Chapter 4 Topology of the Line and Plane REAL LINE ‘The set of real numbers, denoted by R, plays a dominant role in mathematics and, in particular, in analysis. In fact, many concepts in topology are abstractions of properties of sets of real numbers. The set R can be characterized by the statement that R is a complete, Archimedean ordered field. ‘These notions are explained in the Appendix. Here we use the order relation in R to define the “usual topology” for R. We assume the reader is familiar with the geometric representation of R by means of the points on a straight line. As in Fig. 4-1, a point, called the origin, is chosen to repre- sent 0 and another point, usually to the right of 0, to represent 1. ‘Then there is a natural way to pair off the points on the line and the real numbers, ie. each point will represent a unique real number and each real number will be represented by a unique point. For this reason we refer to the line as the real line or real axis, Furthermore, we will use the words point and number interchangeably. Fig 4-1 OPEN SETS IN R Let A be a set of real numbers. A point pA is an interior point of A iff p belongs to some open interval Sp which is contained in A: PESCA ‘The set A is open (or topen) iff each of its points is an interior point. (The significance of U in UWopen will appear in the next chapter.) Example 11: An open interval A = (a, 6) is an open set, for we may choose S, = A for each pe A. Example 12: The real Jine R, itself, is open since any open interval S, must be a subset of RB, ic. pES,CR Observe that a set is not open iff there exists a point in the set that is not an interior point. Example 13: The closed interval B = [a,) is not an open set, for any open interval containing @ or b must contain points outside of B. Hence the end points a and b are not interior points of B. Example 14: ‘The empty set ( is open since there is no point in () which is not an interior point, Example 15: The infinite open intervals, i.e. the subsets of R defined and denoted by er zER,2>a) = (ae), (21 2ER, 2<0) = -*,0), (e:2@R) = R= (4, *) are open sets. On the other hand, the infinite closed intervals, ie. the subsets of R. defined and denoted by {2:2€R, x= a) = (a), (2:2€R, xa) = (—»,0) ‘are not open sete, since a@€R is not an interior point of either (a, =) or (~*,a}. aT48 TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE. (CHAP. 4 We state two fundamental theorems about open sets. ‘Theorem 4.1: The union of any number of open sets in R is open. ‘Theorem 4.2: The intersection of any finite number of open sets in R is open. ‘The next example shows that the finiteness condition in the preceding theorem cannot be removed. Example 16: Consider the class of open intervals and, hence, open sets “Ua Un) MEN), be MWD, Hb gp P od Otserve that the intersection AeA, = (0) of the open intervals consists of the single point 0 which is not an open set. In other words, an arbitrary intersection of open sets need not be open. ACCUMULATION POINTS Let A be a subset of R, ie. a set of real numbers. A point p¢R is an accumulation point or limit point of A iff every open set G containing p contains a point of A different dromJai He Gopen, pEG implies ANG\(})*— ‘The set of accumulation points of A, denoted by A’, is ealled the derived set of A. Buanple 21; Lat A= (dpfrds.--b The polut 0 ts an accumulation polat of A since any ‘open set G with 0€G contains an open interval (—4,a;) CG with ~a, <0< ay which contains points of A. > eee FH ae + Observe that the limit point 0 of A does not belong to A. Observe also that A does not contain any other limit points; hence the derived set of A is the singleton set (0), ie A’ = (0), Example 22: Consider the set Q of rational numbers. Every real number p € Ris a limit point of Q since every open set contains rational numbers, i.e. points of Q. Example 23: The set of integers Z = {....-2,-1,0,1,2,...} does not have any points of accumulation. In other words, the derived set of Z is the empty set 2. Remark: The reader should not confuse the concept “limit point of a set” with the different, though related, concept “limit of a sequence". Some of the solved and supplementary problems will show the relationship between these two concepts. BOLZANO-WEIERSTRASS THEOREM The existence or non-existence of accumulation points for various sets is an important question in topology. Not every set, even if it is infinite as in Example 2.3, has a limit point. There does exist, however, an important general case which gives a positive answer. ‘Theorem (Bolzano-Weierstrass) 4.3: Let A be a bounded, infinite set of real numbers. ‘Then A has at least one accumulation point. CLOSED SETS A subset A of R, Le. a set of real numbers, is a closed set iff its complement A° is an open set. A closed set can also be described in terms of its accumulation points. ‘Theorem 4.4: A subset A of R is closed if and only if A contains each of its points of accumulation.CHAP. 4] TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE 49 Example 31: The closed interval (a,)] is a closed set since its complement (—*,a) U (b,), the union of two open infinite intervals, is open, Example $2: The set A = (1,4,f,4,.-.} is not closed since, as seen in Example 21, 0 is a limit point of A but does not belong to A. Example 33: The empty set @ and the entire line R are closed sets since their complements R and Q, respectively, are open sets, Sets may be neither open nor closed as seen in the next example. Example $4: Consider the open-closed interval A = (a,b). Note that A is not open since 6 € A {is not an interior point of A, and is not closed since a A but is a limit point of A. HEINE-BOREL THEOREM One of the most important properties of a closed and bounded interval is given in the next theorem. Here a class of sets, of = (Ai), is said to caver a set A if A is contained in the union of the members of of, Le. AC UrAe ‘Theorem (Heine-Borel) 4.5: Let A = [¢,d] be a closed and bounded interval, and let G = {Gi ET) be a class of open intervals which covers A, fie. ACULG, Then G contains a finite subclass, say (Gy +++,Gig), which also covers A, ie. ACG, U GU. U Gy Both conditions, closed and bounded, must be satisfied by A or else the theorem is not true. We show this by the next two examples. Example 4.1: Consider the open, bounded unit interval A = (0,1). Observe that the class @ = {o.=(4y4):nent of open intervals covers A, AC(hD Up UH Ue a o y} F BoD But the union of no finite subelass of G contains A. Example 42: Consider the closed infinite interval A = [1,), The class {(0,2), (1,3), (24), +} of open intervals covers A, but no finite subclass does, SEQUENCES A sequence, denoted by (818% .44), (arm EN) or (8) is a function whose domain is N = {1,2,3,...}, ie. a sequence assigns a point s, to each positive integer nN. The image & or a(n) of CN is called the nth term of the sequence.50 TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE [CHAP. 4 Example 5.1: The sequences = 3,550.3) Kad = Cheb t+ can be defined, respectively, by the formulas dy lg) = 150,150.24) 1 ifm is odd w= B= te) = Car, ay = gaeciney = fh abo A sequence (8x: EN) is said to be bounded if its range {s,: EN} is a bounded set, Example 52: Consider the thrve sequences in Example 5. The range of (69) is (1,9,5,...); 80 (@) is not a bounded sequence. The range of (G) is (~,fs—fs---) Which Is ‘bounded; hence (t,) is a hounded sequence, ‘The range of (ity) is the finite set (0,1); 80 (1) is also a hounded sequence. Observe that (s,:”€N) denotes a sequence and is a function. On the other hand, {Sn:m EN} denotes the range of the sequence and is a set. CONVERGENT SEQUENCES The usual definition of a convergent sequence is stated as follows: ‘The sequence (a1, s,...) of real numbers converges to b ER or, equivalently, the real number is the limit of the sequence (an: €N), denoted by lima, = if for every «> 0 there exists a positive integer m such that lima, = b or ay>b n> implies |a,—b] 0 there exists a positive integer no such that nm > implies |a,—an| <« In other words, a sequence is a Cauchy sequence iff the terms of the sequence become arbitrarily close to each other as n gets large. Example 81: Let (a,:”€N) be a Cauchy sequence of intexers, ie. each term of the sequence Delongs to Z= {...,—1,0,1,...}. Then the sequence must he of the form. (4, ay «ee ng, By By By 65) i.e, the sequence is constant after some nth term. For if we choose ¢= 4, then Ady EZ and [gay] <$ implies ay = ay, Example 82: We show that every convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence. Let a,b and let ©>0. Then there exists mj €N sufficiently large such that n> my implies a,b] < fe and m> my implies lay —B| < fe Consequently, mm > my implies [tq Aa = [ty B+b—ay] = [ty—b) + [Day < fet de Hence (ay) is a Cauchy sequence. COMPLETENESS A set A of real numbers is said to be complete if every Cauchy sequence (a, € A: » GN) of points in A converges to a point in A. Example 9.1: The set Z 2, 2...) of integers is complete, For, as seen in Example 8.1, a Cauchy sequence (ay: n €N) of points in Z is of the form (ayy 5 «4 iggy Be By By which converges to the point bE Z. Example 9.2: The set Q of rational numbers is not complete. For we can choose a sequence of rational numbers, such as (1, 1.4, 1.41,1.412, ...) which converges to the real num= ber V2, which is not rational, ie, which does not belong to @52 TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE. (CHAP. 4 A fundamental property of the entire set R of real numbers is that R is complete. Namely, ‘Theorem (Cauchy) 4.7: Every Cauchy sequence of real numbers converges to a real number. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS ‘The usual «~ 8 definition of a continuous function is stated as follows: A function f:R>R is continuous at a point 2» if for every c>0 there exists a 8>0 such that i \z—zol <8 implies |f(2)— flae)| <« ‘The function f is a continuous function if it is continuous at every point. Observe that |x— | < 8 means that t»—8 < 2 < a +8, or equivalently that « belongs to the open interval (%»—8, %»+8). Similarly, |f(c)—f()| < © means that f(z) belongs to the open interval (f(x) —« f(s) +9. Accordingly, the statement [e-2f <8 implies [f(2)— flo) <« is equivalent to the statement © €(xo—8, 0048) implies f(x) € (flare) —6 flees) +0) which is equivalent to the statement Fl(to— 8, x¢+8)] iscontained in (f(0) Hence we can restate the previous definition as follows. A function f:R>R is continuous at a point p ER if for any open set Visy containing /(») there exists an open set U, containing p such that f{U,] C Vio. The function f is a continuous function if it is continuous at every point. fate) + ‘The Venn diagram below may be helpful in visualizing this definition. A continuous function can be completely characterized in terms of open sets as follows: Theorem 4.8: A function is continuous if and only if the inverse image of every open set is open. Observe that Theorem 4.8 also states that a function is not continuous iff there exists an open set whose inverse image is not open. Example 10.1: Consider the function f:R-+R defined by eal ea i Ne ices a usta is cain ag SE aeare ee em ree Tony echdnperinel tae suc FN perage nag ip emuCHAP. 4) TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE 58 We now state one important property of continuous functions which we will refer to later in the text. Theorem 4.9: Let f:R->R be continuous on a closed interval a,b]. Then the function assumes every value between f(a) and f(b). In other words, if yo is a real number for which f(a) = yo then b) or f(b) = 40 3zE€R suchthat a=2)=b and f(x)=yo This theorem is known as the Weierstrass Intermediate Value Theorem. Remark: A function f:R>R is said to be continuous on a subset D of R if it is con- tinuous at each point in D. TOPOLOGY OF THE PLANE An open dise D in the plane R? is the set of points inside a circle, say, with center P = (a,a:) and radius 5>0, ie, D = (x,y): (2—a)?+y—a22 <8} = {a ER: dlp, 9) <3) Here d(p,q) denotes the usual distance hetween two points P= (@ra2) and @ = (bibs) in BP dpa) = Var bP + aby ‘The open disc plays a role in the topology of the plane R® that is analogous to the role of the open interval in the topology of the line R. Let A be a subset of R% A point p A is an interior point of A iff p belongs to some ‘open disc Dp which is contained in A: pen pEDCA The set A is open (or U-open) iff each of its points is an interior point. Example 111: Clearly an open dise, the entire plane R and the empty set @ are open subsets of RY. We now show that the intersection of any two open discs, say Dy = ERE: diya) <8) and Dy = (ERE dlpy a) 0 and tet D = (GER: dma < dr) Then pyED CD, Dy ot; ny ft an interior point of Dy Da. A point p ER? is an accumulation point or limit point of a subset A of RF iff every open set G containing p contains a point of A different from p, i.e., GCR open, pEG implies AN(G\(p)) +54 TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE. [CHAP. 4 Example 112: Consider the following subset of Re A= [emi us sing, spol ‘The set A is illustrated in the adjacent diagram. Observe that the curve, go- ing from right to left, fluctuates faster and faster, i.e. that the points where the curve crosses the a-axis become closer and closer. The point p = (0, 4) is a limit point of A since A will eventually pass through any open dise containing p. In fact, each point on the y-axis between —1 and 1, ie. each point in the set B= lenin is a limit point of 4. A subset A of R* is closed iff its complement A® is an open subset of Rt A sequence (pi,2:,...) of points in R? converges to the point q ER? iff every open set containing q contains almost: all of the terms of the sequence. Convergence in the plane R? can be characterized in terms of convergence in R as follows. Proposition 4.10: Consider the sequence (p:=(a1,b:), ps=(aaybs}, ...) of point in RP and the point q= (a,b) €R®, Then p> q ifandonly if aa and bab A funetion f:R?> RF is continuous at a point p © R? iff for any open set Vp) contain- ing f(p) there exists an open set U, containing p such that. f[Us] C Vier. We list theorems for the plane R’ which are analagous to theorems for the line R stated earlier in this chapter. Theorem 4.1*; The union of any number of open subsets of R* is open. Theorem 4.2*: The intersection of any finite number of open subsets of R? is open. ‘Theorem 4.4*: A subset A of R* is closed if and only if A contains each of its accumula- tion points. ‘Theorem 4.8%: A function f: R*>R® is continuous if and only if the inverse image of every open set is open. Solved Problems OPEN SETS, ACCUMULATION POINTS 1. Determine the accumulation points of each set of real numbers: (i) Ns (i) (@, bs (ili) Q, the set of irrational points Solution: ()_N, the set of positive integers, does not have any limit points. For if a is any real number, we can find a 820 so small that the open set (a~ 8, a+) contains no point of N other than a. (ii) Every point p in the closed interval [a,) is a limit point of the open-closed interval (a,b), since ‘every open interval containing p € [a, 6} will contain points of (a,b} other than p. (it) Every real number pER is a limit point of @* since every open interval containing p€R will ‘contain points of Q°, ie. irrational numbers, other than p.CHAP. 4) TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE 65 2 Recall that A’ denotes the derived set, i.e. set of limit points, of a set A. Find sets A such that (i) A and A’ are disjoint, (ii) A is a proper subset of A’, (iii) A’ is a proper subset of A, (iv) A= A’. Solution: @) The set A = (1g, A and A’ are di -} has 0 as its only point of accumulation, Hence A’={0) and i) Let A = (a,0}, an open-closed interval. As seen in the preceding problem A’ = (a,b), the closed interval, and so A CA’. Let A= (0,1,,f,..+% ‘Then 0, which belongs to A, is the only limit point of A, Hence A= {0} and ACA, a, b], a closed interval. Then each point in A is a limit point of A and they are the avy 3. Prove Theorem 4.1*: The union of any number of open subsets of R* is open. Solution: jot of be a class of open subsets of RY, let H = UIG: GE of}, and let pEH. The theorem is proved if we show that p is an interior point of H, i.e. there exists an open dise D, containing p such that D, is contained in H. Since pEH = UlG:GE of}, 3G, eof such that pe Gy But Gy is an open sot; hence there exists an open dise D, containing p such that PED, C Gy Since Gy is a subset of H = U{G: GE of}, Dy is also a subset of H. Thus H is open. 4. Prove: Every open subset G of the plane R* is the union of open discs. Solution: © G is open, for each point pEG there Is an open dise Dy such that pED, CG. Then @ = UD, DEG). 5. Prove Theorem 42°; The intersection of any finite number of open subsets of R* is open. Solution: We prove the theorem in the case of two open subsets of R%. The theorem will then follow by induction. Let G and H be open subsets of RY and let pEGNH; so pEG and pEH, Hence there exist open dises D, and Dy such that pED,CG@ and ped, cH Then PED, ND; CEH. By Example 11.1, the intersection of any two open dises is open; #0 ‘there exists an open disc D such that pEDCD,AD,CGNH Henee p is an interior point of Gn H and, so, GH is open 6. Prove: Let p €G, an open subset of R*, Then there exists an open dise D with center p such that pED CG. Solution: By definition of an interior point, there exists an open disc Dy = (GER: diyyg) <3), with center py and radius 8, such that PED, CG So d(pyp) <3. Set r= bdr >0 and let D = (ER: ding <4r} ‘Then, as indicated in the diagram, p€DCD,CG@ where D is an open dise with center p.56 TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE (CHAP. 4 7. Prove: Let p be an accumulation point of a subset A of the plane RY. Then every open set containing p contains an infinite number of points of A. Solution: Suppose @ is an open set containing p and containing only. 4 finite number of points, say @1,++++dy of A different from p. Hy the preceding problem, there exists an open dise D, with center p and, say, radius 3 auch that pED, CG. Choose +> 0 to be less than § and less than the distance from p to any of the points a),..-,¢q; and let D = (aER: dip,g) <4r) ‘Then the open disc D containing p does not contain ay, ..-,y and, since DCD, fy 3 +++ such thut each interval J, cannot be covered by a finite subclass of G and lim|{,| 0 where [Jq| denotes the length of the’ interval 1,. By the Nested Interval Property of the real numbers (eee Appendix), there exists a point p fm each interval Jy, In particular, pe hy. Since G is a cover of Jy, there exists an open interval (a,bi,) in G which contains p. Hence a,

2 Solution: (Two formulas are used to define this function. Substitute 1, 3 and 5 into s(n) 1 to get =0, 95=2 and a,—4. Then substitute 2, 4 and 6 into s(x) =n? to get a= 4, 44 =16 and . "Thus we have (0, 4,2, 16, 4,36, ...). (ii) Here the function is defined recursively, Each term after the second is found by adding the ‘two previous terms. Thus: =a Ge tth = 3t2=5 =a fhe tth =b+3=8 B=Bth = 24153 B= Bt = Bt =D Hence we have (1,2,3,5,8)18, ...). 19, Consider the sequence (an = (~1)"-!(2n—1)): 4G, -8, 5, ~7, 9, -11, 18, -15, ...) Determine whether or not each of the following sequences is a subsequence of (a,). (i) (bx) = 5, -8, ~7, 9, 18, -11, ~15, ...) (i) (eo = 1, 8,5,7, 9, 11, 18, ...) (ili) (a) = (-8, -7, -11, -15, -19, -23, Solution: (i) Note that 5 appears before —3 in (b,), but —3 appears before 5 in (a,). Hence (by) is not a subsequence of (ay). (ii) ‘The terms 3, 7 and 11 do not even appear in (a, (il) ‘The sequence (dy) Is a subsequence of (ay), for (i, =2n) = @,4,6,...) Is a sequence of positive Integers such that i) 0. Then the open intervals B= (b~ }8, b+ 4a) and C= (c~45, c+ 5), containing b and c respectively, are disjoint. Since (a,) converses to b, B must contain all except a finite number of the terms of the sequence. Hence C ean only contain a finite number of the terms of the sequence. But this contradicts the fact that (a, converges toc. Accordingly, b and ¢ are not distinct. 23, Prove: If the range {ax} of a sequence (a,) contains an accumulation point b, then the sequence (a,) contains a subsequence (1,) which converges to b. seston a Tnit pint of fa) ach of the pen intervals Sy) = W104, Sp = WH 4BtD, Sy = Oped +B contains an infinite number of elements of the set (e,) and, hence, an infinite number of the terms of the sequence (a,). We choose a sequence (¢,) a follows: Choose a, to be a point in S; Choose «, to be a point in Sp such that ip >i, ie. such that @., appears after a;, in the sequence (a,). Choose a, to be @ point in Sy such that i > ip. We continue in the same manner, Observe that we are always able to choose the next term in the sequence (a,,) since there are an Infinite number of the terms of the original sequence (@,) in each interval Sy. ‘We claim that (a,,) satisfies the conditions of the theorem, Recall that we choose the terms of the sequence (a,,) a0 that i 0; then Jy EN such that ny <5 Hence Sy, € (di,d,) CG, and 30 A> my implies 4, ESC Syp C (duit) © ‘Thus G contains almost all the terms of the sequence (a, that is, lima, = 2. 2%. Prove Theorem 4.6: Every bounded sequence (a.) of real numbers contains a con- vergent subsequence, Solution: Consider the range {a,} of the sequence (o,). If the range is finite, then by Problem 21 the sequence contains a convergent subsequence. On the other hand, if the range is infinite, then, by the Holzano-Weierstrass Theorem, the bounded infinite act (@,} contains a limit point. But then, by the previous problem, the sequence in this ease also contains @ convergent subsequence 25. Prove: Every Cauchy sequence (a») of real numbers is bounded. Solution: Let ¢=1. Then, by definition of a Cauchy sequence, BnpEN such that nym =ny Smplieg [ay aq! <1 In particular, my implies jay dy 0, We need to find a positive integer no such that ‘> implies ja,—d}%y implies [ay ~ oa) < Je Also, since the subsequence (o,) converges to b, Bi EN such that [ay ~ | < de Observe that we can choose jy 80 that iy > wy Accordingly, n> mq implies jay~2| = ay ~ a, + 6), — 9} = lap ig + 1a = 1 < yethe=e Hence (a,) converges to b. Observe that we need jy > my in order to state that: 1 > p implies la,— lede 27, Prove Theorem (Cauchy) 4.7: Every Cauchy sequence (a;)-of real numbers converges to a real number. Solution: By Problem 25, the Cauchy sequence (o,) is bounded. Hence, by Theorem 4.6, the bounded sequence (a,} contains a convergent subsequerice (a, But, by the preceding problem, the Cauchy sequence (a,) converges to the same limit as its subsequence (a). In other words, the Cauchy sequence (a,) converges to a real number. 28, Determine whether or not each of the following subsets of R is complete: (i) N, the set of positive integers; (ii) @°, the set of irrational numbers. Solution: () Let (a,) be @ Cauchy sequence of positive integers. If «= J, then [opal Se =$ implies a, ~ Oy Therefore, the Cauchy sequence (a,) is of the form (a1, a3, b,b,b, +.) which converges to the positive integer 6. Hence N is complete (ii) Observe that each of the open intervals CLD, CLD OD - contains irrational points. Hence there exists a sequence (2,) of irrational numbers such that a, belongs to the open interval (—1/n, 1/n). The sequence (a,) will be a Cauchy sequence of points in Q° and it will converge to the rational number 0, Henee Q° is not complete CONTINUITY 29. Prove: If the function f:R~R is constant, say f(z)=a for every +€R, then f is continuous. Solution: Method 1. ‘The function f is continuous iff the inverse f-1[G] of any open set G is also open. Since f)= a for every ER, pig ~ (0 eee “|p it aeo for any open set G. In either case, f-(G] is open since both R and @ are open sets. Method 2. We show that f is continuous at any point x9 using the «9 definition of continuity. Let 20, Then for any 3>0, say 8 =1, [ema] <1 Smplies [fle — flz0)] Hence f is continuous.62 TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE (cHaP. 4 80, Prove: The identity function f: RR, that is, the function defined by f(x)=2, is continuous. Solution: ‘Method 1. Let G be any open set. Then j-1(G] = G is also an open set, Accordingly, f is continuous. ‘Method 2. We show that f is continuous at any point x, using the «5 definition of continuity. Let ©>0. Then choosing «= 3, eax) <3 implies [fl2)~ flail = [2-29] <8 = Accordingly, f is continuous. BI. Prove: Let the functions f:R>R and g:R>R be continuous. ‘Then the composition function gof:R>R is also continuous. Solution: We show that the inverse (g)-1(G| of any open set G inverse g~"(G] is an open set, But since f is continuous, the inverse J! open. Recall that also open. Since g is continuous, the =1[GI] of 9-1 (G] is also (gop) = frteg> Hence (oo*[6] = G-teg-[G] = F-*[9-* [GI] is an open set. Thus the composition function go/:R-R is continuous. 32, Prove: Let f:RR be continuous and let f(q)=0 for every rational number q €Q. Then f(x)=0 for every real number x ER. Solution: Suppose f(p) is not zero for some real number p ER, i.e. suppose ApER such that fle) = 1, inl >0 Choose «= fly|. Since f is continuous, 4550 such that | p| <8 implies ifl2)~flp)) < «= del Now there are rational points in every open interval. In particular, MEQ suchthat gels visa} which implies ia) — fo = eed) = bri <= gh an impossibility. Hence f(2)= 0 for every 7 € R. 33, Prove Theorem 4.8: A function f:R#>R® is continuous if and only if the inverse image of every open set is open. Solution: Let /: 12 R® be continuous and let V be an open subset of RE. We want to show that /-1[V} is also an open set. Let p€y '1V], Then fp) EV. By definition of continuity, there exists an open set U, containing p such that [U,| CV. Hence (as indicated in the diagram below) B, Cs, CT We have shown that, for every point pE/~![V], there exists an open set U such that peu, CIP] Accordingly, mv) = utu,: per [vy So f-1{V] is the union of open sets and is, therefore, open itself.CHAP. 4) TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE 63 On the other hand, suppose the inverse of every open set is open. We want to show that is continuous at any point p ER. Let V be an open set containing f(p), ue. fp) EV. Then f*{V] is fan open set containing p with the property that /[/-?[V]] CV. Hence 7 is continuous at p. Give an example of two functions f:R~>R and g:R>R such that f and g are each discontinuous (not continuous) at every point and such that the sum f +g is continuous at every point in R. Solution: Consider the functions f and g defined by 0 if. is rational 1 if 2 ig rational {i wemimnma? = { teutrmama ie) ‘The functions f and g are discontinuous at every point in R, but the sum /-+ 9 is the eonstant function +02) = 1 which is continuous, Prove: Let the function ¢: R= R be continuous at a point p ER. (i) If f(P) is positive, i.e. f(p) > 0, then there exists an open interval $ containing p such that f is positive at every point in S. (ii) If f(p) is negative, ie. f(p) <0, then there exists an open interval S containing » such that f is negative at every point in S. Solution: We prove (i). The proof of (fi) is similar and will be omitted. Suppose f(p)—e> 0. Since f is continuous at p, 35 >0 such that |x —pi <8 implies |f(z) —f(p)| <« or, equivalently, =e(p 3p +3) implies flz) Eft) —« f(p) +e) = 0,2) ‘Thus for every point x in the open interval (p—3, p+), (2) is positive 36. Prove: Let f: RR becontinuous at every point in a closed interval (a,b), and let f(a) < 0< f(b) ‘Then there exists a point p € [a,b] such that #(P) = 0. (In other words, the graph of a contin- uous function defined on a closed interval which lies both below and above the z-axis must cross the x-axis at at least one point, as indicated in the diagram.) Solution: Let A be the set of points in (a, 8] at which f is negative, i, A = (e: 2€ [a,b], fe) <0} Observe that A is not empty sinee, for example, aA. Lat p = sup(A) be the least upper bound fin Asi’, ya mW Spr Uo Lat Ap 3, So 9 hans tthe el64 TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE [cHaP.« We claim that fip) 0. If f(p) <0, then, by the preceding problem, there is an open interval (P83, p+8) in which f \s negative, ie, (3, p+8 CA So p cannot be an upper bound for A, On the other hand, if fip)>0, then there exists an interval (8, p+) in which 7 Is positive; s0 @-aptnA =o which implies that » cannot be a least upper bound for A. Thus /(p) can only be zero, is. fp) Remark. The theorem is also true and proved similarly in the case f(b) <0 < fla) 37. Prove Theorem (Weierstrass) 4.9; Let /:R~R be continuous on a closed interval a,b]. ‘Then the function assumes every value between f(a) and f(b) Solution: Suppose f(a) < (0) and let yy be @ real number such that f(a)

, then the sequence (a,b,) converges to ab.CHAP. 4) TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE. 65 SI. Prove: If 0, +6 and b,+ where by 0 and b+0, then the sequence (a,/b,) converts to a/b. 52, Prove: If the sequence (c,) converges to b, then every subsequence (a,,) of (@,) also converges to b. 53, Prove: If the sequence (a,) converges to 6, then either the range (o,) of the sequence (a,) is finite, or bis an accumulation point of the range {a,) 5 Prove: If the sequence (a,) of distinct elements is bounded and the range {a,} of (2,) has exactly one limit point b, then the sequence (a,) converges to 2. (Remark: The sequence d,4,2,4,3,4,4,.-.) shows that the condition of boundedness cannot be removed from this theorem. CONTINUITY 58. Prove: A function /:R—R is continuous at aR if and only to o, the sequence (f(a,)) converges to f(a) for every sequence (a,) converging 36. Prove: Let the function j:R—R be continuous at pER, Then there exists an open interval S containing p such that f is bounded on the open interval S. 51, Give an example of a function f:R—~R which is continuous at every point in the open interval S$ = (0,1) but which is not bounded on the open interval S. 58. Prove: Let /:R->R be continuous at every point in a closed interval A = (a,b). Then f is bounded on A. (Remark: By the preceding problem, this theorem is not true if A is not closed.) 59, Prove: Let f:R-R and g:R—R be continuous. Then the sum (f+g):R—R_ is continuous, where {+g is defined by (f+ 9)x) = la) + 91a". 60. Prove: Let f: RR be continuous, and let k be any real number. Then the function (kf): RR ig continuous, where / is defined by (kf\(2) = K(f(z)). G1. Prove: Let f:R7R and g:R--R be continuous. Then {x€R: f(z) =g(2)) is a closed set. 62 Prove: The projection 1,1?» is continuous where =, is defined by =,(la,))) = a. 63. Consider the functions f:R>R and g: RR defined by fsin(i/a) if 2 *0 ° if 2=0 Prove g is continuous at 0 but f is not continuous at 0. [x sinare) , g(r) lo fey = GA, Recall that every rational number ¢€Q can be written uniquely in the form q = a/b where «€Z, DEN, and @ and b are relatively prime. Consider the function f:R->R defined by [0 if Ss irrational FO) = Vay it eis rational and [bas above Prove that f is continuous at every irrational point, but / is discontinuous at every rational point. Answers to Supplementary Problems 52. Consider the function Pe news Ney tee. eat lve if x>0 ‘The function f is continuous at every point in R except at 0 as indicated in the adjacent graph of f. Hence f is continuous at ‘every point in the open interval (0,1). But f is not bounded on . OD. 58. Hint, Use the result stated in Problem 56 and the Heine-Horel ‘Theorem.