FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT ONE

COURSE CODE: BEE4206

COURSE TITLE: OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS

SUBMISSION DATE: 11TH MARCH 2023

SUBMITTED BY:

NAME: WANJA BRIAN

REG NO: BU/UP/2020/1240

SUBMITTED TO:

NAME: MR. ANDIMA MOSES

TITLE: LECTURER
Number one
Using the ray theory model, the fastest and slowest modes propagating in the step index
fiber may be represented by the axial ray and the extreme meridional ray (which is
incident at the core– cladding interface at the critical angle φc) respectively. The delay
difference between these two rays when traveling in the fiber core allows estimation of the
pulse broadening resulting from intermodal dispersion within the fiber.
a) Show that the Intermodal dispersion formula is given by
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿 𝐿𝑛1
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑑𝑛1 ) 𝐶
Where m is the refractive of the core and c is the velocity of light in a vacuum
The extreme meridional ray exhibits the maximum delay time 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥
cos 𝜃 𝐿𝑛1
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = … … … … … (1)
𝑑𝑛1 𝐶 cos 𝜃

Using Snell’s law of refraction at the core. Cladding interface following

𝑛2
sin ∅𝑐 = = cos 𝜃 … … … … … … (2)
𝑛1

Where 𝑛2 , is the refractive index of the cladding. Substituting (2) into (1) for cos 𝜃
𝐿𝑛1 𝐿𝑛12
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛 =
𝑐×𝑛2 𝑐𝑛2
1

The delay difference 𝛿𝑇𝑠 between the extreme meridional ray and axial ray may be obtained by:
𝐿𝑛12 𝐿𝑛1
𝛿𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −
𝑐𝑛2 𝑐

𝐿𝑛12 𝑛1 −𝑛2
= ( )
𝑐𝑛2 𝑛1

𝐿𝑛12 ∆
= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∆≪ 1
𝑐𝑛2

Where ∆, is the refractive index difference. However, when ∆≪ 1, then from the definition
given, the relative index difference may also be given approximately by
𝑛1 −𝑛2
∆≈ hence
𝑛2

𝐿𝑛1 𝑛1 −𝑛2 𝐿𝑛1 ∆

𝛿𝑇𝑠 = ( 𝑛 ) ≈
𝑐 2 𝑐

Substituting for ∆
 𝐿(𝑁𝐴)2
𝛿𝑇𝑠 ≈ Where L=fiber length, C= speed of light, n1=core refractive index and NA is
2𝐶𝑛1
the numerical Aperture.
b) With appropriate sketches, explain the following terms,
(i) Numerical Aperture
The numerical aperture (NA) is a measure of how much light can be collected by an optical
system such as an optical fiber or a microscope lens. The numerical aperture of the fiber is
closely related to the critical angle and is often used in the specification for optical fiber and the
components that work with it.
1⁄
𝑛0 sin 𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ) 2 = 𝑁𝐴……… (3)
NA numerical aperture

(ii) Acceptance Angle

Acceptance angle is the maximum angle with the axis of the Optical Fibre at which the light can
enter into the optical fibre in order to be propagated through it.
From equation (3)
The angle of acceptance is twice that given by the numerical aperture.
2 ∝𝑚𝑎𝑥 total acceptance angle
(iii) Show that Numerical Aperture (NA) is given by

̍
From the copied figure 3 above

𝜃 ̍ = (90 − 𝜃 ) … … … … . . (1)
By Snell’s law at the point of entrance of light in to the optical fiber we get,

𝑛0 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 sin 𝜃 … … … . . (2)

Where n0 is refractive index of medium outside the fiber. For air n0 =1
When light travels from core to cladding it moves from denser to rarer medium and so it may be
totally reflected back to the core medium if θ' exceeds the critical angle𝜃𝑐̍ The critical angle is
that angle of incidence in denser medium (n1) for which angle of refraction become 90°. Using
Snell’s laws at core cladding interface,

𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑐̍ = 𝑛2 sin 90

Or
𝑛2
sin 𝜃𝑐̍ = …………. (3)
𝑛1

Therefore, for light to be propagated within the core of optical fiber as guided wave, the angle of
incidence at core-cladding interface should be greater than𝜃𝑐̍ . As i increases, θ increases and
so θ' decreases. Therefore, there is maximum value of angle of incidence beyond which, it does
not propagate rather it is refracted in to cladding medium (fig: 3(b)). This maximum value of i say
im is called maximum angle of acceptance and n0 sin im is termed as the numerical aperture (NA).
From equation (2),
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛0 sin 𝑖𝑚 = 𝑛1 sin 𝜃
= 𝑛1 sin(90 − 𝜃𝑐 )
𝑛2
sin 𝜃𝑐̍ =
𝑛1

From equation (2)

𝑛22
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1√1 −
𝑛12
Therefore,

𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
Number two

A multimode fiber Consider a multimode fiber with a core diameter of 100 μm, core
refractive index of 1.475 and a cladding refractive index of 1.455 both at 850 nm. Consider
operating this fiber at λ = 850 nm.

i) Calculate the V-number for the fiber and estimate the number of modes.

ii) Calculate the wavelength beyond which the fiber becomes single mode.

iii) Calculate the numerical aperture.

iv) Calculate the maximum acceptance angle.

v)Calculate the modal dispersion Δτ and hence the bit rate × distance product given that
rms dispersion σ ≈ 0.29Δτ where Δτ is the full spread.
𝑎
𝑉 = 2𝜋 × 𝑁𝐴 × 𝜆

𝑎
𝑉 = 2𝜋 × 𝑁𝐴 × 𝜆 where; a = fiber core radius, 𝝀 = wavelength

100
𝑎= 𝜇𝑚 𝜆 = 0.850𝜇𝑚
2

𝑎 = 50𝜇𝑚

𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 where; 𝑛1 = 1.475, 𝑛2 = 1.455

𝑁𝐴 = √(1.475)2 − (1.455)2

𝑁𝐴 = 0.242074368

50𝜇𝑚
𝑉 = 2𝜋 × 0.242074368 × 0.850𝜇𝑚

𝑉 = 89.47

i)Since 𝑽 > 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎𝟓, then the fiber is Multimode fiber.

i)Number of modes, M

𝑉2
𝑀=
2
 89.472
𝑀=
2

M=4002.44

M≈ 4002

ii)The fiber becomes single mode when;

𝑎
𝑉 = 2𝜋 × 𝑁𝐴 × 𝜆 <2.405

2𝜋𝑎 × 𝑁𝐴
𝜆=
2.045

2𝜋(50𝜇𝑚) × (0.242074368)
𝜆=
2.045

𝜆 = 31.6𝜇𝑚

For wavelength larger than 31.6 𝝁𝒎,the fiber is a single mode waveguide

iii)Numerical aperture of the fiber

𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 where; 𝑛1 = 1.475, 𝑛2 = 1.455

𝑁𝐴 = √(1.475)2 − (1.455)2

𝑁𝐴 = 0.242074368

𝑵𝑨 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟐

iv)maximum acceptance angle

𝑁𝐴
sin 𝜃𝑎 =
𝑛0
0.242
sin 𝜃𝑐 =
1
−1 (
𝜃𝑎 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 0.242)
𝜽𝒂 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎
v) Calculate the modal dispersion Δτ and hence the bit rate × distance product given that
rms dispersion σ ≈ 0.29Δτ where Δτ is the full spread.

Δτ intermode 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
=
𝐿 𝐶
1.475−1.455
= (3∗10)8

=66.7ps 𝑚−1
=67.6ns per km
Given that σ ≈ 0.29Δτ, maximum bitrate is
0.25𝐿 0.25𝐿 0.25
BL= σ total ≈ = (0.29)(66.7𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚)
σ intermode

=13 Mb𝑠 −1 𝑘𝑚.

We neglected the material dispersion at this wavelength which would further decrease BL
Material dispersion and modal dispersion must be combined by
σ2 total=σ2 intermode+σ2 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

For example, assuming an LED with a spectral rms deviation σ𝜆,of about 20nm and a Dm ≈
=200ps k𝑚−1 n𝑚−1 (at about 850 nm) we would find;

σ = (200ps k𝑚−1 n𝑚−1 )( 20nm) (1km)

=4000ps k𝒎−𝟏
Or
=4ns k𝑚−1
Which is substantially smaller than the inter-mode dispersion and can be neglected.
Number three

(a) Discuss dispersion in optical fibers

Dispersion deals basically with the broadening of the transmitted light pulses as they travel along
the fiber. It causes pulses of light to spread out over time, leading to signal degradation and
limiting the transmission capacity of the fiber.

Dispersion in optical fiber includes chromatic dispersion, modal dispersion and waveguide
dispersion. Chromatic dispersion is a phenomenon of signal spreading over time resulting from
the different speeds of light rays. The chromatic dispersion is the combination of the material and
waveguide dispersion effects.

Modal dispersion is a distortion mechanism occurring in multimode fibers and other waveguides,
in which the signal is spread in time because of different propagation velocity for all modes.

(b) Discuss the application of optical fiber communications in mobile and wireless
communications

Optical fiber connections are critical in mobile and wireless communications, increasing
efficiency, speed, and dependability. Here are some of the applications

 In wireless communication, fiber optic cables are used as the backbone infrastructure for
transmitting data between cell towers, base stations, and data centers.
 Cable television services are supplied via a fiber optic network to an optical node, which
converts and distributes the electrical signal to subscribers via coaxial cable connection.
 Optical fiber is applied in telecommunications and used to transmit signals over long
distances.
 They are used for data transmission. Fiber optic data transmission systems send
information over fiber by turning electronic signals into light.
 Fiber optics are used to connect remote antennas in a DAS, which improves coverage in
densely populated regions such as stadiums, airports, and cities.
 Optical fibers are applied in data storage
C) Discuss the application of optical fiber communications in power network/grid.

 Fiber optics offer real-time monitoring of power grid components, allowing operators to
quickly detect and address anomalies, optimize energy distribution, and improve overall
system efficiency.
 Fiber optics provide the capacity required to transport huge quantities of data generated
by monitoring devices and sensors in substations.
 Optical fiber communication to connect different substations and control centers, to
transmit measurements and commands, and to protect the power grid from faults and
disturbances.
 Optical fiber communication can also enable smart grid applications, such as demand
response, distributed generation, and microgrids, by facilitating real-time communication
and coordination among various devices and agents.
 Optical fiber communications provide a secure route of data transfer, thereby protecting
vital infrastructure from cyber-attacks and unwanted access.
 By providing predictive maintenance, optical fibers help to reduce downtime and
improve power grid dependability.