Prescribed by CHSE, Odisha ETE 123456 225 eR Mee Ee QPEPT Per a eee Cs pil oa, eee a (Poo el 2 #1%190 ghijkimnopqrstuvwxp ae SaaS ELEMENTS OF ' MATHEMATICS Class - XIl G ODISHA STATE BUREAU OF TEXTBOOK PREPARATION AND PRODUCTION PU a= EMEP Uh ad ope CAE SWBUREAU'S HIGHER SECONDARY ELEMENTS OF MATHEMATICS CLASS-XII Prescribed by Council of Higher Secondary Education, Odisha, Bhubaneswar Published by ODISHA STATE BUREAU OF TEXT BOOK PREPARATION AND PRODUCTION PUSTAK BHAVAN A-11, SUKA VIHAR, BHUBANESWAR — 751 022Prescribed by the Council of Higher Secondary Education, Odisha for the Higher Secondary Certificate Examination, 2018 and onwards. ELEMENTS OF MATHEMATICS, Class-Xil [For Higher Secondary Class-XIl Students] Board of Writers : Prof. Gokulananda Das, Ex-Vice Chancellor, Utkal University Dr. Rabindra Nath Das, Ex-Reader, G.M. College, Sambalpur Dr. Rajani Ballav Dash, Ex-Principal, S.C.S. College, Puri Dr. Jagannath Prasad Debata, Ex-Principal, N.C. College, Jajpur Dr. Akshaya Kumar Mishra, Director, Institute of Mathematics and Applications, Bhubaneswar Dr. Maheswar Mishra, Ex-Reader, Ravenshaw College, Cuttack Dr. Sashikanta Mishra, Ex-Reader, Ravenshaw College, Cuttack Dr. Hemanta Kumar Mohanty, Ex-Reader, Ravenshaw College, Cuttack Prof. Surendranath Mohapatra, Ex-Member, Service Selection Board, Bhubaneswar Prof. Sribatsa Nanda, Ex-Professor, Regional Engineering College, Rourkela Dr. Askhyaya Kumar Ojha, IIT, Bhubaneswar Prof. Swadheenananda Pattnayak, Ex-Director Institute of Mathematics Prof. (Miss) Dipti Rath, Professor, Berhampur University Dr. Muralidnar Samal, Ex-Principal, N.C. College, Jajpur. Dr. Prasanna Kumar Satapathy, Ex-Principal, S.C.S. College, Puri Prof. Byasadev Pany, Ex-Principal, Govt. Auto. College, Phulbani Dr. Hadibandhu Pattanayak, Ex-Principal, S.B. Women’s College, Cuttack Dr. Sanjay Kumar Mohanty, Ex-Principal, Gopabandhu Science College, Athagarh Dr. K.K. Dash, Reader, Govt. College, Sundargarh Dr. Minati Samal, Reader, RD(W) University, Bhubaneswar Dr. Surendra Prasad Jena, Lecturer, S.B. (W) College, Cuttack Dr. Manas Bhuyan, Lecturer, Rajdhani College, Bhubaneswar Dr. Ranjan Ray, FM. (Jr.) College, Balasore Coordinator : Prof. Gokulananda Das Published by The Odisha State Bureau of Textbook Preparation and Production Pustak Bhavan, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Latest Edition : 2017/ 40,000 copies Publication No. : 203 ISBN - 978-81-8005-397-9 © Reserved by THE ORISSA STATE BUREAU OF TEXTBOOK PREPARATION & PRODUCTION, BHUBANESWAR ‘Type Setting & Design : M/s Jagannath Process Pvt. Ltd., Cuttack-2 Printing at: Wis Jagannath Process Pvt. Ltd., Cuttack-2 Price : Rs. 115/- (Rupees One hundred fifteen) onlyFORE! D The Elements of Mathematics, Class-Xll has been prepared as per the revised syllabus of Council of Higher Secondary Education, Odisha for the admission batch 2016. ‘The Bureau is extremely thankful to Prof. Gokulananda Das and his learned team of writers for extending tremendous effort in this regard. The Bureau is confident that this book will be of immense help to the students and teachers of Mathematics. Constructive suggestions for further improvement of the book deserve appreciation. Shri Umakanta Tripathy Snana Pumima Director 09.06.2017 Odisha State Bureau of Text Book Preparation and Production, Pustak Bhavan, BhubaneswarToday it is hardly necessary to talk about the importance of Mathematics in shaping all the successive human civilisations culminating in the present modem world, Whatever has been said or will be said about it are too littie. Famous Indian Mathematician Bhaskaracharya, born in A.D. 1114 conceived Mathematics as one embodied in the following verse : zen fret ager ArT aerate | Teq sary MEAT aftr Tefafeerry | - _ Vedanga Jyotish by Lagda (About 1100 B.C.) (As crest in a peacock's feather, jewel in a Cobra's hood, Mathematics is the crest- jewel of all scientific knowledges.) Mathematics, as a continuous human endeavour, seeks to capture the natural laws in the form of supreme abstract formulations and as such it has to depend upon infallible logic yielding the conclusions as eternal and absolute truth. It is a sublime discipline where falsehood or any inaccuracy is not entertained. ‘Since the study of Mathematics has become inescapable for the acquisition of any scientific knowledge, be it the farfetched subject like music or language, it is necessary to make the study of Mathematics more absorbing and interesting. The only way to do this is to encourage the students to pick up the pen and paper and start solving the problems themselves. Just as one learns swimming only after entering inside the water, one enjoys the taste of the sweets only after putting it inside the mouth, Mathematics is learnt only through problem solving and this is the shortest route. No amount of lecturing on ‘swimming’ can equip one to swim. The authors of the book, working under diverse constraints, are not fully certain if they have lived upto the expectations and aspirations of the members of the Orissa Mathematical Society in particular and teachers, students and the public in general. ‘Any suggestions for the improvement of the book shall be gratefully acknowledged in bringing out the successive editions. The authors are grateful to the authorities of the Council of Higher Secondary Education and the Text Book Bureau for the patience and care in bringing out the book in the present form. Prof. G DASCHAPTER 1 : Relation and Function ww Introduction 42: Types of Relations on A Set 1.3 Congruence Modulo Relation on Integers 14 Equivalence class Exercises 1(a) 1.5 Functions : Types of Functions 16 Composition of Functions 17 Inverse of a Function Exercises 1 (b) 1.8 Binary Operations rcises 1 (Cc) CHAPTER 2: Inverse Trigonometric Functions 2.0 Introduction 24. Definitions : 22 Graphs : 23 Important Properties [Beercises 2] CHAPTER 3 : Linear Programming 3.1 Introduction 32 General Linear Programming Problem (L:P-P.) 3.3 TypesofLinear Programming Problems. 34 Formulation of LPP Exercises _3 (a) 3.5 Graphical Solution of LPP. 3.5.1 Working procedure to solue LPP graphically. CHAPTER 4: Matrices 40 Introduction 44 Matrix, what it is : 42 Some Definitions: 4.3 Algebra of Matrices (Operations on matrices) : Exercises 4.4 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrix : 45 Transformation of Matrices (Elementary Row & Column Operations) 46 Inverse of a Matrix Exercises - 4 (b) CHAPTER 5: Determinants 5.0 Introduction 5.1 Determinant of a square matrix 52 Minors, Cofactors and Expansion of a determinant. 53 Application of determinants in finding the area of a triangle 5.4 Some properties of Determinants 55 Somespecial types of Determinants 58 Productof Determinants 57 Illustrative Examples. Exercises 5 @) . 58 Consistency, Inconsistency and number of solutions of a system of linear equations. 59 Inverse of a square matrix 5.10 __ System of linear equations and solution (Matrix method) BSSRRRVANASRBSBLKGLLRBYRBat wavs(vi) 5.11 Illustrative Examples Exercises 5 (6) CHAPTER 6 : Probability 60 Introduction 61 Conditional Probability 62 Independent Events Exercises 6 (@) [Exercises 6 (b)_] 6.3 Total Probability and Bayes' Theorem 64 Random Variable: 65 Probability Mass Function: 66 Meanand Variance of random variable 67 Bemoulli Trials : 68 Binomial Distribution : 69 Meanand Variance of Binomial Distribution Exercises 6 @) CHAPTER 7 : Continuity and Ditferentiability 7A Continuity 7.2 Continuity of some real valued functions : [Bxercises 7 (@) 73 Differentiability 7.4 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 7 (b) 7.5 Derivative of AComposite Function (The Chain Rule) : Exercises 7 (C) 7.6 Derivatives of Inverse Functions : Exercises 7 (d) 7:7 Methods of Differentiation [Exercises 7 ()_] 7.8 _ Differentiation of Implicit Functions : Exercises 7 (9) 79 Differentiation of Parametric Functions Exercises 7 (7 7.10 Differentiation with respect to a function : Exercises 7 () 7A Differentiability and Continuity : 7.12 Miscellaneous Examples (Seuss Tal 7.13 Second order derivatives Exercises 7 (I) 7.18 (a) Successive Derivatives of some standard functions 7.14 Some basic theorems (Mean Value Theorems) Exercises 7 (m) CHAPTER 8 : Application of Derivatives 8.0 Introduction 8.1 Velocity and Acceleration in Rectiinear Motion Exercises 8 (a) 82 Tangentand Normalito plane curves Exercises 8 (O) 8.3 __ Increasing and Decreasing Functions(vii) Cea HJ 84 Maxima and Minima xercises 8 (d) 85 Differentials and Calculation of Error eee 86 Indeterminate Forms Exercises 8 (f) (CHAPTER 9: Integration 9.0 Introduction: 9.1 Antiderivative (Primitive) 92 ‘Simple Integration Formulae 93 yra of Integrals Exercises 9(4) 94 ration By Substitution rcises 9(b) 95 Integration of Some Trigonometric Functions Exercises 9(6) 96 gaa By Trigonometric Substitution ercises 9(d) 97 Integration By Parts: 98 Partial Fractions and Integration of Rational Functions 99 Inte ion (Continued) ae 9.10 Integration of Some More Trigonometric Functions [Exercises 9(h)_] 9.11 Definite Integral Exercises 2 912 Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus 913 Elementary Properties of Definite Integrals. [Exercises 90) 9.14 ‘Some More Properties of Definite Integrals 9.15, Reduction Formul CHAPTER 10 : Area Under Plane Curves 10.1 Area.undera plane curve between to ordinates 10.2 Area Between Two Curves Exercisesi0 CHAPTER 11 : Differential Equations 11.0 Introduction WA Differential Equations and Their Classification 11.2 Solution of A Differential Equation 44.3 Geometrical Meaning of Solution of Differential Equation 11.4 Formation of Differential Equation 15 Methods of Solving Differential Equation Exercises 11 (a) 2 16 Linear Differential Equations Exercises 11 (b) nz Homogeneous Equations. 11.8 Equations reducible to homogeneous form SSSRRSSRSRBBBRRRSSIINSBRSBRRSBSRSS SSSSSRRSSSsss(viii) Exercises 11(¢) CHAPTER 12: Vectors 12.0 Introduction : 121. Representation of a Vector (Its magnitude and direcdtion) 122 Further terminologies and notations 123 Definition (Inclination between two vectors) 42.4 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Vector 125 Multiplication of a Vector by scalar 12.6 — Addition of Vectors : 127 Position Vector : 12.8 Resolution of a Vector into components : (Exercises 12 (@)] 12.9 Product of Vectors : 12.10 Scalar Product (Dot Product): 12.11 Geometrical Meaning of dot product : 12.12 Distributive Law for scalar Product : 12.13 Vector Product (Cross Porduct) ercises 12 (c) 12.14 Scalar and Vector Triple Products. CHAPTER 13 : Three Dimensional Geometry 13.0 13.1 132 133 134 135 136 137 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.15 13.16 13.17 13.18 13.19 13.20 13.21 13.22 13.23 Inclination between two rays with a common vertex Direction ratios of the line joining two points Angle between two lines : Inclination between two lines : Exercises 13(4) Vector Equation of a Plane Cartesian Equation of a Plane : General Equation of a plane Exquation of plane through three given points. ‘Angle between two planes. Equation of plane in Normal form. ‘Transformation of general form to normal form ‘System of Planes Distance of a point from a plane. Equations of planes bisecting the angle between two given planes. ...... xercises 13 (b) ‘ Vector equation of a line : Cartesian Equation of a Line ‘Symmetric form of Equations of a line. ‘Two-point Form. Transformation of unsymmetrical form to symmetrical form. Condition for a line to lie on a plane. Condition for two lines to be Coplanar. Angle between a line and a plane. Distance of a point from a line. ‘Shortest distance between two lines. . [Exercises 13 (C)] ‘Additional Exercises Objective And Short Type Questions Answers SIALIISISRRSSARRRBSSKESES SES ag RESSSSKSLSSRSSSSREEERRelation and Function 1 The rarest and most valuable of all intellectual traits is the capacity to doubt the obvious. - Albert Einstein. Introduction We have studied earlier that a relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the cartesian product AxB i.e. RCAXB. If a€ A is related to b < B by the relation R then we express this as aRb or equivalently as (a,b)eR. We know about the domain and range ofa relation and also about many-one, one-many, one-one relations and their diagramatic upresentations. ‘We mention that since 6c AxB, isa relation called empty relation from A to B. Here no element of A is related to any element of B. Similarly AxB c AxB shows that AXB isa relation called the universal relation from A to B. Here every element of A is related to every element of B. These two relations are sometimes called trivial rela- tions. As we know earlier, relations occur abundantly in nature and in mathematics. More interesting and useful relations are those with suitable restrictions, Particularly some special type of relations which are defined on a set A, i.e. from A to itself, (in stead of ‘one set to another), play much more significant role which we now proceed to study. ‘Types of Relations on A Set : We begin with definitions. Definitions : A relation R on a set A is called (i) a reflexive relation if aRa, ¥aeA (i.e. if (a,a)eR for every aeA) (ii) a symmetric relation if aRb => bRa, a,beA. (i.e. (a,b)eR => (b,a) ER for a,beA) (iii) a transitive relation if aRb and bRe => aRe; ab,ceA. (ie. (@b)eR and (b,c)eR = (a,c)eR; fora, b, ceA)Example 1 Let A={1,2,3}. Consider the following relations : @) R01, 2.2), G,3)} Since for each of the elements 1,2 and 3 of A ; (1,1),.(2,2), (3,3) are in R,, R, is reflexive. It is also symmetric and transitive. Particularly note that it satistics the condition of a transitive relation. For example (1,1)€R, and (1,1)eR,=9(1,1)eR, is trivially satisfied and similarly for other elements 2 and 3. It also trivially follows that R, is symmetric. (ii) R,=(1,1), G,3)} Here R, is not reflexive on A, since (2,2)¢R,. Note that R, is symmetric and transitive. (iit) R={C,1), 2,2), (3,3), (1,2), 2), (1,3), 3,1), 2,3), 3,2)} R, is reflexive, symmetric and trangitive. Here R,=AxA= The universal relation on A. (iv) R,= {(a,b):a-b>3} on A. No pair of elements a,b in A satisfy the condition that their difference is greater than 3. Hence no pair exists in R,. It is an empty relation i.e. R= 0. () R={2,3), 3,2), (2,2), 3,3)} In this case R, is not reflexive as (1,1) €R,. but ifis symmetric and transitive. Example 2 Let T= The set of all triangles on a plane. Define a relation ~on T as follows : A-B if and only ifA is similar to B where A, BeT. From properties of triangles we can check that ~is reflexive, symmetric and, transitive. N.B. The symbol ~ is pronounced as ‘wiggle’ or ‘tilde’. Example 3 Let L= The set ofall lines on a plane and R bea relation on L defined by 1,RI, ifand only if',is “perpendicular to’ /, where /,:/,L. Ifis easy to check that /,R/,=> Rl,So R is'a symmetric selation. But it is neither reflexiue nor transitive. The following relations on the set R of reals or its subsets are easy to check. Example 4 (i) The relation ‘is equal to' given by {(a,b) :a=b} on Ris reflexiue, symmetric and transitive. (ii) The relation ‘is less than’ given by {(a,b) : a 8 = 0 (mod 4) (ii) 10 = 2 (mod4) and 8 = 12 (mod 4) =918 = 14 (mod 4) and 80 = 24 (mod 4) Example 5 Show that (i) ca = cb (mod m) = a= b (mod m') where m= m! x ged (cm) (ii) ca = cb (mod m) = a =b (mod m) if ged (cm) = 1, Solution : (i) Let ged (c,m) = h. Then let = c’h and m~mbh and ged (c',m’) =1 Now ca = cb (mod m) => m| e(a-b) => mh|ch(a-b) => m' | (a-b) (-; ged (cm!) =1) -.a=b (modm) (ii) Taking h= 1 in (i) we get (ii). ‘Thus (i) 8 = 12 (mod 4) => 4 = 6 (mod 2) (--ged (2,4)=2) and - 8 = 10 (mod 3) => -4 = 5 (mod 3) (.-ged (2,3)=1) The following example illustrates the fact that congruence modulo relation on Z is an equivalence relation.Relation and Function Example 6 Show that the relation ~ on Z given by ~= {(a.b): a = b (mod 3) (i.e. a~b iff. 3 divides a—b), is an equivalence relation. Solution : ~is reflexive : 3 divides a—a for all aeZ= a =a (mod 3) => a~a for all acZ ~ is symmetric : avb = 3|(a-b) => a-b = 3k for some keZ => b-a=3(-k), - keZ = 3|(b-a) => b =a (mod 3) => b~a. ~is transitive : a~bandb~c;a,b,c eZ => 3|(a-b) and 3|(b-c) = 3{[(a-b)+(b-c)] = 3\(a-0)>a~c. Hence ~is an equivalence relation. Note : There is nothing special about the integen 3 in the above example. We can simply replace 3 by any positive integer in to assert that congruence modulo relation on Z is an equivalence relation. The most significant feature of equivalence relation on a set X is that it enables the set to be partitioned or divided into a disjoint collection of subsets of X whose union is x. Consider, for example, $= The set of all students ofa school imparting education from class I upto class XII Leta relation R be defined on S as follows : Fors,,s,€S; s,Rs, if s, ands, are in the same class. You can easily check that R is an equivalerice relation. Now suppose s,€S is in class I. Let the set of all students in $ who are related to s, i.e. are in the same calss as s,, be denoted by [s,]Elements of Mathematic Thus[s,] = {seS:sRs,} Clearly s, €[s,] nal HN @ and [s,] represents the students of class I. Further if s{ is another student of class I i.e. if s{Rs, then [s Gi) which you can verify Now choose another student s,¢S not related to s,. Ifs, is in class Il, as before we get [s,] = The set of all students of class II. More over [s,] 0 [s,]= ede Peis. Gil) For, if se{s,] 0 [s,] then sRs, andsRs, together imply that s,Rs and sRs, by sym- metry of R, which again yields s Rs, by transitivity. But s,Rs, is a contradiction. ‘Thus by choosing a representative student s, , 1, 2, 3, .... 12 such that s, is not related to , ('#) we partition the students of the school into mutually disjoint different subsets called class I, class I, ..., class XII. In symbols, $=[s,]U[s,] VU... UL5,.)- ee We formalise this discussion below. 1.4 Equivalence class Definition : Let X be a set with an equivalence relation ~ defined on it. The equivalence class of xeX, denoted by [x]_ is defined by [x]_=fyeX:y-x}. ‘We simply write [x] in place of [x]_ when there is no confusion with regard to the equivalence relation with respect to (w.r.f) which the equivalence class is considered. As we have observed in (i) to (iv) above, the following facts are easily deducible from definition of equivalence class. (d) Fora set X with an equivalence relation on it, (i) xe[x] (: x~xby reflexive property)Gi) x~yo[xFly] Gi) Either [x] = [YJ or B] ODEO (iv) UBI=EX. Definition : A Partition of a set X is a collection of disjoint, non empty subsets of X that have X as their union. For example if X = {1,2,3}, then { {1,2}, (3}} and { {1}, {2}, {3}} are two partitions of X. Hence we state that given any equivalence relation on a set X we can partition the set X into subsets X, called equivalence classes, such that, (i) All elements of X, are related to each other (Gi) Any element of X, is NOT related to any element of X, for i#/. (iii) X, 0 X,=6 fori). (iv) UX,=x. Example 7 Congruence modulo 3 relation partitions (or decomposes) the set Z into three disjoint equivalence classes. Find them. Solution : Any integer a € Z leaves remainder 0 or | or 2 when divided by 3. Hence either = 0 (mod 3) or a = | (mod 3) or a = 2 (mod 3). In other words a = 3m or a= 3m+1 or a= 3m+2 for meZ. First we find all aeZ such that a = 0. These are given by {0,+3, +6, £9, ..} = {..-6,-3, 0,3, 6.4} Itis the equivalence class of 0 denoted by [0],. So [o],={...-6,-3,0,3, 6, «.} Similarity [1],={....-5,-2,1,4,7,...} 5 Pease Hence Z= [0], [1], U[2],.8 Elements of Mathematics, Class-XII Remark : For a given positive integer m, congruence modulo m relation partitions the set Z into in equivalence classes denoted by [0], [1],.-.-» [m-1],. Equivalence relation induced by a portion : Converse to the above discussion, given any partition of a set we can obtain an equivalence relation on it. Take for example X={1,2,3,4,5,6}. Let X, = {1,2,5}, X,=(3,6}, X,={4} bea partition of X. Define a relation R on X as follows : aRb iffa and b ‘are in the same subset’. Now (i) aRa forall aeX = R is reflexive. (ii) IfaRb then bRa follows => R is symmetric (iii) IfaRb and bRc then a and b are is the same subset and along with the fact that b and c are also in the same subset if follows that a and care in the same subset. Hence aRe, implying that R is transitive. ‘Thus R is an equivalence relation. More over R is given explicitly by R={(1,1),(,2),(1,5),2,05(2,2),2,5),(5,,6,2),(5,5).(3,3),3,6),(6,3),(6,6), (4.4)} and the equivalence classes are UF2HBIFX,. BFI6FX,, 4IFX,. Exercise-1(a) 1. If A= {a,b,c,d} mention the type of relations on A given below, which of them are equivalence relations ? (@) {(@.2), (b,b)} (ii) {(a,a), (0), (¢,0), (d.d)} (iii) {(a,b), (b,a), (b,d), (4,b)} (iv) {(b,c), (b.d), (¢,4)} (v) {(2.a), (b,b), (c,c), (d,d), (4,4), (a,c), (d,a), (c,a), (€.d), (d.e)} 2. Write the following relations in tabular form and determine their type. (i) R={(xy) : 2x-y=0] on A= {1,2,3,..., 13}(ii) R= {xy) :x divides y} on A= {1,2,3,4,5,6} (iii) R= {(xy) : x divides 2 - y} on A= {1,2,3,4,5} (iv) R= {(@p) :y $x $4} on A= {1,2,3,4,5}. 3. Test whether the following relations are reflexive, symmetric or transitive on the sets specified. () R= {(mn):m-n27} on Z. Gi) R= {(m,n):2|\(m4n)} on Z. (ii) R= {(m,0) : nis not divisible by 3} Z. (iv) R= ((n): 7 isa power of 5} on Z-(0}. (v) R= {(mn):mnis divisible by 2} on Z. (vi) R= {(m,n) :3 divides m-n}on {1,2,3...,10}. 4. List the members of the equivalence relation defined by the following partitions on X={1,2,3,4}. Also find the equivalence classes of 1,2,3 and 4 © {{t}-{2},(3.4}} Gi {(42.3},4)} Gil) {{1,2,3,4}} 5. Show that ifR is an equivalence relation on X then domR =rngR=X. 6. Give an example ofa relation which is (i) reflexive, symmetric but not transitive. (ii) reflexive, transitive but not symmetric. (iii) symmetric, transitive but not reflexive. (iv) reflexive tbut neither symmetric nor transitive. (¥) transitive but neither reflexive nor symmetric. (vi) an empty relation. : (vii) a universal relation.Elements of Mathemati 5,_ Clas’ Let R be a relation on X, If R is symmetric then xRy => yRx. Ifit is also transitive then xRy and yRx => xRx. So whenever a relation is symmetric and transitive then if is also reflexive. What is wrong in this argument ? ‘Suppose a box contains a set of'n balls (n> 4) (denoted by B) of four different colours (may have different sizes), viz. red, blue, green and yellow. Show that a relation R de- fined on B as R={(b,,b,) : balls b, and b, have the same colour} is an equivalence relation on B. How many equivalence classes can you find with respectto R ? [Note : On any set X a relation R={(x,y): x and y satisfy the same property P} is an equivalence relation. As far as the property P is concerned, elements.x and y are deemed equivalent. For different P we get different equivalence relations on X] Find the number of equivalence relations on X={1,2;3}. [Hind : Each partition of a set gives an equivalence relation.] Let R be the relation on the set R of real numbers such that aRb iff a-b is an integer. Test whether Ris an equivalence relation. IfS0 find the equivalence class of land wat, this equivalence relation. Find the least positive integer r such that ( 185ef,, Gi)-375efr),,, Gi) -12efH),. Find leastnon negative integer r such that (i) 7«13x23%413 = r (mod 11) (ii) 6«1827%(-225) = r(mod8) (iii) 1237(mod4) + 985(mod4) = r (mod 4) (iv) 1936 * 8789 =r (mod 4) Find least positive integer x satisfying 276x + 128 = 4 (mod 7) [Hint : 276 = 3, 128 = 2 (mod 7)] Find three positive integers x,, /=1, 2, 3 satisfying 3x = 2 (mod 7) [Hint : Ifx, is a solution then any member of [x,] is also a solution)Relation and Function 7 1.5 Functions : Types of Functions ‘As wealready know, a function from a set X toa set Y is a special type of relation from X to Y such that for each x € X these is one and only one element y €Y which is related tox by the relation f: We write y=f(x) and call it the image of x under fand call x, the pre-image of y under f: Insymbols, {XY if f< XxY such that VxeX, 3! y € y and (x,y) € f. (The symbol 3! means that there exists an element uniquely, i.e. there exists only one element) We also know that domf-D,= X , codomain of and mg f=R=f(X), We studied examples of different functions on the set R of real number and about their graphs. We continue our study of functions in some greater detail as the concept of function is extremely impor- tant in mathematics. We begin with the following definitions. Definition: A function f: X->Y is said to be an onto or surjective function if rng f=f(X)=Y. i.e. if every element of Y is the image of some element of X. Definition : A function f: XY is said to the an into funetion if rng f=/(X) SY (a proper subset of Y) i.e. if there is at least one ye ¥ which has no pre-image in X. Definition: A function f: XY is said to be a one-one or injective function if for everyx,,x,€x fir, =f@) > x=%,. (Equivalently fis one-one if distinct elements. in X have distinct images in Y, ie. x,#x, = fx, # fx). Definition: A function : XY is said to be a many-one function if there exist x,,x,¢X with x,#x, such that flx,) =/lx,). i.e. more than one (many) elements of X have the same image under f. We illustrate these ideas in the following example. Example 8 Consider the following functions represented amt 4, = rata Pe aN! (Hs ee (i) One-one onto (ii) One-one into(iii) many-one onto (iv) many-one into In diagram (i) X={a,b,c}, Y={1,2,3} and/,: XY such that f,(a)=1, f,(b)=2 and f(c)=3. Here distinct elements of x have distinct images in Y. Hence f, is a one-one map. More over f(X)=rng f={1,2,3}=Y implies that /, is onto. We say: f, is a one-one onto function. In diagram (ii) f, is one-one. Moreover there is one element 4 € Y which is not the image of any of the elements of X. Thus rng f= {1,2,3} S Y= {1,2,3,4]. Hence f, is a one-one into function, In diagram (ii) there are two distinct elements viz a and b, which have the same image 1, ie.a#b but f(a) =£(b) = 1. Hence f, is a many-one function. Further f(X)—rng f={1,2)=¥ shows that f,is an onto function, Thus f, is a many-one onto function. In diagram (iv) f, is a many-one into function as you can check. Note that unlike a one-many relation, we do not have a one-many function. (why !) Definition. A function f; XrY is said to be a bijective (one-one onto) function which is both injective and surjective. Definition : Two sets X and Y are said to be in one-one correspondence if there is a bijective funtion from X to Y. If there is a one-one correspondence between two sets X and Y then we say that these sets one equivalent/similar/equipollent or equipotent and we write X~Y. Now we take a closer look at lijective functions which play a very significant role. Example- 9 Consider f :N-N defined by fx)=2x. flx,)=fx,)=>2x,=2x,>x,=1,. Hence f is one- one. But fis not onto since IeN has no preimage. for, if there is an.xeN s.t.lx)=I then we should get 2x=1 ax= Fen. But if we consider fR-PR defined by f(x) = 2x as above, then it is easily verified that fis both one-one and onto. This shows the importance of domain of'a function. Example 10 Let: RR be defined byAxy= 0 ‘Show that f is onto but not one-one. Solution : Inorder to show that fis onto, given yeR we need to find xeR s.t. y=f (x). If y=0, then we have x = 0 (by definition of f) Ify #0, then y = fix) =22- =x-xy-150 Tt Fy r 3 5 ae set +4) (neglecting - sign before the radical as x°> 0. =>x= 21 yt ly +4 eR. So fis onto. Clearly fis not one - one since f(1) =f(-1) =/(0)=0. Example 11 Let X and Y be finite sets and |X |=|¥ |. (Recall that [S| denotes the number of elements ina finite set S) Show that iff: XY is onto then fmust be one one and conversely if fis one-one then it must be onto. Solution : Let [X|=|¥|=m. Let f be onto. If f is not one-one suppose x,, x,€X, x,#x, and f(x,}=f(x,). Since each element of x has only one image in Y there are atmost m-2 images of the elements x,, x,... x, of X in Y. So altogether we have (m-2)+1=m-1 images in Y. Hence |rg f| < m-1 R= (xeR :x>0} is onto but not one-one However f: R,2R, is bijective. (ii) The function f: RR defined by x) = x° is bijective. Itis surjective : IfyeR then we 1 4 can find y} eR sochitats(2* Jy So rng f=R. Itis injective : fle) =faox =x = (tx) (¥ +4x, +47)=0 = (px) (xf +44, +9) =0 =r-x, (238 +x, +3 #0 for any.x,,x, € R both not zero). (iii) The finetion RR defined by fix) = 3x+5 is bijective. itis surjective : IfyeR then we can find "=> eR bs a5 Such that (3) = (33) +5=y. Itis injective : f(x,)=f() = 3x45 = 34,45 => x= x, 5, 4,€R- (iv) The function f: ROR defined by f (x) =| x | is neither injective nor surjective since (i)-2#2 and |2|=2=|2| and (ii) mgf=R,U{0}S R. (v) The function f: R-{0} -> R-{0} defined by f(x) =~ is one-one and onto. (vi) The function f: [-34] —>[-1,1] defined by lx) = sin x is one-one and onto. It is clear from the graph of sin x. otherwise,(vii) aoarh of Sime ey han X= 2 A intl k = 6 sin x, =sinx, => 2 e0s “LF 5 “nm x My XX ~nands +5, ¢[ 3], ==) Again if x<[-1,1] we can find B (=sin') € [#4] ie figure) such that sin B=c.. You will learn about inverse trigonometric functions ater. But/:R-[-1,1] defined by f(x) = sin xis onto butnot one-one. You know from periodicity of sine that sin x = sin (x+2n) for xeR. Thus by restricting domain of sin e function from from R to [#4] we get a bijective function from one which is not bijective. Similar observation can be had relating to other trigonometric functions. See article on trigonometric functions for detailed discussion. The function f: R->R defined by f(x) = =; is neither one-one nor onto. x It is not onto; for if Raa 1eR then x*-x+1=0, whose roots are not real. Hence | has ‘no pre-image. Also f‘is not one-one since #(3) =22/@,1.6 Composition of Functions It is possible that the codomain of one fuction fis the domain of another function g. There is a way to combine the two functions fand gto produce a new function called the composition of fand g that is defined below. Definition. If f: XY and g: Y ->Z, then the composition of fand g denoted by gof (read ‘g composite f”) is defined by (gof) (x) = g (f (x),xEX. Note the order in which fand g appear in the definition of composition of fand g. Also note that gofis defined only when rng f= Y =dom g. clearly gof: X->Z so that dom (gof}=X and rng (gof)= g(rngf) € Z. The idea of composition is illustrated in the adjoining figure. - Example 13. Let X= {1,2,3}, Y=fa,b,¢,d) and Z=(red, green, blue}. Let f: XY s.t.f= {(1.a), (2,0), (3,d)} and g: > Z st. g= {(a,green), (b, green), (c, blue), (d, red)} gofis obtained by observing the diagram. 2 & 1———+ a —_—— green 2S ei 3 dene eo red So gof: X->Z st. gof = {(1, green), (2, blue), (3, red)} Dispensing with diagramatical approach, we have (gof)(1)=g (f(1)= g(a)= green and similarly (gof) (2)=blue and (gof) (3) = red, which defines gof: X->Z.Relation and Function 7 Example 14 Consider the following real functions. @F@)= sine (ii) £,() = c0s (sin x) iii) £() = (etl + 3Q2x+1)+2 Hence f,, f,and f,are some examples of functions obtained by composition of fand gin the following ways (Assumming f: R->R and g: RR): (i) If g(x) =sinx and fix)= x, then (go/) (x)=g((/()) = gy) (writing y= f(x) =siny =sinx°=f(x). (ii) g(x) =cos x and fx) = sin x = (gof) (x)=2((f()) = g(y) = cos y = cos (sin x) (writing y = f(x) = f,@). (iii) g(x) =x2+3x+2 and fix) = 2c+1 = (sof) (x) = a((/()) = ay) = y*t3y42 = 2x+1)+32x+1)+2 =F) Itis very important to note that composition of functions is not commutative in general. If gofis defined then fog may not be defined and even if fog is defined, it may so happen that gof+ fog as the following example shows. Example 15 (i) Let RR be defined by f(x) =x+1 and g:R,9R be defined by g(x) =/x - In this case (fog) ()=(F(@)) = f(Vx)= Vx +1. But gofis not defined as rngf ¢ dom g. (ii), LetustakefR,—>R and g:R,R, in (i) above. Then both fog and gof are defined But (fog)(2) = fle) ==) Ve +1 and (@of) (x)= g (fix) = Bert) =Vx+1. clearly fog + gof.(iii) Let fR-{0}-9R-{O}and g:R-{0}—9R-{0} be defined by 1 fla) =x and g(s)-—. Then both gofand fog are defined. Further (sof (2) = ft) = te?) and 1 ees) =Aee =s(2}- 4 Here fog = gof on R -{0}. Some important results on composition of functions : Theorem 1. If £:X = Y, g°Y->Z and h:Z > V then ho(gof) = (hog) of i.e. composition is assocaitive. Proof. By definition of composition, gof : X->Z and hog:Y—V. Hence ho(gof): X > V and (hog)of : X -> V. Moreover for x € X, (o(gof)(x)=A(gaf)(x)=h(g(F@)) and ((hog)of)(x) = (hog)( £(x))=A(s(/(2))- Hence proved. Theorem 2. If f :X—¥Y andg : YZ then (i) gof is onto if both fand g are onto. (ii) gof is one-one if both f and g are one-one. (iii) If gof is onto then g is onto. (iv) If gof is one-one then fis one-one.Rel Proof. (i) Letfandg be onto. Then f(X) = Y and g(Y)=Z. Hence (gof)(X)=g(f(X))=e(Y)Z. => rng(gof)=Z = gofis onto. (ii) Letfand g both be one-one. Suppose (gofMx,) = (Zof)(%,) > XX, € X- = 2(f(x))=2(f02) =F (x)=S(%) _ (+g is one-one) =x =x («J is one-one) Hence gof is one-one. (iii) Let gof: XZ be onto. Hence if z’eZ, then there is at least one xeX s.t. (gof) (x)=z, ie. g(f(x)) =z. Writing y = (x) we have yeY st. g(y)=z. Hence gis onto. (iv) Let gofbe one-one. Suppose fis not one-one. Then for some x,, x, €X with x, #x, S&)=f@) =a(f(x))=8(7()) = (sof)(x1)= (gor )() This is contradiction to the fact that gof is one-one. So gof is one-one > fis one-one.1.7 Inverse of a Function We begin with functions ,, f,, f,and/, as given in Example 8. We have A, 2 {a,b,c} 11,2,3} and f, = {(4,1), (6,2), (6,3)} fy {a,b,c} 9(1,2,3,4} and f, = {(a,1), (6.2), (€,3)} Ay {abc} {1,2} and f, = {(@,1), (6,1), (€,2)} de {a,b,c}>{1,2,3,4} and f, = {(4,1), (6,2), (€,2)} For the function f, consider the inverse relation g={(1,a), (2,5), (3,c)}. Does it represent a function ? Here g,= {1,2,3}— (a,b,c} such that g,(1)=a , g,(2)=b and g,(3)=¢ and consequently g, is a function which we call to be the inverse function of /f, as the domain and condomain of f, are interchanged with these of g,. On the otherhand, for the function f, , consider the inverse relation g.=(1,a), (2,b), (3,¢). We see that g, is not a function from {1,2,3,4} to {a,b,c} since g,(4) is not defined. In this case inverse function of f, does not exist. Similarly in case of f,, the inverse function of f, cannot be defined by g,={(1,a),(1,b),(2,c)} as Tedom g, would have two different images. Also f, has no inverse function as the elements 3 and 4 of domg, would be without images in the codomain of g,. Hence we observe that out of f,, f,, f, and f, only f,, which is one-one onto, has the inverce functions g,. We usually write f' in place of g,. This abservation is true in general that all functions which are both one-one and onto (bijective) have inverse functions. We prove it below. Theorem 3. Let f: XY. Then the relation" is a function from Y to X iffis bijective. Proof. Weshow that (i) domf=Y and (ji) everyy €¥ has a unique image in X under f*.(i) By hypothesis, f is surjective so that for every yeY there is xeXs.t. (xyef. => (, ef! => yedomf". sy ¢domf™ andsince domf Y , wehave domf* =. (ii) Now suppose y¢ Y has two distinct images x, and x, under f". So (y,x,) € f“and (x, <7. =>(x,y)ef and (x,y)ef. Since f is injective, x,=x, a contradiction to assumption. Therefore f; YX is a function. Now we have the following definition. Definition. A bijective function f: X->Y has an inverse function f“!: Y->X given by S7= (0x): @yY) Ef} Thus if fis bijective, y=f(x) > x=f*(y) A function. fis said to be invertible if f~! exists. The next theorem helps us to test invertibility of f. Theorem 4, Iff: XY is bijective then (i) frof = id, and fof “= id, where id, and id, are the identity functions on X and Y respectively. (ii) _Ifin addition g: y>Z is bijective then (gofy'=/ og". Proof. (i) To show fof=id,., by definition of equality of funcitons, we must show that (fof )(x) =id,.(x) for every xe X. Now y=(f "of )@)=F"(£@)) >(f@,y)es?di) =(yf@)ef>SM=f@)>y=x (:, fis one-one) => y=(f "of )@)=x=id,(), rE X. = f lof id, Similarly we can prove that fof"= id, . By hypothesis, f": Y->X, and g"!: Z-¥Y. By Theorem 2, gofis bijective and (gofy": ZX. 3 In order to show that (gof) = fog" we must show, by definition of equality of functions, that for every 2€Z, (gof)"(z) = (f tog") @)- Now, letzeZ. Then wehave xeX such that (gof)'(z) =x esi AA) = z=(gof)@)=2(f@)=8”) (writing y= £2) >y=s"'@. Buty=f@)@ x=f'0)= S71 (g'@)=(S 0g ")@. . B) From (A) and (B) if follows that (sof) (2) =(f-'og*)(z) for any z€ Z. Hence (gof)'=f-'og". Remark. ‘The converse of Theorem 4(i) is true, i.e. if we can find g:¥->X such that gof=id, and ‘fog=id,, then fis bijective and g=/". (see Q.14, exercise-1(b)) We use this fact to test invertibility of a bijective function. Example-16 Let f: RR be defined by lx) = 3x+5 Show that f is bijective. Find f“\(1) and f-\(0).BETTE RET aT RE a Solution : "To show that f is bijective refer Example 12 (iii). Nowy=/@)=srito = 2 =, So for any yeR we can finda unique Sr we Such that, 122 5). +5=Y. Hence fis given by f(x) Then f*(1}= ~$ and j-(0)=-3. Example- 17 Show that RR defined by f(x) = 2-1 is not invertible in general. Find the domain and codomain where fis invertible. Also find f*, Solution For fix)=x-1, f-1}=0=JU1). Sof is not one-one. Hence fis not bijective and therefore not invertible. Now, let y=2*-leR=> x=+,/y +1. Forx to be real we must have y 2-1 w= (A) Moreever fis many-one since both —/y+1 and +/y+1 map onto y under f. To make f one-one we restrict the domain to R, U {0} ie.{xeR:x20} ... (B) Using (A) and (B) we consider f: (0,00) + [0,20) . Now let us define g:[-1,c0) >[0,<0) by ay)= /y +1. Then (gof\(x)= (fe) e(2-1)= \(P -l)+1=x=id,(x) and (fog)(y) = £(g))=S (yl) = ue yn since gof= id, and fog=idy, g=f". « f'lis defind by f# (x)= Jr+1, xeR. y=idy(y)Exercises 1 (b) Let X={x,y} and Y={u,v}. Write down all the functions that can be defined from X to Y. How many of these are (i) one-one (ii) onto and (ii) one-one and onto ? Let X and Y be sets containing m and n elements respectively. (i) What is the total member of functions from X to Y. (ii) How many functions from X to Y are one-one according as mn and m=n ? Examine each of the following functions ifit is (i) injective (ii) surjective, (iii) bijective and (iv) none of the three @) FRR, fe? (b) f:R>[-LI], f@=sin x (0) P:R, OR fered where R, ={xeR:x>0} @) f:RSRS@axrH ©) £CLDRS@)= () f:R->R,f() = [x] = the greatest integer'< x. (@) FRR, S@=(x! (h) RR, f(x) = sgn x (i) f:R >R, f= id, = the identity function on R. Show that the following functions are injective. x (fe) =sin x on [03] (ii) Ax) = cos x [0,n] (iii) x) = log,x on (0,0), (a>Oanda+ 1) (iv) fx) = aton R. (a>Oanda#1) Show that functions fand g defined by f(x)=2 log x and g(x) = log x” are not equal even though log x? = 2 log x.‘Relation and Function 6. il. Give an example ofa function which is (i) Surjective but not injective, (ii) injective but not surjective. (iii) neither injective nor surjective. (iv) bijective Prove that the following sets are equivalent : {1,2,3,4,5,6,.} (2,4,6,8,10,..} (1,7,5,7, 9s} {1,4,9, 16,25,..} Let f= {(1,a), (2,b), Gc), (4,d)} and = (2,2), 0.x), © y), Gx} Determine gof and fog if possible. Test whether fog~gof. Let f= {(1,3), (2,4), G,7)} and g= {(3,2), (4,3), (7,)} Determine gof and fog if possible. Test whether fog = gof Let flx)= x and g(x) = 1x? (i) Find natural domains of fand g. (ii) Compute fog and gof and find their natural domains. (iii) Find natural domain of h(x) = 1-x. (iv) Show that h= gofonly on R,=(xeR : x20} and notonR. Find the composition fog and gof and test whether fog = gof when fand g are functions on given by the following : (Ax) =", ga) = 2-2 (ii) Ax) = sin x, atx) =x° (iii) od = cos x, g(x) = sin 2 (iv) f= at) = (1-¥*)ae laments of Mathemation since IL 12. “13. 16. 17%, “1st, "19", 20*. (a) Letf beareal function, Show that h(x) = f(x) +f(-x) is always an even function and g(x) =f (x) -f(-x) is always an odd function. (b) Express each of the following function as the sum of an even function and an odd function: (i) Lact’, (ii) 2°, (iii) e* (iv) e*+ sin x Let X= {1, 2,3, 4} Determine whether f: X->X defined as given below have inverses. Find /“ ifit exists : @F= (1,4), 2,3), B.2), 4D} (f= (C3), 2.1), B.D, 4,2)} Gi) f= {0.,2), 2,3), B.4), 4,D} (iv) F= {0,1), 2.2), 2,3), (4.4)} (W)S= {(1,2), 2,2), 8.2), (4,2)} Letf XY. If there exists a map g:Y->X such that gof = id, and fog = id,, then show that (i) fis bijective and (ii) g=f*. [Hint- since id, is a bijective function, gof=id, is bijective. By Theorem 2(iv) f is injective. Similarly fog is bijective => fis surjective by Theorem 2(iii)] Construct an example to show that f(A 0B) # f(A)7 f(B) where ANB¥6 Prove that for any f: XY, fo id, =/= id, of. Prove that f: XY is surjective iff for all BSY, f(f'(B))=B. Prove that f: XY is injective iff/"( f(A))= A forall Ac X. Prove that f: XY is injective iff for all subsets A, B of X,f(AOB)=/(A) OB). Prove that f; XY is surjective iff for all ACX, {f(A))'c f(A"), where A’ denotes the complement of A in X.Relation and Function. 18 Binary Operations Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of real members are some of the arithmetic operations with which we are all familiar. A closer look at these operations makes it clear that we take two real numbers and apply these operations to obtain another real number. We can think of this operation as applying a function on RXR to R. Since these operations involve basically 'two' elements, they are called binary operations, we note that the operations of addition and multiplication in R denoted by symbals ‘+’ and ‘x! respectively, satisfy a property given by a+b=b+a and axb=bxa. In the following we discuss about binary operations in general and study some of the properties they satisfy. We begin with Definition. Let A be a nonempty set. A binary operation on A is a function from AXAtoA. Inotherwords, given any ordered pair (a,b) of elements a and of A the binary operation 's! associates to this ordered pair a unique element c of A. We write asb=c instead of writing * ((a,b))= Example 18 Addition, subtration and multiplication are binary operations on R because given ay, two real members a and b, a+b, a-b and axb (or ab) are also real numbers. Subtraction is not a binary operation or N because for a AUB and 2 : PxP-»P be given by (A,B) 2AMB.Because union (intersection) of a pair of sets (A,B) is a unique set denoted by AUB (ANB) inP, Uand Mare binary operations in P. (Note that binary operation’ in P' and ‘on P' shall be used synonimously) Example 20 (x, y) 3 is a binary operation or N because for every pair of positive integers (x,y) there is associated a unique integer x’. But this is not a binary operation on Z or Q orR (We cannot always associate (0,y) to a member). If the order of a set is small we can represent a binary operation on it by a table called composition table/operation table/multiplication table, like the multiplication table which is known to us from our school days. (Note that the coinage ‘multiplication table’ does not necessarily mean that the binary operation involved is our well known multiplication operation. In fact, the symbols used for binary operations have flexible meanings specific to their definitions in the context. Just see the table that follows.) Consider the following example. Let A={a,,B,y}. define '+' on Aas follows. a+a=a, a+P=B, a+y=y, B+a=B, BtP=y, Pty=a, y+a=y_y+B=a and y+y=f. We can write the above binary operation '+" by the following table. We shall now consider some important type of binary operations. Definition A binary operation '*' on a set Ais said to be (i) commutative if@ + b=b + a forall a,b eA. (i) associative if (a+b) +c = a*(bxc) forall a,b,ceA. For example, '+' is commutative but '-' is not commutative in R and in R-{0}. Definition. Let +be a binary operation ona set A. (i) The set Ais said to have an identity element if there exists a unique element eeA such that e#a=axe forall aA. In that case ¢ is Called the identity element w.r.t. «. (ii) Ifthe set has an identity element e w.r.ta binary operation, then an element acA. is said to have an inverse element w.rt.+, denoted by a", if asa'=a'xa=e.Relation and Function In that case a" is called the inverse ofa w.r.t. *. (Also note that the meaning of a’! is specific to the definition given here. It does not necessarily mean the exponential a), Example 21 Y The integer OZ is the identity clement of Z w.ct. '+' since a+0=0+a =a for every aeZ. For any integer neZ, -mis the inverse of m w.r.t'+". The integer 1 €Z is the identity element of Z w.r. since 1xa=ax1=a for all aeéZ. But any integer meZ, m#1 , does not have an inverse w.ct.'*'. Again 1 a=c and b=d. Solution : @ a) + GW) = It) =(%,+%,)y1),) addition on R is commutative) =(x,,y,)+(%,,¥,) (by defination of + on RxR) Hence "is commutative. Since addition of real numbers obey associative property we can similarly show that'+' satisfies this property on RxR. (ii) We only test the commutative property for’. (,9,) * GY.) = @ Xe Ppp Xt XY) (by definition of’) and CY) * Gy Y= Oe Yet YH) since x,x,- y,Y,=*,%,-J,); and x, y,+x, ),=x,y, + ¥, x, (by commutative property of multiplication in R); by defination of equality in RXR, we see that x,,.y,)* (x, Wad = Cy I) * Cyr ¥e > Testing of associativity is left as exercise.[so Elements of Mathematics, Class-X0] Exercises- 1 (c) Show that the operation + given by x+y=x+y-xy is a binary operation on Z, Qand R but not on N. Determine whether the following operations as defined by are binary operations on the sets specified in each case. Give reasons if it is not a binary operation. (i) a+b=2a+3b on Z. ; (ii) a#b=ma-nb on Qt where mandneN. (iii) ab =a+b (mod 7) on {0,1,2,3.4,5,6} (iv) a*b=min {a,b} onN. (v) a*b=GCD {a,b} onN. (vi) a#b=LCM {a,b} on N. (vii) a#b=LCM {a,b} on {0,1,2,3,4....., 10} (viii) axb = Ja? +5? on Q, (ix) a#b = axh (mod 5) on {0,1,2,3,4}. (x) asb= a? +b? onN. (xi) axb =a+b- ab on R-{1}. In case +is a binary operation in Q2 above, test whether it is (i) associative (ii) commutative, Test further if the iedentity element exists and the inverse element for any element of the respective set exists. Constract the composition table /multiplication table for the binary operation *defined on {0,1,2,3,4} by a*b = axb (mod 5). Find the identity element if any. Also find the inverse elements of 2 and 4. [This operation is called multiplication moduls 5 and denoted by *,. In general, on a finite subset of N, x,,denotes the operation of multiplication modulo m where m isa fixed positive integer].Inverse Trigonometric Functions Mathematics possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty, cold and austere, like that of sculpture and capable of stern perfection such as only the greatest art can show. - Bertrand Russell 2.0 Introduction In earlier classes you have studied the concepts of trigonometric inisiGnas such as sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant; their domain, range and some properties. Also J z $ i 1 a you know that trigonometric functions are not one-one and onto e.g. Sin =~ = Sin". Hence in general we cannot define their inverse functions. But by suitable restriction of their domains we can make bijective functions out of them. In this chapter we shall consider the inverse trigonometric functions. These functions have extensive use in mathematics especially in integral calculus and also in engineering and technology. 2.1 Definitions : Let us first consider the function Sin: R>[-1, 1] Let y= Sin x, x € R. Look at the graph of sinx. For ye[-I, 1], there is a unique number x in each of the intervals... such that y =sin x. Hence any one of these intervals can be chosen to make sine function bijective. We usually choose [ ©] asthe domain of sine function. Thus sin : [- ze Fhe 1, 1]is bijective and hence 3] denoted by sin-'or arcsin (see foot note). admits of an inverse function with range [ Each of the above mentioned intervals as range gives rise to different branches of sin! function. The function sin with the range [- is defined below. z is called the principal branch which” Sin: [1,1] 3| oe 4] defined by y=sinx ¢> x= siny The values of y(=sin"'x) in [-s Fi -4| are called principal values of sin". * The prefix ‘arc’ in ‘arcsin x’ stands for ‘the trigonometric argument whose sine is x”. Ina unit circle it is same as an arc of measure of @ radians.