Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University

Stage: First year College of Education for pure science

Assist. Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
WHAT IS EVOLUTION?
Biological evolution consists of change in the hereditary characteristics of
groups of organisms over the course of generations

WHAT IS EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY?

Evolutionary biology is the discipline that describes the history of life and
investigates the processes that account for this history.

Evolutionary biology has two encompassing goals:

1- To discover the history of life on earth: that is,

(1) to determine the ancestor-descendant relationships among all species that
have ever lived—their phylogeny;
(2) to determine the times at which they originated and became extinct
(3) to determine the origin of and the rate and course of change in their
characteristics.

2- To understand the causal processes of evolution: that is, to understand

(1) the origins of hereditary variations;
(2) how various processes act to affect the fate of those variations;
(3) the relative importance of the many co-acting processes of change
(4) how rapidly changes occur;
(5) how processes such as mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift have
given rise
to the diverse molecular, anatomical, behavioral, and other characteristics of
different
organisms
(6) how populations become different species.

Evolution is the process where two or more species can be developed from a
single species. There are mainly four types of Evolution. Among them,
Divergent Evolution is the most important one. Evolution is a slow process.
But it is the main process that develops life on the earth. But behind any
process, there should be some theories. Evolution is not different from that.
Evolution is a process that can’t be reversed. Modern & modern species
developed due to evolutionary changes. These changes are stimulated by
environmental factors, predators, etc. once these changes are acquired by any
generation, they will inherit the changes to the next generation. Evolution is
an unstoppable process. Nobody has the power to stop evolution. By
evolution, every modern form of animal exists in nature.

1
Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University Stage: First year College of
Education for pure science Assist.
.‫ السنة األولى كلية التربية للعلوم الصرفة مساعدة‬:‫ األحياء العامة جامعة المثنى المرحلة‬:‫الموضوع‬

Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology

‫األستاذ الدكتور ياسر االسدي قسم األحياء‬

WHAT IS EVOLUTION?
‫ما هو التطور؟‬

Biological evolution consists of change in the hereditary characteristics of

groups of organisms over the course of generations WHAT IS
EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY?
‫يتكون التطور البيولوجي من تغير في الخصائص الوراثية لمجموعات الكائنات الحية على مدار‬
‫ ما هي البيولوجيا التطورية؟‬.‫األجيال‬

Evolutionary biology is the discipline that describes the history of life and
investigates the processes that account for this history.
‫علم األحياء التطوري هو التخصص الذي يصف تاريخ الحياة ويبحث في العمليات التي تفسر هذا‬
.‫التاريخ‬

Evolutionary biology has two encompassing goals: 1- To discover the history

of life on earth: that is, (1) to determine the ancestor-descendant relationships
among all species that have ever lived—their phylogeny; (2) to determine the
times at which they originated and became extinct (3) to determine the origin
of and the rate and course of change in their characteristics.
‫) تحديد العالقات‬1( ‫ أي‬:‫ اكتشاف تاريخ الحياة على األرض‬-1 :‫لعلم األحياء التطوري هدفان شامالن‬
)2( ‫ أي السالالت الخاصة بها؛‬- ‫بين األسالف واألحفاد بين جميع األنواع التي عاشت على اإلطالق‬
.‫) لتحديد أصل ومعدل ومسار التغيير في خصائصها‬3( ‫لتحديد األوقات التي نشأت فيها وانقرضت‬

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2- To understand the causal processes of evolution: that is, to understand (1)
the origins of hereditary variations; (2) how various processes act to affect the
fate of those variations; (3) the relative importance of the many co-acting
processes of change (4) how rapidly changes occur; (5) how processes such as
mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift have given rise to the diverse
molecular, anatomical, behavioral, and other characteristics of different
organisms (6) how populations become different species.
‫) كيف تعمل العمليات‬2( ‫) أصول االختالفات الوراثية؛‬1( ‫ أي فهم‬:‫ فهم العمليات السببية للتطور‬-2
‫) األهمية النسبية للعديد من عمليات التغيير المتفاعلة‬3( ‫المختلفة للتأثير على مصير تلك االختالفات؛‬
،‫ واالنتقاء الطبيعي‬،‫) كيف أدت عمليات مثل الطفرة‬5( ‫) مدى سرعة حدوث التغييرات؛‬4(
‫واالنحراف الجيني إلى ظهور الخصائص الجزيئية والتشريحية والسلوكية وغيرها من الخصائص‬
.‫) كيف تصبح المجموعات السكانية أنواًع ا مختلفة‬6( ‫المتنوعة للكائنات الحية المختلفة‬

Evolution is the process where two or more species can be developed from a
single species.
.‫التطور هو العملية التي يمكن من خاللها تطوير نوعين أو أكثر من نوع واحد‬

There are mainly four types of Evolution.

.‫هناك أساسا أربعة أنواع من التطور‬

Among them, Divergent Evolution is the most important one.

.‫ التطور المتباين هو األكثر أهمية‬،‫من بينها‬

Evolution is a slow process.

.‫التطور عملية بطيئة‬

But it is the main process that develops life on the earth.

.‫ولكنها العملية الرئيسية التي تطور الحياة على األرض‬

But behind any process, there should be some theories.

.‫لكن وراء أي عملية يجب أن تكون هناك بعض النظريات‬

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Evolution is not different from that.
.‫التطور ال يختلف عن ذلك‬

Evolution is a process that can’t be reversed.

.‫التطور هو عملية ال يمكن عكسها‬

Modern & modern species developed due to evolutionary changes.

.‫تطورت األنواع الحديثة والحديثة بسبب التغيرات التطورية‬

These changes are stimulated by environmental factors, predators, etc.

.‫يتم تحفيز هذه التغييرات عن طريق العوامل البيئية والحيوانات المفترسة وما إلى ذلك‬

once these changes are acquired by any generation, they will inherit the
changes to the next generation.
.‫ فإنه سيرث التغييرات إلى الجيل التالي‬،‫بمجرد أن يكتسب أي جيل هذه التغييرات‬

Evolution is an unstoppable process.

.‫التطور هو عملية ال يمكن وقفها‬

Nobody has the power to stop evolution.

.‫ال أحد لديه القدرة على وقف التطور‬

By evolution, every modern form of animal exists in nature.

.‫ كل شكل حديث من أشكال الحيوانات موجود في الطبيعة‬،‫بالتطور‬

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Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University
Stage: First year College of Education for pure science
Assist. Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Types of Evolutionary Theories

There are many evolutionary theories are present. Among them, four are very
much important. Scientists follow those four theories to solve evolutionary
problems. Those theories are:

1- Theory of Lamarck or Lamarckism: This theory defines that the traits

acquired by any generation will be inherited by the next generation of
the same species. Acquiring new traits completely depends upon the
species.
2- Theory of Darwin or Darwinism: This theory defines that in nature
those species which are capable to live with the changes in nature will
survive on the earth. Those who will not be able to survive in nature
will disappear from the earth.
3- Theory of Mutation: This theory is developed by the scientists Hugo de
Vries. This theory says that a sudden change in the mutation, in the
DNA will create a new species in the world.
4- Synthesis Theory or Neo Darwinism or Modern Theory: This theory is
mostly accepted by scientists. This theory is a combination of all the
other three theories. A group of scientists developed this evolutionary
theory.

The theory evolution is one of the most important scientific theories that has
formed the basis for the study of biology, anatomy, physiology, and many
other branches. According to the main concept of the theory of evolution, the
species of beings tend to change with the passing of time. There could be
many different ways in which a species can change. However, most of them
have been described in the best way with the help of natural selection theory.

What is Darwin Theory of Evolution?

The Darwin theory of evolution or more commonly known as the theory of
natural selection was the theory proposed by Charles Darwin in the book he
wrote called “ On the Origin of Species”. Sometimes, the theory of natural
selection is also known as the survival of the fittest. According to the theory,
some organisms contain traits and characteristics that are more suitable to the
surrounding environment. Charles Darwin stated that these organisms were

2
Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University Stage: First year College of
Education for pure science Assist.
.‫ السنة األولى كلية التربية للعلوم الصرفة مساعدة‬:‫ األحياء العامة جامعة المثنى المرحلة‬:‫الموضوع‬

Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology

‫األستاذ الدكتور ياسر االسدي قسم األحياء‬

Types of Evolutionary Theories

‫أنواع النظريات التطورية‬

There are many evolutionary theories are present.

.‫هناك العديد من النظريات التطورية موجودة‬

Among them, four are very much important.

.‫ومن بينها أربعة مهمة للغاية‬

Scientists follow those four theories to solve evolutionary problems.

.‫يتبع العلماء تلك النظريات األربع لحل المشاكل التطورية‬

Those theories are: 1-Theory of Lamarck or Lamarckism: This theory defines

that the traits acquired by any generation will be inherited by the next
generation of the same species.
‫ وتحدد هذه النظرية أن السمات التي يكتسبها أي‬:‫ نظرية المارك أو الماركية‬-1 :‫وتلك النظريات هي‬
.‫جيل سوف يرثها الجيل التالي من نفس النوع‬

Acquiring new traits completely depends upon the species.

.‫اكتساب سمات جديدة يعتمد كليا على األنواع‬

2-Theory of Darwin or Darwinism: This theory defines that in nature those

species which are capable to live with the changes in nature will survive on the
earth.
‫ تحدد هذه النظرية أنه في الطبيعة تلك األنواع القادرة على التعايش‬:‫ نظرية داروين أو الداروينية‬-2
.‫مع التغيرات في الطبيعة سوف تبقى على األرض‬

@xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬2( ‫صفحة‬

Those who will not be able to survive in nature will disappear from the earth.
.‫أولئك الذين لن يتمكنوا من البقاء في الطبيعة سوف يختفون من األرض‬

3-Theory of Mutation: This theory is developed by the scientists Hugo de

Vries.
.‫ هذه النظرية وضعها العالم هوغو دي فريس‬:‫نظرية الطفرة‬-3

This theory says that a sudden change in the mutation, in the DNA will create
a new species in the world.
‫تقول هذه النظرية أن التغيير المفاجئ في الطفرة في الحمض النووي سيؤدي إلى ظهور نوع جديد في‬
.‫العالم‬

4-Synthesis Theory or Neo Darwinism or Modern Theory: This theory is

mostly accepted by scientists.
‫ هذه النظرية مقبولة في الغالب من قبل‬:‫ نظرية التركيب أو الداروينية الجديدة أو النظرية الحديثة‬-4
.‫العلماء‬

This theory is a combination of all the other three theories.

.‫هذه النظرية هي مزيج من النظريات الثالث األخرى‬

A group of scientists developed this evolutionary theory.

.‫طور مجموعة من العلماء هذه النظرية التطورية‬

The theory evolution is one of the most important scientific theories that has
formed the basis for the study of biology, anatomy, physiology, and many
other branches.
‫تعتبر نظرية التطور من أهم النظريات العلمية التي شكلت األساس لدراسة علم األحياء والتشريح‬
.‫وعلم وظائف األعضاء والعديد من الفروع األخرى‬

According to the main concept of the theory of evolution, the species of beings
tend to change with the passing of time.
.‫ فإن أنواع الكائنات تميل إلى التغير مع مرور الوقت‬،‫وفقا للمفهوم الرئيسي لنظرية التطور‬

@xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬2( ‫صفحة‬

There could be many different ways in which a species can change.
.‫يمكن أن يكون هناك العديد من الطرق المختلفة التي يمكن أن يتغير بها النوع‬

However, most of them have been described in the best way with the help of
natural selection theory.
.‫ فقد تم وصف معظمها بأفضل طريقة بمساعدة نظرية االنتقاء الطبيعي‬،‫ومع ذلك‬

What is Darwin Theory of Evolution?

‫ما هي نظرية داروين للتطور؟‬

The Darwin theory of evolution or more commonly known as the theory of

natural selection was the theory proposed by Charles Darwin in the book he
wrote called “ On the Origin of Species”.
‫نظرية داروين للتطور أو المعروفة أكثر بنظرية االنتقاء الطبيعي هي النظرية التي اقترحها تشارلز‬
."‫داروين في كتابه الذي كتبه بعنوان "أصل األنواع‬

Sometimes, the theory of natural selection is also known as the survival of the
fittest.
.‫ ُتعرف نظرية االنتقاء الطبيعي أيًض ا باسم البقاء لألصلح‬،‫في بعض األحيان‬

According to the theory, some organisms contain traits and characteristics that
are more suitable to the surrounding environment.
‫ فإن بعض الكائنات الحية تحتوي على سمات وخصائص أكثر مالءمة للبيئة‬،‫ووفقا لهذه النظرية‬
.‫المحيطة بها‬

Charles Darwin stated that these organisms were 2

2 ‫وذكر تشارلز داروين أن هذه الكائنات كانت‬

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Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University
Stage: First year College of Education for pure science
Assist. Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
the ones to live longer and hence were able to reproduce to pass these
desirable traits to their offspring.
The organisms who didn’t possess these favorable traits would perish in the
environment and hence their traits will not be passed down to the generation
after the organism. With the passing of time, the traits which were the “fittest”
were the ones passed down as the organisms with those traits survived.
Eventually, after some time had passed, the smaller adaptations would lead to
the formation of newer species. These are the changes that made human
beings.
However, Darwin wasn’t the only one who had these ideas. Alfred Russel
Wallace also had some evidence of theory of evolution. The conclusions of his
theory matched with the conclusions made by Darwin. They even had a
collaboration and presented the findings that they had. Since they had the
evidence to support their theories, they received a lot of favourable responses
as well.
One of the most important points to keep in mind about the theory of
evolution by natural selection is that individuals don’t necessarily evolve, they
just adapt to the surrounding environments that they have. These adaptations
then combine to form a whole new species that has evolved from the one that
pre-existed.

Theory of Lamarck

According to Lamarck, organisms altered their behavior in response to

environmental change. Their changed behavior, in turn, modified their organs,
and their offspring inherited those "improved" structures.

More Use & Disuse of the Organ

Importance of Lamarckism

Scientists believe that Lamarckism is the very first evolutionary theory.

Lamarck studied the fossils of a certain animal & the living one. Studying
both of them he made those four postulates. Basically, Darwinism is based
upon Lamarckism. There are some changes. But the presence of nature is
highly important in both of these theories. Also, upon researching this theory
Synthesis Theory is being developed. And also, it is proof that there are many
supportive examples against Lamarckism. But there are very few criticisms
present which disagree with this theory. This theory helps to solve maximum

3
Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University Stage: First year College of
Education for pure science Assist.
.‫ السنة األولى كلية التربية للعلوم الصرفة مساعدة‬:‫ األحياء العامة جامعة المثنى المرحلة‬:‫الموضوع‬

Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology

‫األستاذ الدكتور ياسر االسدي قسم األحياء‬

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------the ones to live longer and hence were able to reproduce to pass
these desirable traits to their offspring.
------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------
‫ وبالتالي كانت قادرة على التكاثر لتمرير هذه‬،‫ تلك التي عاشت لفترة أطول‬---------- --------
.‫الصفات المرغوبة إلى ذريتها‬

The organisms who didn’t possess these favorable traits would perish in the
environment and hence their traits will not be passed down to the generation
after the organism.
‫والكائنات الحية التي ال تمتلك هذه الصفات المفضلة سوف تهلك في البيئة وبالتالي لن تنتقل سماتها‬
.‫إلى الجيل الذي يلي الكائن الحي‬

With the passing of time, the traits which were the “fittest” were the ones
passed down as the organisms with those traits survived.
‫ فإن السمات التي كانت "األصلح" هي التي انتقلت مع بقاء الكائنات الحية التي‬،‫ومع مرور الوقت‬
.‫تتمتع بهذه السمات‬

Eventually, after some time had passed, the smaller adaptations would lead to
the formation of newer species.
.‫ تؤدي التعديالت األصغر إلى تكوين أنواع أحدث‬،‫ بعد مرور بعض الوقت‬،‫في النهاية‬

These are the changes that made human beings.

.‫هذه هي التغييرات التي صنعت البشر‬

@xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬3( ‫صفحة‬

However, Darwin wasn’t the only one who had these ideas.
.‫ لم يكن داروين الوحيد الذي لديه هذه األفكار‬،‫ومع ذلك‬

Alfred Russel Wallace also had some evidence of theory of evolution.

.‫كان لدى ألفريد راسل واالس أيًض ا بعض األدلة على نظرية التطور‬

The conclusions of his theory matched with the conclusions made by Darwin.
.‫وتطابقت استنتاجات نظريته مع االستنتاجات التي توصل إليها داروين‬

They even had a collaboration and presented the findings that they had.
.‫حتى أنهم تعاونوا وقدموا النتائج التي توصلوا إليها‬

Since they had the evidence to support their theories, they received a lot of
favourable responses as well.
.‫ فقد تلقوا الكثير من الردود اإليجابية أيًض ا‬،‫وبما أن لديهم األدلة التي تدعم نظرياتهم‬

One of the most important points to keep in mind about the theory of evolution
by natural selection is that individuals don’t necessarily evolve, they just adapt
to the surrounding environments that they have.
‫إحدى أهم النقاط التي يجب وضعها في االعتبار حول نظرية التطور عن طريق االنتقاء الطبيعي هي‬
.‫ بل يتكيفون فقط مع البيئات المحيطة بهم‬،‫أن األفراد ال يتطورون بالضرورة‬

These adaptations then combine to form a whole new species that has evolved
from the one that pre-existed.
.‫ثم تتحد هذه التعديالت لتشكل نوًع ا جديًد ا تماًم ا تطور من النوع الذي كان موجوًد ا مسبًقا‬

Theory of Lamarck According to Lamarck, organisms altered their behavior in

response to environmental change.
.‫ غيرت الكائنات سلوكها استجابة للتغير البيئي‬،‫نظرية المارك وفقا المارك‬

Their changed behavior, in turn, modified their organs, and their offspring
inherited those "improved" structures.
."‫ ورثت ذريتهم تلك الهياكل "المحسنة‬،‫سلوكهم المتغير بدوره أدى إلى تعديل أعضائهم‬

@xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬3( ‫صفحة‬

More Use & Disuse of the Organ Importance of Lamarckism
‫المزيد من استخدام وإهمال الجهاز أهمية الالماركية‬

Scientists believe that Lamarckism is the very first evolutionary theory.

.‫يعتقد العلماء أن الالماركية هي أول نظرية تطورية‬

Lamarck studied the fossils of a certain animal & the living one.
.‫درس المارك حفريات حيوان معين والحيوان الحي‬

Studying both of them he made those four postulates.

.‫وبدراسة كل منهما قام بوضع تلك المسلمات األربع‬

Basically, Darwinism is based upon Lamarckism.

.‫ الداروينية مبنية على الالماركية‬،‫في األساس‬

There are some changes.

.‫هناك بعض التغييرات‬

But the presence of nature is highly important in both of these theories.

.‫لكن وجود الطبيعة مهم للغاية في كلتا النظريتين‬

Also, upon researching this theory Synthesis Theory is being developed.

.‫ يتم تطوير نظرية التوليف‬،‫ عند البحث في هذه النظرية‬،‫أيًض ا‬

And also, it is proof that there are many supportive examples against
Lamarckism.
.‫وهذا أيًض ا دليل على أن هناك العديد من األمثلة الداعمة ضد الالماركية‬

But there are very few criticisms present which disagree with this theory.
.‫ولكن هناك عدد قليل جًد ا من االنتقادات التي ال تتفق مع هذه النظرية‬

This theory helps to solve maximum 3

3 ‫تساعد هذه النظرية على حل الحد األقصى‬

@xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬3( ‫صفحة‬

Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University
Stage: First year College of Education for pure science
Assist. Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
problems which are related to evolutionary changes. As this theory is simpler
than Darwinism, this theory is also accepted by many scientists.

Examples of Lamarckism

Evolution of Giraffe

Lamarck state that the evolution of the giraffe is an example of his four
postulates. According to Lamarck, the ancestors of giraffes were similar to the
horse. This means they are relatively small from their current figure.
According to Lamarck, due to some natural disaster, small trees may get
disappear from nature at any point in time. At that time, only big trees are
present as the food source. For the creatures who are relatively small like
horses, they are not able to get food sources from the top of any tree. This
need triggers to get a stretched neck along with a bigger forelimb. This need
once gets fulfilled in any generation of the ancestor giraffe. And as they use
this feature more, this trait gets stronger over time. At last, this trait is
inherited by the next generations. And from this current giraffe species comes
nature.

Evolution of Ducks
4
Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University Stage: First year College of
Education for pure science Assist.
.‫ السنة األولى كلية التربية للعلوم الصرفة مساعدة‬:‫ األحياء العامة جامعة المثنى المرحلة‬:‫الموضوع‬

Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology

‫األستاذ الدكتور ياسر االسدي قسم األحياء‬

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------problems which are related to evolutionary changes.
------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------
.‫ المشاكل المتعلقة بالتغيرات التطورية‬---------- --------

As this theory is simpler than Darwinism, this theory is also accepted by many
scientists.
.‫ فإن هذه النظرية مقبولة أيًض ا من قبل العديد من العلماء‬،‫وبما أن هذه النظرية أبسط من الداروينية‬

Examples of Lamarckism
‫أمثلة على الالماركية‬

Evolution of Giraffe
‫تطور الزرافة‬

Lamarck state that the evolution of the giraffe is an example of his four
postulates.
.‫يذكر المارك أن تطور الزرافة هو مثال على مسلماته األربع‬

According to Lamarck, the ancestors of giraffes were similar to the horse.

.‫ كان أسالف الزرافات يشبهون الحصان‬،‫ووفقا المارك‬

This means they are relatively small from their current figure.
.‫وهذا يعني أنها صغيرة نسبًيا عن أرقامها الحالية‬

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According to Lamarck, due to some natural disaster, small trees may get
disappear from nature at any point in time.
.‫ قد تختفي األشجار الصغيرة من الطبيعة في أي وقت‬،‫ بسبب بعض الكوارث الطبيعية‬،‫وفقا المارك‬

At that time, only big trees are present as the food source.
.‫ كانت األشجار الكبيرة فقط موجودة كمصدر للغذاء‬،‫في ذلك الوقت‬

For the creatures who are relatively small like horses, they are not able to get
food sources from the top of any tree.
‫ فهي غير قادرة على الحصول على مصادر الغذاء‬،‫أما بالنسبة للمخلوقات الصغيرة نسبيًا مثل الخيول‬
.‫من أعلى أي شجرة‬

This need triggers to get a stretched neck along with a bigger forelimb.
.‫هذه الحاجة تؤدي إلى الحصول على رقبة ممتدة مع طرف أمامي أكبر‬

This need once gets fulfilled in any generation of the ancestor giraffe.
.‫يتم تلبية هذه الحاجة مرة واحدة في أي جيل من أسالف الزرافة‬

And as they use this feature more, this trait gets stronger over time.
.‫ أصبحت هذه السمة أقوى بمرور الوقت‬،‫وكلما زاد استخدامهم لهذه الميزة‬

At last, this trait is inherited by the next generations.

.‫ تورث هذه السمة لألجيال القادمة‬،‫وأخيرًا‬

And from this current giraffe species comes nature.

.‫ومن هذا النوع الحالي من الزرافات تأتي الطبيعة‬

Evolution of Ducks
‫تطور البط‬

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Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University
Stage: First year College of Education for pure science
Assist. Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lamarck state that the evolution of the giraffe is an example of his four
postulates. According to Lamarck, the ancestors of giraffes were similar to the
horse. This means they are relatively small from their current figure.
According to Lamarck, due to some natural disaster, small trees may get
disappear from nature at any point in time. At that time, only big trees are
present as the food source. For the creatures who are relatively small like
horses, they are not able to get food sources from the top of any tree. This
need triggers to get a stretched neck along with a bigger forelimb. This need
once gets fulfilled in any generation of the ancestor giraffe. And as they use
this feature more, this trait gets stronger over time. At last, this trait is
inherited by the next generations. And from this current giraffe species comes
nature.

The evolution of Ducks is another example of Lamarckism. According to

Lamarck, the ancestors of ducks lived inland. They were not aquatic in nature
at some point in time. But due to some reason, when they move to the water,
they need to develop a special feature that helps them to swim. In this way,
once in a generation, a skin-like structure developed in between their toes.
This structure is known as the web. And as they started using it frequently,
this feature get developed. Then this feature is inherited by the next
generations. In this way, a completely new species of duck evolved.

Evolution of Snakes

According to Lamarck, Snacks once resided on the land & they have limbs.
Like other animals, they had four limbs. But due to some reason, they feel to
reduce the use of their limbs. As a result, their limbs became weaker &
weaker. And at some point, any generation might not have any legs. This
feature is being inherited by generations. In this way, a new species is being
developed. In the presence also, pelvic girdle, a hind limb structure can find in
Python, Boa, etc.

Evolution of Humans

According to Lamarck, the human evolution of the appendix is another

example. In ancestor human, the appendix was more developed & usable. As

5
Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University Stage: First year College of
Education for pure science Assist.
.‫ السنة األولى كلية التربية للعلوم الصرفة مساعدة‬:‫ األحياء العامة جامعة المثنى المرحلة‬:‫الموضوع‬

Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology

‫األستاذ الدكتور ياسر االسدي قسم األحياء‬

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------Lamarck state that the evolution of the giraffe is an example of his
four postulates.
------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------
.‫ ذكر المارك أن تطور الزرافة هو مثال على مسلماته األربع‬---------- --------

According to Lamarck, the ancestors of giraffes were similar to the horse.

.‫ كان أسالف الزرافات يشبهون الحصان‬،‫ووفقا المارك‬

This means they are relatively small from their current figure.
.‫وهذا يعني أنها صغيرة نسبًيا عن أرقامها الحالية‬

According to Lamarck, due to some natural disaster, small trees may get
disappear from nature at any point in time.
.‫ قد تختفي األشجار الصغيرة من الطبيعة في أي وقت‬،‫ بسبب بعض الكوارث الطبيعية‬،‫وفقا المارك‬

At that time, only big trees are present as the food source.
.‫ كانت األشجار الكبيرة فقط موجودة كمصدر للغذاء‬،‫في ذلك الوقت‬

For the creatures who are relatively small like horses, they are not able to get
food sources from the top of any tree.
‫ فهي غير قادرة على الحصول على مصادر الغذاء‬،‫أما بالنسبة للمخلوقات الصغيرة نسبيًا مثل الخيول‬
.‫من أعلى أي شجرة‬

This need triggers to get a stretched neck along with a bigger forelimb.
.‫هذه الحاجة تؤدي إلى الحصول على رقبة ممتدة مع طرف أمامي أكبر‬

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This need once gets fulfilled in any generation of the ancestor giraffe.
.‫يتم تلبية هذه الحاجة مرة واحدة في أي جيل من أسالف الزرافة‬

And as they use this feature more, this trait gets stronger over time.
.‫ أصبحت هذه السمة أقوى بمرور الوقت‬،‫وكلما زاد استخدامهم لهذه الميزة‬

At last, this trait is inherited by the next generations.

.‫ تورث هذه السمة لألجيال القادمة‬،‫وأخيرًا‬

And from this current giraffe species comes nature.

.‫ومن هذا النوع الحالي من الزرافات تأتي الطبيعة‬

The evolution of Ducks is another example of Lamarckism.

.‫تطور البط هو مثال آخر على الالماركية‬

According to Lamarck, the ancestors of ducks lived inland.

.‫ عاش أسالف البط في الداخل‬،‫وفقا المارك‬

They were not aquatic in nature at some point in time.

.‫لم تكن مائية بطبيعتها في وقت ما‬

But due to some reason, when they move to the water, they need to develop a
special feature that helps them to swim.
.‫ يحتاجون إلى تطوير ميزة خاصة تساعدهم على السباحة‬،‫ عندما ينتقلون إلى الماء‬،‫ولكن لسبب ما‬

In this way, once in a generation, a skin-like structure developed in between

their toes.
.‫ يتطور هيكل يشبه الجلد بين أصابع قدميه‬،‫ مرة واحدة في الجيل‬،‫وبهذه الطريقة‬

This structure is known as the web.

.‫ُيعرف هذا الهيكل باسم الويب‬

And as they started using it frequently, this feature get developed.

.‫ تم تطوير هذه الميزة‬،‫وعندما بدأوا في استخدامها بشكل متكرر‬

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Then this feature is inherited by the next generations.
.‫ثم يتم توريث هذه الميزة لألجيال القادمة‬

In this way, a completely new species of duck evolved.

.‫ تطورت أنواع جديدة تماًم ا من البط‬،‫وبهذه الطريقة‬

Evolution of Snakes According to Lamarck, Snacks once resided on the land

& they have limbs.
.‫ كانت الثعابين تسكن ذات يوم على األرض ولها أطراف‬،‫تطور الثعابين وفًقا المارك‬

Like other animals, they had four limbs.

.‫ كان لديهم أربعة أطراف‬،‫مثل الحيوانات األخرى‬

But due to some reason, they feel to reduce the use of their limbs.
.‫ يشعرون بتقليل استخدام أطرافهم‬،‫ولكن لسبب ما‬

As a result, their limbs became weaker & weaker.

.‫ أصبحت أطرافهم أضعف وأضعف‬،‫ونتيجة لذلك‬

And at some point, any generation might not have any legs.
.‫ قد ال يكون ألي جيل أي أرجل‬،‫وفي مرحلة ما‬

This feature is being inherited by generations.

.‫هذه الميزة موروثة عبر األجيال‬

In this way, a new species is being developed.

.‫ يتم تطوير أنواع جديدة‬،‫وبهذه الطريقة‬

In the presence also, pelvic girdle, a hind limb structure can find in Python,
Boa, etc.
‫ وما‬،‫ وبوا‬،‫ وهو هيكل الطرف الخلفي في بايثون‬،‫ يمكن العثور على حزام الحوض‬،‫في وجود أيًض ا‬
.‫إلى ذلك‬

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Evolution of Humans According to Lamarck, the human evolution of the
appendix is another example.
.‫ فإن التطور البشري للزائدة الدودية هو مثال آخر‬،‫تطور البشر وفًقا المارك‬

In ancestor human, the appendix was more developed & usable.

.‫ كانت الزائدة الدودية أكثر تطوًر ا وقابلة لالستخدام‬،‫في سلف اإلنسان‬

As 5
5 ‫كما‬

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Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University
Stage: First year College of Education for pure science
Assist. Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
humans that time ate green leaves. So the appendix helps to digest those
leaves. But by the time, when humans get the knowledge of fire, they started
cooking their food. So, at that time they reduce the use of the appendix. In this
way, the current human appendix is an extinct structure present in the human
body

What is the Mutation Theory of Evolution?

The mutation theory of evolution is basically a contradiction to the theory
made by Darwin. According to this theory, organisms tend to evolve due to
the presence of unexpected occurrences in their traits. The mutation theory
began its advancement at the start of the 20th century due to the efforts of
Hugo de Vries who was a Dutch Geneticist and Botanist. The theory of
mutation joined two traditions of evolutionary studies. The first tradition
included the Saltationist theory which made an argument that new species can
be formed constantly through discontinuous transformations. This was a
contradiction to the Darwin theory of evolution, which stated that organisms
are produced when their defining traits are accumulated gradually.

Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution

The theory of modern synthesis or the Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution
merges the different concepts of Mendelian genetics with Darwinian
principles of evolution. Thus, it creates a more comprehensive and unified
evolution theory. The modern synthetic evolution theory has also been termed
the Neo-Darwinian theory. There are numerous evolutionary biologists who
are responsible for the introduction of the modern theory of evolution. Some
of the important names include Ernst Mayr, T. Dobzhansky, R.A. Fisher, G.L.
Stebbins, Sewall Wright, etc.
The theory provides an explanation for the theory of evolution that happens in
the terms of several genetic changes that occur in a population which further
leads to the creation of a new and evolved species. There are also some
concepts taken from the explanation of the Mendelian population or genetic
population, gene frequency, and the gene pool. Some of the major concepts
that are included in the theory are genetic variations, natural selection,
geographical isolation, and reproductive changes. There are a number of
changes signified in the Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution that show
different changes as to the process of evolution.

6
Subject: General Biology Al-muthanna University Stage: First year College of
Education for pure science Assist.
.‫ السنة األولى كلية التربية للعلوم الصرفة مساعدة‬:‫ األحياء العامة جامعة المثنى المرحلة‬:‫الموضوع‬

Pro.Dr.yassir alasadiy Department of Biology

‫األستاذ الدكتور ياسر االسدي قسم األحياء‬

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------humans that time ate green leaves.
------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------
.‫البشر في ذلك الوقت أكلوا األوراق الخضراء‬---------- --------

So the appendix helps to digest those leaves.

.‫لذا فإن الزائدة الدودية تساعد على هضم تلك األوراق‬

But by the time, when humans get the knowledge of fire, they started cooking
their food.
.‫ بدأوا في طهي طعامهم‬،‫ عندما عرف البشر النار‬،‫ولكن بحلول الوقت‬

So, at that time they reduce the use of the appendix.

.‫ في ذلك الوقت يقللون من استخدام الزائدة الدودية‬،‫لذلك‬

In this way, the current human appendix is an extinct structure present in the
human body What is the Mutation Theory of Evolution?
‫وبهذا تكون الزائدة الدودية لإلنسان الحالي عبارة عن بنية منقرضة موجودة في جسم اإلنسان ما هي‬
‫نظرية الطفرة في التطور؟‬

The mutation theory of evolution is basically a contradiction to the theory

made by Darwin.
.‫إن نظرية الطفرة في التطور هي في األساس تناقض مع النظرية التي وضعها داروين‬

According to this theory, organisms tend to evolve due to the presence of

unexpected occurrences in their traits.
.‫ووفقًا لهذه النظرية فإن الكائنات الحية تميل إلى التطور بسبب وجود أحداث غير متوقعة في سماتها‬

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The mutation theory began its advancement at the start of the 20th century due
to the efforts of Hugo de Vries who was a Dutch Geneticist and Botanist.
‫ عالم الوراثة‬،‫بدأت نظرية الطفرة تقدمها في بداية القرن العشرين بفضل جهود هوغو دي فريس‬
.‫والنبات الهولندي‬

The theory of mutation joined two traditions of evolutionary studies.

.‫انضمت نظرية الطفرة إلى تقليدين من الدراسات التطورية‬

The first tradition included the Saltationist theory which made an argument
that new species can be formed constantly through discontinuous
transformations.
‫شمل التقليد األول نظرية الملح التي قدمت حجة مفادها أن األنواع الجديدة يمكن أن تتشكل باستمرار‬
.‫من خالل التحوالت المتقطعة‬

This was a contradiction to the Darwin theory of evolution, which stated that
organisms are produced when their defining traits are accumulated gradually.
‫ التي تنص على أن الكائنات الحية تنتج عندما تتراكم‬،‫كان هذا تناقًض ا مع نظرية داروين للتطور‬
.‫سماتها المميزة تدريجًيا‬

Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution The theory of modern synthesis or the

Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution merges the different concepts of
Mendelian genetics with Darwinian principles of evolution.
‫النظرية التركيبية الحديثة للتطور تدمج نظرية التركيبة الحديثة أو النظرية التركيبية الحديثة للتطور‬
.‫المفاهيم المختلفة لعلم الوراثة المندلية مع مبادئ التطور الداروينية‬

Thus, it creates a more comprehensive and unified evolution theory.

.‫ فإنه يخلق نظرية تطور أكثر شموال وتوحيدا‬،‫وبالتالي‬

The modern synthetic evolution theory has also been termed the Neo-
Darwinian theory.
.‫وقد ُأطلق على نظرية التطور االصطناعية الحديثة أيًض ا اسم النظرية الداروينية الجديدة‬

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There are numerous evolutionary biologists who are responsible for the
introduction of the modern theory of evolution.
.‫هناك العديد من علماء األحياء التطوريين المسؤولين عن تقديم نظرية التطور الحديثة‬

Some of the important names include Ernst Mayr, T. Dobzhansky, R.A. Fisher,
G.L.
.‫ل‬.‫ ج‬،‫ فيشر‬.‫أ‬.‫ ر‬،‫ دوبجانسكي‬.‫ تي‬،‫بعض األسماء المهمة تشمل إرنست ماير‬

Stebbins, Sewall Wright, etc.

.‫ الخ‬،‫ سيوال رايت‬،‫ستيبينز‬

The theory provides an explanation for the theory of evolution that happens in
the terms of several genetic changes that occur in a population which further
leads to the creation of a new and evolved species.
‫تقدم النظرية تفسيًر ا لنظرية التطور التي تحدث من حيث العديد من التغيرات الجينية التي تحدث في‬
.‫مجتمع ما والتي تؤدي أيًض ا إلى خلق أنواع جديدة ومتطورة‬

There are also some concepts taken from the explanation of the Mendelian
population or genetic population, gene frequency, and the gene pool.
‫ وتكرار‬،‫هناك أيًض ا بعض المفاهيم المأخوذة من تفسير السكان المندليين أو السكان الوراثيين‬
.‫ وتجمع الجينات‬،‫الجينات‬

Some of the major concepts that are included in the theory are genetic
variations, natural selection, geographical isolation, and reproductive changes.
،‫ واالنتقاء الطبيعي‬،‫بعض المفاهيم الرئيسية التي تم تضمينها في النظرية هي االختالفات الجينية‬
.‫ والتغيرات اإلنجابية‬،‫والعزلة الجغرافية‬

There are a number of changes signified in the Modern Synthetic Theory of

Evolution that show different changes as to the process of evolution.
‫هناك عدد من التغييرات المشار إليها في النظرية االصطناعية الحديثة للتطور والتي تظهر تغييرات‬
.‫مختلفة فيما يتعلق بعملية التطور‬

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