CHAPTER 5: LOGOTHERAPY AS AN ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT

INTERVENTION

5.1. Introduction

In Chapter 2 it was shown that change is a global phenomenon faced by all contemporary
organisations. Subsequently, it was argued that such change often holds potentially severe
ramifications for individuals – ramifications that may often manifest in behaviours indicative
of resistance to change. Thereafter, Chapter 3 served to introduce OD as a behavioural-
science-based, humanistic-oriented approach to organisational change that is centred on
facilitating change not only in, but also from within the human-social subsystem. Finally, in
Chapter 4, logotherapy was discussed as a school of thought in psychology, based on the
theories of Viktor Frankl, which aim to assist individuals in finding meaning in their lives.
As was indicated in Chapter 1, then, the primary objective of Chapter 5 is to introduce the
notion of applying logotherapy as an OD intervention in the changing organisation,
particularly by indicating the potentially crucial role of meaning in the organisational context.

This primary objective is to be achieved by addressing four secondary objectives. 1) The

crucial importance of meaning in life is to be illustrated by not only indicating the importance
of organisations in finding meaning in life, but also exploring the implications of meaning in
life for organisations. Here, a framework will be provided for understanding how meaning is
found in organisations, so as to clearly illustrate the central importance of work – and the
work context – in the noögenic well-being of the individual. Next, the notion of commitment
within the organisation, specifically with regard to how it relates to meaning in life, is to be
discussed, thereby further indicating the importance of the individual finding meaning in
work for the organisation in general, and for the facilitation of organisational change in
particular.

2) The notion of a lack of meaning is to be introduced by means of a discussion of the

concept of alienation. Thereafter, this notion is to be further explored by indicating that
organisational change may contribute to the emergence of an existential vacuum in the
organisation. In particular, the crux of this argument is to point towards the probability that
such changes may threaten the meaning individuals find in their work context.

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3) Indications will be provided that a number of similarities exist between logotherapy and
OD – not only in conceptual terms, but also between the application of logotherapy and OD
interventions. These arguments culminate in the formulation of the term “Logo-OD” to
depict the application of logotherapy as an OD intervention. The final secondary objective,
4) is to be reached by indicating how Logo-OD will be applied as a positive trigger event in
acting as a precursor to organisational change interventions.

5.2. The importance of meaning in and for the contemporary organisation

5.2.1. The organisation and work as a source of meaning in life

All humans prefer meaningful work to meaningless work … if work is meaninglessness,
then life comes close to being meaningless (Maslow, 1998, p. 39).

Maslow’s contention above, although first made in the 1960s 1 , is of particular significance in
contemporary organisations. According to Heil et al. (2000), the past few decades have been
characterised by “a gradual undermining of many organizations and institutions that people
have traditionally turned to for a sense of belonging” (p. 119). These institutions, which
include the family, churches and communities, also used to provide one with meaning,
affiliation, identity and support (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1994). Similarly, Morin (1995)
postulated that “as a result of the weakening of religious and spiritual systems”, “the question
of the meaning of work” has become “inevitable” (p. 56). Isaksen (2000, p. 88) defined
meaning in work as “an intrapsychological phenomenon that emerges in the individual's
interaction with his or her working environment”, and added:

Meaning in work concerns the reasons an individual has for working, what he or she
seeks to accomplish by working, and the continuity that he or she experiences in work.
These reasons and purposes may be explicit or embedded in actions at the workplace,
and they can both be prospective and retrospective. Meaning can also come after a
series of events and is then retrospectively constructed to be congruent with what the
subject is doing … meaning is purposefulness that makes life more comprehensible.

Thus, the individual’s failure to find purpose in traditional institutions has escalated the
importance of finding meaning in work. The apparent centrality of work in finding meaning
1
Maslow, A.H. (1965). Eupsychian Management. Homewood, IL: Irwin. This book was re-published in 1998 under the title
“Maslow on management” – the reference used in this study.

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is not surprising if one considers that Maslow (1998) believed employment to possess the
potential to provide individuals with a great opportunity to become self-actualising – an
opportunity greater than that provided by education. This belief was clearly illustrated in his
proposition that “the business of self-actualization” can best be carried out “via commitment
to an important job” (in Frankl, 2000a, p. 84). Hall (1996b) similarly argued that “there is
evidence that the more meaning can be found in work, the more fulfilled a person can be …
the more this meaning is found at work, the more likely this positive experience is to spill
over into the person’s private life” (pp. 325-326). Given that most employees are restricted
to the workplace as the only place where they can develop their vocations 2 (Billet, 2004), this
further emphasises the critical role of organisations.

Caudron (1997) cited a number of reasons for the contemporary focus on meaning in work.
Firstly, many people are subjected to longer working hours, primarily because of an increase
in workload resulting from downsizing (see Sections 2.4.1 and 2.5.2). Therefore, these
individuals often struggle to find time to seek meaningful activities outside of work. Related
to this, Cash and Gray (in Markow & Klenke, 2005) argued that “negative work experiences
in current organisations – such as ‘downsizing, isolation, lack of sense of community’ have
also been shown to contribute to individuals’ ‘search for greater meaning in work’” (p. 12).

Secondly, the significant amount of lay-offs and redundancies throughout the world has
spurred a number of people to find more meaningful employment. Thirdly, many people’s
basic needs are easily fulfilled by their jobs. Consistent with Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of
needs, then, it stands to reason that these individuals will be motivated by their higher-order
needs such as actualisation and the search for meaning (see Section 4.4.1.2). In this regard,
Frankl (1992) argued that it is in “affluent industrial countries” where problems relating to
the finding of meaning are particularly apparent, as individuals “have the means for living,
but not the meanings” (p. 66). One of the primary reasons for this phenomenon, Frankl
(1992) posited, is that in each of these countries, a welfare state has been created that
“guarantees survival without personal effort” (p. 67). These arguments are supported by
more recent evidence indicating that “money is losing its power as central motivator, in part
because the general population is realizing, in greater numbers, that above a minimum level
necessary for survival, money adds little to their subjective well-being” (Seligman, in

2
As opposed to external educational institutions such as technikons, colleges, or universities.

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Wrzesniewski, 2003, p. 299). Thus, contemporary employees “increasingly view their jobs
as a means of personal fulfillment, not just a paycheck” (Yun, Cox & Sims, 2006, p. 375).

Caudron (1997) further posited that demographic factors also have a substantial influence on
the contemporary focus on meaning in work. In particular, an increasing number of younger
people are showing an interest in work values, rather than just traditional factors such as pay
and status. According to Green (2007), these individuals seek “a more spiritual workplace
that emphasizes personal integrity and accountability” (p. 17), rather than merely accepting
traditional corporate values (see also Cooper, 2007). Furthermore, the so-called ‘baby
boomer’ generation has reached what is regarded as a contemplative stage in life, where
people tend to search for something greater than themselves to believe in. Consequently,
many have extended this search to their work lives. In this regard, Mirvis (1990) pointed out
that employment as characterised by McGregor’s Theory X (see Section 3.3) was not enough
for these ‘baby boomers’ – “they sought meaningful work, resisted authoritarian leadership,
and felt entitled to more in their jobs” (p. 31). “New breed workers rejected the values of the
traditional work ethic. They wanted only psychologically meaningful work and would gain
their dignity through independence and self-assertion” (Yankelovich, in Mirvis, 1990, p. 26) 3 .

5.2.1.1. Illustrations of the centrality of organisations in meaning in life

Since a large population of humanity spends much of their waking time at work, the
world of work provides important endpoints of well-being (Strümpfer & Mlonzi, 2001, p.
30).

Psychologist George Kelly (in Frances, 1995) believed that one’s occupation holds
implications for one’s life that reach beyond one’s pay cheque: an “occupation or profession
is one of the principal means by which our life is given clarity and meaning” (p. 58). This is
consistent with O’Brien’s (in Pratt & Ashforth, 2003, p. 309) contention that “meaningful
work is as important as pay and security – and perhaps even more so”. Accordingly,
Rossouw (2002, p. 30) believed that “to a great extent, our work determines our personal
development and so the quality and meaning of our lives”, whereas Kets de Vries (2001)
stated that “… work can be an anchor of psychological well-being, a means of establishing
identity and self-esteem” (p. 293). Furthermore, Fox (1994) viewed work as “the expression

3
According to Green (2007), these factors can only be resolved if there is congruence between the values of organisations
and the personal values of employees.

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of our soul” or “inner being”, “unique to the individual” and “creative” (p. 5). Given the
importance of realising creative values in finding meaning (see Section 4.4.3), the centrality
of work in finding meaning is evident. In the context of organisational change, McGreevy
(2003b) argued that despite rapid changes in organisations and the accompanying insecurity
(see Chapter 2), the “significance of work will not change for an individual”, as “it will still
be the means by which an individual provides for his or her survival, defines his or her
identity and measures his or her contribution to society” (p. 193).

The above assumptions are largely supported by research conducted by Gini and Sullivan
(1993). These authors found that 50 years of research indicates that the vast majority of
individuals claim they will continue working even if they “inherit enough money to live
comfortably without working”. Accordingly, they reached the conclusion that:

The personal meaning of work is as important as its economic and social meaning…
[people] want to work because they are aware at some level that work plays a crucial
and perhaps unparalleled psychological role in the formation of human character. Work
is not just a course of livelihood, it is also one of the most significant contributing factors
to an inner life (Gini & Sullivan, 1993, pp. 134-135).

Frankl (1986) maintained that the “existential importance of work is most clearly seen where
work is entirely eliminated from a person’s life, as in unemployment” (pp. 120-121; see
Sections 2.3.1 and 2.5.1). As pointed out in Section 4.2, some of Frankl’s (1978; 1984)
earliest work was related to the ‘unemployment neurosis’ experienced by people who had lost
their jobs. One of the central symptoms of this condition is apathy, which was pointed out in
Section 4.4.4 as being related to the existential vacuum. Frankl (1986) explained the
progression of the neurosis resulting from unemployment, as follows:

The jobless man experiences the emptiness of his time as inner emptiness, as an
emptiness of his consciousness. He feels useless because he is unoccupied. Having no
work, he thinks life is meaningless. Just as idle organs in the body may become the hosts
for rampant growths, so idleness in the psychological realm lead to morbid inner
developments. Unemployment becomes a culture medium for the proliferation of
neuroses (p. 121).

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Frankl (1984, 1986, 1990) further reported his own research findings that indicated that
placing individuals in volunteer programmes radically decreased their experience of
unemployment neurosis and meaninglessness 4 . In particular, he pointed out that “their
economic situation was not changed at all. Yet their depression, caused by their feelings of
meaninglessness, vanished as soon as they were given a chance to fulfil tasks they considered
meaningful” (Frankl, 1990, p. 67).

In support of Frankl’s contentions above, research “in the course of the past decades”
examining “psychological effects of work and unemployment” has “showed that well being is
hampered by unemployment” (De Witte, 2005, p. 1) (see also the related discussion in
Section 5.3.3). In particular, job loss is associated with an increase in mental and physical
illnesses, depression, anxiety and disengagement (Greenhaus et al., 2000). However, it also
shows that the extents to which these symptoms are experienced are moderated by a number
of factors – a prominent one of which is “the meaningfulness of the work in the individual’s
life” (Greenhaus et al., 2000, p. 233; emphasis added). In other words, the extent to which
one finds meaning in one’s work has a moderating influence on the degree to which one
experiences job loss as traumatic.

McReynolds (2001) provided a further illustration of the centrality of work in finding

meaning in life. This author found that people suffering from HIV/AIDS seem to lose “a
sense of meaning” in their lives when they are “no longer able to work” (p. 111). These
findings provide support for Frankl’s contentions by indicating that even when people have
contracted a terminal disease (such as HIV/AIDS), the potential meaning that work provides
to their lives is still of essential importance. This, together with the contentions in the
preceding paragraphs then clearly indicates that for many people, work serves a function far
greater than fulfilling their basic needs: by providing individuals with the context and
opportunity to fulfil their creative and experiential values, work serves as a primary source of
meaning.

Consistent with the arguments presented above, then, Warren (1996) maintained that “in
modern society”, the workplace often provides people with “the most important sense of
community that they experience in adult life” (p. 43). This sense of community is essential

4
More recent research involving war veterans suffering from PTSD affirmed these propositions (Southwick et al., 2006).

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for finding purpose in one’s life, as was clearly illustrated by Wong’s (1998) argument that
“there are limits to meaning seeking 5 if individuals are alienated from their community and
the spiritual realm. Therefore, individuals need to get involved in and contribute to a
community” (p. 118). Similarly, Kets de Vries (2001) contended that work “plays an
important role in humankind’s search for meaning”, and that it “can give meaning not only in
the personal sense… but also in the broader, societal sense of transcending 6 one’s own
personal needs to improve the quality of life, help people in need, or contributing value to
society” (p. 303, emphasis in original).

As was shown in Section 4.4.1.2, self-transcendence is a human characteristic that is

inextricably tied to the human spirit. The latter concept, then, has also become a subject of
much deliberation in contemporary literature; debates that lend further credence to the central
contention in this chapter that the organisation is critical for the contemporary employee’s
search for meaning in life. This concept of spirituality at work is discussed in the subsequent
section as a continuation of this debate.

5.2.1.2. The ‘spirituality at work’ movement

According to Leigh (1997), it is essential that contemporary organisations realise that people
“come to work with more than their bodies and minds; they bring individual talents and
unique spirits” (p. 26). Similarly, Kilcourse (1994) maintained that failure to recognise the
unique human spirit and ‘whole person’ may result in employee alienation (Section 5.2.4) – a
belief consistent with the argument that alienation results from the compartmentalisation or
fragmentation of individuals at the cost of their emotionality (for example, Kersten, 2001).

Hall (1996c) argued that in the context of the new organisation and the new career (see
Section 2.5.6), organisations should view individuals holistically, including “the individual’s
overall quest for meaning and purpose” (p. 7). Such consideration will, however, not
constitute organisational altruism, as “a person is simply more productive when bringing the
“whole self” to work” (Mirvis & Hall, 1996, p. 88). Rossouw (1994) also indicated the
importance of such a holistic view for the organisation by arguing that there is “a growing
awareness that employees who find their work meaningful tend to be more loyal, productive

5
This concept is addressed in Section 4.4.4 and Chapter 6.
6
See discussions on Frankl’s concept of self-transcendence in Section 4.4.1.2, as well as on the higher-order value of self-
transcendence, Table 5.1 and Section 5.2.2.3.

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and creative” (p. 22), whereas Mitroff and Denton (1999) held that “unless organizations
learn how to harness the ‘whole person’ and the immense spiritual energy that is at the core
of everyone, they will not be able to produce world-class products and services” (p. 83).
These contentions can largely be summarised by Hall’s (1996a) proposition that

people now need meaning, purpose, and connection (at work and in private life)… and
they need psychologically satisfying work as well. Also, organizations need employees’
full minds and hearts, creativity and commitment, to meet the tough demands of the
competitive market. The more whole and integrated people can be at work and in their
personal lives, the more psychological success they will experience (p. 342).

Consistent with the above arguments, Bellman (1997) stated that successful and sustainable
organisational change is about “matters of the heart, the soul, and the spirit” (p. 214). The
‘spirituality at work’ movement then similarly propagates changes in organisations that
facilitate individuals bringing the complete self to work (Mitroff & Denton, 1999). Recent
years have been characterised by an increasing amount of literature concerning spirituality,
spirituality at work, and its positive implications for organisations (Mitroff & Denton, 1999).
Miller (in Konz & Ryan, 1999) similarly emphasised this growing trend by stating that
“spirituality in general, and in the workplace in particular, has become an important topic in
recent years, reaching even the front page of the Wall Street Journal” (p. 200). The positive
implications of this focus for organisations, then, are postulated to include higher
organisational performance and changes in employee attitudes 7 (Milliman, Ferguson, Trickett
& Condemi, 1999), as well as an increase in creativity, satisfaction, team performance and
organisational commitment (Konz & Ryan, 1999, p. 202). In addition to this, “organizations
that learn how to harness the ‘whole person’” will “get more from their participants” and will
“be able to produce world-class products and services” (Mitroff & Denton, 1999, p. 83).

A central assumption is that spirituality is not dependent upon any religious framework.
Rather, it incorporates elements such as gaining a greater awareness of the self and
establishing cohesion between one’s internal and external realities (King & Nicol, 1999, p.
234), achieving interconnectedness (Mitroff & Denton, 1999), and ultimate values (such as
truth, trust, freedom, justice, creativity and a higher purpose) (Butts, 1999). In this regard,
Myers (in Benjamin & Looby, 1998) then defined spirituality as “a continuing search for

7
The importance of employee attitudes amidst organisational change is discussed in Sections 2.6 and 2.7.

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meaning and purpose in life; an appreciation for the depth of life, the expanse of the universe,
and natural forces which operate; a personal belief system” (p. 92).

Benjamin and Looby (1998) further pointed out that spirituality involves a capacity and
tendency that is innate and unique to all persons; moves the individual towards knowledge,
love, meaning, hope, transcendence, connectedness and compassion, and includes a capacity
for creativity, growth and the development of a values system. Kriger and Hanson (1999)
emphasised the importance of the spiritual element by contending that “one meaning of ‘to be
healthy’ is to be ‘whole’; and to experience wholeness is the very essence of what it means to
be spiritual” (p. 305). The notion of spirituality at work further reflects the critical
importance of individuals finding meaning in and at work. In this regard, Frankl (2000a)
emphasised the importance of spirituality (the noölogical dimension of the human being) in
finding meaning. Similarly, both Maslow and Rogers maintained that spirituality is a critical
element of self-actualisation (Benjamin & Looby, 1998). These arguments make it apparent
that organisations that acknowledge and facilitate the spiritual element at work may reap the
benefits of employees finding meaning at work. The organisational implications of finding
such meaning are subsequently addressed.

5.2.1.3. Organisational implications of meaning in work

As is apparent from the preceding discussions, the significance of the organisation as a source
of meaning reaches beyond the noögenic well-being of the individual towards the success of
the organisation: “Research has shown that a sense of meaning is an important correlate of
work motivation and positive work attitudes, as well as goal orientation and commitment” 8
(Schlecter & Engelbrecht, 2006, p. 4). Gratton (2000, p. 3) contended that “the companies
that flourish in this decade will do so because they are able to provide meaning and purpose,
a context and frame that encourages individual potential to flourish and grow”. This is
substantiated by Kets de Vries’s (2001) indication that one of the criteria to appear on
Fortune’s list of best-run companies involves a sense of purpose (p. 294). Peters and
Waterman (1982) found that if employees believe they are contributing to a higher purpose 9 ,
they perform more energetically, creatively and enthusiastically. Whereas Herman, Gioia
and Chalkley (in Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006) maintained that “meaningful work is part

8
Similarly, Roberson (in Pratt & Ashforth, 2003) maintained that “meaningful work influences various job and
organizational attitudes, as well as motivation and performance” (p. 309).
9
This reflects Frankl’s concept of self-transcendence (see Section 4.4.1.2).

167
of what is needed for companies to maintain a high performing workforce and to remain
competitive in the future” (p. 4), Handy (1996) believed that in the new world of work, the
importance of meaning reaches even beyond organisational success:

[In] this new world… the search for the meaning of things… becomes the driving force
of economics (Handy, 1996, pp. 8-9).

Heil et al. (2000) argued that individuals strive to be committed to a worthy cause that
“deepens their commitment, and lends meaning to their work” (p. 121). Accordingly, Grant
(2001) proposed that an organisation “with a ‘mission statement’ isn’t a patch on a company
with… genuine causes that some people will devote their lives to. That’s a way of creating
sustainable, loyal communities of employees and customers” (p. 217). Thus, people “want
something to believe in, have meaningful work, and feel like they can contribute to an
organizational mission that makes a difference to others” (Milliman et al., 1999, p. 225) and
also makes meaningful contributions to the improvement of the world (Waddock, 1999). In
the context of organisational change, this sense of meaning is crucial, as Karp (2004) pointed
out that individual behaviour is more likely to change if the organisation’s people “believe in
the organisation's overall purpose” (p. 351) and if the organisation succeeds in relating the
need for change to “something they care about in the form of a deeper meaning or a higher
purpose” (p. 353).

If the organisation fails to exemplify a cause that provides employees with “a shared sense of
identity and purpose”, these individuals will search for such meaning in other contexts (Heil
et al., 2000, p. 120). Of substantial implication is that these contexts may be far removed
from the reaching of organisational goals10 (Gratton, 2000). Strauss (in Gini & Sullivan,
1993) found in this regard that many people take on jobs that are boring (see Section 5.2.2),
but pay well, in order to “support their real interests” (p. 134). Thus, if employees fail to find
meaning in the workplace it may jeopardise their organisational commitment; commitment
which is essential to sustain organisational competitiveness amidst constant change (see
Section 5.2.3). Considering that many employees feel that the “only thing spiritual about
[their] work is the bottom line” (Freshman, 1999, p. 319), this may be an area of great
concern to many organisations.

10
See discussion on job, career and calling orientations, Section 9.4.1.1.

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Handy (1998) expanded on the above arguments by stating that “it becomes the
organization’s responsibility to provide a purpose if they want to retain good people…to
retain talent, you’ve got to create a cause” (p. 32). Similarly, Havener (1999) argued that
organisations that fail to provide meaning will not succeed in attracting or retaining talented
employees. “Talented people demand meaningful work. Deny it, they leave” (p. 1). What is
more, it is usually these talented people – “the individuals that the organization can least
afford to lose” (Robbins, 1990, p. 484) – who are the first people to leave organisations
amidst the uncertainty of dramatic changes 11 (Greenhalgh & Rosenbatt, in De Witte, 2005).
It is thus suggested that both meaning and organisational change may have an impact on
employees’ commitment to the organisation and their intentions to remain in the organisation.
These contentions are further addressed in Section 5.2.3 below, where the concept of
organisational commitment is discussed.

Despite the above assertions, Isaksen (2000) concluded on the basis of an in-depth analysis of
meaning in the context of repetitive work that “[m]eaningfulness is not an inherent
characteristic of a specific type of work; it is an individual state of mind that occurs when an
individual regards the relationship between him- or herself and his or her context as
satisfactory in some individually important way” (p. 91). This postulation reflects one of
Frankl’s main tenets, namely that meaning can be found in any circumstances (see Chapter
4). This is of particular importance, as for many organisations it is not economically possible
to provide each employee with “nothing less than eight hours of meaningful, skilfully guided,
personal satisfying work for eight hours pay” (Browning, in Gini & Sullivan, 1993, p. 133).
In addition, current economic conditions make it impossible for individuals to purposefully
choose jobs that are personally meaningful. For sociologist Robert Kahn (in Gini & Sullivan,
1993), this translates into a choice for many between “no work” or “a job burdened with
negative qualities” (p. 133). Nevertheless, Frankl (1986) contended that:

the job at which one works is not what counts, but rather the manner in which one does
the work. It does not lie with the occupation, but always with us, whether those elements
of the personal and the specific which constitute the uniqueness of our existence are
expressed in the work and thus make life meaningful (p. 118).

11
In Section 2.4.1, it was shown that the “high performing survivors” upon whom the ultimate success of change
interventions are dependent, are often the first to engage in voluntary turnover amindst organisational changes such as
downsizing or restructuring (Ugboro, 2006, p. 232).

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Frankl (1986) further went on to argue:

The indispensability and irreplaceability, the singularity and uniqueness issue from the
person, depend on who is doing the work and on the manner in which he is doing it, not
the job itself (p. 119).

Thus, it is contended that finding meaning in work is more a function of the individual than
of the job. Similarly, Pratt and Ashforth (2003, p. 311) pointed out that “meaningfulness is
necessarily subjective” – and not a “fixed property of a job” – it “may vary radically” across
individuals and “historical and physical contexts”. Wrzesniewski (2003), in turn, argued that
“it is not as much the kind of job that matters as it is the relationship to the work” (p. 297;
emphasis in original), where such a relationship involves one’s orientation towards one’s job
(see Section 9.4.1.1). As a result, “people can derive different kinds of meaning from almost
any job or occupation” (p. 300), and “even in the same job in the same organization, there are
significant differences in how people make meaning of their work” (p. 302). However, it may
be argued that this perception allows organisations to abdicate any responsibility of providing
individuals with meaningful work, which may easily escalate into arguments relating to the
exploitation of workers (see Section 6.9.1). In this regard, Gratton (2000) argued that “while
the creation of meaning is an essentially individual pursuit… it is one in which organizations
can play an important role” 12 (p. 18). Frankl (1992), in turn, cited the manager of a big
Californian Aerospace company as a guideline – as well as a warning – to organisations:
“Management cannot dictate what [the employees’] work meaning should be. It can only
provide [them] with a freedom of responsible choices” 13 (p. 69).

From the above arguments it is evident that organisations may play a crucial role in the
individual’s experience of meaning in life, provided that the individual actually seeks out
such meaning. Given these circumstances, then, the subsequent section is aimed at providing
a framework for understanding how individuals find meaning in organisations and work.

12
Also see the discussions in Sections 5.6 and 9.4.1.1 – particularly as relating to a “positive organisational context”.
13
This citation again illustrates the centrality of meaning of will, together with the associated responsibility, in the
individual’s search for meaning.

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 5.2.2. Understanding how meaning is found in the organisation
Wrzesniewski (2003) argued that finding meaning in work is determined by three factors (see
Figure 5.1 below). Firstly, the individual’s “internal” factors play a role – that is, one’s
personality and one’s “individual needs, demographic factors, and social-class background”.
Secondly, external factors (i.e. the job – see Hackman and Oldham’s model in Figure 5.3
below – and the wider organisational environment) play a role. Finally, one’s orientation to
work, which “help[s] to determine our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors toward work” 14 (p.
300), has a significant impact on whether one finds meaning in work.

External
factors

Finding
meaning in
work

Internal Orientation
factors to work
Figure 5.1. Determinants of how meaning is found in work
(adapted from Wrzesniewski, 2003)

Although these concepts are – for the most part – treated as interchangeable in this study 15 ,
Pratt and Ashforth (2003) distinguishes between meaningfulness in work and meaningfulness
at work 16 in addressing the role that organisations can play in helping employees to find
meaning. As is shown in Figure 5.2 below, these authors argue that whereas finding meaning
in work relates to the role that one performs – or “in what one does” (p. 314), meaningfulness
at work involves one’s sense of belonging: “Finding meaning in whom one surrounds oneself
with as part of organisational membership, and/or in the goals, values, and beliefs that the
organisation espouses” (p. 314). This distinction between role-based and membership-based
meaning to some extent relates to Frankl’s distinction between creative and experiential

14
Such an orientation is fundamentally related to one’s attitude towards work, and, given the nature of contemporary
organisations, towards change. This construct was shown to be the change target of the Logo-OD intervention (see Chapters
1, 3 and 5).
15
The exception here is the discussion presented in Chapter 8, where these two concepts are applied differentially to indicate
how organisations can assist individuals in their search for meaning.
16
Similarly, Cherrington (in Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006) distinguished between meaning at work and meaningful work.
The latter may relate to a situation where there is congruence between an individual’s sense of purpose and his or her
occupation.

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values 17 , respectively (see Section 4.4.2), which again affirms the potential applicability of
logotherapeutic principles in the organisational context.

Meaningfulness Meaningfulness
in work at work

Role: Membership:
What am I doing? Where do I belong?

Identity:
Who am I?
Work orientation/ Work orientation/
attitudes attitudes

Meaningfulness:
Why am I here?

Figure 5.2. An overview of creating meaningfulness in working and at work (adapted

from Pratt & Ashforth, 2003, p. 313).

As is apparent from the above figure, Pratt and Ashforth (2003) regard the extent to which
individuals experience their work as meaningful as a result of their roles and membership in
the organisation, as mediated by their identity. Given Wrzesniewski’s model (Figure 5.1),
however, it may be argued that identity constitutes an internal determinant of meaning,
whereas one’s role and membership constitute factors external to one’s person. Consistent
with both Figure 5.1 and the central role that attitudes are assumed to play in an individual’s
finding of meaning in the context of this study, one’s work orientation will thus play a
significant role in the relationships outlined in Figure 5.2 in general, and one‘s experience of
meaningfulness in particular. This is indicated by the dotted lines inserted in Figure 5.2
above.

A third framework that may be of great value in understanding how individuals find meaning
in (or at) their work, is found in Ros et al.’s (1999) “theory of basic individual values” (p.

17
It is argued that Frankl’s concept of attitudinal values (see Section 4.4.2) may relate to both meaning at work and meaning
in work, as both one’s role and one’s membership may be affected by situations one cannot change.

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51). Values have been shown to “play a pervasive role in [determining] human [attitudes and
behavior]” (Rokeach, in Shafer, Fukukawa & Lee, 2007, p. 272). In Section 4.4.1.3 it was
shown that Frankl regarded values as “meaning universals” – situations that are sufficiently
similar to evoke similar responses from different individuals. In particular, meaning is found
through the fulfilment of experiential, creative and attitudinal values (see Figure 4.4). It was
also demonstrated in Section 4.4.1.3 that, together with ultimate meaning and specific
meaning, values constitute a central source of meaning in the lives of individuals. In the
context of organisational change, which is the focus of this study, Kriger and Hanson (1999)
illustrated the importance of values amidst constant change by stating:

When all is changing in a turbulent world, upon what are we to rely? It is our values…
that allow us to transcend the forces of constant change and to define a deeper sense of
meaning and existence (p. 307).

Ros et al. (1999) regarded values as “desirable, trans-situational goals that vary in importance
as guiding principles in people’s lives” (p. 51). Two aspects in this definition are of
importance. Firstly, Ros et al.’s postulation of values as goals, which they reiterated by
referring to “the motivational content of values” (p. 68), corresponds with Frankl’s (see 1978,
1984, 1986, 2000a, 2000b) proposition that meaning is the central motivational force in the
life of the individual. This is particularly apparent upon consideration of the central
importance that values assume in the individual’s finding of meaning in life (see the
discussion with regard to the will to meaning, Section 4.4.1.2).

Secondly, Ros et al. (1999) indicated in the above definition that values vary with regard to
the extent to which they serve as “guiding principles” for the individual. This suggests that
although different individuals find similar meaning in values, not all individuals are
motivated by the same values. Furthermore, it may also be deduced that the intensity with
which values serve as a motivational factor differs from individual to individual. The word
‘desirable’ at the beginning of Ros et al.’s (1999) definition above lends further credence to
these assumptions, as one may legitimately assume that not all individuals attach the same
degree of desirability to certain values. Thus, the centrality of the individual’s unique
experience of meaning in life is again emphasised.

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Ros et al.’s (1999) theory distinguishes between ten basic individual values, clustered into
four higher-order values. These are argued to be “motivationally distinct” (p. 51), which
again illustrates the importance of individual differences regarding values as a source of
meaning in life 18 . In Table 5.1 below, the four clusters and ten categories of values are listed,
together with examples of specific representing values.

Table 5.1.
Categories of values that may serve as sources of meaning (adapted from Ros et al., 1999, pp. 50-
51)
Higher-order value
Self-enhancement
Openness to change
Self-transcendence
Conservation
Value Specific single representative values
Power Social power, authority, wealth
Achievement Success, capability, ambition, influence
Hedonism Pleasure, enjoying life
Stimulation Daring, a varied life, an exciting life
Self-direction Creativity, freedom, independence, curiosity, choosing
own goals
Universalism Broadmindedness, wisdom, social justice, equality, a
world at peace, a world of beauty, unity with nature,
protecting the environment
Benevolence Helpfulness, honesty, forgiving, loyalty, responsibility
Tradition Humbleness, accepting one’s fate in life, devoutness,
respect for tradition, moderateness
Conformity Politeness, obedience, self-discipline, honouring
parents and elders
Security Family security, national security, social order,
reciprocity of favours

Ros et al. (1999) found evidence that these categories of values also occur in the workplace.
According to these authors, these work values are “specific expressions of general values in
the work setting”, and are “more specific than basic individual values” because they refer
only to “goals in the work setting” (p. 54). Nevertheless, work values represent expressions
of basic individual values, thereby indicating that they correspond with the four clusters of

18
This deduction further alludes to the assumption that the one’s perception of change as either threatening or contributing to
one’s experience of meaning in the workplace may contribute to the occurrence of resistance to or readiness for change,
respectively. This assumption is further addressed in Chapter 6.

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higher-order values listed in Table 5.1 above. This assumption is supported by the findings
of Meaning of Work (MOW) International Project Team (1987) findings, which, upon
reanalysis by England and Ruiz Quintanilla (1991), indicated that work represents three
categories of goals – social, expressive and instrumental. According to Ros et al. (1999),
these three categories reflect their conceptualisation of social, intrinsic and extrinsic values,
respectively.

In the subsequent paragraphs, the four clusters of values (or higher-order values) listed in
Table 5.1 above are discussed. In each case an effort is made to illustrate how these values
contribute to the individual finding meaning in life. In particular, reference is made to the
occurrence of these values in the work context, thereby establishing a framework to
demonstrate the importance of the organisation in the individual’s search for meaning.

5.2.2.1. Self-enhancement
Ros et al. (1999) viewed power as “social status and prestige”, as well as “control or
dominance over people and resources”, whereas achievement encompasses “personal success
through demonstrating competence according to social standards” (p. 52). Together, these
two values constitute the higher-order value of self-enhancement. In the work setting, these
extrinsic values include aspects such as pride in the employer, advancement, and influence in
work and the organisation.

The importance of power for the individual is illustrated by Adler’s postulation of ‘the will to
power’ as the central motivating force in the individual’s life. From a logotherapeutic
perspective, Frankl postulated that rather than being such a central force, power represents a
means to an end – that end being meaning in life (see Figure 4.2). This, again illustrates the
importance of values in one’s search for meaning, including in the workplace. Given the
importance of power in organisations, as was pointed out by a number of researchers (see, for
example, Anstey, 1999; Cao et al., 2003; Newstrom & Davis, 1997, Robbins, 1990), it stands
to reason that this factor will also play a significant role in organisational change.
Accordingly, it was indicated in Section 2.6 that the threat to power inherent in organisational
change efforts often results in individuals resisting such initiatives.

As was indicated above, achievement involves “personal success through demonstrating

competence according to social standards” (Ros et al., 1999, p. 52). The concept of

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achievement is commonly associated with the motivation of the workforce. For example, a
central assumption in the performance management approach known as Management by
Objectives (MBO) is that employees will be motivated by goals that are challenging, yet
realistic (or achievable). Achieving of these goals is then assumed to motivate the individual
to set goals that are more challenging (Byars & Rue, 2000) – a proposition that is reflected in
Frankl’s concept of noö-dynamics. In Section 4.4.1.2, this was shown to involve the tension
between what one has already accomplished and what is still to be achieved – or, in this
context, the balance between goals that have been fulfilled and more challenging goals that
are still to be achieved. In addition, it may also be assumed that achievement is a critical
factor in the fulfilment of creative values – one of the three major primary sources of
meaning in life.

The notion of competence is also of potential importance in the context of this study – not
only with regard to one’s actual ability to perform, but also one’s perception of one’s ability
to perform. In this regard, Bandura (1977) postulated that one’s self-efficacy – that is, one’s
assessment of one’s ability or competence to perform a specific task, reach a particular goal,
or overcome an obstacle – is positively correlated with one’s actual performance. This
assumption has been confirmed by much research, in both physical and academic tasks, as
well as in social situations (Avolio & Luthans, 2006; Baron & Byrne, 1997). Thus, one’s
belief that one is competent to do a task may influence the extent to which one partakes in
activities, thereby influencing the extent to which one will be exposed to the potential
fulfilment of both experiential and creative values (see Section 4.4.2). One’s belief about
one’s own competence has also been shown, particularly in cognitive psychology, to often
play a significant role in the manifestation of psychological disorders (Barlow & Durand,
1999). Finally, in the organisational change context, it was shown in Section 2.6.1 that fear
and uncertainty relating to the possible loss of competence often result in resistance to
change. Accordingly, Chreim (2006) pointed out that “self-efficacy also helps create
readiness for change” (p. 315). This again serves to demonstrate the importance of the
individual’s interpretation of a situation – that is, the meaning attached to it – not only in
finding purpose in life, but also in successfully facilitating organisational change.

5.2.2.2. Openness to change

The higher-order value of openness to change refers to the intrinsic value that individuals
gain from work. It encompasses the values of hedonism (“pleasure and… gratification for

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oneself”), stimulation (“excitement, novelty and challenge in life”), and self-direction
(“independent thought and action-choosing, creating, exploring”) (Ros et al., 1999, p. 52).
Specific to the workplace, these intrinsic values include “interesting work, meaningful work,
opportunity for growth, and the use of ability and knowledge” (p. 56). In this regard, Isaksen
(2000) pointed out that many individuals experience pleasure when learning in their jobs – an
experience that not only contributes to job satisfaction, but also makes a significant
contribution to one’s finding meaning at work.

The notion of the intrinsic value of work is another concept that has been researched
extensively. For example, it has been found that this construct is increasingly cited as both an
important motivator and a significant reward (Byars & Rue, 2000; Lundy & Cowling, 1996)
that often impacts one’s commitment to one’s job and one’s employer (see Section 5.2.3
below). In the context of this study, intrinsic value will involve the meaning the individual
finds in the actual content of the work performed. A concept closely related here is that of
job satisfaction. Although this concept is further discussed in Section 5.2.3.2 below, a theory
that may be of great illustrative value here is that of Hackman and Oldham (1980). Given
their findings that job satisfaction may be linked to the intrinsic characteristics of the job 19 ,
Hackman and Oldham developed a model of job satisfaction, which is presented in Figure 5.3
below.

19
Consistent with this, job design and redesign is often cited as a critical intervention in ensuring that individuals find
meaning in their work (e.g. Fiorito et al., 2007; Varoglu & Eser, 2006)

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 Core job Critical psychological Outcomes
characteristics states

Skill variety Experienced

Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback from job
meaningfulness of the
• High internal work
work
motivation
• High quality work
Experienced performance
responsibility for the • High satisfaction
outcomes of the work with the work
• Low absenteeism
Knowledge of the and turnover
actual results of the
work activities

Moderating factors
• Knowledge and skill
• Growth-need strength
• Satisfaction with
contextual factors

Figure 5.3. The job characteristics model (adapted from Hackman & Oldham, 1980, p. 90)

Hackman and Oldham (1980) proposed that any job could be described by means of a
number of core job characteristics, which, in turn, impact on three critical psychological
states. Firstly, the variety of skills required, the extent to which the job entails whole as
opposed to fragmented tasks (task identity), and the impact of the job on others (task
significance) determines whether the individual experiences the job as meaningful.
Secondly, the degree of discretion in the job (autonomy) has an influence on whether the
individual feels responsible for job outcomes. Finally, the degree of feedback impacts upon
the knowledge the individual has of job results. These critical psychological states then
influence the individual’s internal work motivation, performance, job satisfaction and
absenteeism.

These authors further postulated that a number of individual differences exist which may
mediate these relationships. Firstly, employees with the necessary knowledge and skills to
fulfil job demands will experience greater job satisfaction, whereas someone without these
competencies may experience stress and frustration. Secondly, individuals with a greater
need for growth, self-direction and personal achievement (named ‘growth need strength’),

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will respond more positively to the core dimensions. Finally, greater satisfaction with
contextual factors (for example, work conditions, interpersonal relationships, policies, norms,
and political processes) surrounding the job may also result in greater job satisfaction
(Hackman & Oldham, 1980).

Hackman and Oldham’s model above clearly indicates the importance of the intrinsic factors
(of a job) in attaining job satisfaction and, as is shown in Section 5.2.3.2, finding meaning in
one’s job – states that have positive implications for both the individual employee and the
organisation. Not only does this model encompass Ros et al.’s (1999) values of hedonism
(or pleasure in one’s job, as encompassed in the job satisfaction construct – see Section
5.2.3.2), stimulation (task-variety), and self-direction (autonomy), but it also serves to
illustrate the importance of one’s job in fulfilling Frankl’s notions of creative (for example,
fulfilling a challenging task) and experiential (for example, satisfactory social relationships at
work) values. What is more, within the context of this study, it clearly supports the notion
that OD “uses knowledge and techniques from the behavioural sciences to improve
performance through… the design of meaningful work” (Daft, 1992, p. 268, emphasis added).

As was shown above, Ros et al. (1999) associated stimulation with “excitement, novelty and
challenge in life” (p. 52). The notion of challenge, as related to both achievement and noö-
dynamics, was discussed in Section 5.2.2.1. Nevertheless, the importance of this concept,
together with excitement and novelty, may be depicted by a brief exploration of a concept
that is the polar opposite of these – boredom. In Section 4.4.4, it was shown that Frankl
depicted boredom as one consequence of the existential vacuum. In particular, he observed
this phenomenon in unemployed individuals who struggled to find meaning in their lives
(Frankl, 1984). Boredom is often associated with apathy, which implies withdrawal from
activities that may present one with an opportunity to fulfil creative and experiential values.
What is more, Maslow (in Gemmill & Oakley, 1992) considered boredom to be an indication
of substantial psychological decay. This assumption is supported by Frankl’s description of
noögenic neurosis – a logical result of boredom and the associated existential frustration.

Gemmill and Oakley (1992) conducted a study into the significance of boredom in
organisations. These authors argued that boredom occurs when employees fail to
emotionally and intellectually experience personal meaning in their work. Furthermore, they
cited Bernstein’s distinction between responsive and chronic boredom. Whereas the former

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is a conscious, short-term occurrence in response to an unfulfilling experience, chronic
boredom is an “unconscious, enduring experience of the absence of meaning in one’s work”
(Bernstein, in Gemmill & Oakley, 1992, p. 359). Such chronic boredom is then analogous to
states such as anomie (see Section 4.4.4) and alienation (see Section 5.2.4) – states that are
shown in the current study to relate to noögenic neurosis (see Section 4.4.4), or the loss of
meaning. Gemmill and Oakley (1992) further cited research indicating that boredom is
associated with negative consequences such as decreased job satisfaction, an increase in
psychosomatic complaints relating to sleep disorders and stress-related illnesses, depression,
loneliness, substance abuse, and a general feeling of dissatisfaction.

In addition, Frankl (1969; 1984) found boredom to be related to conformism or

totalitarianism. As was shown in Section 4.4.4, these two states involve doing what others do
and doing what others tell one to do, respectively. Gemmill and Oakley (1992) clearly
illustrated the relationship between boredom and these states by arguing that:

A continuous experience of boredom and meaninglessness in work seems to result in the

atrophy of the ability to create excitement and meaningfulness in one's work life. As the
experience of chronic boredom accumulates, those caught in its grip often desperately
search for an authority figure of some sort to provide them with meaning and to
entertain them. Sustained boredom indicates a loss of curiosity and the ability to create
meaningful and entertaining projects (p. 364; emphasis in original)

The above citation not only demonstrates the potentially devastating ramifications of
boredom, but also indicates the importance of novelty, excitement and challenge, as well as
the final value in this cluster, self-direction, in finding meaning in one’s life. As was shown
above, Ros et al. (1999) postulated that this value is expressed in “independent thought and
action-choosing, creating, exploring” (p. 52). In this regard, it was shown in Section 4.4.1.1
that Frankl postulated an individual’s exercising of freedom of will as a crucial element in
attaining meaning in life. Sacrificing one’s freedom of will and independent thought will
amount to conformism and totalitarianism, which is associated with the occurrence of the
existential vacuum and noögenic neurosis (see Section 4.4.4). This was also shown to
decrease creativity (discussed below).

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In addition, such freedom also makes possible the fulfilment of attitudinal values (see Section
4.4.2). Similarly, it was shown that existentialists such as Heidegger and Sartre regarded the
exercising of independent thought as central to defining one’s being. Failure to do so
amounts to living an inauthentic life, or mauvaise foi – ‘living in bad faith’ (Barash, 2001;
Owen, 1994). In the organisational context, then, it was shown above that autonomy is a
central element of job satisfaction (see Figure 5.3). Furthermore, research by Isaksen (2000)
indicated that the sense of freedom associated with the experience of autonomy very often
provides the individual with meaning.

Given individual differences with regard to commitment to values, it is thus apparent that
work that allows the individual to exercise independent thought in which actions to pursue –
rather than subjecting him or her to totalitarian styles of control – could make a significant
contribution to his or her meaning in life. In addition, the value of self-direction also
involves creating and exploring. As is apparent from the discussion on creative and
experiential values (see Section 4.4.2), these components may also play a critical role in
one’s search for meaning. Its expression in the workplace is also apparent – for example,
bringing forth something new, or exploring different avenues to solve problems.
Furthermore, a sense of responsibility for and pride in a work product often results in the
individual experiencing meaning at work, as does the feeling that one is passing on and
realising creative ideas of how to improve one’s job (Isaksen, 2000).

5.2.2.3. Self-transcendence
Ros et al. (1999) defined self-transcendence as consisting of two values, namely universalism
and benevolence. Whereas the latter involves the “preservation and enhancement of the
welfare of people with whom one is in frequent personal contact”, universalism implies
caring in the broader sense of the word: “understanding, appreciation, tolerance and
protection for the welfare of all people and for nature” (p. 52).

In Section 4.4.1, it was shown that Frankl regarded self-transcendence (i.e. the ability to
reach past oneself towards others and meaningful causes), as a central contributing factor to
one’s experience of meaning in life. Such caring for others, including love for one’s nearest
and dearest, is then also deemed one of the most prominent expressions of experiential values
(Frankl, 1988). In the broader, ‘universalism’ sense, social psychologists have researched the
phenomenon involving caring for others and the “unselfish desire to help others” (Worchel,

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Cooper & Goethals, 1991, p. 512) under the banner of altruism (also known as pro-social
behaviour, Caprava & Steca, 2007). According to Baron and Byrne (1997), this phenomenon
is generally ascribed to one of four motivations. These are summarised in Table 5.2 below.

Table 5.2.
Four hypotheses on the origins of altruism (adapted from Baron & Byrne, 1997, pp. 383-384)
Hypothesis
The empathy-altruism hypothesis
The negative state relief model
The empathic joy hypothesis
The genetic determinism model
Explanation
Altruism is motivated by the desire to help those in need
Altruistic behaviour reduces uncomfortable negative emotions
The positive feelings one experiences as a result of partaking in
prosocial actions are responsible for altruistic behaviour
Altruistic behaviour (unconsciously motivated by genetic factors
towards individuals who are genetically similar to oneself) is
aimed at preserving common genes

The above table indicates that self-transcendence – in a universal sense – may be based on a
variety of motivations. Nevertheless, in the context of this study, these hypotheses (with the
exception of the latter, which implies genetic determinism) clearly suggest that altruistic
behaviours are motivated by something that gives meaning to the individual’s life. In other
words, regardless of the specific motivation, it may be deduced that individuals partaking in
such behaviours experience them as meaningful, which reinforces the contention that self-
transcendence supports one’s search for meaning in life.

Specific to the organisation, Isaksen (2000) found that individuals very often find meaning if
they perceive their work as making a contribution to the well-being of others. Such self-
transcendence may then be inherent to a wide variety of occupations, including medical,
social and educational occupations where the welfare of others is a central concern of the job.
In occupations outside these fields, self-transcendence may manifest in behaviours such as
supporting one’s colleagues or serving as a mentor to inexperienced employees. In the wider,
sense (universalism), some individuals may work for organisations that are committed to
large-scale welfare and conservation, such as the Red Cross or Salvation Army. Similarly,
such self-transcendence may find expression in large-scale philanthropy or corporate social
responsibility (CSR). Regardless of its expression, however, it is apparent that the
opportunity to fulfil values of self-transcendence is present in the organisational context.

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 5.2.2.4. Conservation
According to Ros et al. (1999, p. 52), the higher-order value of conservation consists of three
values. Firstly, tradition involves “respect, commitment and acceptance of the customs and
ideas that traditional culture or religion provides”. Secondly, conformity encompasses the
“restraint of actions, inclinations and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate
social expectations or norms”. Finally, security includes “safety, harmony and stability of
society, of relationships, and of [the] self” (Ros et al., 1999, p. 52). In the work context, these
authors maintain that conservation encompasses extrinsic work values such as job security
and income.

Whereas it is proclaimed it Section 4.4.4 that traditions in society at large are crumbling,
research shows that traditions within organisations are relatively stable and extremely
difficult to change intentionally. These organisational traditions are then generally associated
with the concept of organisational culture. As was indicated in Section 2.4.4, an
organisational culture encompasses a shared system of meaning that generally prescribes the
assumptions, beliefs, values and norms that are held by the members of the organisation.
Employees form a common understanding of what involves appropriate conduct in the
organisation through the observation of and participation in the traditions of the organisation.
These include its “beliefs, symbols, rituals, myths, and practices that have evolved over time”
(Robbins, 1990, p. 438). Thus, organisations contribute to the individual’s experience of
conservation values primarily through their cultures 20 , which is clearly illustrated in Isaksen’s
(2000) contention that many individuals find meaning in their work through an “attachment
to the workplace and its procedures” (p. 107).

It maybe argued that this characteristic of organisational cultures also presents its biggest
threat to effective organisational change. Gallant (2007, p. 395) indicated that changing
organisational cultures “involves changing private values and normative practices” and
requires of employees to not only “confront their own ideologies”, but also to reassess the
“meaning systems” existing in the organisation. Often, this will result in resistance to
change: “People resist changing their underlying assumptions, values, and behaviors because
their existing ideologies or dominant culture blind them to the problem and to the personal
benefits of the envisioned culture” (Gallant, 2007, p. 395).

20
See Section 6.9 for a discussion of ethical concerns relating to these concepts.

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 Ros et al. (1999) identified security as the final element of their framework of basic
individual values. This importance of this value is apparent from the discussions in Chapter 2
in particular. Here, it was shown that a lack of or a threat to security, as is commonly
associated with the ‘new psychological contract’ and the ‘new career’ (see Section 2.5.6), is
inherent in the survivor syndrome (Section 2.5.5), a decrease in employee commitment
(Section 2.5.6), psychological contract violation and the resulting retaliation (Section 2.5.6),
and individual resistance to change (Section 2.6.1).

Nevertheless, as is the case with the other values identified by Ros et al. (1999), individual
differences exist with regard to the extent to which employees are motivated by the value of
security. This is apparent from Schein’s (1985) theory of career anchors, which stipulates
that different individuals have different orientations to work. Schein identified eight career
anchors, or clusters of talents, motives and values that are at the core of the individual’s
occupational self-concept, and postulated that individuals possess different combinations of
such anchors. These eight anchors are summarised in Table 5.3 below.

Table 5.3.
Schein’s career anchors and associated basic individual values (partially adapted from Schein,
1985).
Career anchor Description Associated higher-
order value(s)
Technical/functional Individuals possessing this anchor are primarily Self-enhancement
competence concerned with the actual content of their work and
typically want to remain in their area of technical or
functional expertise
Managerial Individuals possessing this anchor are focused on Self-enhancement
competence managerial concerns such as the integration of others’
efforts, linking different organisational functions, and
taking accountability for total results
Autonomy/ Individuals possessing this anchor prefer to be free Openness to change
independence from organisational constraints and to follow a career (particularly self-
that allows them to choose the details of their work direction)
themselves
Security-stability Individuals possessing this anchor are concerned with Conservation
long-term career stability and security, and often prefer

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 Career anchor Description Associated higher-
order value(s)
predictable work
Service/dedication Individuals possessing this anchor strive to reach a Self-transcendence
valued outcome related to others, such as improving the
welfare of others.
Pure challenge Individuals possessing this anchor are concerned with Openness to change
solving difficult problems and overcoming challenges (particularly
and obstacles. They are generally in search of work that stimulation)
brings variety and novelty
Life-style integration Individuals possessing this anchor will generally A combination of the
attempt to bring about a balance between the major four higher-order
elements of their lives – that is, career and family values
concerns
Entrepreneurial Individuals possessing this anchor strive to create Achievement
something new, and enjoy the freedom to create and Stimulation
operate their own organisations in the way they see fit Self-direction

As is apparent from the above table, security constitutes only one of the career anchors,
which clearly illustrates the contention that not all individuals are motivated by this value. In
addition, Table 5.3 serves to lend credence to the preceding discussions with regard to basic
individual values. In the third column of this table, an association was made between specific
career anchors and the values summarised in Table 5.1 and discussed in the preceding
sections. These deductions not only support Ros et al.’s (1999) framework of values, but also
further emphasise the contention that individuals are motivated by and find meaning in
different values.

Although Ros et al.’s theory of basic individual values provides a relatively comprehensive
framework whereby the individual’s search for meaning at work can be explored, it is by no
means a saturated model. From the literature, a number of other possible sources of meaning
in the workplace can be identified. For example, research by Isaksen (2000) pointed out that
meaning is often found in social relationships at work. This supports Frankl’s contention that
social relations contribute to the fulfilment of experiential values, thereby helping one find to
meaning in life. In addition, it was found that work often serves as a source of meaning in
life by being “a necessary part of a larger meaningful context” (Isaksen, 2000, p. 107). What

185
this means is that meaning is often derived from work when it facilitates one’s engagement in
activities outside of work. According to Isaksen (2000, p. 107):

There are two variants: 1) Work becomes meaningful because it provides the
private/family life with either a salary or other kind of resources that make it satisfying
2) The salary makes possible a special future project, in which the [employee] has
invested emotional energy.

The above citation again reminds organisations that if the individual does not find meaning in
his or her job, he or she will often find such meaning somewhere outside the organisation.
As pointed out in Section 5.2.1.3, this may inevitably result in a decrease in one’s
organisational commitment and the effort exerted in one’s job. In contrast, if the individual
does succeed in finding meaning in his or her job, this may have a potentially significant
effect on the commitment displayed by this individual. This notion is discussed in the
subsequent section.

5.2.3. Meaning and commitment

As indicated in Chapter 4, the individual’s finding of meaning in life is inextricably related to
his or her attitude towards life. Not only is a specific attitude to life necessary (refer, for
example, to the discussion of attitudinal values, Section 4.4.2), but finding purpose also has
an effect on the attitude or outlook one has towards life in general. In the work context, then,
finding meaning may have a positive impact on three critical work attitudes, namely job
involvement, organisational commitment and job satisfaction. According to Storm and Roodt
(2002):

The importance of an engaged work-force in today’s dynamic and volatile business

environment cannot be over-emphasised. Leaders and managers are constantly trying to
improve employees’ levels of commitment in an attempt to gain a competitive advantage
in their quest to become world-class players (p. 14).

Similarly, Nijhof, de Jong and Beukhof (1998) contended that:

186
 The success of an organization depends not only on how the organization makes the most
of human competences, but also how it stimulates commitment to an organization.
Employee commitment… seems to be of decisive importance for an organization to be
able to compete in quality and to go along with [organizational] changes” (p. 243).

From these statements it is apparent that employee commitment is central to organisational

success, and more relevant to the purpose of this study – organisational change. This
proposition is supported by Mohrman and Lawler’s (1999) belief that the success of
organisational change rests firmly on the support of the organisation’s people (see Section
5.1.2.3), Chapman’s (2002) argument that a prerequisite for transformational change is a
“deeper level of involvement among stakeholders [such as employees] in the system” (p. 18),
and McGuinness and Morgan’s (2005) view that employee commitment is essential for
“sustaining the energy of incessant change” (p. 1315). Similarly, Sirkin et al. (2005) argued
that two central ‘hard’ factors relating to the success of organisational change efforts are the
commitment of top management and staff to the change project, and additional effort being
exerted towards ensuring the success of the change programme. As is shown in the
discussion on OCBs (see Section 5.2.3.2 below), such effort can hardly be expected without a
level of commitment towards the organisation. Furthermore, Vakola and Nikolaou (2005)
indicated that a positive relationship exists between organisational commitment and positive
attitudes towards change, and subsequently contended that these findings serve as
confirmation of research evidence indicating that organisational commitment is a crucial
determinant of how effective change initiatives will be.

In the larger organisational context, Roodt (2004) pointed out that employee commitment is
also a defining characteristic of world-class organisations 21 . Furthermore, this author stated
that commitment is generally accepted to be the polar opposite of employee alienation. This
insight is of particular importance, given the relationship between meaning in life and
alienation, as discussed in Section 5.4. Caldwell, Chatman and O’Reilly (in O’Driscoll &
Randall, 1999) pointed out that the current economic climate – which was shown in Chapter 2
as resulting in the need for constant organisational change – necessitates organisations to
focus on “maintaining or even enhancing employees’ commitment to the job and the
organization” (p. 198). This citation then also points out an important distinction made in

21
One crucial element here is that organisational commitment has been shown to correlate positively with customer
satisfaction (Green, 2007).

187
the commitment literature, namely between commitment to one’s job – or job involvement
(Section 5.2.3.1) – and commitment to one’s employer – also known as organisational
commitment (Section 5.2.3.2). These two concepts are discussed in the following sections.

5.2.3.1. Job involvement and occupational commitment

Job involvement is generally considered to refer to the individual’s commitment to his or her
job. More specifically, involvement encompasses “the individual’s level of psychological
identification with the specific job in which he or she is engaged” (Kanungo, in Dipboye et
al., 1994, p. 169; O’Driscoll & Randall, 1999, p. 198), or “the degree to which employees
immerse themselves in their jobs, invest time and energy in them, and view work as a central
part of their overall lives” (Newstrom & Davis, 1997, p. 259). Kanungo (1982) argued that
job involvement entails “a specific cognitive belief state of psychological identification” that
one has with a specific job, to the extent that one perceives the job to posses “the ability to
satisfy one’s needs and expectations” (p. 80). Strümpfer and Mlonzi (2001) argued that the
cognitive focus of job involvement is what distinguishes it from job satisfaction (see Section
5.2.3.2 below), which has a greater affective emphasis.

Consistent with the above, job involvement has been indicated as being related to the
importance one’s work holds for one’s self-image (Muchinsky, 2000). In this regard, and
consistent with the theme of the current chapter (see particularly Section 5.3), Dipboye et al.
(1994) pointed out that work plays a central role in the lives of job-involved people, and that
any “change in their employment conditions or status can seriously affect their psychological
well-being or self-esteem” (p. 169). Similarly, Newstrom and Davis (1997) argued that
holding a meaningful job constitutes a central “input” to the self-images of employees,
“which helps explain the traumatic effects of job loss 22 on their esteem needs” (p. 259).
These authors continued by stating that one distinguishing characteristic of employees who
are highly job-involved is that they are more likely to have a strong work ethic, resulting in
them attempting to be good performers, seldom being tardy or absent, and often working long
hours 23 .

Similarly, Dipboye et al. (1994) contended that job-involved individuals display behaviours
such as working overtime to finish projects and showing pride in their accomplishments.

22
See also Sections 5.2.1.1 and 5.3.3.
23
Working longer hours is also related to OCBs (see Section 5.2.3.2).

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What is more, they become “discontented or depressed” when unable to perform their jobs
(Dipboye et al., 1994, p. 169). Consistent with Roodt’s (2004) argument cited above,
characteristics such as these led Brown (1996) to conclude from a meta-analysis that the
concept of job involvement may also serve as an opposite for the concept of alienation (see
Section 5.2.4 below):

A state of involvement implies a positive and relatively complete state of engagement of

core aspects of the self in the job, whereas a state of alienation implies a loss of
individuality and separation of self from the work environment (p. 235).

In addition to positively impacting on job performance (Blau & Boal, 1987), job involvement
has also been shown to correlate strongly with job satisfaction, the conscientiousness
personality trait, and organisational commitment. Furthermore, it also correlates negatively
with turnover (Brown, 1996; see the meta-analytic review mentioned above). From these
results, Muchinsky (2000) concluded that “job involvement is more strongly related to how
people view their work and their approach to it and less related to how well they perform
their jobs” (p. 274). Thus, one may deduce that one’s level of job involvement is most
commonly a consequence of one’s particular attitude to one’s work. Consistent with the
theoretical perspective taken in this chapter, then, such a deduction implies that if one is to
find more meaning in one’s job, one’s attitude will be more positive, which will result in an
increase in job involvement.

Lee, Carswell and Allen (2000) indicated a central distinction with regard to the types of
commitment displayed by employees in the organisation. Based on the work of Morrow
(1983, 1993), who distinguished between commitment to the work itself, one’s career, one’s
job, the organisation, and a (trade) union, these authors conducted a meta-analytic review of
the concept of ‘occupational commitment’. This concept involves “a psychological link
between a person and his or her occupation that is based on an affective reaction to that
occupation” (p. 800). Lee et al. (2000) conceptualised an occupation as “an identifiable and
specific line of work that an individual engages in to earn a living at a specific point in time”
that is “made up of a constellation of requisite skills, knowledge, and duties that differentiate
it from other occupations and, typically, is transferable across settings” (p. 800). This term,
‘occupation’, then encompasses both professionals and non-professionals.

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Work by Blau (1985) indicated that career commitment, defined as “one’s attitude towards
one’s profession or vocation” (p. 280), and thus resembling occupational commitment, is
distinct from other commitment-related attitudes such as job involvement and commitment to
the organisation. Despite this distinction, Lee et al.’s (2000) meta-analytic review found that
occupational commitment is positively correlated with a number of work-related attitudes,
including job involvement, job satisfaction, satisfaction with the work itself, and
organisational commitment (particularly affective organisational commitment – see
discussion below). Occupational commitment was also found to correlate positively with
work performance.

In addition to these positive correlations, Lee et al. (2000) also found that occupational
commitment correlates negatively with three indicators of burnout, namely emotional
exhaustion, reduced accomplishment and depersonalisation. Given that burnout is often
defined as a situation where one no longer finds one’s work meaningful (see Section 2.5.2), it
is apparent that occupational commitment may be closely related to one’s experience of
meaning in the work setting. This again emphasises the importance of the individual finding
meaning in his or her job if the organisation is to fully utilise its human resources and be
optimally competitive.

5.2.3.2. Organisational commitment and job satisfaction

Meaning in work is… significant for an individual because of its impact on the degree of
satisfaction derived from, and commitment to, work (Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006, p.
4).

The success of any organisation [amidst change] is largely determined by how much
support it receives from its employees (Marais & Schepers, 1996, p. 3).

Organisational commitment may be defined as “employees’ attachment to the organisation”

(O’Driscoll & Randall, 1999, p. 198), “the extent to which an employee feels a sense of
allegiance to his or her employer” (Muchinsky, 2000, p. 274), or “workers’ identification and
involvement in a particular organization” (Dipboye et al., 1994, p. 171). This concept is also
strongly related to the extent to which individuals find meaning in their work 24 (Markow &
Klenke, 2005). After arguing that the “organisational commitment literature includes a large

24
This relationship was found to be mediated by whether individuals viewed their jobs as callings – see Section 9.4.1.1.

190
number of explanatory and descriptive concepts without any serious attempt for parsimony
and integration”, Roodt defined organisational commitment as “a cognitive predisposition
that the organisation has the ability to satisfy salient needs in the work context” (Storm &
Roodt, 2002, p. 14)(see also Roodt, 1997).

Mowday, Porter and Steers (1979; 1982) distinguished between three elements of
organisational commitment, namely a desire to remain with the organisation 25 , a belief in and
acceptance of organisational values, and a readiness to exert more effort than is expected in
favour of the organisation. According to Nijhof et al. (1998), these three elements, which are
subsequently discussed in more detail, are indicative of organisational commitment
encompassing “not only an attitude, but also a behaviour” (p. 243).

Mowday et al.’s (1982) first element of organisational commitment, a desire to remain with
the organisation, is reflected in research indicating that a primary advantage of employee
commitment to the organisation is a decrease in labour turnover (see Chawla & Kelloway,
2004; Cohen et al., 2007; Fiorito et al., 2007; Markow & Klenke, 2005; Pool & Pool, 2007;
Stallworth, 2004; Van Dyk, 2001). Miller et al. (2002) found a significant negative
correlation between organisational commitment and a variable they called “intention to
emigrate” (p. 17), which suggests that the impact of such commitment may reach even
beyond remaining in a company, to remaining in a country. Further advantages include a
decrease in absenteeism (Blau & Boal, 1987; Elizur, 1996), an increase in employee
motivation (Bennett & Durkin, 2000; Pool & Pool, 2007), as well as an “improvement of
quality and customer-centredness, improvement of organizational communication and a
larger willingness to change” (Nijhof et al., 1998, pp. 246-247; emphasis added).

The latter advantage again emphasises the importance of the individual’s commitment to the
organisation if transformation efforts are to be successful. This contention is supported by
Bennett and Durkin’s (2000) assertion that a point of commonality among techniques
designed to overcome barriers to change is that they are aimed at maintaining or enhancing
the individual’s commitment to the organisation (see also the discussion on OCBs below). In
addition, they pointed out that “commitment has been shown to have a statistically significant
impact on employee acceptance of change” (p. 141).

25
Strümpfer and Mlonzi (2001) pointed out that this element of the definition of organisational commitment results in
concept redundancy between this construct and the concept of ‘intention to quit’.

191
A more comprehensive presentation of Mowday et al.’s (1979; 1982) second element of
organisational commitment, namely a belief in and acceptance of organisational values,
warrants a brief digression. Jaros, Jermier, Koehler and Sincich (1993) distinguished
between three types of organisational commitment, namely continuance, affective and moral
commitment. An additional type of commitment, which is based on a sense of duty or
obligation, has also been identified. This is known as normative commitment (Allen &
Meyer, 1996; Dvir et al., 2004; Herscovitch & Meyer, 2002; McGuinness & Morgan, 2005;
Ugboro, 2006). Whereas continuance commitment (or cognitive commitment, Allen &
Meyer, 1996; Dvir et al., 2004) results from the “material benefit” the individual gains from
the organisation or the “anticipated costs and drawbacks of leaving” (O’Driscoll & Randall,
1999, pp. 198), affective commitment involves an emotional attachment based on an
emotional bond (Dvir et al., 2004; Jaros et al., 1993; Ugboro, 2006), or an “attitude that
centres on emotional identification with the values and goals of the organisation” (O’Driscoll
& Randall, 1999, emphasis added). This dimension of organisational commitment is most
frequently associated with the individual’s experience of quality of work life (Cacioppe, in
Dulewicz & Higgs, 2005). Finally, moral commitment is

based on internalisation of norms and identification with organisational authority; the

degree to which an individual is psychologically attached to an employing organisation
through the internalisation of its goals, values and mission (Bennett & Durkin, 2000, p.
131).

From the above, it is apparent that Mowday et al.’s (1982) second element of organisational
commitment – as pertaining to a belief in and acceptance of organisational values – relates to
both emotional and moral commitment. Although extrinsic factors (such as pay) have been
found to play a role, emotional and moral commitment seem to be based on intrinsic values26
in particular (see the discussion on work values in Section 5.2.2 above) (Elizur, 1996; Lok &
Crawford, 1999). Such acceptance of values is critical to the success of organisations, as
values represent the “glue” that is “used to hold an organization together” (Dolan & Garcia,
2002, pp. 115).

26
This proposition reflects Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene theory of job motivation which states that satisfaction with
factors intrinsic to work (e.g. recognition, achievement, responsibility) serve as motivators, whereas dissatisfaction with
extrinsic (hygiene) factors, such as pay and supervisory practices, have a negative impact on motivation (Herzberg, Mausner
& Snyderman, 1959)

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Roodt (personal communication, 6 February 2004) 27 pointed out that the theoretical definition
of commitment, as discussed in the preceding paragraph, is problematic due to it being three-
dimensional with two dimensions (affective and continuance) being contested. Roodt argued
that whereas affective commitment overlaps with the emotional component intrinsic in job
satisfaction, little empirical support has been found for continuance commitment. Roodt
further postulated that Kanungo’s (1982) approach, known as the ‘motivational’ approach,
overcomes these limitations. This approach focuses only on the state of commitment, thereby
separating this construct from its precursor and resultant conditions and behaviours, and also
its related emotional and behavioural components. As a result, the components that overlap
with the job satisfaction and intention to leave constructs are extracted, resulting in less
concept redundancy.

However, Kanungo’s (1982) approach is not free of limitations. Roodt (1991) pointed out
that this model does not fully reflect the potential for conflict between different life roles and
the consequent struggle to establish a balance. Also, Roodt argued that the important
motivational influence of defence mechanisms is not recognised. Finally, the model also fails
to acknowledge the motivational constructs of both salient values and goals (Roodt, 1991).

Mowday et al.’s (1982) third element of organisational commitment, the willingness to put in
effort for the organisation, is most commonly addressed in the literature under the banner of
organisational citizenship behaviours (OCBs). OCBs – also known as pro-social
organisational behaviour or extra-role behaviour (Boerner et al., 2007; Muchinsky, 2000;
Richardson & Vanderberg, 2005; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006) – encapsulate employee
behaviours such as “extra-job activities, helping colleagues, meeting workplace rules, and
acting according to organizational policies and procedures regardless of personal
inconvenience” (Organ & Ryan, in Van Emmerik & Euwema, 2007, p. 530). These activities
are carried out despite it not being formally expected, evaluated or rewarded (Bowen et al.,
1999; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006) and can be associated with intrinsic motivation 28 (Van
Emmerik & Euwema, 2007). In other words, individuals who take part in OCBs “engage in
positive social acts” and “use their talents and energies fully to help the organization achieve

27
Gert Roodt is Professor of Industrial Psychology at the University of Johannesburg’s (formerly RAU) Department of
Human Resource Management. Professor Roodt has researched the concepts of involvement, alienation and commitment
extensively. See, for example, Roodt (1991; 1993; 1997, 2004), Roodt, Bester and Boshoff (1994a; 1994b), and Storm &
Roodt (2002).
28
As alluded to in Chapter 8, this translates into OCBs being related to self-transcendence and thus, by implication, finding
meaning in work.

193
its goals” (Newstrom & Davis, 1997, pp. 304-305). In the literature, it has been emphasised
that without employee commitment and OCBs, the effectiveness of change efforts may hang
in the balance (Folger & Skarlicki, 1999). This is clearly illustrated in Bennett and Durkin’s
(2000) assertion that

… the extrarole, prosocial behaviours associated with high levels of… commitment are
essential for the successful implementation of change and underpin many, if not all, of
the strategies advanced for overcoming barriers to change (p. 141).

Research has ascribed organisational commitment to a number of factors. For example,

Elizur (1996) and Nijhof et al. (1998) cited research indicating that factors such as age,
tenure, gender and education have been investigated as moderators of organisational
commitment. Other factors indicated as potential precursors to commitment include pre-
employment expectations, perceived job characteristics, leadership style (Williams & Hazer,
1986), HR practices (Fiorito et al., 2007), participation and decentralised decision making
(Nijhof et al., 1998). In the context of this study, Schlechter and Engelbrecht (2006)
maintained that a positive relationship exists between the extent to which individuals
experience meaning in the organisation, and whether or not they display OCBs 29 . However,
Lok and Crawford (1999) pointed out that a number of studies have demonstrated that the
effects of these factors on the individual’s level of commitment to the organisation are
moderated by another variable, namely job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction may be defined as “a set of favorable or unfavorable feelings and emotions
with which employees view their work” (Newstrom & Davis, 1997, p. 256), that is, “the
extent to which an employee feels positively or negatively towards his/her job” (Yousef,
2000, p. 572). This term is most often used to describe a single employee’s attitude towards
his or her job – the term morale is used to depict overall group job satisfaction. Of
substantial importance is that job satisfaction is regarded as a dynamic attitude that “can
decline even more quickly than it develops” (Newstrom & Davis, 1997, p. 257).

According to Bassett (in Pietersen, 2005), job satisfaction “is a multidimensional, enduring,
important and much researched concept in the field of organizational behaviour” (p. 19; see

29
The authors also contended that meaning may actually be discovered through the expression of OCBs, especially when
these behaviours make a “meaningful and valued difference” (p. 4).

194
also Tsigilis et al., 2004). This construct has been shown to be related to a number of
variables, including organisational determinants such as reward systems, perceived quality of
supervision and working conditions; and personal determinants such as personality variables,
status and seniority, and general life satisfaction (Greenberg & Baron, 1993). Regarding the
latter point, research has shown that a spill-over effect also occurs in the other direction. In
other words, job satisfaction often also impacts significantly on life satisfaction (Howard &
Frink, 1996; Newstrom & Davis, 1997). What is more, this construct has been shown to have
a strong negative relationship with burnout (see Section 2.5.1.3) (Tsigilis et al., 2004).
Strümpfer and Mlonzi (2001) further affirmed these findings by not only noting a
significantly positive correlation between job satisfaction and SOC (see discussion in Chapter
1) 30 , but also pointed to research showing that job satisfaction is positively related to
longevity and general health, and negatively related to coronary heart disease.

Hackman and Oldham (1980) provided a more comprehensive view of job satisfaction by
means of their Job Characteristics Model (see Figure 5.3). A number of other theories of job
satisfaction have also been formulated, many of which are more recent than that of Hackman
and Oldham. However, an overview of these theories is beyond the scope of this study
(consult, for example, texts such as Robbins et al., 2003). Of importance, however, is that the
meta-analysis by Brown (1996) revealed that job satisfaction correlates strongly with job
involvement (r = 0,45) and organisational commitment (r = 0,53) 31 . This, together with the
assertion in Section 5.2.3.2 pertaining to the relationship between job satisfaction and finding
meaning in work, indicates that this concept is of particular significance when managing
organisational change. In this regard, research has found that job satisfaction is positively
related to employees’ attitudes towards organisational change. For example, Yousef (2000)
reported that higher job satisfaction increases organisational commitment, which, in turn,
makes employees more open to changes.

30
Considering the positive correlation found between indicators of meaning in life and SOC (see Section 4.4.4), these
findings may imply a definite positive relationship between such meaning and job satisfaction. This lends further support to
the importance of an intervention aimed at increasing individuals’ meaning.
31
Despite the strong positive correlations between the three work-related attitudes of job involvement organisational
commitment, and job satisfaction, these three constructs are viewed as theoretically and empirically distinct (e.g. Dipboye et
al., 1994). In particular, it has been argued that organisational commitment focuses on “a more global, longer-term
attachment to the organisation as a whole”, which distinguishes it from “nearer-term attitudes towards a particular job” (job
satisfaction) and an “emphasis on congruence between the goals of the individual and those of the organisation” (job
involvement) (Porter, Steers, Mowday & Boulian, in Strümpfer & Mlonzi, 2001, p. 30).

195
Lok and Crawford (1999) found significant correlations between a number of elements of job
satisfaction and organisational commitment. These elements include control over one’s
working environment, the level of praise received (from colleagues and leaders), the extent to
which one has interaction with and receives acceptance by colleagues, and the flexibility one
has in scheduling work. Not only do these elements relate to Maslow’s higher-order needs
(see Section 4.4.1.2) (Lok & Crawford, 1999), but, as is evident from Section 5.2.2, many of
these elements also relate to the categories of work values that were postulated as central
contributors to the individual finding meaning in the work setting. For example, control and
flexibility relate to autonomy values in work, whereas praise and acceptance relate to values
such as social status, achievement and competence. It is thus apparent that job satisfaction
may be closely linked to the extent to which one finds meaning or purpose in one’s job.
Accordingly, Tsigilis et al. (2004) indicated an “increasing concern with the meaning of
work” as a prominent driving force behind job satisfaction research (p. 666).

Given the above, it may be deduced that finding meaning at work could enhance one’s job
satisfaction, which, in turn, may enhance the extent to which one identifies “with the values
and goals of the organisation”, thus increasing one’s affective commitment to the
organisation. In addition to this indirect relationship between meaning and commitment,
Elizur (1996) found direct correlations between commitment and work values such as
independence, job interest and use of abilities. These reflect Frankl’s (1978, 1984, 1986)
categories of experiential and creative values – central determinants of meaning in life.
Furthermore, research has found that individuals whose central interest lies in work – defined
by Greenhaus (1971) as career salience – display higher organisational commitment than
those with different central life interests. From this, one may again deduce that if individuals
find more meaning in the organisation than elsewhere, their career salience may increase,
thereby potentially increasing their level of organisational commitment (see the discussion in
Section 5.2.1.3). Considering the advantages of increased organisational commitment listed
above, it is apparent that the individual’s finding of meaning in the work setting may be of
great value to the competitive efforts of the organisation in general, and the success of change
initiatives in particular.

Bowen et al. (1999) and Chawla and Kelloway (2004) offered an alternative explanation
regarding the origin of employee commitment and OCBs. According to these authors, OCBs

196
are the result of employees perceiving themselves as being treated fairly by the organisation.
Robbins et al. (2003) forwarded a similar argument by stating that

… when you perceive organisational processes and outcomes to be fair, trust is

developed. And when you trust your employer, you’re more willing to voluntarily
engage in behaviours that go beyond your formal job requirements (p. 79).

However, Rice and Dreilinger (1991) contended that organisational change often threatens
one’s inherent need for fairness, resulting in a focus on regaining security, rather than on
organisational goals. Moreover, people begin to view the organisation as the “perpetrator of
the injustice” (p. 42), which leads to them distancing themselves from the organisation and
attempting to, consistent with equity theory, correct the perceived inequity by reducing their
contributions to the organisation. As a result, employee trust and commitment are reduced
and resistance to change ensues (Chawla & Kelloway, 2004). Furthermore, when individuals
perceive themselves as being treated unfairly, “their sense of self-esteem and personal
meaning is likely to be undermined” (Wong, 1997, p. 3), as “unfair treatment tends to
dehumanize individuals and deprives them of their sense of personal worth and dignity”
(Wong, 1998, p. 121). Thus, “it is difficult for individuals to find life meaningful when they
are rejected or discriminated against by society” 32 (Wong, 1998, p. 113). By resulting in
perceived unfairness, organisational change efforts may therefore not only constrain the very
behaviours necessary for its success, but they may also negatively impact upon the meaning
people experience in their lives.

Thus, it may be contended that should individuals perceive organisational changes as fair and
meaningful, they will display commitment to the organisation and the changes. In other
words, they will demonstrate readiness for change. On the other hand, in the case of
perceived unfairness and the constraining of meaning, resistance to change may be
encountered. This is particularly the case when transformation efforts result in changes to the
organisation’s values (Bennett & Durkin, 2000), which were shown to be as a significant
source of meaning in the workplace (Section 5.2.2). Furthermore, it was shown that the
constructs of job involvement, job satisfaction and organisational commitment all constitute

32
In this regard, one may recall the argument by Frankl that depending on the extent to which they realise attitudinal values,
individuals may find meaning in any circumstances (see Section 4.4.2 in particular). However, the ethics of a situation
where organisations knowingly treats\ individuals unfairly, and then expect them to still find their own meaning, are
questionable (see Section 6.9.1).

197
attitudes toward work (Berry & Houston, 1993; Dipboye et al., 1994, Muchinsky, 2000;
Newstrom & Davis, 1997). In Chapter 4, it was shown that finding meaning in life is
inextricably related to one’s attitudes, which, together with the arguments posited above,
suggests that finding meaning in the organisation may enhance the individual’s job
involvement, job satisfaction and organisational commitment. These views were also
expressed by Yousef (2000), who stated that:

Those who have great sense of identification with, involvement in, and emotional
attachment to the organization are more willing to accept changes as far as such a
change is not expected to alter the basic goals and values of the organization and is seen
as beneficial to the organization (p. 580).

From the above arguments it may be deduced that if organisations can augment the extent to
which their employees find meaning in changes, resistance to change behaviours may be
reduced. At the same time, readiness for change behaviours (often embodied in OCBs) may
be increased 33 . Thus, a meaning-centred intervention may be aimed at facilitating
organisational change, or, differently stated, logotherapy may serve as an OD intervention.

Whereas the previous sections served to explore the positive consequences of an individual
finding meaning in the work context, arguments are presented in the subsequent paragraphs
regarding the consequences of not finding meaning within the organisation. In Section 4.4.4,
it was shown that a lack of meaning can result in existential frustration and noögenic neurosis
(see also Section 5.3, where it is shown that this condition may be prevalent in and the result
of the changing organisation). Over more than a century, authors have researched a similar
condition, generally associated with a lack of meaning in one’s work (Blauner, 1964). This
condition is known as alienation 34 .

33
The assumption is made here that the organisational change interventions are planned and implemented in a fair and
ethical manner. Should this not be the case, the proposed logotherapeutic intervention may itself be construed as unethical.
See Section 6.9 for a discussion in this regard.
34
Accordingly, Aktouf maintained that a “lack of perceived meaningfulness of one’s work can lead to alienation or
disengagement” (Aktouf, in Markow & Klenke, 2005, p. 11).

198
 5.2.4. Meaninglessness in work: Alienation
Similar to the arguments posed in Section 5.2.1 above, Miller, Burack and Albrect (1980)
emphasised the importance of work in one’s search for meaning in life by stating that

[t]hroughout its history, work has always been held in high regard. A man’s job was his
contribution to progress, his means of earning a livelihood. If he lost his job, he was
deprived of his basic purpose in life (pp. 448-449).

Wolfe (1997) greatly substantiated this contention by stating that people find more of
themselves in work, which amounts to a loss of meaning when they are not working.
Similarly, a central proposition of the theory of Karl Marx, one of the pioneering authors on
alienation, is that work is the “primary human activity” that holds “the key to human
happiness and fulfilment”, and that work can provide the means to “fulfil people’s potential”
(in Haralambos & Holborn, 1995, p. 179). This is consistent with Maslow’s (1998) belief
that employment has the potential to provide individuals with a great opportunity to become
self-actualising. However, Marx also pointed out that work has the potential to create
alienation and to “distort and pervert [one’s] nature and [one’s] relationships with others”
(cited in Haralambos & Holborn, 1995, p. 179). Again, Maslow (1998) agrees with Marx by
stating that “if work is meaninglessness, then life comes close to being meaningless” (p. 39).
Given the assumption that a lack of meaning in life poses a significant threat to the
psychological and physical well-being of individuals (see Frankl’s notion of noögenic
neurosis, Section 4.4.4), it is apparent that meaningful work is central to the actualisation of
the individual’s potential.

Gini and Sullivan (1993) provided an extensive discussion on the centrality of work to the
individual’s well-being. One of these authors’ central assumptions is taken from Browning’s
contention that for contemporary workers, the notion of a day’s work for a day’s pay is no
longer sufficient. Rather, they “want nothing less than eight hours of meaningful, skilfully
guided, personal[ly] satisfying work for eight hours pay” (p. 133). Similarly, Miller (in Konz
& Ryan, 1999, p. 200) contended that individuals are no longer satisfied with work as “mere
economic exchanges between isolated, autonomous individuals” – rather, they “are searching
for a way to connect their work lives with their spiritual lives, to work together in
community, to be unified in a vision and purpose that goes far beyond making money” (p.
2000).

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However, Schumacher (in Gini & Sullivan, 1993, p. 133) pointed out that one of the most
disturbing characteristics of contemporary society is that a great number of individuals are
“condemned to work” which has “no connection to their inner lives” or “spiritual meaning for
them”. Schumacher called this ‘bad work’, which refers to work that “offers no opportunity
for the individual to become more than he or she already is, offers no potential for growth, no
sense of beauty and delight, no feelings of completeness and no sense of well-being” (in Gini
& Sullivan, 1993, p. 133). This is clearly supported by Pines’s (1993) contention that
burnout (which, upon consideration of the discussion of this concept in Section 2.5.1.3,
clearly closely resembles alienation) results when an individual unsuccessfully attempts to
find existential meaning in work. This results in the disillusionment of the individual’s belief
that “our lives are meaningful and that the things we do are useful” (Pines, 1993, p. 391).

According to Gini and Sullivan (1993), such ‘bad work’ alienates individuals not only from
their work 35 , but also from themselves. Work is viewed as something that has to be done, but
has “nothing to do with one’s inner self” (p. 133). Thus, what often happens to individuals is
that they find little meaning in their jobs “beyond the basic reward of the pay check” (Gini &
Sullivan, 1993, p. 133). According to Nielsen (1993), work under such circumstances
becomes “drudgery, an instrument for gaining money and material security”, and it is
eventually “alienating and self-estranging” (p. 154). Existential philosopher Albert Camus
(in Gemmill & Oakley, 1992, p. 358) made this point unequivocally by stating that “without
work all life goes rotten. But when work is soulless, life stifles and dies” (p. 358; emphasis
added). Given the discussion of job involvement in Section 5.2.3.1, these arguments clearly
indicate why alienation is commonly accepted as representing the polar opposite of this
construct. Whereas job involvement results when a job satisfies one’s needs and expectations
(Kanungo, 1982, p. 80), alienation is triggered by a lack of salient need fulfilment (Roodt,
personal communication, 6 February 2004).

As alluded to above, Karl Marx (1993) regarded work as the primary means through which
the individual defines him or herself. However, he maintained that the division of labour
results in people becoming estranged from factors such as their labour, the product of their
labour, and their co-workers. As a consequence, fulfilment can no longer be found and the

35
As was pointed out in Sections 5.1.2.3 and 5.2.3, such work often results in employees committing more to spheres
outside of the work environment than to their employer, which may ultimately impact negatively on the productivity of the
individual.

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individual becomes alienated. Although it may be argued that the division of labour occurs to
a much lesser extent in contemporary organisations, particularly in higher levels of the
organisation and due to the progression of the work team, this in no way means that
alienation does not occur. For example, sociologist Robert Blauner (1964) saw alienation as
“a general syndrome made up of a number of different objective conditions and subjective
feeling-states which emerge from certain relationships between workers and the
sociotechnical settings of employment” (p. 15). This assumption clearly indicates that
specialisation is not a prerequisite for alienation to occur. In addition, the emphasis that is
placed on individualism in particularly Western societies, and which is associated with the
‘New Career’ (see Section 2.5.6), has also been identified as a significant contributor to
employee alienation. In this regard, Taylor (in Bews & Rossouw, 2002) stated that:

As the individual withdraws from participation in preference to self-indulgence, this

ultimately leads to powerlessness and alienation and creates a paradox of increasing
individualism at the expense of civic freedom. The rise of individualism has eroded the
collective influence of employees … leaving employees to face the challenges of the
changing world alone (p. 3).

Blauner (1964) believed that alienation is made up of four dimensions, namely control over,
meaning found in, social integration into, and involvement in one’s job. Mitroff and Denton
(1999), in turn, reported that people experience a separation or compartmentalisation of parts
of themselves – ‘their brains and emotions’ – at work. Similarly, Collin (1999) contended
that organisations’ “emphasis on rationality and suppression of emotionality” has a
potentially “distorting or damaging” socializing influence on the individual (p. 13). Such
fragmentation of the individual “to retain the “positive” qualities like obedience and loyalty
while rejecting the “negative attributes such as irreverence and scepticism” is said to void the
job of meaning and “result only in alienation” (Kilcourse, 1994, p. 38). According to Blauner
(1964), the alienated worker then experiences “powerlessness, meaninglessness, isolation,
and self-estrangement” (Blauner, 1964, p. 16; emphasis added).

Blauner’s explanation of alienation is greatly supported by the work of Seeman (in Roodt,
2002). According to this author, alienation comprises five dimensions, namely
powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation and self-estrangement.
Powerlessness results when individuals perceive themselves to have no or little control over

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their situation. Meaninglessness, in turn, is defined as occurring when one is unable to strive
towards a purposeful goal in life – a definition that coincides with Frankl’s theory (see
Chapter 4). Normlessness arises when society appears void of rules and norms – a situation
which, defined earlier as anomie (see Section 4.4.4), was shown to be a major cause of the
existential vacuum (see Section 4.4.4). Isolation is defined as a situation where the individual
no longer views the goals and beliefs held in society, as meaningful. Considering that
societal values constitute a major source of meaning in one’s life (see Section 4.4.4), the
ramifications of this situation are also clear. Finally, self-estrangement occurs when
“individuals are less what they potentially can become” (Seeman, in Roodt, 2002, p. 37).
Such stagnation resembles what existentialists such as Heidegger called an ‘inauthentic
existence’ (see Section 4.4.3), whereas humanistic psychologists such as Maslow and Rogers
considered such a failure to self-actualise as extremely harmful to one’s psychological and
spiritual health (see Hergenhahn, 1997).

As was alluded to in the preceding paragraphs, alienation may have serious consequences for
both the individual and the organisation. Psychological research has implicated the factors of
powerlessness (or helplessness) (see Barlow & Durand, 1999; Westen, 1996) and
meaninglessness (see Frankl, 1984) in problems such as anxiety and depression.
Furthermore, social support 36 is often a critical factor in addressing psychological problems
(Baron & Byrne, 1997; Westen, 1996), which implies that isolation may also have destructive
psychological consequences for the individual. Fox (1994) pointed out that when individuals
are alienated from the deeper meaning of life as expressed through work, boredom and a
sense of meaninglessness ensue. Often, then, people start to experience self-hatred or indulge
in alcoholism, drug abuse, crime, “and other forms of self-punishment”, as they endure “the
spiritual torment we suffer from the message that we are not needed by the universe” (Fox,
1994, p. 60). Similarly, Nielsen (1993) contended that the “debilitating effects of many
workers’ jobs carry over into their personal lives”, as alienation “at work creates deep
alienation throughout one’s life, destroying the possibility for healthy emotional
development” (p. 154).

In the organisational context, Roodt (2002) proposed that alienation is associated with
general disengagement from work. Such disengagement is said to typically occur as a result

36
See also Section 2.5.1.2.

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of injustice in the workplace – a variable that has also been illustrated as threatening one’s
chances of finding meaning at work (see Section 5.2.3.2 above). What is more, this
disengagement is associated with counterproductive behaviours, which were pointed out in
Section 2.6 as playing a significant role in individuals resisting organisational changes.

From the above paragraphs it is evident that meaninglessness is a pervasive condition that
often occurs in the organisation. From this, it may be deduced that the existential vacuum
and the resulting noögenic neurosis, too, may occur within organisations. However, the aim
of this study is not to trace the origins of pathologies within organisations in general, but
rather to investigate the phenomena associated with the individual’s pursuit of meaning in life
within the changing organisation. Subsequently, the following section represents an
exploration of the origins of meaninglessness, together with the associated existential
vacuum, within the changing organisation. These contentions serve as the basis for an
argument that a relationship may exist between meaning and organisational change, and
therefore, between logotherapy (which is aimed at facilitating the discovery of meaning) and
OD (which is aimed at facilitating change) 37 .

5.3. The existential vacuum as a consequence of organisational change

[Organisational change initiatives] have created a growing feeling of cynicism,

ultimately eroding people’s sense of meaning (Cooper, 2007, p. 29).

In Section 4.4.4 it was indicated that the existential vacuum results primarily from four
factors: 1) the loss of instincts and drives; 2) the deterioration of traditional values; 3) the
increasing diversity of value orientations in present-day cultures, and 4) the tragic triad 38 . In
Sections 5.3.1 to 5.3.3, it is argued that these factors may also be present within the changing
organisation. Given the potentially crucial role contemporary organisations may fulfil in the
individual’s sense of meaning in life, as discussed in Section 5.2, it can thus be derived that
organisational change may have a substantial effect on one’s experiencing meaning in one’s
job context. This is evident from Reis Louis’ (1996) contention that:

37
This relationship is further investigated in Chapters 6, 7 and 8.
38
Because it may be argued that the loss of behaviour-directing instincts and drives affects all individuals, regardless of their
employment status, the focus of the discussion will be on the remaining three elements.

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 The rush and press of today’s work environments can strip once-rewarding tasks of their
meaning or unseat our sense of connection to what we once found meaningful even as
they drain us of energy and perspective (p. 224).

5.3.1. The deterioration of traditional values in changing organisations

According to Frankl (1984), the evolutionary loss of human instincts and drives has resulted
in individuals turning to values as a guide for their behaviours. However, the traditional role
of these values in finding meaning is also rapidly declining, thereby constituting a major
contributor to the individual’s experience of an existential vacuum (see Section 4.4.4). This
decline in traditional values also manifests in contemporary organisations, particularly in the
shift in management practice, philosophy and values. Traditional management practices were
largely based on scientific management and bureaucratic principles, which place substantial
emphasis on controlling (or directing) employee behaviour to ensure efficiency (Haralambos
& Holborn, 1995; Robbins, 1990, see Section 3.2). In other words, these approaches
provided principles and values to direct the individual’s behaviours, thereby ‘freeing’ him or
her from any responsibility for self-direction.

However, it has been pointed out that in the dynamic environments of contemporary
organisations, “the rules that have guided how we operate no longer work”, and there is no
longer a “clear set of guidelines, rules, or directions for action” 39 (Luthans & Avolio, 2003, p.
242). What is more, Bartlett and Ghoshal (1995) pointed out the increasing realisation that
the effective management of post-industrial employees requires “a fundamental redefinition”
of management philosophy (p. 22). In this regard, McGregor (2000a) argued that due to the
dramatic growth of science and technology, the growing complexity of industry-society
relationships, and the changing composition of the workforce, the largest class of employees
consists of professionals and specialists. Toffler (1970) presented similar arguments in his
classic Future Shock, whereas Drucker (2002), cited research indicating that while 90 percent
of employees were non-managerial in the 1950s, up to two-fifths are now knowledge workers
– employees who often reject traditional authoritarian leadership (Abbasi & Hollman, 1993).
As a result of these shifts, McGregor (2000a) posited, conventional management practices,
which were developed to manage the “blue-collar wage earner” (p. 147), are becoming
obsolete, as professionals have different needs to the aforementioned employees.

39
This may particularly impact upon individuals who find meaning in what Ros et al. (1999) termed ‘conservation values’
(Section 5.2.2.4).

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McGregor (2000a) then proposed that employees be managed through self-direction and self-
control; a proposal reflected in the notion of the ‘new career’. The new career was discussed
earlier (Section 2.5.6) as a human consequence of organisational change, thereby making it
apparent that managerial values in the changing organisation no longer guide employee
behaviours. Furthermore, it was shown in Section 5.2 that the focus on individuality (central
to the new career) might contribute to the individual’s experience of alienation – a condition
shown to encompass the experience of meaninglessness.

Gemmill and Oakley (1992) presented an alternative explanation related to organisational

rules and procedures and their impact on meaninglessness. According to these authors,
socialisation may impede the individual’s experience of meaning at work, as individuals
often subscribe to authority figures’ commands, even if they are meaningless, or may result in
meaninglessness. Individuals cope with these experiences through suppression and denial,
ultimately leading to a form of false consciousness where individuals do not realise that they
are experiencing meaninglessness (Gemmill & Oakley, 1992). Similarly, Luthans and Avolio
(2003) indicated that as people are more exposed in an uncertain environment devoid of clear
rules to follow, individuals may be taken advantage of by “inauthentic leaders” 40 (p. 243).
The result, in logotherapeutic terms, may be an existential vacuum, which individuals attempt
to overcome through conformism and totalitarianism (see Section 4.4.4). This further hinders
one from finding meaning, thus resulting in a vicious circle of noölogical deprivation.

5.3.2. The increasing diversity of value orientations in changing organisations

The existential vacuum is also caused by the multiplicity of value orientations in
contemporary societies (Das, 1998), a cause also present in the changing organisation. Byars
and Rue (2000), Cappelli (1999), Greenhaus et al. (2000), and Robbins et al. (2003),
contended that an ever-increasing phenomenon in the workplace is the changing
demographics of the workforce in terms of aspects such as race, gender, culture and age.
“Workforces are no longer homogenous in nature, but are becoming increasingly diverse”
(Robbins et al., 2003, p. 25). Furthermore, Robbins et al. (2003) pointed out the phenomenon
known as “international diversity” (p. 25), a consequence of globalisation, where managers
are sent to work in operations in foreign countries with different values, customs, and cultures
(see also Buller & McEvoy, 1999; Tsang, 2003).

40
See discussion of authentic leadership, Section 5.6.

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In SA, organisations are increasingly faced with having to identify “coping strategies for a
culturally diverse workforce” (Naidu & Van der Walt, 2005, p. 1), particularly due to the
Employment Equity Act, 55 of 1998, exacerbating the diversity of the workplace (see also
Section 2.3.1, where this Act is indicated as a major catalyst for change in SA organisations).
This Act not only demands that certain organisations implement affirmative action measures
in favour of previously disadvantaged groups (blacks – i.e. Africans, Indians, and coloureds;
women, and individuals with disabilities), but it also prohibits discrimination against
employees on the grounds of religion, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation (Tinarelli,
2000). Such diversity then results in a workplace characterised by an “absence of shared
histories, values, and experiences” (Rossouw & Bews, 2002, p. 146), which may obstruct
one’s commitment to a specific value orientation.

5.3.3. The tragic triad in changing organisations

Apart from the above factors, the tragic triad – suffering, guilt and transitoriness – was also
indicated as contributing to meaninglessness in the life of an individual. This triad may also
arise in an organisational change context – for example, suffering may be related to the
adverse experiences often resulting from organisational change (see Section 2.5).
Furthermore, research has shown that the loss of a retrenched colleague is, for some,
comparable to the experience of the death of a loved one (Appelbaum, Leblanc and Shapiro,
1998; Buckman, 1996; Cartwright & Cooper, 1994). As a result, employees “often feel too
overwhelmed and anxious to create meaningful attachments with one another exactly when
they need such attachments the most” (Kahn, 1996, p. 177). From this, one may deduce that
organisational change also potentially threatens one’s fulfilling of experiential values, which
may further inhibit the finding of meaning. In addition, the stress of organisational change
(Section 2.5.1), together with the “get safe” attitudinal response (Section 2.2), may result in
individuals displaying less creativity and innovation, thus impeding their fulfilment of
creative values.

Guilt was shown as related to an awareness of one’s fallibility – knowing that one will make
mistakes and not fulfil certain meanings (in the logotherapeutic sense) – or as a consequence
of being denied the chance to fulfil one’s potential (in the existential sense). The career
plateau, indicated earlier as being caused or aggravated by organisational change, has been
found to result in feelings of failure and related guilt in particularly male employees
(Greenhaus et al., 2000). Furthermore, organisational change may result in substantial stress

206
(Stuart, 1996) and in employees distancing themselves from the organisation (Gratton &
Hope Hailey, 1999; Rice & Dreilinger, 1991), which may constrain the reaching of their
potential in their jobs. Finally, regarding the more conventional approach to defining guilt, it
was indicated earlier that guilt is one of the symptoms of the survivor syndrome. As is the
case with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), where some survivors of a trauma
experience ‘survivor guilt’ because they survived the trauma while others did not (Barlow &
Durand, 1999), survivors of organisational changes are reported to experience feelings of
guilt (Baruch & Hind, 1999).

The final element of the tragic triad is the transitoriness of life, which involves one’s
awareness of the inevitability of death. Although it may be contended that most individuals
are faced with this issue at some stage in their lives, the concept of transitoriness may also be
applied to the changing organisation if a parallel is drawn between death and job loss. Such a
parallel is supported by aspects such as individuals having no control over either situation
(Cartwright & Cooper, 1994), the inevitability of job loss for many individuals during change
efforts, and the centrality of jobs to the lives of many employees (Dalton, 1989).

Regarding the latter point, Rifkin (1995) posited that “working is breathing” (p. 195), and
that because people define themselves through their work and because employment is a
measure of self-worth, unemployed people show pathological symptoms similar to the dying.
Fagin and Little (in Haralambos & Holborn, 1995) found that being unemployed robs
someone of the sense of purpose provided by work (see also Frankl’s position regarding
unemployment, Section 5.2.1.1 above). This then reflects the threat that one’s transitoriness
poses to one’s quest for meaning in life.

Furthermore, Collin (1999) cited research indicating that individuals who have to leave the
organisation “unexpectedly because of redundancy or ill health, or after a long period of
membership” report feelings of “premature death” and often experience “disorientation, ill
health, suicide and early death” (p. 14). Similarly, research has shown that retirees often
suffer the loss of work-oriented social contacts (which are essential elements of fulfilling
experiential values – see Section 4.4.4) and meaningful tasks (which are central to creative
values – Section 4.4.4) that were associated with employment (Turner & Helms, 1979).
Finally, whereas Maslow (1998, p. 38) contended that for some individuals, the loss of “work
(mission in life) would be almost equivalent to killing [them]”, Sonnefeld (in Ashforth, 2001)

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maintained that for many people, full retirement constitutes “a plunge into the abyss of
insignificance, a kind of mortality” (p. 138).

It is thus apparent that organisational change may result in some individuals experiencing an
existential vacuum. As was indicated earlier (see Section 4.4.4), this vacuum manifests in
boredom, apathy and a focus on only sensory pleasures, or in individuals attempting to escape
meaninglessness through conformism or totalitarianism. In addition, noögenic neuroses may
also emerge. These symptoms may have a devastating impact on the organisation. For
instance, creativity and innovation by employees, which are commonly regarded as critical
for the success of contemporary organisations (Hamel, 2000; O’Reilly & Pfeffer, 2000;
Zwick, 2002), may be severely constrained by employee apathy or conformity. Also, a
unitary pursuit of sensory pleasures by employees may jeopardise the attainment of
organisational goals. Finally, it may be argued that should employees fail to attach value to
their activities, as associated with noögenic neuroses, it may impact negatively upon their
productivity and organisational commitment.

The preceding arguments were aimed at demonstrating that in addition to the human
consequences discussed earlier (See Section 2.5), organisational change may also impact on
the noölogical dimension of human existence. This provides further support for a possible
relationship between meaning and organisational change, and thus between logotherapy and
OD. Sections 5.4 and 5.5 further explore this argument by indicating that a number of
conceptual and practical similarities exist between logotherapy and OD. These arguments
culminate in the proposition that logotherapy may be applied as an OD intervention in the
organisational context – an application that will be known as Logo-OD.

5.4. Conceptual similarities between logotherapy and OD

In Section 3.3, a number of central characteristics of OD were identified. In particular, it was

argued that OD is based on behavioural scientific knowledge and takes a more humanistic
approach to planned change in various organisational subsystems, to reach organisational
goals and improve organisational effectiveness. It will be argued that a number of conceptual
similarities exist between logotherapy and OD. Thereafter, it will be shown that the intended
application of logotherapy reflects certain principles fundamental to some OD interventions.

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OD interventions are largely based on the behavioural sciences, of which psychology is a
primary example (Orpen, 1981). Since its inception in the first half of the 20th century,
logotherapy has developed from an existential–philosophical school of thought to a
recognised model of psychology as regards both theory creation and therapeutic application
(see, for example, Gerdes, 1988; Louw, 1987; Louw & Edwards, 1993; Shantall, 1989). In
addition, logotherapeutic principles like the will to meaning and noögenic neurosis have been
empirically verified (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1967; Moomal, 1999). Hence, it may be
inferred that logotherapy, as a sub-field within psychology, may be classified as a
behavioural science, which provides theoretical justification to the utilisation of
logotherapeutic knowledge in the construction and application of OD interventions.

A second fundamental characteristic of OD is that it constitutes a humanistic approach to

addressing organisational effectiveness. It was indicated earlier that logotherapy is often
classified as a distinct branch of humanistic/existential psychology (Gerdes, 1988; Louw,
1987; Louw & Edwards, 1993; Wong, 2000a); a classification based on the common roots of
logotherapy, humanistic psychology and existential psychology in early existential
philosophy and phenomenology; and on the fundamental similarities between logotherapy
and the humanistic school of thought. Some of the most prominent similarities include the
focus on the human spirit, the centrality of meaning in human existence, and the assumption
of freedom of will, as well as the emphasis on the uniqueness of every human being,
responsibility, and subsequent personal growth. This then indicates a fundamental
resemblance between logotherapy and OD in terms of their philosophical underpinnings.

OD addresses organisational effectiveness in ways that are acceptable to employees

(Greenberg & Baron, 1993), and aims to facilitate change by primarily focusing on the
human–social subsystem (French & Bell, 1990). It was shown earlier that employees are
central to the success of changes in every organisational subsystem (Section 4.4). Thus, by
addressing the human element in organisational change, logotherapy may contribute to
changes in all of the organisation’s subsystems. In logotherapeutic terms, then, employee
acceptance of the foci of OD interventions may be based on the finding of meaning facilitated
by this human-centred approach.

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5.5. Operational similarities between logotherapy and OD

The conceptual similarities between logotherapy and OD, discussed in Section 5.4 above,
clearly imply that logotherapy can make a substantial contribution to both the theoretical
basis and the humanistic, people-centred execution of OD interventions. The latter is further
explored in the subsequent paragraphs, where it is argued that the application of logotherapy
in the organisation may reflect various underlying principles of a number of existing OD
interventions.

In Section 3.5, these approaches – namely sensitivity training, Gestalt OD, process
consultation and appreciative inquiry – were criticised from a logotherapeutic perspective.
The following paragraphs, then, are intended to show how Logo-OD will overcome these
criticisms 41 . In addition, any discussion of the similarities between these approaches and the
proposed intervention are intended to allude to the practical applicability of Logo-OD in the
organisational change context.

5.5.1. Logotherapy and sensitivity training

Sensitivity training involves process-focused groups aimed at increasing participants’
sensitivity to their own and others’ emotions, perceptions and behaviours. Logotherapy
resembles this approach in terms of both its processes and its objectives. The typical
logotherapeutic session involves the logotherapist serving as a facilitator to assist the
individual in finding meaning. Therefore, the logotherapist does not provide the client with
meaning (content); rather, he or she helps the client with the process of finding meaning,
which will in turn help the client to address emotional problems (problems which sensitivity
trainers assume as underlying to organisational ineffectiveness). Thus, logotherapy may, in
addition to the ways discussed above, also address organisational effectiveness by helping
individuals deal with emotional problems.

Aronson (1994) contended that some individuals join sensitivity groups “because they
believe that there may be something missing in their lives… many people are searching for

41
The aim of Logo-OD is neither to more effectively address the focus areas of the approaches discussed above, nor to
replace these (or other) established methods of facilitating change. Rather, it aims to overcome their deficiencies in
addressing the noölogical dimension of employees, as pointed out in Sections 3.5.1 – 3.5.4. As alluded to throughout this
study, addressing this noölogical dimension within in the context of organisational change is the unique contribution Logo-
OD will make to the discipline of industrial psychology.

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greater self-awareness and greater enrichment of their lives through these groups” (p. 184).
By applying logotherapy as an OD intervention, these individuals may be assisted in finding
this ‘something’ that may be lacking in their lives – meaning. Of significant importance here
is that Logo-OD will address sensitivity training’s almost rigid focus on participants’
emotions – a characteristic pointed out in Section 3.5.1 as potentially resulting in
hyperintention and the associated rendering of the goal of addressing this human element as
unattainable. What is more, Logo-OD will also overcome the pathology focus of sensitivity
training, by focusing on the more positive and inspirational arena known as ‘meaning in life’.

5.5.2. Logotherapy and gestalt OD

Gestalt OD involves the use of an anti-reductionist approach that focuses on the integrated
individual, in order to address dysfunctional psychological consequences and bring about
aspects such as maturation, authenticity, and self-regulation amongst others. Logotherapy
also encompasses an anti-reductionist view. Frankl (1978) believed that reductionism, or
‘nothing-but-ness’, “is the nihilism of today” (p 61). In this, he implied that reductionism
threatens the meaning of human existence. Furthermore, concepts such as maturation,
authenticity and self-regulation are central to existentialism (Hergenhahn, 1997) and
consistent with logotherapeutic conceptualisations of growth, meaningful living and
responsibility. Finally, dysfunctional psychological consequences addressed by gestalt OD –
such as anxiety and depression – may also be addressed by means of logotherapy.

In Section 3.5.2, gestalt OD was criticised from a logotherapeutic perspective as potentially

resulting in hyperintention, due to its almost exclusive focus on the strength, authenticity and
emotional awareness of participants. Consistent with Frankl’s principles, Logo-OD may
overcome this criticism through a focus on meaning and how this is to be attained. As is
postulated by logotherapeutic theory, then, such a focus will ensue in individual strength,
authenticity and awareness. In this way, Logo-OD may make a significant contribution to
attaining gestalt OD’s aim of the individual’s functioning as an integrated human being,
rather than one that is fragmented and alienated from the self.

5.5.3. Logotherapy and process consultation

Process consultation involves an external consultant assisting the organisation in diagnosing
and solving problems underlying process ineffectiveness. The fundamental similarity
between logotherapy and process consultation pertains to the facilitative role taken by the

211
helper in the relationship. The process consultant does not solve the client’s problem, but
rather actively involves the client in determining both the problem and the intervention best
suited to the client’s particular situation. Similarly, the logotherapist does not provide one
with meaning, but rather assists one in overcoming obstacles to finding meaning in one’s
particular situation. Furthermore, in both process consultation and logotherapy, the
relationship between the facilitator and the client is terminated when the client has overcome
current obstacles and has the capability to handle similar problems in the future.

Section 3.5.3 pointed out that although process consultation addresses problems in the
organisation by eliciting the inputs of significant role-players, it addresses issues that may not
always be of significance to employees with regard to finding meaning in life. What is more,
it was shown that process consultation fails to consider the uniquely human experience of
processes within the organisation, thereby also neglecting human purpose in life, to some
extent. The roots of Logo-OD in logotherapy then suggest that it may overcome these
criticisms, thereby making a significant contribution to both individual meaning in life and
organisational performance.

5.5.4. Logotherapy and appreciative inquiry

Appreciative inquiry (AI) as an OD intervention is based on the belief that the growth of
systems and the construction of reality are directed by the most frequently asked questions in
the organisation. Subsequently, AI uses the unconditional positive question to ignite
transformational dialogue, which is crucial for organisational transformation.

The positive approach inherent in AI is reflected in logotherapy in various ways. 1) The

question of meaning is intrinsically positive, as finding meaning is associated with individual
growth and well-being. 2) The concept of attitudinal values represents a positive approach to
uncontrollable circumstances. Frankl (1984) called this approach ‘tragic optimism’ –
remaining optimistic even amidst tragedy, or “saying yes to life in spite of everything” (p.
161). In particular, such optimism is believed to help the individual overcome the tragic
triad, and thus find meaning by “turning suffering into human achievement and
accomplishment; deriving from guilt the opportunity to change oneself for the better; and
deriving from life’s transitoriness an incentive to take responsible action” (Frankl, 1984, p.
162). 3) AI’s positive approach is reflected in Frankl’s (1978, 2000b) description of
logotherapy as ‘height psychology’, as opposed to psychoanalysis being called ‘depth

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psychology’: whereas the latter is constantly “digging into the deep past of patients to find
the causes of their disturbances”, logotherapy focuses on “helping patients reach for
meanings and goals” (Fabry, 1997, p. 51). As a result, a logotherapist is often (jokingly)
denoted as a ‘stretch’, rather than a ‘shrink’. Frankl (2000b) affirmed this belief by asserting
that “logotherapy declares war on pathologism” (p. 75). Shantall (1989) further emphasised
logotherapy’s positive approach by stating that “Frankl’s belief in the indestructible
significance of life makes his position a far more positive one [than that of other existential
thinkers such as Jean-Paul Sartre]” (p. 425). The positive approach intrinsic to AI is thus
reflected in both the logotherapeutic view of the human being and the perspective this field
takes.

AI was criticised in Section 3.5.4 as potentially embracing a utilitarian approach when focus
areas for interventions are determined – a step which may result in individual wishes being
disregarded in favour of a group decision. This may induce dissatisfaction and threaten one’s
chances of finding meaning within the change context. By contrast, Logo-OD addresses the
unique individual need for meaning and purpose, thereby facilitating both individual and
group satisfaction with steps taken during the process and provides an anchor (in the form of
meaning) throughout the change process.

5.6. Logo-OD as a positive trigger event for organisational change

Given the complex nature of both organisational change and human response thereto, as is
apparent from the discussions in Chapter 2, it is not proposed that Logo-OD in isolation will
bring about the shift in human attitudes and behaviour required to reduce resistance to
change. Rather, it is proposed that such an intervention will serve as a positive trigger event
in facilitating organisational change.

The concept of a trigger event (or moment) is used by Avolio and Luthans (2006) and
Luthans and Avolio (2003) to describe a critical incident or occurrence – planned or
unplanned – that brings an individual to the realisation that a specific course of action is
required, or that his or her behaviour or approach needs to be changed to address a particular
situation. Although such trigger events are often negative situations (e.g. traumatic
occurrences – see also discussion on attitudinal values, Section 4.4.2), these authors also
acknowledge the importance of positive events, and emphasise the potential of formulating

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 rigorous designs 42 to put planned positive triggers in place toward bringing about the required
outcomes (Avolio & Luthans, 2006; Luthans & Avolio, 2003). In Figure 5.4, these authors’
model for Authentic Leadership Development (ALD) is depicted to indicate the role of the
trigger event. Thereafter, this model is discussed, with a particular emphasis on how it
applies to the current study.

Positive psychological capabilities

Confidence Authentic
Life Hope
experiences leadership
Optimism Positive Self Development
Resiliency Confident
Where am I from? What am I? Self- Hopeful
Self- regulation Optimistic
awareness behaviours Resilient
Positive Organisational Context Transparent
Moral/Ethical
Vision Highly Future-oriented
Strategy developed Trigger Associate building
Culture organisation events/
challenges
How my context is How am I What I can become: true
framed and shaped supported? What am I to myself and others
experiencing?

Figure 5.4. A model for authentic leadership development (adapted from Luthans and Avolio,
2003, p. 251).

In Luthans and Avolio’s (2003) model, it is indicated that authentic leadership occurs when a
trigger event or challenge impacts upon the individual’s self-awareness to such an extent that
a realisation occurs which prompts specific self-regulation behaviours. According to Puente,
Crous and Venter (2007), this event provokes an “A Ha!” moment that results in the
individual confronting “a stark truth or realisation and thus [gaining] new insight or
perspective about his/her life” (p. 12), thus triggering self-awareness to the extent that it
moves the individual to think about developing his or her “actual self-concept” 43 (Avolio &
Luthans, 2006, p.228). However, what is also apparent is that such a trigger event in itself is
insufficient in ensuring that authentic leadership occurs – the presence of the correct mix of

42
Luthans and Avolio (2003, p. 249) term this approach a “proactive, interventionist strategy”, and emphasise the
development of such “field interventions” (p. 258) to accelerate the development of leaders.
43
For individuals to become authentic leaders they have to develop their “actual self” (who they really are) to their “possible
self” (who they want to become over time) (Avolio & Luthans, 2006, p. 81). This largely reflects Frankl’s concept of noö-
dynamics (Section 4.4.1.2).

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positive psychological capabilities 44 , a positive organisational context (see Section 9.4.1.1),
and an orientation towards positive self-development is also required.

Although this model was developed with a focus on leadership development, a review of the
logotherapy literature indicates significant overlaps between what Luthans and Avolio (2003)
term an authentic leader and what would, in the context of this study, be termed an individual
who finds meaning in his or her life 45 . For example, Quinn’s (In Puente et al., 2007, p. 12)
characteristics of authentic leaders, such as being other focused (the ability to “tune into
people’s feelings… and guide them in the right direction”), externally open (having the
confidence to face an uncertain situation), internally directed (having aligned values and
behaviours), and purpose centred (driven by a specific aim or objective), largely reflect the
characteristics of optimal development summarised in Table 4.1 46 . The latter included self-
determined actions, transcending one’s own needs, and being directed towards the future.
What is more, aspects such as confidence, resiliency, hopefulness – listed in Figure 5.4, and
optimism were also shown to be the result of finding meaning in life (see discussions in
Sections 1.4, 4.4, and 5.3). Finally, Quinn (in Puente et al., 2007, p. 12) maintained that
authentic leadership can only result when an “individual courageously and consciously
chooses to take the responsibility of becoming more purpose–centred, internally directed,
other focused, and externally open”. This clearly reflects the importance that Frankl placed
on individual responsibility and freedom of will in striving for meaning in life (see Section
4.4.1.1).

Interpreting the above discussion in the context of this chapter, it can thus be concluded that a
positive trigger event can also initiate the processes required for an individual to find
meaning in the changing world of work. Such meaning will then decrease an individual’s
propensity towards resisting change, which translates into the trigger event (i.e. Logo-OD)
playing a facilitative role in organisational change. Figure 5.5 below presents an adapted
version of Luthans and Avolio’s (2003) model to explain how the concept of Logo-OD – as a
positive trigger event – will be applied in this study. The concepts of building a positive

44
A review of Luthans and Avolio’s (2003) descriptions of confidence, hope, optimism and resiliency (what Avolio &
Luthans, 2006, called ‘psychological capital’, or PsyCap), reveals close similarities between these constructs and those used
by Frankl to describe individuals who find meaning in their lives – particularly attitudinal values (see Chapter 4).
45
Some of the parallels between what existential theorists term ‘authenticity’ and Frankl’s notion of an individual who ‘finds
meaning’ are shown in Chapter 4. The proposition presented above is also largely supported by Olivares, Peterson and
Hess’s (2007) existential–phenomenological framework for leadership development.
46
Similar characteristics cited by Luthans and Avolio (2003, pp. 248) include being guided by values to transcend self-
interest, consistency in “espoused values” and actions, and an awareness of and openness regarding one’s own weaknesses.

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organisational context, as well as the framing of organisational change initiatives based on
Logo-OD principles, are addressed in Section 9.4.1.

Initiatives to
ensure
Organisation
positive Employees achieves
Organisational organisational (Large-scale) find objectives of
change context change meaning in change
initiatives (e.g. management/ the changing initiatives
restructuring, Self- OD world of (e.g.
M&A, BPR) awareness interventions work competitive
and self- advantage)
regulatory
behaviours

Logo-OD as a positive
trigger event Framing

Figure 5.5. Logo-OD as a positive trigger event to facilitate organisational change

This model indicates that whereas Logo-OD should be instrumental in acting as a planned
trigger event for a shift in the degree of self-awareness and self-regulating behaviours
displayed by employees, as well as how individuals will react to initiatives to ensure a
positive organisational context, it may not be sufficient to bring about the shift in meaning
that is required for significant changes in the organisation – such a shift will also require the
presence of a supportive organisational context. Consistent with Avolio and Luthans’s
(2006) proposition that a “myriad of follow-up interventions” (Puente et al., 2007, p. 17) is
required to fully achieve the desired outcome of the model, ensuring that the intended
outcomes of the change are attained, then further depends on the application of more
comprehensive change management or OD interventions47 . As such, Logo-OD thus serves as
a precursor to organisational change and development interventions by firstly informing and
framing the context in which such initiatives will be applied, and secondly by providing a
meaning-based framework that will inform such interventions. These propositions are further
explored in Chapters 8 and 9.

47
As is shown in Chapter 8, these interventions should be informed by logotherapeutic principles to ensure that individuals
experience the changes and/or their outcomes as meaningful. This statement is then also consistent with the proposition that
logotherapy in its purest form is “considered to be an adjunctive therapy, enhancing rather than supplanting other treatment
approaches” (Southwick et al., 2006, p. 163).

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5.7. Conclusion

Huse (1980) argued that because “change is occurring so rapidly, new and improved methods
need to be developed to deal with such change” (p. 18). Subsequently, Chapter 5 served to
illustrate that logotherapy may serve as one such new method by addressing the secondary
objectives set for this Chapter in Section 5.1. Firstly, it was shown that due to a number of
reasons, organisations are increasingly serving as a central source of meaning in the lives of
many individuals. Related to this, the concept of alienation was discussed, and it was shown
that if individuals fail to find meaning in work, it might have potentially devastating
consequences for themselves and the organisation. Secondly, it was indicated that any
meaning found in work might be threatened by organisational change; so much so that an
existential vacuum may emerge in the workplace. Finally, it was indicated that logotherapy
resembles OD both in terms of its philosophical underpinnings and its operational principles,
which suggests that the application of logotherapy in the organisational context as a positive
trigger event for change may constitute an OD intervention – an application that may be
described by means of the phrase Logo-OD.

Chapter 5 served to conclude the literature review of the current study. In the subsequent
chapter, the research design aimed at addressing the problem statement formulated in Chapter
1, is discussed.

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