Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106850

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Review article

A systematic overview of power electronics interfaced electrochemical

impedance spectroscopy for energy storage systems
Erfan Sadeghi a , Mohammad Mahdi Gholami b , Mohsen Hamzeh c ,
Seyed Mohammad Mahdi Alavi d , Mehrdad Saif a ,∗
a
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
b Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
c School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Iran
d School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: With automotive industry’s move towards vehicle electrification; hence, a dependence on energy storage
Impedance measurement systems, interest in Power Electronics Interfaced Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (PEI-EIS) has been
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) growing steadily and rapidly. As much of the work on impedance spectroscopy is carried out by electrochemists
Power electronics interfaces
or physicists, this paper is an attempt to systematically and through an engineering perspective, walk the
Energy storage systems
engineering researchers interested in this field through the main phases of the PEI-EIS process, provide a
review of some recent work, and highlight the challenging and important issues that are encountered in each
phase along the way. In particular, the paper elaborates on the role of often overlooked/unaddressed controller,
how the required excitation signals for EIS are generated by power electronics devices, what type of excitations
are needed, how the generated data-set is measured, and finally, how the results are presented. Additionally,
with an engineering perspective, the pros and cons of the recent past contributions reported in the literature
for PEI-EIS are discussed.

1. Introduction
Impedance spectroscopy is a commonly employed technique for the
characterization of most of the electrical properties of materials. The
application areas where impedance spectroscopy can be applied are
wide and varied, some of which are in monitoring of civil engineering
structures, in metallurgical systems, in biological cells and tissues, in
solid-state devices, and in electrochemical power sources [1]. Elec-
trochemical impedance spectroscopy mainly refers to applications in
electrochemical power sources or energy storage systems (ESSs) such
as batteries, super-capacitors, or fuel cells. As ESSs are intrinsically
non-linear systems, their impedance can only be determined in pseudo-
linear mode by injecting a small current or voltage as the excitation
signal and observing the response.
The low impedance of ESSs require a higher current amplitude
for a perturbation with a fixed voltage amplitude. This in turn may
affect the linearity of EIS. To eliminate any nonlinearity and take into
account the fact that a small signal can be measured much more simply
than it can be created, the galvanostatic mode of EIS is preferred,
in which case an electric current acts as the stimulus signal and the
small voltage response is measured. Once obtained, EIS data can either
be represented in a Nyquist diagram as a spectrum or fitted to the
frequently used equivalent circuit models (ECMs) of ESSs. Nevertheless,
the main advantage of EIS lies in its ability to effectively decompose
complicated electrochemical processes into a number of basic pro-
cesses based on the different relaxation times. Idealized, the impedance
spectrum would include distinct features for each elementary process
comprising the electrochemical mechanism [2]. Fig. 1 shows a sample
Nyquist diagram and its fitting on a frequently used ECM for Li-
ion Batteries (LIBs). Three parts can be distinguished in the Nyquist
plot: the high-frequency region, the mid-frequency region, and the
low-frequency region. Conduction through the electrolyte, separator,
and wires causes the high-frequency region, or inductance region, to
occur. It is critical to calibrate the spectra carefully and exclude the
wiring inductance from them which is dominant in the majority of
cases. Charge transfer and electrochemical double layers explain the
mid-frequency semi-circle. Additional semi-circles may be observed in
ESS spectrums depending on the cell’s usage history. Solid electrolyte
interface (SEI) and electronic properties of the materials are responsible

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: sadeghie@uwindsor.ca (E. Sadeghi), moha_gholami@sbu.ac.ir (M.M. Gholami), mohsenhamzeh@ut.ac.ir (M. Hamzeh),
malavi@cardiffmet.ac.uk (S.M.M. Alavi), msaif@uwindsor.ca (M. Saif).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.106850
Received 11 August 2022; Received in revised form 14 January 2023; Accepted 6 February 2023
Available online 13 February 2023
2352-152X/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
E. Sadeghi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106850

respectively. While 𝑍𝐹 𝐿𝑊 shows a behavior like a parallel RC circuit

Abbreviation at lower frequencies and tends towards a pure ohmic value, 𝑍0 , 𝑍𝐹 𝑆𝑊
behaves like a capacitor at lower frequencies.
1 1
𝐴𝐷𝐶 Analog-to-Digital Converters 𝑍𝐹 𝑆𝑊 = 𝑍0 (𝑗𝜔𝜏)− 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ(𝑗𝜔𝜏) 2 (3)
𝐶𝐹 Crest Factor
𝐶𝐼𝐶 Cascaded Integrator-Comb 1 1
𝑍𝐹 𝐿𝑊 = 𝑍0 (𝑗𝜔𝜏)− 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑗𝜔𝜏) 2 (4)
𝐶𝑁𝐿𝑆 Complex Nonlinear Least-Squares
𝐶𝑃 𝐸 Constant Phase Element In recent years, EIS has taken on an even wider scope. Table 1
𝐸𝐶𝑀 Equivalent Circuit Models lists representative works in applications of EIS in modeling, state
𝐸𝐼𝑆 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy estimation, and diagnostics of ESSs. Fitting the ESS impedance to an
𝐸𝑆𝑆 Energy Storage Systems ECM yields a grey-box model that may be used to interpret internal
states or in design or analysis techniques for various applications [7–
𝐹𝐶 Fuel Cell
14]. The attempt in model-based techniques for ESS state estimations,
𝐹𝑂 Fractional Order
such as SoC, SoH, and temperature, is to identify a link between the
𝐹 𝑂𝑆 Fractional Order System parameter(s) of an ECM derived by EIS and the estimated state of the
𝐻𝐼𝑇 Hilbert Transform ESS [15,16]. In data-driven methods, on the other hand, EIS data is
𝐼𝑂 Integer Order immediately fed into a machine learning (ML) algorithm to predict ESS
𝐿𝐶𝑂 Lithium Cobalt Oxide charge and health status [17]. A combination of EIS data with a Li-ion
𝐿𝐹 𝑃 Lithium Ferro-Phosphate cell’s surface temperature resulted in the calculation of its non-uniform
𝐿𝐼𝐵 Lithium-ion Battery interior temperature distribution [18].
𝑙𝑖𝑛 − 𝐾𝐾 Linear Kramers–KronigTransform EIS approaches can be broadly divided into two main groups, online
𝑀𝐿 Machine Learning and offline. As long as the ESS is connected to the operating system
𝑀𝑃 𝐶 Model Predictive Control and operating normally, an online EIS circuit is required to perform
the task. The EIS is conducted offline when the ESS is disconnected
𝑁𝐶𝐴 Nickel Cobalt Aluminum
from the operating system [34]. Each method of conducting the EIS
𝑁𝑀𝐶 Nickel Manganese Cobalt
has its own advantages and disadvantages. An offline EIS commonly
𝑃 𝐸𝐼 Power Electronics Interfaced requires that the ESS under test be rested and allowed to reach a certain
𝑃 𝐸𝑀 Proton Exchange Membrane level of stability in which the impedance variation is minimum. For
𝑃 𝑅𝐵𝑆 Pseudo-Random Binary sequences example, when a Li-ion battery is disconnected from the system, the
𝑆𝐸𝐼 Solid Electrolyte Interface electrodes are no longer polarized, and the adsorbed ions desorb from
𝑆𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑦 Sparse Identification of Nonlinear Dynamical the electrode surface. It results in a change in the battery impedance,
Systems and this change becomes smaller as time passes until it reaches its
𝑆𝑂𝐶 State of Charge minimum variation [3]. Hence, the EIS test can be run on it, and this
𝑆𝑂𝐻 State of Health results in a more accurate and reliable EIS. Alternatively, to obtain valid
𝑆𝑅𝐶 Sinusoidal Ripple Charging EIS data in the online mode, specific considerations will have to be
𝑉 𝑅𝐹 𝐵 Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries made that will be discussed in this paper.
Typically, commercial EIS devices are intended for laboratory exper-
𝑉 𝑅𝐿𝐴 Valve Regulated Lead-Acid
iments, hence, are intended for offline applications. In the low-power
ESS sector, electrochemical workstations are most commonly used.
Most accurate, precise, and reliable EIS data can be obtained from
commercial workstations. Unfortunately, the main disadvantages of
for the formation of these semi-circles [3]. To represent different elec-
these commercial products are that as mentioned, they usually work
trochemical processes, the Randles ECM employs resistors, inductors,
offline, and also have a limited power output. Even though they can
and capacitors [1]. This Randles ECM has been further generalized
be cascaded with a power booster to compensate for the limited out-
using an electrochemistry-based element called constant phase element
(CPE), which is defined as a generalization of a linear capacitor by: put power, overall, their effectiveness and functionality for practical
applications is limited [35].
1
𝑍𝐶𝑃 𝐸 = (1) Several cost-effective solutions are reported in the literature for low
𝑄(𝑗𝜔)𝜑
power applications of EIS, such as a single battery cell. A microcon-
Q being the so-called pseudo-capacitance. The CPE originates from troller and an embedded digital-to-analog converter are used in [36]
the non-uniform distribution of the current density along the electrode to generate an excitation signal. [37] discusses the implementation of
surface, as a result of surface inhomogeneity. This element represents a low power vector impedance analyzer which utilizes an analog to
a capacitor for 𝜑 = 1, an inductor for 𝜑 = −1, but typical values for 𝜑 digital converter to generate narrow-band AC excitation signals to con-
range from 0.5 and 1 to let the CPE replace the Randles ECM capacitors. duct online EIS, and state identification of Li-ion batteries. However,
For low frequency region of the impedance spectra representing the these solutions fail to adequately address problems of generating high
diffusion process (or more generally, mass transport in the electrodes), power and accurate excitation signals and measuring them with high
the Randles ECM is further improved by adding a kind of frequency de- precision.
pendent capacitor, 𝑍𝑊 , representing the semi-infinite linear diffusion In [35], a 600 A asymmetric bidirectional EIS tester was developed
which is somehow a CPE by the phase angle of 45◦ , or 𝜑 = 0.5. for the aging analysis of batteries used in high power applications of
1 1
𝑍𝑊 = 𝜎𝜔− 2 − 𝑗𝜎𝜔− 2 (2) EIS. The bidirectional source of current used for the excitation of the
cells is composed of two independent unidirectional sources. One is a
− 21
Where 𝜎 is the Warburg coefficient with the unit of Ω𝑠 [4]. Due programmable low bandwidth power supply that can deliver a maxi-
to the fact that diffusion process is finite in most of the real systems, mum current of 200 A to each cell, and the other is a relatively high
modified versions of Warburg element is required to fit the process. bandwidth programmable load that provides a maximum discharge
For this purpose, finite-space Warburg element (𝑍𝐹 𝑆𝑊 ), [5], and finite- current of 600 A. It is the latter current source that is responsible
length Warburg element (𝑍𝐹 𝐿𝑊 ), [6], are developed for LIBs and FCs, for producing the AC fluctuations needed for the EIS. Nonetheless, the

2
E. Sadeghi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106850

Fig. 1. Typical impedance spectrum of a LIB, along with its internal characteristics and equivalent circuit model.

Table 1
Applications of EIS in energy storage systems.
Application Battery Super cap Fuel cell
Circuit modeling [7–10] [7,11,12] [13,14]
SoC estimation [8,9,15,17,19] [20–22] N/A
SoH estimation [16,23] [24–28] [29]
Thermal management [18,30–32] [33] N/A

proposed tester was too bulky and unsuitable for use in practical appli-
cations. Trov et al. [38] established a multichannel online EIS setup for
kW/kWh class industrial-scale Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries (VRFB),
an emerging battery technology suitable for stationary applications, by
means of a variable load bank and a 20 channel commercial EIS device.
The variable load was used to adjust the discharge current of VRFBs
operating point allowing a dc current up to 600 A. The effects of stray
parameters such as wiring inductances at high currents on VRFB EIS
was also highlighted in their work.
In recent years, power electronics interfaces that intrinsically deal
with ESSs have enabled researchers to bypass the requirement for
dedicated commercial workstations or bulky programmable loads and
power supplies to perform EIS. The remainder of this article will
address in some detail the necessity, approaches, and methodologies for
power electronics interfaced electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
(PEI-EIS). The overall schematic of a PEI-EIS is presented in Fig. 2. The
different parts of Fig. 2 will be discussed in detail.
The contributions of this article are listed as follows:
- Excitation signals used in PEI-EIS have been reviewed and the
conditions for validly and optimally exciting the ESSs have been
discussed.
- Challenges and limitations of PEI-EIS for circuits and control
systems have been observed and discussed.
- Customized PEI-EIS data acquisition systems have been surveyed
and analyzed and their pros and cons have been elaborated.
- Either ways of EIS data presentation, point-by-point spectrum
presentation and ECM representation, have been explained.

3
E. Sadeghi et al.
Fig. 2. Overall schematic of power-electronics-interfaced electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.
In the remainder of this article, a systematic and engineering ap-
proach to obtaining the EIS for ESSs is adopted. Types of required
excitation signals for EIS, different circuit topologies and control sys-
tems for generating the required EIS excitation, ways to measure the
excitation signal accurately, and how to present the acquired data to
obtain high-quality EIS are discussed. Section 2 investigates the types
of required excitation signals which is a common issue that needs to
be addressed in all kind of EIS. The integration of EIS with power
electronics interfaces is elaborated in Section 3, and different structures
for undertaking EIS are briefly discussed. Then the control system de-
signed specifically for power electronics interfaced EIS is addressed in
Section 4. Section 5 addresses the importance of on-board DAQ systems
and reviews some implemented methods in the literature. Section 6
presents the various ways in which the EIS data can be presented.
Finally, conclusions are drawn in Section 7.
2. Excitation for EIS
2.1. Validity of EIS
EIS validity is evaluated based on three main factors: linearity,
stability, and causality [39].
Previously, we noted that since electrochemical systems are nonlin-
ear in nature, the excitation signal amplitude must be sufficiently small
to guarantee the linearity of measured data. For practical testing of ESS,
approximately 10 mV of potential amplitude is considered for a range
of guaranteed linearity. Thus, if PEI-EIS is operating in galvanostatic
mode, the current amplitude should be such that the output voltage
does not exceed the linearity limit [1]. In practice, however, a trade-off
is established between linearity and accuracy. Additionally, the signal
must be large enough to have a sufficient SNR to be accurately and
precisely measured. The use of large-amplitude perturbation signals in
the context of so-called non-linear EIS ensures that the system does not
lose key kinetic information during the EIS test [4].
The ESS under test must also remain stable during the test to obtain
a valid EIS result. Any sudden change in the state of ESS can invalidate
the EIS results. The extended measurement time caused by narrowband
excitation signals, especially for low-frequency regions, increases the
4
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106850
risk of an unreliable impedance measurement for online applications.
Ref. [3] demonstrates the impact of battery resting on EIS results.
Causality is another critical factor in ensuring the validity of EIS
data. There must be a response perturbation caused by the excitation
signal, not by noise, disturbances, or any other oscillations between
the EIS device and the ESS being tested. There exists a dependency
between the amplitude and phase of the impedance in linear systems,
referred to as Kramers–Kronigrelations, which can be used to verify
EIS results [40]. The Kramers–Kronig relation, also known as the
Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem or Hilbert transform (HIT), allows the real
component of impedance to be derived from the imaginary component
when applied to analytic complex functions. The equations can be
found at (5) and (6).
2
∞
𝜔′ Im[𝑋(𝜔′ )] ′
Re[𝑋(𝜔)] = 𝑑𝜔 (5)
𝜋 ∫0 (𝜔2 − 𝜔′2 )
∞
2 𝜔Re[𝑋(𝜔′ )] ′
Im[𝑋(𝜔)] = − 𝑑𝜔 (6)
𝜋 ∫0 (𝜔2 − 𝜔′2 )
It should be noted, however, that the main issue with applying
the K-K relation is that it requires integration over a frequency range
from zero to infinity, which is physically impossible to measure. Ehm
et al. [41] solved this integration problem by developing a two-pole
logarithmic HIT, or so-called Z-HIT, benefiting from the properties of
two-pole transfer functions. Relying on the local interrelation between
the logarithm of impedance modulus and phase angle, which is more
recognizable in Bode representation than Nyquist, Z-HIT works with
finite frequency range integration. Another alternative to overcome the
limited bandwidth problem is using a linear Kramers–Kronig transform
(lin-KK) and applying it to a representative ECM of the impedance
data. Since the circuit passed the Kramers–Kronig test, it can be as-
sumed that accurately fitted data is a valid EIS measurement [42]. The
circuit consists of an indeterminate number of parallel RC elements.
In order to validate EIS data with the Lin-KK model, an optimal
number of RC-elements must be fitted and residual errors must be
analysed. In practice, lin-KK is developed in software such as PyEIS
and Impedance.py [43,44]. In lin-KK, R is fitted to experimental data
with log spaced time constants using weighed complex nonlinear least-
squares (CNLS) fitting. Then, a plot of the relative residuals is shown
E. Sadeghi et al.
as a function of the frequency measured. By evaluating the sum of
resistances greater or smaller than zero, the procedure ensures an
optimal fit through an ideal number of RC-elements. The 𝜇-value should
lie within 0.75–0.85 for an optimal fit [45].
2.2. Excitation types
This section will briefly describe some of the properties of the most
common excitation signals. The section begins with single frequency
signals such as sinusoidal or triangular waves, and their sweeps, and
continues with broadband excitation signals, which are best suited
for PEI-EIS. The type of excitation is often selected based on certain
criteria, e.g., the PEI-EIS application, structure, the method of the
presentation of the EIS data, the desired measurement time, accu-
racy, power consumption, and overall, complexity of implementing the
excitation signal that is related as well to the total costs [46].
Clearly, the type of excitation signal utilized has a direct impact on
the results of EIS. It has been mentioned that in some circumstances,
the excitation signal is accompanied by a DC value. The magnitude and
direction of the DC value can also affect the measured impedance of the
ESS [47].
2.2.1. Single frequency and sweeps
Excitation signals of this type are commonly found on laboratory
devices such as Frequency Response Analyzers and commercial EIS.
The full impedance spectrum is obtained by repeating the excitation
process at different frequencies [48]. Periodic chirp signals, which
sweep the frequency of a sine wave, are also commonly used in papers
and patents [49,50]. Low power consumption, high SNR, and a simple
implementation are the advantages gained; however, the measurement
time is long especially for low frequencies [47]. For this reason, it is
not recommended for online applications because the stability of the
ESS is compromised.
2.2.2. Broadband signals
In order to overcome the long measurement time of single or sweep
sine signals, broadband signals are used. Multisine signals consisting
of summed-up sine (or cosine) waves are presented in the literature
to speed up EIS [48,51]. Its advantages include a shorter measurement
time, a relatively high SNR, and greater applicability. In order to reduce
power consumption, avoiding the injection of high peaks to the ESS,
and enhance SNR for multisine signals, a lower Crest Factor (CF) is
suggested for multisines in [52]. CF is defined as the ratio of the peak
value of a signal to its RMS value. To minimize the CF, there are several
optimization methods available, such as Newman phase choice [53]
and Schroeder phase choice [54]. The logarithmic spread of frequency
is proposed in [55] to optimize frequency distributions in multi-sines.
The same information is obtained from the logarithmic spread as from
an equally spaced frequency spread but with fewer sinusoids.
Pseudo-random binary sequences (PRBS) are another broadband
signal alternative to multisine with different signal processing ap-
proaches. PRBS signals are simpler to implement in PEI-EIS than multi-
sines since no filters or well-designed controllers are required, and the
sole restriction is the switching frequency [56]. Locorotondo et al. [56]
presented guidelines for producing band-limited, almost flat power
spectrum PRBS signals for LIB SoH estimation. PRBS signals are used
in [57] to identify a battery’s parameters for estimation of the SoC and
state of power using a second-order Randles ECM.
The concept of using a broadband excitation signal is to measure
the system response at multiple frequencies simultaneously to reduce
the necessary computation time. The measurement time required to
obtain a specific accuracy depends on the measured SNR, so choosing
excitations with a high SNR across a wide frequency range is extremely
important. In addition, the excitation signals should provide a nearly
flat power spectrum in the desired frequency range in order to estimate
the entire electrical impedance at once [58]. Al Nazer et al. [58]
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Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106850
analyzed the power spectra of five commonly used broadband exci-
tation signals (white noise, sine sweep, square, square sweep, and
PRBS) and concluded and square-based signals such as PRBS, square-
wave, and square sweep are more suggested to effective broadband
identification of the battery impedance and ease of implementation.
Majzoub et al. [59] presents the steps to generate a Gaussian white
noise excitation signal with flat spectral magnitude and random phases
through the use of defined inputs such as excitation power, minimum
and maximum frequency, and the number of points.
2.3. Excitation optimization
To date, much has been reported in the literature on research that
attempt to improve the accuracy of EIS using optimized excitation. The
Fisher variables have been used in the charge and discharge cycles to
increase the identifiability of model parameters both theoretically and
practically. In this category of studies the objective is to determine
the optimal sine input signal by optimizing the Fisher information
matrix’s optimality criterion, see e.g., [60–64]. Rothenberger et al. [65]
addresses the issue of optimizing the battery input trajectory in a
lithium-ion battery for online diagnostics by using simple second-order
linear and non-linear ECM. In [66] the Fisher-information matrix is
employed to obtain an optimal current input profile that maximizes the
identifiability of battery parameters in a thermal and electrochemical
lithium-ion ECM. Ref. [67] suggested a pulse-multisine signal to obtain
the parameters of a Lithium-ion battery’s ECM. The approach taken
is to augment the multisine signal to the base signal used while the
onboard battery is in different modes of operation, i.e., rest, charge,
and discharge thereby achieving a wider dynamic range in terms of
the amplitude and frequency range, more resembling that of a stan-
dard driving cycle. It is argued that adopting such a signal would
improve modeling accuracy and reduces experimentation time, per SoC
and temperature, to a few minutes. The majority of studies on max-
imizing identifiability are simulation-based rather than experimental;
however, [68] provides an experimental demonstration of the extent
to which trajectory optimization for Fisher identifiability can improve
lithium-ion battery parameter estimation. When parameterized using
data from an optimal cycle, the cell voltage prediction SNR improves
significantly.
3. Power electronics interfaced EIS
The inherent interaction between power electronics devices and
ESSs has led to various attempts to integrate EIS into power electronics
interfaces. Excitation signals may be created primarily by altering the
duty cycle of a power electronics device’s existing switches. A minor
variation in the converter’s steady-state operational duty cycle causes
a fluctuation in the output, which is used as an excitation signal [69].
A brief survey is provided in the sequel to elaborate on the potential of
PEI-EIS. The work in [70,71] propose PEI-EIS for high power fuel cell
stacks using boost converters. PEI-EIS is carried out for battery cells in
discharge mode using a synchronous boost converter in [69,72]. Using
a sinusoidally varying duty cycle of the power converter, the stimulus
of EIS in [69] is produced by generating sinusoidal fluctuations in
the output voltage. Conceptually, the idea was promising, although
the reliability of the resulting EIS and controllability of the generated
stimulus were not addressed thoroughly. A closed-loop control system
was used in [72] to drive a synchronous boost converter thereby, su-
perimposing a step function over the battery voltage during discharge.
Through the use of discrete Fourier transform, the utilized step function
is decomposed into its harmonics, and the impedance is measured over
those frequencies.
The work in [49,51,73–76] present battery chargers equipped with
EIS. Ref. [49] describes a full-bridge battery charger with a closed-loop
DC-DC converter operating in constant current constant voltage mode.
A switched-mode amplifier utilizing half-bridge converters with a low
E. Sadeghi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106850

Table 2
Application domain and specifications of recently reported PEI-EIS systems.
Ref. Application Converter type ESS/ Chemistry EIS B.W. Excitation Year
[74] Battery charger Bidirec. half bridge LIB/NMC 10 mHz–2 kHz Triangular 2014
[85] FC interface Boost FC/PEM Up to 400 Hz Multisine 2015
[49] Battery charger Full bridge phase shift N/A 0.1 Hz–100 Hz Sweep sine 2015
[72] Battery interface Boost LIB/LCO 200 Hz–3.8 kHz Step 2017
[50] Active balancer Buck boost LIB/NCA Up to 8 kHz Sweep sine 2017
[86] Battery charger Interleaved half bridge VRLA 10 Hz–800 Hz Sinusoidal 2017
[87] BMS Full bridge inverter LIB/LFP 0.1 Hz–500 Hz Sinusoidal 2018
[71] FC interface Boost FC/PEM N/A Triangular 2019
[51] Battery charger Buck LIB/NCA Up to 9.8 kHz Multisine 2020
[73] EV charger Buck with input filter N/A N/A Sinusoidal 2020
[70] FC interface Interleaved boost N/A N/A Sinusoidal 2020
[76] Battery charger Boost VRLA Up to 10 kHz White noise 2020
[84] BMS Dual active bridge LIB/LFP 0.1 Hz–500 Hz Sinusoidal 2020
[83] BMS Parallel MOSFETs LIB/LCO 20 mHz–2 kHz Sinusoidal 2021
[82] BMS Class D converter LIB/LCO Up to 100 kHz Sinusoidal 2021
[88] Wireless charger DC/AC–AC/DC LIB/NMC Up to 1 kHz PRBS 2021
[89] Battery charger Bidirec. buck LIB/NCA Up to 2 kHz Multisine/sweep 2022

pass filter is employed to produce the stimuli for an extensive battery
pack in [74]. Another PEI-EIS incorporating a bidirectional active front-
end converter is presented in [75]. In [76], the white noise excitation
signal is synthesized by pseudo random perturbation of the duty cycle
of a boost converter. A controllable PEI-EIS is described in [51] using
a buck converter to ensure precise injection of the desired excitation
signal.
In a bidirectional grid-connected electric vehicle charger, [73]
achieved versatile EIS by adding a sinusoidal ripple to the reference
current. The additional sinusoidal ripple serves two purposes: (i) as an
EIS stimulus, and (ii) as an efficient charging strategy. The sinusoidal
ripple charging (SRC) technique is an effective charging method that
involves imposing a sine wave of a certain frequency on the DC current,
thereby, extending the battery’s life and speeding up the charging
process. Usually, EIS determines the frequency needed for SRC [77–79].
Onboard EIS measurements have been developed for a real EV
environment in Refs. [80,81]. In this cases, a motor controller acts
as power electronics interface between the motor (or generator in the
regenerative breaking case) and the ESS, and may be used to control
the injection of excitation signal [80]. Mingant et al. [81] proposed
quasi-EIS which processes current and voltage profiles of an EV while
acceleration and deceleration (regenerative breaking) as excitation and
response dataset for undertaking EIS.
In addition, the PEI-EIS approach was used for active balancing of
battery cells [50,82]. Ref. [50] integrates EIS with an active balancing
circuit using a ladder converter. In [82], EIS is also integrated with
a battery management system using class D converter with a high
switching frequency implemented by GaN switches. Furthermore, other
devices are compatible with battery chargers or battery management
systems [83,84]. Using a simple MOSFET-based topology in parallel
with each battery cell, the EIS system in [83] acts as a controllable
source as it provides the required excitation current. Ref. [84] proposes
an impedance measuring system integrated with a high-power dual
active bridge. Table 2 summarizes a list of recently reported PEI-EIS
systems along with their specifications and application domains.
Some considerations have to be made in the design and implemen-
tation of the PEI-EIS in order to achieve a wider frequency range for
EIS, high precision data, and accurate impedance. A power converter is
typically required to have a high enough switching frequency to synthe-
size the required bandwidth for the excitation signal. Considering that
higher switching frequencies cause switching losses in the system, this
issue opposes certain criteria in power electronics design. Therefore,
a trade-off must be made in order to meet the design requirements. A
suggested solution also could be separating the excitation path from the
main power flow on the converter. Moreover, the output resolution of
the power converter must be sufficiently high to generate an adequate
excitation signal. The methods for increasing the output resolutions for
PEI-EIS are discussed in [75].
4. Controller design
As previously noted, while some of the work employ open-loop
controllers to generate the excitation signal, [69,82], most PEI-EIS
efforts rely on a closed-loop control system to inject the required
excitation signal. While many PEI-EIS work do not address or elaborate
on the control system design process, its significance cannot be under-
estimated. Control system design process needs to take into account
the controller type and structure, the model used for the ESS and the
circuit, as well as the all important control system bandwidth which
determines the frequency range of the excitation signal. To avoid the
appearance of a switching ripple in the output, the control bandwidth
is typically assumed to be one-tenth to one-twentieth of the switching
frequency in the power electronics design. However, the bandwidth
must be high enough to cover the EIS stimulus frequencies of interest.
As a result, a second trade-off is adjusting the control bandwidth
appropriately.
PEI-EIS control system design typically starts with the extraction
of the small-signal model of the system containing both the PEI and
ESS models. In the PEI model, an average linear model is frequently
employed [90]. Various ECMs have been proposed for modeling ESSs in
control system design [91]. After a small-signal system model has been
developed, it is necessary to determine the controller structure and tune
the required blocks. It is necessary for the loop gain of the feedback to
be high at both the DC frequency and the excitation frequency in order
to achieve zero steady-state errors in the output signal [86]. In addition,
the feedback loop function must be tuned so that the bandwidth of the
open-loop accommodates the desired frequency range of excitation and
the system’s stability is maintained with guaranteed margins. The main
challenges arise in the controller design for PEI-EIS are summarized as:
- Uncertainties due to the parameter variations in ESS models.
- Bandwidth tuning to obtain both optimal disturbance rejection
and enhanced EIS frequency range.
- Achieving high gain of loop function in the EIS frequencies of
interest.
Listed below are several examples of PEI-EIS control systems in
the literature. To control the excitation signal, [49,50] have used
PI controllers. They have considered a simplified Randles ECM with
series inductor as the battery model for control system design, and a
stability analysis was conducted. In [51], a two degrees of freedom
QFT—based robust control system was proposed to ensure accurate
tracking and stability of the control system for the PEI-EIS. For ESS,
the model considered was simplified first order Randles ECM. Since the
model parameters vary with the operating conditions of the battery, an
uncertainty range was considered for the variation range. In [70,73,86],
a resonant control unit is also incorporated into the PI controller in

6
E. Sadeghi et al.
Fig. 3. Circuit diagram for trimming offsets [92].
order to provide an optimal injection of the excitation signal. Since the
resonant controller has a high gain at its resonant frequency, it helps to
increase the open-loop bandwidth and better track the AC component
of the reference signal that serves as an excitation signal. The excitation
signal in the work mentioned above is sinusoidal. Even though the
tracking performance of the control system was improved, the methods
do not apply to the broadband excitation signals. Considering the fact
that a specific resonance control unit is required for each excitation fre-
quency, the design becomes very complicated for applications involving
wide range of frequencies. In addition, while improvements have been
made in the bandwidth, the design is still limited by the switching
frequency. Finally, Ref. [71] presents a model predictive control (MPC)
method for obtaining the impedance spectrum of a fuel cell using neural
networks. The results of the study indicated that EIS accuracy can be
improved when using MPC control. On the other hand, one of the
drawbacks is the complexity of the implementation and design of the
system.
5. Data acquisition
An ESS’s impedance is determined by analyzing both the magnitude
and phase relationship between its current and voltage. Therefore, ESS
voltage and current measurements must be precise and fast to ensure
a reliable EIS. The voltage and current values of ESS are digitized
through analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). Synchronization of the
ADC channels is essential to prevent phase errors between the voltage
and current phase angles. Additionally, the sampling frequency is an-
other important factor that affects the quality of the EIS output. As a
rule of thumb, sampling frequencies should be at least ten times higher
than the excitation bandwidth.
7
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106850
5.1. DC removal
Typically, an ESS’s internal resistance falls within the range of mΩ.
Consequently, the ripple voltage drops in the range of mV. For exam-
ple, conventional lithium-based cells operate at open-circuit voltages
between 2.5 V and 4.2 V depending on the state of charge, whereas
a typical EIS perturbation amplitude is around 10 mV. Due to the low
ripple voltage of less than 1% of V dc, it is relatively difficult to separate
the AC voltage from V dc using only the ADC. The fact becomes
more complex in high voltage ESS measurements [93]. To overcome
this issue, some dc value elimination techniques are suggested in the
literature. These techniques may not only be proposed for EIS, but
are applicable for EIS case as well. Using capacitors as passive high-
pass filters is the primary way of decoupling a signal’s AC and DC
components [94]. The dc removal circuits used for current and voltage
measurements must be entirely even to avoid phase shift between
current and voltage readings during dc removal. A large decoupling
capacitor is required to capture the low-frequency signals in the range
of micro-hertz over a DC value. It leads to a considerable time con-
stant and consequently introduces a significant delay in the acquisition
process [93]. To address this issue, non-capacitor-based techniques are
suggested and discussed in the following.
5.1.1. DC offset trimming
In DC trimming, the offset can be removed through preset adjust-
ment. Having determined how much offset there is, a circuit is designed
to correct the exact offset.Using preset adjustment, calculating the
offset of the signals is simple and unlikely to cause any harm to the
AC perturbation.
E. Sadeghi et al.
Fig. 4. Offest trimming (and amplifying) circuit diagrams developed in [95] for: 4(a): voltage 4(b): current.
As the components are unchanged during data acquisition, the offset
does not need to be adjusted. Despite this, since the new parts are
unlikely to have exactly the same value as the old ones, changing the
components in the trimming circuit will impair its performance. One
of the components in a circuit is the internal resistance of the battery.
Since the internal resistance of a battery is related to its chemistry, the
chemistry of ESS negatively impacts the performance of the trim circuit.
Hence, the trimming circuit has the disadvantage of not being universal
and must be implemented for each ESS, possibly, multiple times.
Following is a circuit that illustrates the DC trimming concept [92].
The Fig. 3 represents a simple method to apply a DC trim control to
an amplifier by introducing a tiny current of whichever polarity is
needed into the feedback point. Diodes D1 and D2 fix voltage on the
potentiometer. By combining R6 and C3, a low-pass filter is created.
The trimming current is fed through R5. It has a reasonable value to
minimize its impact on closed-loop gain while providing robust filtering
action in conjunction with C2 to eliminate residual noise and ripple. To
avoid any interference on the amplifier route caused by C1, the trim
current is fed at the bottom of R4.
An offset clipping and the amplifying circuits are described in [95]
for precise impedance measurement of a Li-ion battery as illustrated in
4(a). In this work, DC components of the battery current and voltage
are removed using the same configuration to minimize the phase delay
caused by signal propagation. Fig. 4(b) illustrates the circuit diagram
for the measurement of ripple current. A hall effect current sensor is
used to measure battery current. Next, the output voltage of the current
sensor is clipped using a high speed, precision difference amplifier,
INA154. As a final step, the sensed signals are amplified by Op-Amps
in order to obtain the maximum resolution in the ADC.
In spite of the fact that this approach is superior to a capacitor-
based approach for eliminating DC signals based on the insignificant
time delay between voltage and current measurement compared to
the perturbation frequency, the disadvantage is that it requires further
adjustment during production. To be precise, it cannot alter DC offsets
accumulated from thermal drift and component aging as the strategy is
based on a notion of set-and-forget.
8
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106850
5.1.2. DC servo loop
A DC servo system enables continuous active nulling of the offset by
introducing a new feedback route with a high gain at DC and extremely
low frequencies, but limited control over the output DC level. This
second method employs an op-amp, often configured as an integrator,
to perform feedback subtraction which compares the output DC level
to the ground.
There are three benefits to using DC servos. First, the DC offset of the
signal can be made as low as desired. DC precision is an established and
well-recognized technology. Second, unlike the DC trimming method,
the corrective procedure is continuous and automated. Thermal drift
and component aging are addressed, and the precision of offset nulling
is dependent only on one component the servo op-amp which should
not vary much over time. Finally, the amplifier’s low-frequency roll-
off may be adjusted to extremely low values without the need of large
capacitors. It may also be made more precise since the frequency is now
determined by a non-electrolytic capacitor.
A common servo is made up of an Op-Amp, an integrator, and
various passive components. In the literature, a variety of servo con-
figurations are addressed, as well as some recommendations on how
to choose each component to obtain desired performance, such as
extended low frequency roll-off [92]. Fig. 5 is a simple active servo
to substantiate their usage in DC removal in EIS-related applications.
The servo monitors the output of the front op-amp and generates a
signal that lowers or minimizes its offset voltage when added into the
input of the forward op-amp. The servo is linked in feedback and in this
instance, acts as an inverting integrator. The left half of Fig. 5 illustrates
the connection of the servo, and the right half displays the input–
output relationship for the servo. A constant offset voltage supplied
to the input of the servo leads to an output that integrates the offset,
generating a voltage that increases with time. Since this output has
the opposite notion when compared to the input, if the servo output
is applied to the non-inverting (‘‘A’’) input of the forward op-amp, the
offset voltage will be lowered.
As opposed to the RC filter, assuming the servo op-amp is ideal, this
circuit will have the same transfer function given that the RC product
for the servo is modified by the factor 𝛾∕2 against the passive filter. As
long as the gain 𝛾 of the forward op-amp is not too high, this may result
E. Sadeghi et al.
Fig. 5. A simple active servo-loop capable of active DC nullification.
in a considerably smaller capacitor than the passive filter, because a
much larger R can be selected with the servo. For Fig. 5, the restrictions
on R are that it must be greater than the output impedance of the
forward op-amp (which is extremely low), and smaller than the input
impedance of the servo op-amp (which is very large) . The option to
utilize a smaller capacitor may decrease the footprint of the circuit.
Also, if preferred, the cutoff frequency of the servo may be set at a
lower frequency than would be feasible using the RC filter.
In [50], each voltage and current measurement is performed using
its own ADC channel controlled by shared triggers and serial clocks to
ensure that the measurement is synchronized and does not contribute
phase error. The DC offset of the cell voltage was eliminated with a
digital servo-loop, essentially high-pass filtering and amplifying just
the AC perturbation. Fig. 6 illustrates the circuit that was used to
develop the DC servo-loop. The binary search algorithm eliminates the
DC component of voltage by setting the DAC voltage 𝑉𝐷𝐴𝐶 to the open
circuit voltage of the cell 𝑉𝑖𝑛 . Binary search is a searching algorithm
that divides the search interval in half recurrently in a sorted array.
Sequential or linear search, on the other hand, is a brute-force method
for locating a particular target value in an array by inspecting each
element in the collection until no elements remain or a match is found.
Because it begins with a collection of sorted elements, binary search
outperforms sequential search. Binary search splits the sorted array in
half until the searched item is found or the item is confirmed not to be
present in the collection. When performing a binary search on a sorted
list, the time complexity is only O(log n) instead of O(n) in sequential
search [96]. Consequently, the DC component of the cell voltage can be
quickly and largely removed, and only the AC component is digitized
and filtered using the cascaded integrator-comb (CIC) filter. With this
circuit, the OCV of the cell is eliminated, as is the common-mode
formation as a result of the cell not being connected to the ground.
Table 3 presents and overview of the strengths and limitations of
the various dc removal techniques discussed in this section.
In high voltage ESSs, direct dc removal may not be feasible. In
this cases, first the dc level of the ESS is reduced, as much as the
reduced voltage relies within the input range of the dc removal circuits.
Ref. [93] proposes a scalable dc level reducer circuit by using a precise
and cost-effective electronic circuit for enabling the applicability of
conventional data acquisition systems.
9
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106850
5.2. AC amplification and noise canceling
Aside from the DC removal portion, the measuring circuit includes
one more attribute: amplification of the AC component of both voltage
and current signals. Due to the limited amplitude of excitation signals,
the ac portion of the signal should be amplified and stabilized once the
dc offset is removed. Using an amplifying circuit ensures greater sensing
resolution. Op-Amps are commonly used as closed-loop differential
amplifiers with negative feedback to accomplish this task. In this setup,
the gain of the amplifier is determined by the value of the resistors. The
use of Op-amps with a high common-mode rejection ratio and rail-to-
rail input and output is strongly recommended in order to maximize
output swing and, consequently, signal resolution. In amplification of
high frequency excitation signals, in addition to the gain B.W. of the
Op-amp, its slew rate also limits the amplified signal’s B.W., so it should
be selected carefully. Concerning compatibility with the ADC, single-
supply Op-amps are recommended. Finally, since the presence of noise
significantly reduces the accuracy of EIS, in addition to selecting an
Op-amp with low noise and distortion specification, some recommen-
dations have been provided in Ref. [97] to minimize the effect of noise.
In [97], the influence mechanism of noise on measurement errors is
investigated and divided into the average component and the fluctuant
component. The solutions to eliminate each component are discussed
as well.
6. Impedance presentation and signal processings
It should be noted that the PEI-EIS approach, as well as any other
EIS measurement technique, will require some level of processing of
the acquired dataset (current and voltage dataset using the methods
described in Section 5), so this section addresses a problem that is
common to nearly all methods of collecting EIS data.
6.1. Pointwise presentation of the impedance spectrum
The impedance spectrum of an ESS can theoretically be shown
as a Nyquist plot in Cartesian coordinates or as an Argand diagram
in Polar coordinates. Depending on the type of excitation, various
signal processing methods have been used to present the impedance
spectrum. The simplest way of obtaining this spectrum by means of
single frequency sine wave is using peak and phase detectors for
the input and response signals, then a simple division to locate the
point in the complex plane [80]. A d-q transformation of the ac-
quired excitation and response is proposed in [49] as peak and phase
detection technique for online calculation of the impedance, and a
similar work using lock-in amplifier or synchronous detection in [98].
Fourier transform is another alternative which is used to convert the
acquired multisine signal on the current and voltage to the frequency
domain and obtain the pointwise impedance spectrum. Besides be-
ing sensitive to noise, Fourier-based techniques have poor resolution
at low frequencies, in which range some of the most critical char-
acteristics exist [85]. The methods mentioned above were used for
deterministic excitation signals; for stochastic excitation signals such
as PRBS or white noise, cross-correlation techniques have been pro-
posed in [76,80,81] to measure the spectrum of interest. To obtain
the cross-correlation function for a non-deterministic excitation, short-
time Fourier transforms have been replaced with wavelet transforms in
recent works. Owing to the adaptive time-frequency resolution of the
wavelet transforms, SNR problems and the accuracy of EIS, especially at
low frequencies, have been improved. Morlet, Bump, Lognormal, and
Morse are of mostly used mother wavelets for the implementation of
wavelet transforms [99].
E. Sadeghi et al.
Fig. 6. Servo system used by [50] to eliminate the DC offset as well as the open circuit voltage of a battery cell.
Table 3
Comparison of DC removal techniques.
Capacitor Trimming
∙ Simplicity ∙ Ease of implementation
Strength
∙ Cost-effectiveness ∙ Time-efficient
∙ Time-consuming ∙ During operation Adjustments
Weakness
∙ Big and bulky ∙ Accumulated DCs Offsett
6.2. ECM presentation
The EIS data can also be represented by means of ECMs, which are
divided into integer order equivalent circuit models (IO-ECMs) consist-
ing of resistors and capacitors, or fractional order equivalent circuit
models (FO-ECMs) which include CPEs and/or Warburg element. There
are two scenarios when it comes to ECM parameter estimation: (1)
When we have the impedance spectrum and we just simply fit it to an
ECM using the common curve fitting methods, and (2) When the ECM
parameters are directly estimated by the excitation and response data
(current and voltage acquired with the methods described in Section 5)
incorporating system identification techniques. For the first scenario,
an ECM structure should be selected and converted to a mathemati-
cal form. Then, an objective function is defined and optimized using
different optimization algorithms to accurately and actively minimize
the parameter estimation error. Zhao et al. [100] compared the per-
formance of the common global optimization algorithms in terms of
accuracy, stability, and time of ECM parameter estimation. The second
scenario in ECM identification is trending in recent years, especially in
PEI-EIS and using time domain data [51].
Structural identifiability of the generalized Randles IO-ECMs was
analyzed in [101] to see if its parameters can be uniquely estimated.
The analysis ended up proving that the structure is locally identifiable.
A condition was then defined for the excitation signal to form an
informative dataset, or so-called persistently exciting dataset, in order
to ensure the global identifiability of generalized Randles IO-ECMs. An
identifiability analysis of a FO-ECM with two CPEs was also conducted
in [102] verifying the model structure is globally identifiable.
Because of the accuracy in describing the fundamental processes
taking place within ESSs with only a few fractional order elements,
FO-ECMs have gained more attention in the recent years. Although
it is possible to identify the basic processes taking place in an ESS
by increasing the number of R/C branches, such as in transmission
line models, the increased complexity of the system makes parameter
identification extremely difficult, especially for online PEI-EIS appli-
cations [2]. Gehring et al. [103] proposed an algebraic framework
for fractional-order system (FOS) identification contributing only the
10
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106850
Servo
∙ An offset of low DC is possible
∙ The DC offset is actively removed
∙ Adjustable low-frequency roll-off
∙ A supply rail system is needed
∙ Power requirements
∙ Must be carefully designed
convolutions of the excitation and response signals, instead of solv-
ing complex differential equations. A similar approach was used in
the Ref. [104] employing modulating functions to convert the FOS
identification problem in a noisy case to a set of linear algebraic
equations where no initial condition is needed to solve the problem.
Stark et al. [105] proposed a method to automatically and implicitly
generate a specific modulating function to identify each parameter of a
FO-ECM individually. Subspace-based state space system identification
(4SID) has been employed in [106] for identification of continuous-
time commensurate FOS in the frequency domain. For continuous-time
FOS identification in time domain, Alavi et al. [107] used simplified
refined instrumental variable along with gradient-based optimization
to estimate parameters and the order of a FO-ECM. They used current
and voltage fluctuations in time domain in EIS application and proved
that in noisy environments, the time domain fitting is more effective
and can therefore be applied to PEI-EIS applications where noise is
inevitable. Another combined parameter and order identification ap-
proach for FOS under noisy observations of the battery output signal
was suggested in [108]. An optimization-based technique was used to
identify the order, ensuring that the identification was robust despite
measurement noise. The parameter identification did not require the
system being at rest at the start of the operation, which is critical in
online battery diagnosis [108]. Using multisine as input, the Gauss–
Newton optimization approach is used to optimize an output error for
the identification of parsimonious FO models [109].
Kalman filter-based approaches have also been suggested for online
PEI-EIS due to their simplicity of implementation and acceptable accu-
racy. To estimate second-order Randles ECM parameters adaptively, a
hybrid PRBS Dual extended Kalman Filter (DEKF) system identification
technique is proposed in [57]. DEKF algorithm is accurate, but a priori
knowledge of the initial condition is required in practical applications.
In those cases, the existence of such information cannot be guaranteed.
ML techniques are also suitable for estimating the ECM parameters
of an ESS. Model parameter identification using ML inverse modeling
is used in [110] for Li-ion cells and in [111] for FCs. In [112], a
deep neural network estimates the impedance spectra of Li-ion batteries
by using regular constant-current charging curves. ML incorporated
E. Sadeghi et al.
with EIS data is also used for ESS diagnostics by interpreting of its
impedance spectrum [113]. Ref. [114] used fine-tuning to determine
the best ECM values. Instead of using an optimization process on an
observed spectrum to extract ECM parameters, the spectrum is fed into
the artificial neural network, and the ECM parameters are generated.
In reality, the output of the network may be enhanced further by
instantiating an optimization algorithm with the network’s ECM pa-
rameters and executing the optimization process to acquire improved
ECM parameters. In [110] adam optimizer is used for extracting the
ECM parameters. Adam is a computationally efficient stochastic gradi-
ent descent method with an adaptable learning rate that is explicitly
developed for deep neural network training [115]. Adam is focused in
differentiable, stochastic objective functions, such as neural network
cost functions. In addition to Adam, various optimizers like as Nadam,
Adamax, and others are included in the Keras package [116]. Zhao
et al. [100] compared the performance of some machine learning (ML)
algorithms to automatically select the most appropriate ECM among a
set of ECMs for fitting the EIS data.
Several toolboxes and packages have been created for practical
usage. These toolboxes are designed to estimate the model using given
data. Data might be in either time domain or the frequency domain.
The estimated model might be in either integer or fractional order.
Numerical techniques for subspace state-space system identification
have received attention and proved useful for identifying integer order
systems in recent years. Respectively, N4sid and NFourSID are Matlab
toolboxes and Python packages for estimating state-space models from
time domain or frequency domain data using the subspace approach.
The system identification toolbox in Matlab extracts dynamic relations
between observed variables to generate transfer functions and state-
space models in continuous or discrete time utilizing time or frequency
domain data. SIPPY, SysIdentPy, and PySINDy are often used in Python
for integer order system identification. SIPPY provides several iden-
tification methods for developing linear models of dynamic systems
using input and output data. In the discrete-time domain, the models
can be developed as transfer functions or state-space models [117].
SysIdentPy is an open-source Python package for system identification
that is built on NumPy and uses NARMAX models. SysIdentPy is an
adaptable framework for developing Nonlinear Models for dynamic
systems [118]. PySINDy is a sparse regression package that includes
many implementations of Brunton et al.’s Sparse Identification of Non-
linear Dynamical Systems (SINDy) approach [119,120]. In MATLAB,
the toolboxes CRONE and FOMCON are recommended for identifying
fractional order systems. CRONE is a continuous time system identifica-
tion tool for identifying fractional order systems [121]. The FOMCON
toolbox for MATLAB is a toolkit for system modeling and control design
that is based on fractional-order calculus [122]. FOMCON has a Python
version known as FOMCONpy.
Finally, to verify the obtained PEI-EIS results in any form, two
approaches have been used in the literature, verification against a
well-established commercial EIS device [82], or verification against
a ground truth [51]. In the latter verification approach, an actual
circuit representing an ECM with precisely measured values is used,
the parameters of the circuit are estimated by the prototype and the
results are compared.
7. Conclusions
In this paper, a literature review of the integration of EIS and
power electronics interfaces is conducted. This paper explored various
contributions proposed in recent publications for the different seg-
ments of PEI-EIS and identified their advantages and disadvantages.
We compared the different types of excitation signals employed in
PEI-EIS and evaluated their implementation challenges. We showed
that broadband excitation signals such as PRBS and multisines are
trending due to their ease of implementation using power electronics
devices. In addition, they are able to excite the dynamics of the ESSs
11
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106850
at a wide range of frequencies. Because most PEI-EIS techniques are
intended for practical applications, and laboratory equipment cannot be
used in practice, we categorized the proposed data acquisition circuits.
Some recommendations have also been made for the implementation
of such data acquisition systems. Comparisons showed that using non-
capacitor-based DC removal techniques is more preferable because of
their accuracy and faster response. We also discussed several methods
of presenting the EIS data, from point-by-point presentation in the
Nyquist plot to ECM presentation. Steps for parameter identification of
ECMs were reviewed and the latest results regarding the time domain
identification of FO-ECMs were presented. Applications of ML in signal
processing of EIS data were also highlighted.
As future research, developments can be made in every phase of
PEI-EIS discussed in this paper to excel compatibility with EIS in terms
of functionality, performance, accuracy, and precision. As stated in
the paper, optimized PEI-EIS structures, as well as controllers can be
developed to enhance the resolution and bandwidth of the generated
excitation signals. PEI-EIS can be further enhanced by utilizing new
semiconductor technologies suitable for high switching frequencies,
such as GaN-FETs that eliminate most bandwidth related issues. PRS
signals are persistently exciting for a wide range of frequencies, so their
use for detecting FO-ECMs in the time domain should be considered in
the future.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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