant to the particular surveying operation may also be included. 1. Title of the Field Work or Mame of Project. The Qfficial name of the project or title of the field work hould always be identified. The location of the survey and preferably its nature or purpose should always be stated. 2. Time of Day and Date. These entries are necessa- ry to document the notes and furnish a timetable, az well as to correlate different surveys. From the assigned sur- vey timetable, precision, problems encountered, and other factors affecting the survey may be referenced from. 3. Weather Conditions. Temperature, wind velocity, typhoons, storms, and other weather conditions, such as fog, sunshine, and rain have a decided effect upon accuracy in surveying operations. An instrumentman making precise observations is unlikely to perform the best possible work during extremes in temperature Conditions. It is for these reasons; that the details related to the weather Play an important part when reviewing field -notes. 4. Names of Group Members and Their Desiqnatioas. The chief of party, instrumentman, tapeman, re: xt: tion-will be nec, 'Y party must be identified. 5. List of Rquipmeat. all survey equipment used be listed, including its make, brand” ‘and serial camber. The type of instrument used, and its adjustment, all have a enn effect on the accuracy of a survey. Proper Cation of the particular equi, lating errors in some casi 1s. avignant weed aids in iso If all the above listea information are ki { nown, Committed ‘in the field and which are not Giscovered cath FES ee 27,the eyelid Wor is completed cou be jer determs mistake can D traced to weather conditions *4 of aajustmen’ ‘and a correction oy easily be redo the whole Eleld cay or some tion of it Wor, As an added requi ement, it 18 important to have a t the peginning of the field notebook t f gesixed data: is 18 advis, ° opserved and calculated Et a URVEY pARTY- ist of persons who may compose 4 fie ‘ ng ons ibsitiey are eines ir respect ve ions + the given compost for jarge scale surveys which t field survey® covertnd days oF weeks or pphisticate surveying tn 8 using electronic, inet. a field suri ty ms adapted. es o! members of a survey part pat should be yéied 80 a8 KS conditions: problems duties al shoul not always be uit vailind work requirencnts a nd the avai sabi lity and usage of pur- 01 smalle® scale surveys and ttilized, thechief. He conducts ground reconnaissance and investigates sites of a proposed project to gather necessary data prior to the start of a survey work. He is primarily responsible for the employment of surveying equipment, instruments and accessories used in the survey operation. He prepares field and office reports and survey plans for submission to the chief of party. 3. Instrumentman - the person whose duty is to set up, level, and operate surveying instruments such as the transit, engineer's level, theodolite, sextant, plane table and alidade, and etc. He sees to it that instruments to be used ina survey operation are in good working condition and in proper adjustment. He also ists the technician in the operation of electronic surveying equipment. He works in coordination and as a part of an instrument party and exercises limited supervision over personnel doing manual tasks. 4. Technician - the person who is responsible for use and operation of all electronic instruments required in a field work operation. It is his duty to see to it that these equipments are functioning properly, are regularly calibrated, and are in proper adjustment. He is also res- Ponsible for the establishment of a two-way communication link by radio between members of the survey party and the home office and, between members of the survey party where distant stations or long survey lines are involved. 5. Computer - the person whose duty is to perform all ‘vey data ani works out necessary compu- tational checks required in a field work operation. He is responsible for the utilization of electronic calculators, Docket or microcomputers, and assists in the operation d& Computerized surveying systems or equipment. &. Recorder -' the person whose duty is to keep a re- cord of all sketches, drawings, measurements and observa- tions taken or needed for a field work operation. He keeps table of schedules of al] Phases of work and the employ- ment of the members of the Survey party. He does clerical tasks rclated to surve ing in the offi nd limited cartographic jobs. ° aan Sndertakes Head 1. im - the person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear measurements with tape. He Jetermines and directs the marking of stations to be occu- surveying instruments and directs the clearing in taping operations and is responsible for eliminatin reducing possible errors and mist o °F ‘akes in taping. sist the wat ,Tapeman 3 me Person whose duty is to as- ‘ead tapeman during tapi: it related wane 3 taping operations and in other 3. Plagman - the Person whose duty is to hold the flagpole or range pole at selected Points as directed b: the instrumentman. He helps the tapeman in making measure. TROT eee 29 , Pit