‘iaa, 1212 PM “Tumi -Originalty Repo - Turnitin Originality Report submis: 2 Simtarity de | je Souees 's By Ali Shimal Kzar lyshmal 13% ‘cen Pape htps:wwwctumitn.cominewreport_prinviowasp7e 4% match (Internet frorn 29-Nov-2021) tps: //wuw.researchonte net/publcation/272797669 Individual Learner Diferences and Second Lanqyage Acauishion A Rev 29% mateh (Internet fror 09-Dec-2020) tps:/idoc.qub/documents/the-encyclopedia-of apolied-Incuistis-3noétxsyeld 1% mateh (Internet from 03un-2019) 1% match (Internet from 11-Jan-2022) tps: degruytercom/cocument/dl/10.1515/coo-2019-0033/nem 1% match () Roshr-Brackin, Ketan, Ganem Gutlerrez, Gabriels Adela, Oliver-Smtn, Lexa, Torres Mari, Maris Teresa, “Are Individual diferences i cognitive abliues and styistic preferences related to mulsingual aduts"performance In ‘suplct learning. conditions)", Informa UC Limited’, 2027 1% match (student papers from 18-Sep-2017) ‘Submitted io Higher Education Commission Pakistan on 2017-09-10 1% match (Shanila Zafar, K. Meanaksh, “Individual Learner Differences and Second Language Acquistion: A Review", Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2012) Shahla Zafar_K. Meenaish, “Individual Learner Differences and Second Language Acguiston: A Review", Journal at Language Teaching ane Research, 2012 1% match (student papers from 01-Nov-2021) ‘Submitted to University of St Andrews on 2021-13-01 1% match (Internet from 18-Jul-2020) itps/link, springer com/chapter/ 10, 1007%42F978-3-318-77688-0 2 Ministry of Higher Education and Sclantfic Research, University of Baghdaé, College of Ecucation tb Rush English Department Cogntive Inguisties apd Incivicualeerences i Second vancuans Acauision Submited by ‘i Shimal Kzar Supervised by: ASST, PROF, OR, Abdul Karim Fadhel Jameel 2022 \ 2023 ABSTRACT How well @ person learns @ second language depends on a variety of natural ane acquired factors. Ths paper examines how ‘various individuals acquire 2 second language (SLA) fom a cognitive linguistics stancpoint. The age, gender, Abiities, motivation, cognitive style, learning strateges, and personalities of individuals vary. Here is 8 comprehensive lock at the research conducted on the seven individual differences. At the conclusion ofthe paper, iis emphasized that a language instructor must understand how each of his or er students is unique In Order to effectively assist them in learning the language. To leer language, you need to gure out how iis put together by looking at how is used. uke learning abaut any other part of the word, this requires the full Fange af cognitive skis, such as remembering words and events, putting experiences into categories, finding palieins among and between stimu, generalizing conceptual schema and prototyoes from examples, ad using ‘ogrltive madels, metaphors, analocles, and images to think. 1. INTRODUCTION Dissatisfaction with formal approaches to language gave ise tothe present fli af cognitive Lnoulstics, which baa in tar early 1970s, ‘The development af modern cognitive science in the 1960s and 2870s, espedally In studies of human ‘ategonzaton, as well as previous traditions like Gestalt psychology, are also significant influences on the field of cognitive linguistic Inthe 1970s and 1980s, small group af researchers id the Bulk ofthe early work. Research Ins subject, nd the number of people who called shesmselves "cognitive lingusts, exploded Io the ‘early 19905. Both the International Society for Cognitve Linguistics ané the journal Cognitive Linguists were {founded in 1989/90, According to Ronald Langacker a pioneer in the field of cognitive linguistics, this “marked ‘the beginning of cognitive Inguisties 25 a broadly grounded, self-conscious intellectual movement” ((1991] 2002). To uncertake research on incvidual differences, nowever, stringent equipment and a scientific method for obtaining accurate and valid data are required, The diferances tat can be investigated ara: A, Age B, Sox C, 4 lon & Learning Stvie F. Leaning Strategies G Personality All of the above differences are ‘losely Inked to each other and allay important cole in learning a languase, Teachers of languages should know what they do. In SLA research, these noninguistic factors ae nol diven 9 much weight asthe linguistic ‘ones. Stil, 2 lt of research has been done over the years to igure out what role these factors play. We wil ook ‘at tir alsin leaming a secon language ina certain order. 1.2 Seconc langusge lsrnina ane cognitive Tinguisties The fel af study known as “cognitive Ingustes" (CL) focuses on Ine relationship betwee lancuaas |Besm=-t80 \9976688098sid-08n=08m: .vr=228r=6,6950570500 4985Salang=e v8‘22, 12:12 PM htps:wwwctumitn.cominewreport_prinviowasp7e “Turin -Orginalty Repo -s land thought. They need each other tke oxygen. Understanding and expression mutually strengthen one another Language has become a way to describe the word as we know itis based on what we see and hear. Lanqua02, ig used to orsanize, process, ang send information som one person of mind to anather, To learn a language, you have to igure out ts structure from how itis used. Ths, lie kaming about any other part of the world, Fequires the fl range of cognitive skis, such as remernbering words and everts, putting experiences into Categories, nding paiterns among and between simul, generalizing coveeptual schema and prototynes from fexamples, and using cognitive models, metaphors, analoses, and images to thnk. Language Is used to draw a person's attention te the world around them. It can bring diffarent parts of the theatre of consciousness to the foretront so thet the some scene can be seen fom many diferel points of view. Whet you pay attention tof ‘what you lean, 29 your attention controls how you lean Iangusga, Language use anc languaga learning are Based on how language i used in convarsaten, Language uo rh, cmpes, nd canging ways Ea ‘sgonilon, consciousness, experience, embodiment, the brain, the sell and hums Interactions, society. culture, Sisson ae al bed together Sil there are piternseverymere, eventhough tings re competed Patterns that aren't set in stone by God. genes, schanl cureua, ar ather burnan polices, But rather gattarns {Sat happen naturally. These include synehroni patterns of linguistic organization at many levels (phonology, lexis, syntax, semantics, pragmats, dscourse genre et), dynamic pattems of usage, of how and dlachranlc patterns that show how language has changed overtime languages change aver time (ingustceycles ke Fomanticizaton,pidginzation,creotzation, st), ow chidren learn languages, etc. Cl looks into these gaterns, Including the croSs-Ingustc and pan chronic ceneralties as well as the more soecte patterns of cercain lancuagss cultures. ies, people, and nlacas, Aca field of study, isa calativaly new area of Unculsic and paycholnguistic research. The fst journal devated to this approach, Cognitive Linguistics, came out in 1990. tn this eection, wel lok at a usage-based account of how children learn language in order to fing aut mere about how linguistic units come from the way people use language. We pay special attention to how people learn ‘meaning and grammar, rather than how they learn sounds. We tlk about the theory Ut developmental psycholinguist Michael Tomasello wrote about in is book Constructing a Language, which came out in 2003 (Evens, V. 2018: 136), Some indvidual ctferentiate between learning a Toregn language” anc leaching 2 ‘second language” in a given context. If youre learning @ language tha isnt widely spoken where you lve, you're doing s0 in a“oreign language” environment, The tam "second language” refers to situations In which You study a language ether than your native tongue, Thats, EFL means Eaolsh asa Farsion Lanquace anc the $udents are Japanese (EFL). Ths group of students would be consered ESI learners if they were enrolled In an English course in the Unted States (ESL). Since the gaal In bath eases is to acquire a new language, the term learning a second language” is universally applicable, 1.3 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Age, gender, ablity personalty, learning strategies, cogaltive preterences, ard motivation all play 2 role in some of th things that make people cifferant. Here Isa detalled look atthe studi that have bean done on the seven individual dference, (Yule, G,2017.P.137) A. AGE Coul it be said that children who fttempt to learn @ second language are more successful than aduits? Many would respond in the affirmative I {they observed the ease with which crildren, particularly the youngest, assume the roles of bilinguals. Saville- “Troike (2006), on the ather hand, cautions against taking suecess at face value, arguing that it must be defined (83), Her argument was that different studies had diferent defintions of success, with some empnastaing a sdent’s earl learning rate and others emphasizing the final outcome, Additionally, ciferent studies define success" citferently, Others lok at how closely a learner approximates native grarwmatial judgments oF how well they can use the language in real-world stations (89). In addition, she empnasizs the significance of keeping in rind the evaluation criteria when weighing competing claims of success. People believe there s an ‘optimal tine to tearn a fst language, People believe that children can only learn normally fora certain number years. Physiological changes alo recuce the brain's adaptability and abit to acquire the new functions Fequired for language acquisition. Peaple who do nat receive the necessary language Input dina tne ctticl hetiod wil never be abe to laars thei rst lanauege, This would typically be another language, The well-known, ‘2se of Genie, a girl who was abused and isolated from language ang people until ne was 13 years old, ilstrates ths point. Genie spent asceat deal of ime andefac to improve her Li (English), but she stil lacked the proficency of speakers who began learning thet Li as young children. This would lypicaly be another language. The well-known case of Gene, a girl who was abused and isolated fram langUage ang people ntl she ‘was 13 yaars ole, Hlustrates this point. Genie spent 9 grat doal of time and effor to improve her Li (English), but she stil lacked the proficiency of speakers who began learning their LI 3 young children. (Tid). Slobin's concept ofthe "sensitive period fr language acquisition” Is an expansion ofthe erica period nypethesis" (1982). The sensitive period reers to atime in a person's ie (ypically childhood) when he or she is most apable of learning a second language. Slobin (1982) asserts tna the sensitive period for lanauaoe acquisition |g demonstrated py the fact that everyone begins speaking atthe same age, learns atthe same rate, and completes language acquisition at the same age, despite tne fact that the environment and 2 person's cognitive ality can change. Once ts erica or sensitive period has passed, Its hypnotized that 2 child who does not Fecelve input or opportunities ta speak wll never be abe to learn language again. This occured after Gene was erated from her solitary confinement, B. SEX Research (including studies by Oxford in 1993 and Young and Oxford in 1997) has repeatedly shawn that a student's gender can have sionicant effects on how they learn a Janguane. Studies of indwiduallancuace learners’ giferences related to sax (blolocical) or gender (socally ‘onstniclad) have shown that females tend to have more intecralve motivation and 2 more postive attuse toward [2 and use s wider range of learning stateaies, especially socal statedies (Ehrman & Oxford, 1995; Bacon & Fisneman, 1992; Oxford, 1993: Ehvman & Oxford, 1995). (Oxford, Nikos & Ehrman, 1988). Larsen- Freeman and Long (2000) even ciimed that women might be naturally better than man at picking up a new language. Most people, Zhuang! (1889) nated, belive that sexes are endowed with innately dissimilar Inguistc abilities. 1 was once widely hela that women picked up language sklls, such as speaking and learning a second language, ahead of men. Researchers have found that women outperform men in almost every aspect of language acquisition, with the exception of lstening vocabulary (Boyle, 1987). Increased estrogen levels during a woman's menstral cycle have been linked to enhanced verbal and motor skils, according to research By Kimura (1982) cted by Savile-roice (2006). C, APTITUDE Although Skehan (3589) notes a correlation between Innate abilty and 12 proficency, this Is one of the areas of SUA that has reclves the least attenton. Saville- “Troike (2006) states that te belef that language learning requires a spacal talent has persisted for longtime. People who are trying to improve their English proficiency have been using standardized tests Ike the TOEFL and ‘the International Enolish Language Testing System (IELTS) for 2 lang time. The Modern Languaoe Aptitude Test IMLAT) was developed by Caro and Sao0n In 1963 to predict how wella person would lear a foreign \km=28evr=228r=6,6950570500 4985S8lang=e. 28‘22, 12:12 PM htps:wwwctumitn.cominewreport_prinviowasp7e “Turin -Orginalty Repo -s language. 1. Ability to assign numeric valies to phonetic symbols (discriminates and encodes foreign sounds ‘Akeen awareness of grammar (rscoorzes functions of words n sentences) I. The acquisition of Iinguistc competence vie inference (inlers a induces rules from samales)iy, Experts agree that iteligence alone i not 2 sufficient erterion for determining @ person's linguistic potential rather, one must be able to learn and retain Information in order tobe successful in learning a ew language. According to Skshan (1989), a person's ability ‘may be influenced by external factors, Many ather factors, Including your enaracter, your lanquage-iearing ang your motivation must be considered fist. Additionally, skenan (1989) concludes that coing so iS beneficial. Also, apttuce can ony predict ow wall someone willleam a second language; It cant explain why. General cognitive abilities, measured by inteligence tests, are rot Ue same as aptitude, but they are not that diferent from apttude ether Experts agree that ineligence alone fs nota suticent criterion for language learning; rather, the abity to learn a language depends on the Individuals ability to memorize and recall {associtions between words and phrosesin both the target and the source languages, According to Skenan (1989), outside factors ean have an impact on a person's aptitude, Your motivation, personality, and the way You ick up new languages should all be considered before you even begin to consider this, Another scholar whe Borees that language acquisition is worthwhile is Sxehen (1989). Furthermore, aptituce can only precct how well someone wil learn a second language; t cannot explain why. General cogn ive ables are measured By Intalloance tests, and aptitude Is not that afferent from them. D. HOTLVATION Wanting to Ina the lancuaas [a key factor in successful language season, According to Gardner (1985), ativaton fs the integration of ‘three factors: the willingness to putin work, the Impartance of the goal self, and one's outlook on the process. of reaching that goal. According to Savlla-Toice (2006), mativatian isthe second-best qzadicar af success In learning a second language ater innate ability. She also argues that a person’ level of tivation plays 2 _Eaniteantcolen the amount of effore trey put ino learning > second language, whieh is offen 2 determining {actor in how well they do inthe end. Gardner an¢ Lambert (1972) say that there are has fvpss of motivation. Integrative this is when a person wants 10 learn 2 second language to fit in with and become a pat ofa target community or culture. In this ease, the learner wante to look and act lke the target community. Instrumental: this typeof language learning is done by peoale wh want fo learn a escond lanaac in order to benefit from it. In this case, 9 person motivated to learn second language by things like business goals, professional gcals, educatoral goals, and so on. Both types of motivation are usefulin eifarent ways. Both can Bring about success. Savlle-Troke (2006) says thatthe relative effect of ane or the other depends aa a lot of diferente peceonal and socal factors A gember of the dominant group In a society may learn L2 beter with Integrative metivation, while a member ofthe subordinate group may learn L2 better with instrumental ‘motivation. Most researeh on motivation has shown a strong ink between motivation and success in learring & ‘Second language. But t hasn't been testea yet whether achievement erves motivation or motivation drives, achievement. E Learning Styles Different ways of thinking about learnine a second language are called language learning styles." Its about how a person prefers to perceive, understand, organize, and remember Information about learning a language. Cornett (1883) says that the language learning styles are the big patterns that show how people lean in general. own (2000) says that, unlike age, abilty, and motivation, its Fole in explaining why some L2 learners are more successful tan others has not been wel established. Ths is because it involves a complex interaction with specie 2 social ang learning context, whichis stil ot well Understood. Knowles (1972, as cited in Lochart& Richards, 1994) has identified the folowing cognitive styles: 2. Learning in the real word Learners witha conerete learning style take in and process information in a direct and active nay. They want to know things tat will Hep them ight aay. ney are interested, impulsive, and wllng 1 take chances. They ke change and diferent tangs todo all the time. They don't lke to do the same things ‘ver and over again orto writ, Instead, tney prefer to hear or see things, They like tobe entertained and ke to learn by daing thnge with their bodies. ..2Analyial learning style Students who learn in an analytical manner enjoy working alone t find solutions to problems and coming up with enginal concepts and theories. These ‘Students do best when presented with new information ina logical fashion that also provides them with ‘opportunites to explore the tape furtner on thelr own, Stucents we learn analytically are comme to thelr ues, wiling to put inthe effort, and willing to accept the possibilty of failure. ..3 . Communication-based learning People who learn best in @ graup environment are those who communicate effectively with others. They are socially anxious, require feedback from others, and beneft greatly from classroom elscussions and collaborative projects. They thrive in a democratically governed classroom. Style af Ioarring that places emphasis on authority 4. People say that learners who focus on what the teacher says are esponuible ang ‘dependable, They Ike and ned structure and steps that come one after the other. They work well na standard Classroom. They trust the teacher more than anyone else. They Ike tobe tld exactly what to do and have clear Instructions. They are not good at -bullaing consensus through aiseusion Witkin (2973) says thatthe cognitive learning styles are another way ta learn a language. There are twa kinds of these styles: One That ls Not Dependent on Any Specific Feld (lft brain dominance) ....2Feld-Denendent Fashion (right brain deminance) & learner with 9 feld-independeat style is usually self-reliant ang sure of himself or nerselt. This type of learner Can see parts and detals from the big picture. During the learning process, his or her rational, loical and ‘malhumatcal sie fs more active, This kind ef student does best a cass with lots of actviliss and exocrine, (On tie other hand, earner who depends on the fled is better at understanding how to observe and seeing the whole picture, He i beth a viual and an emotional person, Communication and interaction help this kind of person learn a second language because he or she is usually a social person. J's imnartaat for a learner to know what kind af learner he or she i, but Oxford (2003) wars us notte be too strict about the afferent {yges because they “are not dichotomous" (black or white, oresent or absent). Most learning styles work on 2 ‘antlauum oF an several continuums that cross each other.” (2.31 F Learning Steateaies A person's oazriaa egies are the actions they take to study a new language. According to Brown (2000), a learner's approach ‘to krowledge acquisition is heavily influenced by thelr intrinsic motivation, cognitive style, personality, the context in which they ae learning, and the opportunities they are given. Researchers in the [elt of secon [language equistion (SLA) have spent a 1t of time trying to ently the techniques employed by proficient [Ezenkers of the taroet language, O'Malley aod Chabot (1990) argue that developing second language ‘communication skis requires the use of strategies, which provide the means for active, sel-rected Participation. OMalley and Chabot clscovered these methacs in 1990: Fist, mental techniques : "Madly the Incoming information In ways that faciltate learning’ is what cognitive strategies co. One strategy isto repeat what has already been sad, either outloud or more quietly; ~ Learning a new language with the Nelp of Feference materiale (dctlonares,et.); The abbreviation "DPR" refers to the ation of “performing 25 wkh Arectives." applying one's knowledge of the fst language to the study and development ofthe second; Serting \km=28evr=228r=6,6950570500 4985S8lang=e. ae‘22, 12:12 PM “Turin -Orginalty Repo -s ‘things into groups based on how they're alike; Tang notes, 1, writing down the mast important takeaways {rom class materials Iie reacings and lactures. Intentionally applying rules tothe L2 (deductive reasoning); To reassemble, from constituent parts, new and diffrent entitles; - Recombination Visualizing an abject or event {an aid in recall, hence the name "imagery" retaining an aueltory image of @ Sound ar sees af sounds; Using tratopis Ike associating a foaign word witha cognate in one's ative language to ald memorization of a large vocabulary, The oct of placing @ phrase or word in ts corectseting, In-depth explanation, typealy inthe Context of prior knowledge. The process of converting ane's knowledge ino another language is KNOWN as "tansfer."It is possible to infer the meaning ofa text by looking at the context in which tis wrtten. » Looking for help from # tutor or native speaker to improve one's snguage skls. Ane lastly, metacognitve strategies Ability o plan, monitor, and assess one's own learning isthe essence of metacognitwe sklls. According to psychologist Carel Dweck, these methods are more Ike "learning strategies about learning” than actual earring Strategies, What folons is some food for trough an your mode of thought, Students who prepare fora leerning actuty im advance are known ae “advance organizars" The ability to choose which aspect of» learning task to Concentrate on (Directed Attention); The ably to narrow one's focus to just those aspects of a foreign language fr 9 new stuation that are most relevant to one's own learning needs is known as “selective attention. Managing one's own tme means taking responsibilty for creating a favorable environment for learning; Planning the ingustc components of an impending linguist task in advance; Self-monttoring: evaluating your performance 2s you communicate Delayed Production isthe deliberate postponement of speech in favor of attentive Iistning. By measuring your progress against your own expectatons, self-evaluation can reveal areas {or improvement, Rewarding oneself for a job well done Is an example of sel-reinforcerment,"Mocty the incoming information In ways that facitate learning” what cognitive strategies do. One strategy i to repeat what has already been sal, ether out lous or more quietly; - Learning a new language with te help of Feference materials (dictionaries, et); The abbreviation "DPR" refers to the ation of “performing a8 wih directives." applying one's knowledge of the fest language to the study end development of the second; Sorting ‘things into groups based on haw they're alike; Taking notes, 1, writing down the most important takeaways {rom class materials like reacings and lectures, Intentionally applying rules tothe L2 (deductive reasoning); To reassemble, from constituent pars, new and diferent entities; - Recombination Visualizing an objector event, an ai in recall hence the name "imagery." retaining an aueltory image of a sound or series af sounds; Using Strategies Ike associating a foreign word with a cognate in one's native language to aid memorization of a large vocabulary, The act of placing & phrase or word In is correct seting. In-depth explanation, typically Inthe Context of prior knowledge. The process of converting one's knowledge into anather language Is known as ‘eansfer."ILis possible to infer the meaning of a text by looking atthe context in whieh i written. » Looking {or nelp from a tutor or nave speaker to improve one's language skills. Ane lastly, metacogntve strategies ‘Ability to plan, moniter, and assess one's own learning isthe essence of metacognite skils. According psychologist Carel Dweck, these methods are more fe "learning strategies about leaning” than actual earring Strategies. What follows is some food for thought an your mde of thought. Students who prepare Tora learning activity im advance are knowin as “advance organizers." The ability to choose which aspects of learning task to Concentrate on (Directed Attention); The ably to narrow one's focus to just those aspects of a foreign language fr new stuaton that are most relevant to one's own learning needs is known as "selective attention. Managing one's own time means taking responsibilty for creating a favorable environment for learning; Planaing the linguistic components of an impending linguistic task in advance; Sef-monitoring: evaluating your performance 25 you communicate Oslayed Production ls the deliserate postponement of speech in favor of attentive listening. By measuring your progress against your own expectators, self-evaluation can reveal areas for imorovement. Rewarding oneself fora job well done Is an example of sel-reinforeement. G. Personality People's unique styles and skin tones acd viorancy to thls world. Personality studies have been atthe forefront of ‘the fild of human psyenology for more than 150 years. A numberof wellknown psychologists have investigated human behavior end thought, Researchers in second language acquisition, inehiding Keashen (1945), Shahan (1935), Gaee8 Singer (1294), ete, have examined the corelation between character traits anc linguistic Proficiency, Given that one's sense of comfor: is influenced by one's personality, Enrman’s (1996) theory that eee isa clear Ink between oersonally and SLA is plausible. As a resu, people specilize In what they're already good at (p.101). Consequently, a person's aporoach to learning a second language will depend on his or her individual eagritve style. Te an be more challenging to pick up a second language if you have certain Personality traits, such as: 1. Being sociable as opposed to reserved 2. The Value of One's Own Pride 3. Festraining oneself 4. Take chances isthe fourth. 5. Anxiety Each of the aforementanee topics Is ciscussed in tur below: 1 Being outgoing vs. being cuiet Dhawale and Furnharn (1999) say that extroversion and Introversion are both on the same scale. People think that extraverts are trendy and quick to ect. They seer to sls solitude, take risks, impulsve. On the ather hang, ntrovers are thought to be gulet, shy, ane private People say that extroverts get ther energy from the outsice worl, while introverts are more interested in their ‘nn thoughts and are more key to do things by themselves. Ths trat doesnt Just say whether @ person Is futging or shy; tala looks at whether a oereon prefrs to work alone or fess energizes and at nome working dna tear. Eysenci was the frst person io study ihe ink belwecn extroversion and learning. We thought that, satoversion was not Inked to learning In a postive way Because of several neurochemical processes inthe bbran, So, he came to the conclusion that an introver, not an extrovert. wavle be a better person to learn 2 foreign language. However, most SLA theorists dont agree with Evsancs cancusion. People often say that an jautgoing petson is good at learning a language. SUA research shows that the more outgoing a language learner 's, the more Ikely they ae to Increase thelr input (Krashen, 1985), pre‘er communicative aporoaches (Cook, 2001), and Join grouz actives (McDanoua, 1986), So, thay talk more inthe anquagawhich increases thelr Tanqusge oufaut (Swain, 1985) and makes them better at the language (language otoficency). But research doesn’ always show that this s true. Some sss nave found that evecess in learning @ language i Hnked to teats ke assertiveness ané a wllngness to try new things, However, other studies have found that many ucesefullanguage learnars don't score well on tests of sxtroversion 2 Salaam and self-confidence: Many [esearchers say that you cant learn anything whhout having some self-esteem and self-confidence ‘Coaparssith (2967) says that a person's self-esteem is how he or she fees about his or her own worth. This Is ‘mown by now the person feels about himself or herself. Brookey ane Shore (1976) found that self-esteem Seems to be an important factor in SLA, especially when taking nto account the cross-cultural aspects of learning a second language. Brookey and Shove (1976) and Gardner and Lambert (3872) looked at sall-estet land came to the same conclusion I's a big pat of leaning a second language, Hayde's Sel= Esteem Study {rom 1979 sizo found that a high level of teacher involvement led to higher self-esteem, which helped students htps:wwwctumitn.cominewreport_prinviowasp7e km=28evr=228r=6.69505705301498558langHe... 4/8‘22, 12:12 PM htps:wwwctumitn.cominewreport_prinviowasp7e “Turin -Orginalty Repo - learn a second language better. Mcintyre, Dorney, Clement, and Nlels's (1998) model of “willingness to communicate" in a foreign language looks atthe role of sef-confidence, Their resus showed that people were ‘more wilng to talk when they were better at it, There seem to be a number of things that meke one learner ‘more likely to look for second language communication and anther learner mare likely to avold it. They aid ‘that willingness to talks caused by more than just one thing. Some ofthese are motivation, personality, the atmosphere between groups, ane the bu 2 sal-confidence, The fest ovel of sell-cantiaence ste "state communceative se-confience," while the sacond lave, °L2 seleconfidence,” is more general. oth factors of saltconfidence play a big role ina person’ wilingress to tlk to others. Sut, as has been the case with many her personal ‘acon tis thought that sel estecm alone cant make someone good at@ longuage, and the Same goes for the other way around. ..3 Holding back Inhibition isthe protective barriers an Individual eects to keep harm at bay. Many beleve that a person's pide in their ratve language is a major barrier to learning a second lenguage, This pride prevents you from making the kinds of linguiste Blunders thet wil help you grow and improve. The learner's willingness to try new things in language increases as the learne’s sense of sel in the target language grows. A person's progress in language learning can be further stymied if ey are overly cxtical of themselves for making mistakes. According to Brown (2000), the lst 30 years of language education have been characterized by an emphasis on creating environments In which students are conwortable faking Fiske and testing out their ideas in font of thelr peers, His new language 's no longer intimigating to him, ne ‘says. person's inhibitions are the barciers that person constructs to keep danger at bay- Many people believe ‘that one ofthe main oastacles to learning anew language Is a person's pride in ther native tongue. This sense of price prevents the student from committing ingustic faux pas, gaining valuable feedback, and ukimately innproving their language skils. Learners who have a more open and accepting attitude toward language are more likly o venture out of thelr comfort zones and try something new. People who are averly eral of ‘themselves take thelr own slip-ups as personal attacks ane thus take much longer to master anew language, 11 [According to Brown (2000), the last 30 years of language instruction have focused on making safe spaces for dents to experiment itn speaking ther minds. n action, he claims that i eliminated some ofthe barriers ‘that prevented native speakers from more freely using the language. 2, n Individual Level Integration Framework: Cognitive Construction Grammar Constuction grammar theory is usually based on data, and Introspection i Imited so inat tte no longer the main source of ewidence Out fe instead Used ta support of come up with new ideas, 7 Experiments or corpus research have mostly taken the place of native speaker intuitions Cospus dats are use te study lanouage in ts natural environment. This gives (a) valuable descriptive information about the system as ts (or was) or(B)a place to test constructionist nyosthesss. Experime sdesia lets us conical [or many different things and helps us answer specific research questions or find cut how People woule act in hypothetical situations. By encouraging the use of evidence from different felds and that backs up each other, construction grammar tes to make the models proposes more believable, & What nas ‘been messing, though, 12 way to pul the individual into thie emovrical work ina systematic way, Construction frammar, on the ter hand, Iz 2 good way to descrioe haw a complex adaptive system works as 2 model of how fanguage works, We wil focus on two important parts of construction grammar that have alot of potential 2 cle integrate the ofen-overlooked indvicual dimension: 1) storing informelion based on how itis used; 2) linguistic knowledge as @ network Corpus stucies usually Took at language as winole in terms af how they are done. Part ofthe reason for this is that lncuists have always tried io make osnavalzaians about laneuage a: 2 otal pnenamenna, Another reason Is that they havent had the tools they needed to do quantitative research {an an incvidua level, In this way, the articles in this special sue are right on time because they respond to Fecent changes in avalablerespurces that Rave made it possible forthe fist time to de quanbtative esearch on ‘aluralistie corpus data-at the individual level (enc, Schmid and Minike 2015; De Smel_ 2016; Peter and Van de Velee 2018, Anthemises and Peter 2019; Pater etal 2019) Research suggasts that ncividual dferences in learning a secen¢ lanouaas may be caacs portant when learners are faced with new or hard tasks. But so far, ‘most studies have been done on people who are learning a second language (L2) of who are bilinguol, Individual difeences within multilingual populations are stil not well understood. Working with adults in callege who spoke more than one language, we comoared the effectiveness of tadtional (familar) instruction and concect-nased (unfamiliar) insituction In teaching Lie aliference between gas! lense and past asec in Spanish. Learners were given tests before and after the course to see how much they knew about the target stucture. They were also tested on their ability to lear a language, thelr working memory capacity, thei verbal-imagery cognitive style, land thelr attitudes. Both treatment groups improved their metabngulstic knowledge by alt, but we didnt tnd any statistical dfferences n what tey learned or how they felt Derween the two groups. individual dffrances In [Seanlive ality hag nothing io do wills the gains that were seen either Tas sot of cesus shows tbat he ‘Sounlive diferences between these multlingual people did't seem to affect how well they dd in Vie educational fetings that were looked at. Aso, fe doesn matter much now long takes t learn a language or how similar the languages are, We think that a lot ef explicit language instruction may have caused a leveling effect, which has been seen betore in L learners. 2.1 Mullingual language learning i's hard to sey what multlingualsm Is. his work was done because someone recently asked us to think of multilingualism, bngualsm, and lanauaca, asnaluralcateoovis in certain curl contents (Bert hele, 2021), Natural catosaries are radial oraded. and fuzzy (Rosch, 1978, Rosen Marv, 1975) c0 Aristotle's necessary and sufclent properties cart be used to describe them (Rehr, 2008). The prototype members of natural categories are n the midcle, and the peripheral members ae on the edges, From Ins nant of viaw, 2 anquase i 3 group of speech ané writing patterns that are diferent from other graups and have the same name. So, language is @ natural category that changes in 0 ways: now the speech communty recognizes ‘t and how faraway ft seems to be from other languages (Bert hele, 2021). Basque i a prototype language because tis the most diffrent trom the other languages round it and is fully recognized as 8 separate language. Alot of people spesk Javanese anc Dutch. Javanese isnot close to any other language, Butts similar to some groups of languages. Dutch is efferent, but t's more similar to languages ike German that ae close by, Néu and Luxembourgish are examples of limiting situations because ‘they are not well known as separate languages and are close to thelr neighbors. Michigan English is an example of 2 thing that doesn't fi Into a category because i sn’ different from other English dialects and lent recognized as a language by any speech group (Bert hele, 2021, p- 102). 2.2 Style of teaching, level of competence, and degree of dficuty An individual's inhibitions serve as’ line of defense against harm. Many people blleve that ‘the price one feels for one's native tongue isa significant barrer to learming another language. A lack of humlty prevents the student from making linguistic Blunders, gaining insight from those blunders, and ultimately Increasing thelr language skis. Postve and adaptable students are more likely to try new methods inthe study of language, Sel erica peoole take longer to master a new skil or anguage because they take their Blunders \km=28evr=228r=6,6950570500 4985S8lang=e. se‘22, 12:12 PM htps:wwctumitn.cominewreport_prinviowasp7e “Turin -Orginalty Repo -s personally. Language teachers have spent the last three decades, per Brown (2000), creating environments where students can feel comfortable trying out new ways of expressing themselves. And he says I freed up the language for native speakers by removing edstactes to fluency. At beginner aki levels, WM is especialy Important, Researchers ‘ounc that complex WM and phonological sha vsigniicanty alded L2 development in learners with less exposure to Soarish, but this effect was not seen in more advanced learners 29f Spanish, Tae study authors postulate thatthe effects of inital diflrenees in cognitive eapacty were mitigated by repeated exposure to axplc insttucion over ime. 2.3 Cognitive linguistics and apoiee linguistics The Encyclopecie Dictionary of Azplied Linguistics says that "applied linguistics refers "mostly tothe field of teaching and learing languoges, end rot to any other fed where languege is important.” (Johnson and Johnson 1938, p 5) Likewise, Applied Cognitwe Linguists looks at the implications of Cognitive Linguistic fr teaching and learning second and foreign languages from a learning and teaching perspective, In other chapters ofthis Hondboo'’s "Applied and Interdscplinary Perspectives” section, some broader appled topics are covered Langackerian (20012) nas ony recently realized Row important I is for cognitive ingustc theory fo have practical and educational implleations In general, he thinks that "the effectiveness of pedagooial appleations is fan Important empirical test for linguist theories,” ana he is confident that "cognitive grermer will not co Dacly inves regard in te long run." (3). Thar have been several succesful attempts in the past to ring Cognitive Linguistics into the field of apples linguistics, But ft should also be said that, x0 fa, cognitive lngulstic theory has only been used ina few theoretically sound stucies that look at how language i used in a foreign language dlassreom. son and Johnson (1998, page 9). Throughout history, the question af wnether grammar should be taught ceductvely or inductively has been hotly debated (Johnson and Johnson 1998: 146-48). On the deductive approach, students are expected to learn the rues of grammar on purpose, should know these rues ia 2 clear, metalinguistic way. The reasoning Is basec and they on the traditanal way to teach Latin whichis called the orammar-translation method by those who disagree with i Sets of grammar rules and long Its of words | have to be learned, and the writen language, aot te spoken language, Is emphasized. Cognitive Linguistics also ves the learner “rules for how to use the language correcly. However, @n Cognitive Grammar, a "grammatical Fule" isa "constructonal schema," which is genevalzation about a set of linguistic expressions (Rchard 1997: 164). The inductive approach, on the other hand, says that leamers can lear the rules ofa foreign language it language input is organized and sven In a systematic way. This way of tried to thinking came about because of the structural approach to linguistics, which look at Human language in terms of units that were not too different ‘rom each other in the 19505, the structural syllabus was mostly Inked to the method of auiollngual, which used santence patterns as the unt of analysis for 1140 Martin Putz. Bloomfellan Structuralism was based on bbenavirism, so tne discovery of sentence patterns went hand in Rand with pattern drill, In the wake of Cognitive Linguists, I's become dear that pattern, wnich are now calles "constructions," are real parts of language that aoc a let of how people use it. This doesn't mean, thouch, thatthe grammatical properties of linguistic units, tke words, are a big part of how sentences are put together, as formal From the point of view of cognitive -)lingulstes has lang thought (2-2, Haris 186 linguists, meaning, not gramme, Is the most important factor in deciding if two pieces of language can be put together. Nter Chorasky’'s devastating criticism of Skinner's Behaviorism and his view of learning in 1959, the audlingual approach was soon ealed into {question In the 1960s. Chomsky proposed a mentalist approach to learning, in which sentences aren' learned ‘through stimulus-response erils on pattern but instead come from the learners ease skis. Chomsky’s, senerative theory of grammar anc language acquisition, which is based on an autonomous “Language Acauistion Device,” only led to 2 didactic oversimpliication tat equated fst ana seconc languages and cldn't come up with any rues, Instead, the Language Acquisiton Deviee worked best in nich learning environments, Chomsky's narrowing of linguistic competence to grammatical competence and its intuitive strategies of acquisition caused a Fesponse from functionalist and sociolinguistic approaches to language, whicn Hymes (1974) summed up in terms ofthe Idea of “communicative competence” and hs “ethnography of communieaton,” After sociolingustics {and funetionalism in theoretical inguisies became mare popular (Wallidey, 1885), lot of attention was paid & ‘the socal and practical ways people use language. This, Is turn led tothe “communicative approach,” whichis 2 ‘mostly British dea in the feld of language teaching. It gous against the idea that if you lean a language's sramvmor, you willbe abe to use that language in socal situations. More specifically, focuses on functional Account of new people use language, hich sees language asa tel for communicating in socal situation. In other words, the useful and communicative power of language (such as “requests,” "denial," “offers complaints,” etc.) should be emphasized more then just mastering formal structures (e.9 phonological, grammatical). The goals for people to be able ta communicate effectively and correctly by using the language Eystem, The communicative view of language has assumptions that I Jthese features, which are inline with Richards ane Rodgers’ (1986:71 tne man purpose of language i to interact and communicate end (i) the fcure of language shows how fused for communication and function. This lat poi shows how important itis to Bridge the gap between the structural parts of Second Language Acquisition and the functional ana sociolinguistic parts. In other words, we need a theory of language that emahasizes the link between how Tanguage looks and how it orks. Clearly, we can's expect anything here from Generative Grammar, since sstarch on Second Lancusias Acsuision has mostly focused on syntactic issues, leaving socal ard functional Issues out ofthe picture, Achard's (1987) syntactic analysis of English modals shows te problem: the generative Paradigm simply Says that there Is an innate universal grammar that sets the parameters fr language an 15 Uses a parametersetting approach depending on which language fs being studied. Tt thinks that acquisition is ‘complete “ance the nght parameters have been set propery" (162). Since people believe In an autonomous language madule, thay don't take into account Now a young child would use medals ina normal, social sett GGenerativists believe inthe theory that how language Is used or what itis used for is ifferent from how language is put together AS a result, we need a model that shows how language relates to our ideas about the world and our experiences as humans In such a way that every grammatical construction shows what it means to Us n terms of ideas and experiences, Cognitive Grammars theoretical model s a good way to do research on Second Language Acquistion (SLA), especially because It ‘provides a satllying conceptual integration of the tural and socal aspects of L2 aequistion” (Acnard 1997: 159). 2.4 Apalied Cognitive Linguistics Oriented ‘Studies: Dirven (19883) was one ofthe first linguists to talk about the cognitive-didactic approach to English grammar in Geta He looked into how Cognitive Lnguisties can help with language learning in general. More Specially, the learning prosiem of the English modality system was looked atin terms ofthe following feur major tenets of Cognitive Linguistics: I the unity of linguist levels (e., morphology, syntax, and semantics); (1) the of profile and base in role of context fora linguistic expression; (i) the concepts describing Unguste expressions; and (iv) the concepts of prototypes and schernatiity, withthe former referring to The analysis, \km=28evr=228r=6,6950570500 4985S8lang=e. oe‘22, 12:12 PM htps:wwctumitn.cominewreport_prinviowasp7e “Turin -Orginalty Repo -s shows tha, In general, @ pedagogical grammar categorizing point of view, thats, of English must look at Tanguage-specite forms rom a to fine te ideas that are hidéen in linguistic expressions. In terms of learning @ foreign longuage, this means that cross-ingustic offerences between ways of thinking must be Found so that learning can go more smoothly. Taylor gives the ist systematic and prindpled account of how cognitive linguistics insights can be used to teach an¢ learn grammar (1993). He starts with the process af raising consciousness,” which care about as @ result of the contrstive linguistics approach of the 1960s and 1970s, was createe asa new way to teach foreign languages, especialy as @ way to balance out learning bY pure Intution. Cognitive Linguistics can only strongly support the role of cansclousness in language learning because iesees meaning os mostly te same es conceplualzation. At the same ime, i emphasizes other cognitive linguste princes like the idea of magery and rules In Cognitive Grammar, Taylor's theory vs based on the general cognitive assumation that syrtax Is crven by semantics. This means that te perceived randomness of the foreign language system must be reduced, and the language learner must be shown haw its stuctures are dnven by meaning. Divven ana Taylor (1994), Ina less nstructve but stl part af a pedagoaical grammar of English, look at how modal auxlaries lke can, may, and mustyhave to are auxiliaries, thought of on a basic level. On the basis ofthe schematic meanings af moda the diferent domains of modality (such as potenti, necessity, and desirably) and tne forms that are used in each domain, such as can/could (abit), may (permission), and may have/might have (potentiality), are identi, Even though the educational aspect isn't explained in detail inthis paper, me can draw from the analysis that a schematic account ofthe basic meanings ofthe modal auxllanes gives cognitive msignt to learn the language Ito the rule complexes of English mocalty, ‘making ft easier. 2,5 Language Learning Based on Context ang Usage Tractionally, fom the point of view of how languages are taught, there are Uiee main theories about language and language skls (Richards and Rodgers 43986: 16). 2. The structural view. It refers to language as a system of structurally related elements forthe encoding of meaning; the mastery of the elements ofthis system (phonological, grammatical, lexical) Is seen as the target of language learning. b. The funcional view. it suagests that language i @ means for the expression of funcional meaning. The focus ison te semantic and communicative clmension rather tan on the structural ‘and grammatical characteristics of language, c, The interactional view. It sees language 28a vehicle forthe fxpression of interpersonal relations ang te creation and maintenance of socal relations. Language teaching is then organizee around linguistic exchanges and conversational analysis. So, fram a language teacning point of view, ciferences in cultural practices and ways of thinking can make it hard for indigenous students and people {rom tne mainstream school system to understand each other. The functional and interactional approaches fit With a learner-cantered and experience-based view of secand language necagagy (Richards and Rodgers 1986. 63). This experiential view i also apart ofthe framework of Cognitive Linguistics, which says that Ue world is not Just something that is given ebfectively, but that It ls something that's constructee by human peroeption “This construction, in tun, is gulded by culural cognition, or the associations and impressions that people make based on their personal and Soeiocltural experiences, Inthe next section, wel talk about the iea of "construal” and what t means for teaching language. Conclusion There are many factors tat Influence how well a person pices up a second language, some of which are imate and others that ean be taught. This paper examines the ‘rious ways in which people acquire a second language from a cognitive linguistics perspective (SLA). People vaty in many ways, including age, gender, abilty, motivation, cognitive style, learning strategies, and personality. Here we take 2 close ok atthe studies conducted on the seven distin: types of humans. The paper Eoneludes by stressing the importance ofa language instructor's understanding of his or her students” ndivicual diferences In order to faciitate successful language learing. Understancing the structure of 2 language requires first seeing itn action. This, lke learning about any ather part of the world, calls for the full gamut af cognitive abies, including the ability to recall wores and events, organize experiences into categories, recognize Snlanties and differences amang stimul, generalze conceptual schema and prototypes from examples, and think creatively through the use of cooniive models. meladhors_analosies and mages. The modern field of ‘cognitive Linguistics emerged in the cary 19708 in response to dissatislaction wilh formal aogronches tothe sdy of language. Previous traditions, such as Gestalt psychology, ad the growth of modern cogn ive science inthe 296= and 970s are also important influences onthe fila of cognitive linguistics, Faw researchers in the 19705 one 1980s ais the inal groundwork. A large numberof new “cognitive linguists" and new studies on ths topic emerged inthe early 19908. Since is Inception in 1989/90, the International Sclety for Cognitive Linguistics has also seen the publication ofthe journal Coaniive Linguistics, In the words of coonive linguistics forefather Ronald Lanoacier, this "marked the beginning of cognitive lnguisties a 8 broadly grounded, se- conscious intelectual movement” ({1991] 2002). In the words of the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applieg Linguistics, "applied linguistics" is mited "mostly tothe field of teaching and learning languages, and not to any ather field where languege is important.” Recording to researen (Johnson and Johnson 1986, p. Simlarly, the fel of Applied Cognteve Linguists Investigates Cognitive Linguistics’ potential educational and pedagogical effects on the instruction of feeign and adcitional languages. Some more generalized applications are discussed In other chapters of this Handbook’ “Applied and Ineraisciplinary Perspectives” section. Only recently nas cognitive inguisties theorist Langacker (20022) came to appreciate the need for real- world and pecagogieal applications oftheir work, The author believes that "cognitive grammar wil not do badly in this regard in the Tong run” because "te effectiveness of pedagealcal applcatlons Is an important empirical test for linguistic ‘thearies.” (3). Several past attempts at incorporating Cognitve Linguistics nto applied lingustics have met with some measure of success. However it should be noted that cognitive linguistic theory has only been applied in & Small uinber of theoretical sound studies that investigate therole of lenguage in the instruction of 2 freien [ancuaae. and Johnson's son (1998, page 9). REFERENCE LIST acon, S.M., & M.D. Fisneman (1992). Sex Aiferences in self-reported beliefs about foreign language learning an authentic oral and written input. Language Learning 42.4, 471-85 Evans, Vywyan, and Melanie Green. Cognitive Lingustes. Routledge, 26 Oct. 2018. Robinson, Peter, and Nick C Elis. Handbosk of Cognitive Linguistics and Secand Language Acquistion. Routledge, 29 Mar, 2008. Boyle, 3, (1987), Sex cfferences in Istening vocabulary. Language Learning 37.2, 273 264 Yule, George. The Study of Language. 6th ed., Cambridge, Cambridge Unversity Press, 2017. Cook, v (2003). Second language learing and language teaching (3r¢ end). New York: Oxford University Press, Inc Long, M.(£990). Maturatonal constraints on language development, Studies In Second Language Acquistion 12, 251-285. Savile-Trolke, M, (2006). Intraducing second language acqutation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lombard, M. (2006). Task-based assessment for space purpose Sesotho for personnel inthe small business corporation (Doctoral dissertation, Stellenbosch: University of Steenbosch) Brown, H,D. (2000) Principles of language learning anc teaching. Englewood Clifs, Wi, - Prentice-Hall, Inc. Gardner, RC, & W. Lamber: (1972). atbtudes and motivation In second-language learning. Rowley, MA: Newoury House. Larsen \km=28evr=228r=6,6950570500 4985S8lang=e. 78‘nia, 12:12 PM “Turin -Orginalty Repo - Freeman, 0, & M. H. Lang (2000). An introduction to second language acquisition research. London: Langman. Geeraers, ©, & 4 Cuyekens, (2030). The Oxfore handbook of cognitive linguistics. Oxford University Press. Jack Croft Richards, & Theodore Stephen Rodgers. (2008). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge University Press. 123456789 10 1213 14 16 17 1519.20 htps:wwwctumitn.cominewreport_priniviowasp7e \9976688098sid-08n=08m: svr=228r=6.69505705901498558lang=0... 8/8