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The Evolving Psychology of Online Use: From Computerphobia to Internet Addiction

Brian A. Quinn
Texas Tech University, brian.quinn@ttu.edu

This paper is posted at eScholarship Repository. http://esr.lib.ttu.edu/lib fac research/11

THE EVOLVING PSYCHOLOGY OF ONLINE USE: FROM COMPUTERPHOBIA TO INTERNET ADDICTION Brian Quinn Texas Tech University Keywords: Technophobia, Internet, Addiction, Evolution, Psychology, Virtual Reality Abstract: In the brief space of thirty years, information technology has undergone a remarkable transformation in the minds of end users. This study traces the evolution of end user attitudes toward online use, from the time when computers were first introduced and the subsequent rise of technophobia and technostress, to the emergence of the Web and more recent psychological adaptationsincluding obsessive compulsive disorders, addiction, and surrogate companionship. The reasons for this transformationboth technological and humanare investigated. A detailed analysis of what makes online use so psychologically engaging is provided. The psychological potential of information technology, it will be shown, has been largely ignored by the media and is still largely untapped. The paper concludes with an in-depth look at some of the practical ways professionals are combining this changing end user psychology with emerging technology to bring about positive psychological adaptations and outcomes in the health care field. 1. EARLY INTERNET PSYCHOLOGY User psychology with regard to information technology is undergoing a dramatic shift. It is a transformation that will make early feelings and attitudes toward computers seem strangely anachronistic. In a period of roughly thirty years, information technology has evoked an extremely diverse and wide-ranging array of cognitive and emotional reactions in users that few other modern technical innovations can rival. Perhaps it might help to briefly resurrect what are rapidly becoming emotional dinosaurs in order to get a sense of how far user psychology has strayed from its beginnings. Looking back, the nineteen seventies through the early nineties now seem, in a psychological sense, like the Dark Ages of computer use. Try to recall your initial experiences with PCs, word processing programs, spreadsheets, and OPACs. Were they positive ones? Looking back over some of the literature of that time, writers used words like complex, counterintuitive, frustrating, unstable, and unreliable to describe this new technology. In the early nineteen eighties, Craig Brod epitomized the feelings and experiences of many users when he coined the term technostress, and subsequently wrote a book about it (Ref.1).

Soon after, new studies began to crop up in the professional literature of psychology designed to measure what psychologists termed computer alienation, computer anxiety, computer phobia, and computer stress. One study by Rosen, Sears and Weil found that older users and women, as well as those with an aversion to math were more prone to computer phobia (Ref.2). Another study by Igbaria and Chakrabarti found a relationship between the quality of the computer system and how much computer anxiety it generated in users (Ref.3). Other studies, such as the one by Dyck and Smither, contradicted some of these findings (Ref.4). One frustrated psychologist was compelled to finally admit that the literature on computer anxiety yielded few clear relationships (Ref.5). Perhaps the clearest theme that did emerge was that there was a negative relationship between computer anxiety and experience with computers (Ref.6). This experience factor has played a critical role in how the psychology of computer use has evolved, and will be discussed again later in more detail. For now though, it is important to point out that these studies place such an emphasis on the psyche of users that they tend to obscure just how poor information technology was throughout the seventies, eighties and beyond. Even in the early nineties, many of you may recall how difficult it was to navigate the early Internet. Remember how difficult it was to navigate the text-only version of the Internet, when there was nothing intuitive about Telnet, Gopher, Usenets, or File Transfer Protocol, and many UNIX commands were not hidden behind a sophisticated front end? Even something as basic as telling a text file from a compressed graphic image file was not always easy. The psychological stress of using the early Internet was compounded by connectivity problems. Connections were unstable and fleeting and screens tended to freeze unexpectedly and often. Connect time was often painfully slow. Reflecting back on all the technical difficulties, user reactions such as computer anxiety and computer phobia seem completely understandable and justifiable in light of all the problems users had to endure. The technical obstacles influencing the early psychology of computer use were compounded by human ones. As mentioned earlier, many computer users in the nineteen eighties and early nineties were first-generation users. They had little or no experience or exposure to computers. Many had no formal training and no particular interest in information technology. Users who had long been accustomed to doing their work without the help of a computer suddenly found themselves forced to learn how to use computers, and initially saw the computer as creating more work instead of being the labor-saving device it was supposed to be. So there were really two factors contributing in varying degrees to the early psychology of computer use. One was the difficulty of the technology and the other, the ignorance of users. Together, they created a vicious spiral that initially made computer use a stressful, aversive experience psychologically. 2. A PSYCHOLOGICAL TURNING POINT In 1993, this dark psychological cloud began to lift somewhat with the introduction of Mosaic, a Web browser developed at NCSA, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois. It was the first browser to provide a colorful,

user-friendly graphical interface that forever altered the appearance of the Internet. Mosaic made Web documents appear remarkably similar to the pages in a book, or Web pages as they later came to be called. The ability to provide a common user interface to all the most important Internet resources, including Gopher, Usenet and FTP archives, made the Internet much easier to use (Ref.7). In a psychological sense, Mosaic represented a great advance in removing much of the psychological discomfort of computing by making Internet resources easily accessible. Yet although Mosaic went a long way toward making the Internet psychologically comfortable to use, it was not without technical shortcomings. It had a tendency to crash frequently and its stop button was often ineffective (Ref.8). Mosaic also suffered from slow retrieval time. A year after Mosaic was introduced, one of its developers came out with Netscape, a faster, more sophisticated browser that probably did more to change user psychology with regard to computers than any other single innovation. By loading textual information before graphics, Netscape allowed users much faster access than Mosaic. It also managed bookmarks, FTP transactions, and Usenet news reading better (Ref.9). With the advent of Netscape, much of the psychological stress of using the Internet was alleviated. Computers were no longer exclusively for the technically savvy. Users now began to realize that no understanding of math or programming was required to use computers. They now had access to a rapidly expanding world of resources in a variety of media, including images, film, and sound. The graphic, colorful, user-friendly interface that Netscape offered users was not unlike television. Yet psychologically, there is a crucial difference. TV is basically a passive experience for users, while Netscape is interactive. Beyond the sheer millions of Web pages available to users, the interactive quality of the Internet makes it a different psychological experience for users. It contributed to users psychological experience of the Internet as being involving, absorbing, and hypnotic in a different way than television. Technology alone could not account for this critical turning point in the evolution of user psychology. Demographics also played an important role. Just at the time Netscape was introduced, the first generation of users who had grown up with computers was reaching adolescence. Many had been exposed to computers as early as kindergarten and therefore could approach computers without the ignorance and anxiety that their parents did. To this generation, computers were not alien or strange or aversive, but something familiar and friendly, or at least ordinary. Many had used computers in school, and had spent much time playing computer games after school. In the minds of these users, computers were not only an educational tool, but also a source of entertainment. 3. THE RISE OF INTERNET ADDICTION It does not seem coincidental that this change in user psychology is also reflected in the psychological literature. Studies of computer anxiety peaked in the early nineties and dropped off after that. At the same time, after 1995, when Netscape and similar userfriendly graphics browsers really established themselves on a widespread basis, the

psychological literature shows a dramatic growth in studies of psychological adaptations to information technology that suggest that it has taken on different meanings in the minds of users. No longer is the computer an object of fear or anxiety. It has now become a phenomenon seemingly quite opposite. Psychologically, users have gone from a state of aversion to one of involvement and absorption, and beyond that to psychological states that can be characterized as compulsion or addiction. From aversive to addictivethis is a remarkable transformation in the short span of twenty years. Prior to the mid-nineties the few studies of compulsions or addictions were largely limited to techies and hackers, usually adolescent males with backgrounds in computer science or engineering. Since the mid-nineties, studies of psychological dysfunctions with regard to information technology have involved a much more diverse group of users. It appears that many more users find the Internet an engaging, colorful way of accessing a vast universe of information, entertainment, and socialization, with a few easy clicks. A recent survey of almost 18,000 Internet users suggests that approximately 6% have serious compulsive addictive problems, and one psychologist estimates that there may be 2 million Internet users worldwide with some form of addiction disorder (Ref.10). 4. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF INTERNET ADDICTION What is it that has suddenly made the Internet psychologically so engaging to so many users? Although the previous discussion attributed it mainly to two factorsease of use and changing demographics of users, there are other important factors. The Internet offers users a vast world of content, it offers both privacy and community, it gives users freedom to explore and express themselves without inhibitions, and it offers users a sense of mysterythe lure of the uncharted new cyberfrontier that is constantly growing and changing, and a sense of mastery, that one can access and navigate this new frontier with a few clicks of a mouse (Ref.11). The interactivity factor, especially the ability to engage in Internet relay chat and role playing games, undoubtedly contributes to the allure (Ref.12). In addition, the Web is now capable of displaying video clips and live images that can be accompanied by sound, making it at least as engrossing as anything Hollywood is capable of. Additionally, these images and sounds are retrievable, which may make them even more enticing to users (Ref. 13). The communal aspect of the Internet cannot be overlooked either. Even those users with the most esoteric and unusual proclivities will find a ready network of like-minded supporters that will provide them with advice, encouragement, and validation. The sense that one is not alone in ones pursuit of unusual interests and that there are many others like oneself can be a powerful reinforcer, particularly for those users who may have previously thought of themselves as alone, isolated, odd, or for some, even deviant (Ref. 14). Psychologists have identified other, more subtle psychological processes that are activated by Internet use. One of these is dissociation, a psychological mechanism that causes one to lose sense of time when engaged in highly interesting activity. Users in this state lose all sense of themselves and their surroundings and become transfixed by what they see on the glowing screen in front of them. Hours may go by without the user

being aware of how late it is. Another psychological process that comes into play is the principle of incomplete gestalts. The hypertext medium that is the Internet creates a perceived sense of incomplete, unfinished activity in the user. No matter how much the person searches, the individual has a continuing feeling that there is always one more link to click, one more page to view. For information professionals, there is the frustration of never feeling like a search has been exhaustive, of how a search engine operates, or of how the content of a site was created. Psychologically, it is as if the search process never has a real sense of closure or ending. This boundarylessness makes the Internet nearly an ideal environment for creating or intensifying any compulsive tendencies a user may have (Ref.15). To summarize, the psychological factors contributing to Internet addiction are: 1) ease of use, 2) content, 3) privacy, 4) community, 5) freedom to explore, 6) disinhibition, 7) sense of mastery, 8) interactivity, 9) retrievability, 10) validation, 11) dissociation, and 12) boundarylessness. At this point, it may be useful to ask, does it matter whether the Internet and information technology has gone from being aversive to addictive in a psychological sense? If the social consequences of Internet addiction are any measure, the answer is yes. Compulsive use of the Internet has been associated with withdrawal from spouses, family, and friends (Ref.16). Using the Internet excessively for sexual purposes has been associated with infidelity and divorce (Ref.17) Internet addiction has also been associated with reduced productivity at work as a result of employees who choose to play computer games or surf the Web instead of working (Ref.18). 5. TAPPING THE PSYCHOLOGICAL POTENTIAL OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY What can be done to minimize these maladaptive responses to emerging information technology? Fortunately, many of the same psychological effects that the Internet seems to have on users can be used to promote cognitive and emotional well-being. Many psychologists and information professionals have already taken the lead in this endeavor and are actively working toward making information technology an indispensable tool in the service of psychological growth and development. Much of this work has gone largely unnoticed by the media, which has chosen to focus on the more negative and sensational aspects of information technology. For example, the press has devoted much attention to the creation of various software filtering devices that have been designed so that parents may prevent children from accessing objectionable material on the Internet. The media have also written extensively about the growing use of cybercops by companies, whose role it is to monitor employee access to non-work related content on the Internet and investigate those employees who may be using the Internet for recreational purposes. While both of these trends may help to reduce maladaptive responses to the Internet, they are largely negative in nature. As such, they ignore the inherent psychological potential of the technology itself to co-evolve the human psyche to higher levels of self-understanding and insight. This co-evolution is the outcome of the dialectical process between information

technology and the human mind, in which mind and machine interact to enhance the natural development of both. 6. VIRTUAL REALITY AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOL

If information technology in general and the Internet in particular have the capability of inducing hypnotic, mesmerizing, trance-like states of mind in users, is there a way to harness that power to improve the human mind? Perhaps no better possibility currently exists than the example offered by virtual reality. Virtual reality uses a headset that places miniature TV screens in front of each eye which, with the addition of stereo headphones, creates a sensory world capable of mimicking the real world (Ref.19). As the user turns his head, the computer uses a body tracking device to change the image to produce a view appropriate to the direction the person is looking in. No aspect of information technology is more absorbing psychologically. Psychologists have already realized this and have begun to use virtual reality technology in a variety of ways that illustrate the transformative therapeutic potential of information technology. Foremost among these is the use of virtual reality in the treatment of phobias, irrational fears that people have of spiders, flying, heights, and other phenomena. One of the most common psychological treatments for phobias is exposure therapy, which involves exposing the patient to progressively higher anxiety-producing stimuli until they are able to relax in their presence. Ordinarily, a person would have to imagine the anxious situation. Virtual reality technology allows a patient to experience these anxiety provoking situations more vividly then would be possible trying to imagine them. Yet the patient knows it is not real and does not actually experience being bitten by the spider, taking off in an airplane, or riding up in a glass elevator. Although virtual reality is primarily visual, researchers are beginning to add realistic audio to accompany the visualization process. For example, in treating those with a fear of flying, researchers add sounds of a plane starting up and taking off as well as landing. The combination of audio and video together creates a more realistic feeling of immersion in the subject. To make the therapy even more realistic, some researchers incorporate tactile augmentation into the process. In the treatment of subjects fearful of spiders, for example, the therapist introduces a large, hairy, plastic spider that is synchronized spatially with a matching virtual spider, and placed within the subjects reach. Adding this tactile dimension serves to enhance the psychological sense of presence that the subject experiences in the treatments. To treat fear of heights, researchers have added a hand bar similar to that found in an elevator that the subject can grasp to heighten the sense of reality (Ref.20). In some settings, subjects may manipulate a special glove that allows them to interact with their virtual environment. 7. OTHER APPLICATIONS OF VIRTUAL REALITY

Virtual reality technology has been criticized as being limited to physical situations and addressing only basic emotions (Ref.21) Yet one creative psychiatrist is using MUDD (Multi-User Dialogue Domain) technology to facilitate a virtual reality therapy group for

men suffering from erectile dysfunction. Each participant in the group dons a set of virtual reality goggles and gloves to create the illusion that they are in the same room together. Instead of chatting via voice, participants type their comments on a virtual blackboard that everyone can see. Psychologists are also working on developing a virtual world that will project pictures of faces belonging to people from the patients life that the patient can interact with and engage in role-playing exercises (Ref.22) The mesmerizing, immersive quality of virtual reality is also being harnessed to treat drug addiction. Psychologists theorize that one reason drug addiction is so difficult to treat is that the addict is surrounded by salient environmental cues such as sights, smells, and sounds that can trigger the persons craving. Psychologists are using virtual reality to stimulate provocative scenes while the subjects perspiration, respiration, and pulse rates are monitored. In this way, the environmental triggers are identified and the subject is then repeatedly exposed to them until desensitization occurs. This approach is still too new to be evaluated for its overall effectiveness (Ref.23). In a manner somewhat reminiscent of A Clockwork Orange, virtual reality is being employed to treat teenage sex offenders. Arousal is stimulated via a recorded description of the teenagers sex crime, and this is immediately followed by a virtual reality dramatization of some of the possible consequences of the crime. These include the teenager being caught in the act by his mother, his arrest being broadcast on TV news, his mother being upset about having to move, being beaten up by schoolmates, and having his car vandalized (Ref.24). Virtual reality has also had promising outcomes in the treatment of smoking (Ref. 25). In addition to sex and drug abuse, virtual reality has also been shown to be highly effective in treating eating disorders. Researchers have created a virtual environment designed to modify body image. Disturbances in body image have been linked to eating disorders like anorexia nervosa and bulimia as well as obesity problems. Typically, users who are dissatisfied with various parts of their figure are prone to these disorders. Treatment consists of having users enter the zone, which consists of virtual rooms that the subjects can enter and interact with objects that are present there. Some of the objects consist of food that the subject can take and eat. In order to enter the next room, the subjects must first weight themselves. Their weight is adjusted based on how much food they have consumed. The results of the treatment indicate that even after only one session, subjects increase their body satisfaction by decreasing their ideal body scores. This kind of improvement in a subjects condition normally requires many sessions of more traditional non-virtual therapy, which suggests that virtual reality may be a very effective technology in the treatment of eating disorders (Ref.26) 8. CONCLUSION

Virtual reality therapy has many more useful applications, and it is beyond the scope of this investigation to discuss them all. Suffice it to say that VR is being used to treat painrelated stress in cancer patients and in burn victims, and to treat autism, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinsons disease as well (Ref.27). What makes it so promising in the

treatment of so many psychological problems is its extraordinary ability to create a virtual world that is psychologically entrancing, absorbing, and immersive. Twenty years ago this would have been hard to imagine, since the psychological literature at that time spoke largely of aversion and computer phobia. It is no exaggeration to say that information technology has evolved from being a source of phobia to being a treatment for phobia. One psychologist has even suggested that information technology and the human psyche are evolving to a point where the overwhelming telepresence of virtual reality has become psychologically more real than the reality it set out to imitate (Ref.28). Fortunately, it appears that along with the many maladaptive human responses this has led to, there is also an enormous as yet unrealized potential for harnessing the power of information technology to serve as a catalyst in the evolution of the psyche. The clinical applications of virtual reality only hint at some of the possibilities. Virtual reality technology also has interesting implications for information management and retrieval. The most obvious example is the ability of desktop virtual reality systems to simulate the physical appearance of the library in three dimensions, such as rooms, floors, and shelves. Psychologically, this offers significant advantages for users because it affords ready visual comprehension of the structure and organization of information, much more so than a typical query-based OPAC search might. The capability to add virtual information managers in the form of three-dimensional avatars would represent another advance in ease of retrieval. However, desktop virtual reality systems are still in a relatively primitive stage of development and cannot yet approach the level of psychological absorption available from elaborate immersive VR systems that utilize headsets and gloves (Ref.29) More intriguing, perhaps, are the possibilities that virtual reality offers for visual data mining. Extracting information from large multivariate data sets will be greatly enhanced by using VR to comprehend and manipulate relationships between types of information. Using three-dimensional shapes, textures, and colors to represent complex relationships between data that users can interact with offers users a degree of concreteness that twodimensional graphics with scroll bars and pull-down menus cannot match (Ref.30). The creation of three-dimensional information maps that allow users to navigate through data as if it were a landscape is an exciting example of how virtual reality can enhance information retrieval. In this simulated information landscape, hills and peaks represent information density, and search hits are illuminated on the map so that users can zoom in on them and explore them further. (Ref.31) Although these initial efforts at simulation are admittedly primitive, they hint at some of the possibilities that will come later with more imaginative design and the incorporation of increasingly sophisticated iconographic and metaphorical representations.

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