BIOMOLECULES

Carbohydrates or Saccharides:
Carbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones
or the compounds which produce such units on hydrolysis.
Classification of carbohydrates:
(i) Monosaccharides:
o These are carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolysed to give simpler sugars.
Depending on the total number of carbon atoms these are called as trioses ( 3
carbon), tetroses ( 4 carbon), pentoses ( 5 carbon), hexoses ( 6 carbon) etc,
o Monosaccharides having aldehyde functional groups (-CHO) are called aldoses and
the ones having ketone functional groups (-CO-) are called ketoses.
E.g. Glucose is an aldohexose and fructose is a ketohexose.
(ii) Oligosaccharides:
o These are carbohydrates which produce 2-10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis.
o Depending on the number of monosaccharide units they produce they are further
classified as disaccharides (which produce two monosaccharides on hydrolysis),
trisaccharides (which produce three monosaccharides on hydrolysis),
tetrasaccharides (which produce four monosaccharides on hydrolysis), etc. E.g.
Sucrose, maltose and lactose are disaccharides. Sucrose produces glucose and
fructose on hydrolysis.
(iii) Polysaccharides:
o These are carbohydrates which give large number of monosaccharides on
hydrolysis. E.g. starch, cellulose and glycogen are polysaccharides.
Q. What are sugars and non-sugars?
All monosaccharides and oligosaccharides are sweet in taste hence these are called
sugars. These are crystalline solids and soluble in water.
Polysaccharides are tasteless hence these are called non-sugars. These are amorphous
and insoluble in water.
Q. What are reducing and non-reducing sugars?
All those carbohydrates which reduce Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution are
called reducing sugars. These reducing sugars produce silver mirror on heating with
Tollen’s reagent and give reddish brown precipitate on heating with Fehling’s solution..
E.g. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars.
In disaccharides, if the aldehyde or ketone functional groups are free then they are
reducing sugars. E.g. maltose and lactose are reducing sugars. If the aldehyde and ketone
functional groups are bonded then the disaccharides are non-reducing sugars. E.g. sucrose
is a non-reducing sugar.
Q. Fructose is a ketose sugar, yet it reduces Fehling’s and Tollen’s reagent. Why?
In alkaline medium, fructose undergoes isomerisation to form glucose hence it reduces
Fehling’s and Tollen’s reagent.
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Preparation of glucose:
(i) By acid hydrolysis of sucrose (cane sugar):
H+
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose Glucose Fructose

(ii) Commercially it is produced by hydrolysis of starch with H2SO4

H+
(C6H10O5)n + nH2O n C6H12O6
Starch Glucose

Structure of glucose (or) Dextrose:

The open chain structure of glucose was proposed by Bayer and confirmed by the
following reactions.
1. Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6.
2. Glucose on heating with HI forms n-hexane which confirms that the six carbon
atoms are linked in a straight chain.

CHO
(CHOH)4 HI / Δ
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
CH2OH n- hexane

3. Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and reacts with HCN to
form cyanohydrin. These reactions confirm the presence of carbonyl group
(>C=O) in glucose.
CHO CH=N-OH
NH2OH
(CHOH)4 (CHOH)4 Glucoseoxime
CH2OH
CH2OH

CHO CH(OH)CN
(CHOH)4 HCN Glucosecyanohydrin
CHOH)4
CH2OH CH2OH

4. Glucose is oxidized to gluconic acid on reaction with a mild oxidising agent like
bromine water. This confirms the presence of one aldehyde functional group.
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CHO COOH
(CHOH)4 Br2 water
(CHOH)4 Gluconic acid
CH2OH
CH2OH
5. Glucose on acetylation with acetic anhydride gives a pentaacetate. This confirms
the presence of five hydroxyl groups (-OH).
CHO CHO
(CH3CO)2O
(CHOH)4 (CHOCOCH3)4
CH2OH CH2OCOCH3

6. On oxidation with nitric acid glucose gives saccharic acid, a dicarboxylic acid.
Even gluconic acid on oxidation also gives the same product, saccharic acid.
These reactions confirms the presence of a primary alcoholic group in glucose.

CHO COOH
HNO3
(CHOH)4 (CHOH)4 Saccharic acid
CH2OH COOH
Open chain structure of glucose:
Fischer projection formula:

COOH COOH CHO

CHO
H OH H OH H OH
H OH
HO H HO H HO H
HO H
H OH H OH H OH
H OH
H OH H OH HO H
H OH
CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH
COOH

D (+)-Glucose Gluconic acid Saccharic acid L (-)-Glucose

Q. What are the limitations of open chain structure? (or) Give evidences for cyclic
structure of glucose.
1. Glucose does not give 2,4-DNP test, Schiff’s test and does not react with NaHSO3.
2. Glucose pentaacetate does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the absence of
free –CHO group.
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3. Glucose exist in two stereo isomeric forms α-D-(+)-glucose and β-D-(+)-glucose

with specific rotation +1120 and +190 respectively. The α- glucose is obtained by
crystallization from a concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K. The β-glucose is
obtained by crystallization from a saturated solution of glucose at 371 K. The α-
glucose has a melting point of 419 K whereas the β-glucose has a melting point of
423 K. Both undergo change in specific rotation to 52.20 (mutarotation) when
dissolved in water.
4. When glucose reacts with methanol in the presence of dry HCl it forms two
isomeric compounds known as methyl-α-D-glucoside and methyl-β-D-glucoside.
Mutarotation:
The spontaneous change in specific rotation of an optically active compound is
called mutarotation.
α-D-(+)-glucose Equilibrium mixture β-D-(+)-glucose
0 0
111 52 190
Cyclic structure of glucose:
Fischer projection:

H OH
HO H
H OH
O H OH
HO H
HO H O
H OH
H OH
H
CH2OH H
CH2OH
α-D-(+)-glucopyranose β-D-(+)-glucopyranose
Haworth projection:
CH2OH CH2OH

H O H H O OH
H H
OH H OH H
OH OH H
OH
OH H OH
H

α-D-(+)-glucopyranose (Heaven) β-D-(+)-glucopyranose (Omelette)

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Q. What does D and (+) in the nomenclature represent?

D represents the absolute configuration as per D-glyceraldehyde. If the –OH group in
the lowest chiral carbon is on the right hand side it is referred to as the D configuration.
(+) represents that the compound is dextrorotatory.
Q. What are anomers?
Anomers are a pair of stereoisomers which differ in configuration around the first
carbon or carbonyl carbon. E.g. α-D-(+)-glucopyranose and β-D-(+)-glucopyranose are
anomers. Anomers are not mirror images hence they not enantiomers.
Q. Explain the structure of fructose.
o The molecular formula is C6H12O6.
o It has a keto group at the second carbon.
o It has 6 carbon atoms in straight chain.
o It has D-configuration. The –OH group in the lowest asymmetric carbon is on the
right hand side.
o It is laevorotatory.
Fischer projection formula:
Open structure Cyclic structure
CH2OH
HO CH2OH
HOCH2 OH
O
HO H HO H
HO H O O

H OH H OH H OH

H OH
H H
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D-(-) Fructose α-D-(-)-fructofuranose β-D-(-)- fructofuranose
Haworth projection formula

HOH2C O CH2OH HOH2C O OH

H OH H OH
H OH H CH2OH

OH H OH H
α-D-(-)-fructofuranose β-D-(-)- fructofuranose
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Q. What is glycosidic linkage?

It is an ether linkage or oxide linkage which connects two monosaccharides in a
disaccharide or polysaccharide.
Q. Give the difference in structure between a reducing sugar and a non-reducing
sugar.
If the glycosidic linkage involves the carbonyl groups of the two monosaccharides
then the sugar is non-reducing. E.g. sucrose.
If the glycosidic linkage involves only one carbonyl group while the other is free, then
it is a reducing sugar. E.g. maltose and lactose.
Q. Explain the structure of sucrose.
Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of α-D-glucose and β-D-fructose. The glycosidic
linkage involves C1 of α-D-glucose and C2 of β-D-fructose. Since both the functional
groups are involved in glycosidic linkage sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

Q. What is inversion of sucrose?

Sucrose is dextrorotatory. On hydrolysis it gives a mixture of glucose and fructose,
which is laevorotatory. This change in optical rotation on hydrolysis is known as
inversion of sucrose.
Q. What is invert sugar?
The mixture of equal parts of glucose and fructose is known as invert sugar because
this mixture is laevorotatory.
Q. Explain the structure of maltose.
Maltose is a disaccharide composed of two α-D-glucose units. Maltose has α –
glycosidic linkage. The glycosidic linkage involves C1 of one α-D-glucose and C4 of
another α-D-glucose. Since one aldehyde group is free (not involved in glycosidic
linkage) maltose is a reducing sugar.
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Q. Explain the structure of lactose.

Lactose is called milk sugar because it is found in milk. Lactose is a disaccharide
composed of β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose. Lactose has β – glycosidic linkage. The
glycosidic linkage involves C1 of galactose and C4 of glucose. Since one aldehyde group
is free lactose is a reducing sugar.

Starch or Amylum:
o Starch is a polysaccharide, which occurs in wheat, maize, rice, potato, barley etc.
o It is white amorphous powder, insoluble in cold water.
o Starch gives blue colour with iodine solution, which disappears on heating and
reappears on cooling.
o It is non-reducing as all carbonyl carbons are involved in glycosidic linkage.
Explain the structure of starch (or) amylum.
o Starch or amylum is polymer of α-D-glucose units.
o It has two components: Amylose and amylopectin.
o Amylose is water soluble and constitutes 15-20% of starch. It consists of α-D-
glucose units held between C1 and C4 by glycosidic linkages. It is linear and gives
blue colour with iodine solution.
o Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes 80-85% of starch. It consists of
α-D-glucose units held between C1 and C4 and branching occurs between C1 and
C6. It is branched and does not give blue colour with iodine solution.
Cellulose
o It occurs in plant and it is the most abundant organic substance in plants.
o It is a straight chain polysaccharide consists of β-D-glucose units which are joined
by β-glycosidic linkage between C1 and C4.
Glycogen
o It is a polysaccharide of α-glucose which is stored in animal body.
o When the body needs energy, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose and
produce energy
o It is known as animal starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin.
o It is present in liver, muscles and brain.
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Q. What is the structural difference between starch and cellulose?

In starch α-D-glucose units are linked by - glycosidic linkages whereas in cellulose
β-D-glucose units are linked by  - glycosidic linkages.
Q. Give the similarities between amylopectin and glycogen.
o Both are polysaccharides made up of α-D-(+)-Glucose
o Both have α-glycosidic linkage and are branched
Q. Give the differences between amylopectin and glycogen.
o Amylopectin is insoluble in water whereas glycogen is soluble.
o Amylopectin is the storage polysaccharides in plants where as glycogen is the
main storage polysaccharide in animals.
Amino acids
Amino acids are organic compounds containing one amino group and one carboxyl
group. Their general formula is NH2-CH(R)-COOH
If the R group is hydrogen atom then the amino acid is called glycine, NH2-CH2-COOH
If the R group is methyl group then the amino acid is called alanine,
NH2-CH(CH3)-COOH
Classification of amino acids:
Amino acids are classified in to
(i) Acidic, basic and neutral amino acids on the basis of number of carboxyl and amino
groups.
(ii) Essential and non-essential amino acids.
Q. What are essential and non-essential amino acids? Give example.
The amino acids that cannot be synthesized in the body but must be obtained through
diet are known as essential amino acids. E.g. Valine and leucine.
The amino acids that can be synthesized in the body are known as non-essential amino
acids. E.g. Glycine and alanine.
Q. What are acidic, basic and neutral amino acids? Give example.
(i) Amino acids with same number of amino and carboxyl groups are neutral amino acids.
Example: Glycine and alanine
(ii) Amino acids with more number of amino groups than carboxyl groups are basic
amino acids. Example: Lysine and arginine
(iii) Amino acids with more number of carboxyl groups than amino groups are acidic
amino acids. Example: Glutamic acid and aspartic acid
Q. Amino acids are amphoteric. Why?
Amino acids have both acidic (-COOH) and basic (-NH2) functional groups. Hence
they are amphoteric.
Q. Amino acids exist as zwitter ions. Why?
Since amino acids contain both acidic and basic groups, there is transfer of H+ from
acid to amino group.
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Q. Amino acids are high melting crystalline solids. Why?

Amino acids have both carboxyl and amino group within the molecule. Due to the
transfer of H+ from acid to amino group they exist as zwitter ion, dipolar ion or internal
salt structure. This increases the electrostatic force of attraction between the amino acids
hence they have high melting point.
NH2-CH(R)-COOH NH3+-CH(R)-COO  (Zwitter ion)
Q. Write the properties of amino acids:
o Amino acids are colourless crystalline solids.
o These have high melting point due to internal salt structure.
o They exist as zwitter ion due to the transfer of H+ from acid to amino group.
o All naturally occurring amino acids have L-configuration.
Electrical property of amino acids and isoelectric point:
o In acidic medium (pH < 7) amino acids exist as cations and migrate towards cathode.
o In alkaline medium (pH > 7) amino acids exist as anions and migrate towards anode.
o The pH at which amino acids do not migrate to either electrode in applied electric
field is known as isoelectric point of the amino acids.
o At the isoelectric point amino acids exist as neutral dipolar ions and have the lowest
solubility hence can be easily separated at the isoelectric point.

NH3+-CH(R)-COOH NH3+-CH(R)-COO  NH2-CH(R)-COO 

Acidic medium Neutral medium Basic medium
Cation zwitter ion Anion
Q. Name the optically inactive amino acid.
Glycine.
Peptides and Peptide bond:
Peptide bond is an amide linkage –CONH- connecting amino acids in protein. On
the basis of number of amino acids combining, they are classified into dipeptide,
tripeptide, polypeptide etc.
NH2-CH2-COOH + NH2-CH(CH3)-COOH
Glycine alanine
NH2-CH2-CONH-CH(CH3)-COOH
Glycylalanine ( Gly-Ala)
Dipeptide
NH2-CH(CH3)-COOH + NH2-CH(H)-COOH
Alanine Glycine
NH2-CH(CH3)-CONH-CH2-COOH
Alanylglycine ( Ala-Gly)
Dipeptide
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Q. What is a dipeptide? Give example.

When two amino acids combine to form a peptide bond it is called a dipeptide. Eg,
glycylalanine
Q. Draw the resonance structure of peptide or amide linkage.
•• +
C NH C NH

•• O •• O ••
•• ••
Q. What is the difference between glycylalanine and alanylglycine.
Glycylalanine is a dipeptide formed when carboxyl group of glycine combines with
amino group of alanine. Whereas alanylglycine is a dipeptide formed when carboxyl
group of alanine combines with amino group of glycine.
Structure of proteins:
(i) Primary structure:
This structure refers to the sequence, number and type of various amino acids present
in protein.
(ii) Secondary structure:
This structure refers to the different shapes or conformations of polypeptide chains.
The polypeptide chains can exist in two forms: -helical structure and -pleated sheet
Structure.

-helix: The polypeptide chains are coiled into a right handed screw resulting in
spiral ring structure. It is stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonding.
-pleated sheet: The polypeptide chains are stretched out and held side by side
in - pleated sheet structure. It is stabilized by intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
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(iii) Tertiary structure:

This structure refers to the three dimensional shape of proteins.
There are two types tertiary structures, fibrous and globular.
Fibrous Protein: When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by
hydrogen bonds and disulphide bonds, thread like polymers are formed. They are
called fibrous proteins. They are generally insoluble in water. E.g Keratin (hair and
nail) and myosin (muscle)
Globular Protein: When the polypeptide chains coil to form spherical shape, it is
called globular protein. E.g Insulin and albumin.
Tertiary structure is stabilized through salt bridge or ionic bridge, disulphide bridge,
hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding.
(iv) Quaternary structure:
This structure refers to the arrangement of two or more polypeptide chains in
proteins. Some proteins are made up of multiple polypeptide chains. The quaternary
structure refers to the number and arrangement of the protein subunits with respect to one
another. Eg., Haemoglobin.
Q. What is meant by 3.613 helix?
In -helical structure of proteins each turn of the helix has 3.6 amino acids and a 13
membered ring is formed by hydrogen bonds.
Q. What is native protein?
Proteins found in biological system with a unique three-dimensional structure and
biological activity is called a native protein.
Q. What is the difference between a polypeptide and a protein?
A polypeptide is a combination of 10 to 100 amino acids. Insulin is made of 51 amino
acids. A polypeptide with more than 100 amino acids having molar mass higher than
10000 amu is called a protein.
Q. What is denaturation and renaturation of proteins?
When a protein is subjected to action of heat, acids or alkalies it undergoes
coagulation or precipitation that results in loss of biological activity. It is known as
denaturation. Denaturation does not affect primary structure of proteins but affects
secondary and tertiary structures.
By reversing the conditions, the original protein can be recovered which is known as
renaturation.
Q. Differentiate fibrous and globular proteins.
When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen bonds and
disulphide bonds, thread like polymers are formed. They are called fibrous proteins. They
are generally insoluble in water. E.g Keratin (hair, skin and nails) and myosin (muscle).
When the polypeptide chains coil to form spherical shape, it is called globular protein.
E.g Insulin and albumin.
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Q. What are nucleic acids?

Nucleic acids are biopolymers composed of monomers nucleotides. A nucleotide has
three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.
If the sugar is ribose, the polymer is RNA (ribonucleic acid); if the sugar is deoxyribose,
the polymer is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
Q. What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide?
Nucleoside is a unit formed by attachment of a base to 1’ carbon of sugar.
Nucleotide is a unit formed by attachment of nucleoside to phosphate group at 5’ carbon
carbon of sugar.
Q. Draw the structure of β –D-ribose and β –D-2-deoxyribose.

HOH2C O OH HOH2C O OH

H H H H
H H H H

OH OH OH H
β –D-ribose β –D-2-deoxyribose
Structure of DNA:
(i) Primary structure:
DNA is a polynucleotide in which nucleotides are connected through phosphodiester
linkages. The sequence of four nitrogenous bases is called the primary structure.
(ii) Secondary structure:
DNA consists of two right handed polynucleotide chains giving a double helical
structure to DNA. The phosphodiester linkages in the two strands run in opposite
direction. The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary since the base
sequence of one strand fixes the base sequence of another strand due to base pairing rule.
Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine.
Q. Define phosphodiester linkage.
It is a linkage that connects two nucleotides in polynucleotide or DNA. The
phosphodiester linkage is between 5’and 3’ carbon atoms of the pentose sugars.
Q. Write the structural and functional differences between DNA and RNA.
Structural differences:
DNA RNA
It has double stranded -helical structure. It has single stranded -helical structure.
It has deoxy ribose sugar. It has ribose sugar.
It has adenine, guanine, cytosine and It has adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil
thymine bases. bases.
DNA is a much longer polymer than RNA RNA polymers are much shorter than DNA
polymers.
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Functional differences:
DNA RNA
It undergoes replication. It does not undergo replication.
It stores the genetic information and It controls the synthesis of proteins.
controls the transmission of hereditary
characters.
Location
It is located in the nucleus of a cell and in It is found in the cytoplasm, nucleus and in
the mitochondria. the ribosome.
Q. Name the purine and pyrimidine bases present in nucleic acids.
Adenine and guanine are purines whereas cytosine, thymine and uracil are pyrimidines
Q. What is heredity?
The transmission of inherent characters from generation to generation is called
heredity.
Q. Two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary. Explain.
The base sequence of one strand fixes the base sequence of another strand in DNA due
to base pairing rule. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine.
Q. What is melting temperature (Tm) of DNA?
The temperature at which the two strands separate completely is known as melting
temperature (Tm) of DNA.
Q. Two samples of DNA have melting points 340 K and 350 K respectively. What do
you conclude from this?
The sample B with higher melting point must have more GC content as compared to
sample AT. Since GC base pair has three hydrogen bonds, more GC content results in
stronger binding and hence higher melting point.
Q. What are the different types of RNA found in the cell?
RNA molecules are of three types. They are messenger RNA (m-RNA), ribosomal
RNA (r-RNA) and transfer RNA (t-RNA).
Q. What products would be formed when a nucleotide from DNA containing thymine is
hydrolysed?
Hydrolysis of a nucleotide containing thymine yields the following products:
Pentose sugar – deoxy ribose, thymine and phosphoric acid.
Q. What products would be formed when DNA is hydrolysed completely?
Hydrolysis of DNA yields the following products:
(i) Pentose sugar – deoxy ribose (ii) Bases: Adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine and
(iii) Phosphoric acid.
Q. What products would be formed when RNA is hydrolysed completely?
Hydrolysis of RNA yields the following products:
(i) Pentose sugar – Ribose (ii) Bases: Adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil and (iii)
Phosphoric acid.
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Q. When RNA is hydrolysed, there is no relationship among the quantities of different

bases obtained. What does this fact suggest about the structure of RNA?
This indicates that RNA does not exist as double strand but exist as single strand.
Q. What are enzymes?
o Enzymes are naturally occurring proteins that increase the rate of biological
processes.
o Enzymes are generally named after the substrate molecule or the type of reaction.
For example, maltase is an enzyme that is named after the reactant since it
hydrolyses maltose to glucose.
o The enzyme oxidoreductase is named after the reaction since it catalyses
simultaneous oxidation of one substrate and reduction of another substrate.
Q. How do enzymes function?
Enzymes combine with the substrate molecule and create a new path in which the
activation energy is lowered and thus speeds up the reaction.
Q. What are vitamins?
The organic compounds other than carbohydrates, proteins and fats that are necessary
to maintain normal health, growth and nutrition are called vitamins.
Vitamin B and C are water soluble.
Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat soluble
Q. What are hypervitaminoses and avitaminoses?
When fat soluble vitamins are taken in excess, it leads to accumulation of these
vitamins in the body. It is known as hypervitaminoses.
Deficiency of one or more vitamins leads to deficiency diseases in human beings. It
is known as avitaminoses.
Q. Vitamin B and C must be supplied regularly in the diet. Why?
These vitamins are water soluble hence they are readily excreted in urine and cannot
be stored in our body.
Q. Why cannot vitamin C be stored in our body?
Vitamin C is water-soluble hence it is readily excreted in urine. Hence it cannot be
stored in our body.
Vitamins, their sources and their deficiency diseases:

Name Source Deficiency diseases

Vitamin A Fish, liver oil, carrots, butter and Xerophthalmia (hardening of
(Retinol) milk cornea of eye)
Night blindness.
Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green vegetables and Beri beri (loss of appetite,
(Thiamine) cereals retarded growth), disease of
nervous system
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Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, liver and kidney Cheilosis (fissuring at corners
(Riboflavin) of mouth and lips), digestive
disorders and burning
sensation of the skin.
Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk, cereals and Convulsions.
(Pyridoxine) grams.
Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and curd. Pernicious anaemia (RBC
(Cyanocobalamine) deficiency in haemoglobin)
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and green leafy Scurvy (bleeding gums)
(Ascorbic acid) vegetables
Vitamin D Exposure to sun light, fish and egg Rickets (bone deformities) in
(Calciferol) yolk. children and osteomalacia
(soft bones and joint pain) in
adults.
Vitamin E Vegetable oils. Increased fragility of RBCs
(Tocopherol) and muscular weakness.
Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting time.
(Phylloquinone)
Vitamin H (or) B7 Yeast, liver, milk Dermatitis and paralysis
(Biotin)
Hormones
Hormones are molecules that act as messengers between cells. These are produced by
endocrine glands and are transported by circulatory system.
Types of hormones based on structure:
(i) Steroid hormones: Estrogen and androgen.
(ii) Polypeptide hormones: Insulin and endorphin
(iii) Amino acid drivatives: Epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Functions of hormones:
(i) Glucagon increases the glucose level in blood by converting glycogen into glucose.
Insulin keeps the glucose level in blood within the limits. The two hormones together
regulate the glucose level in blood.
(ii) Epinephrine and norepinephrine mediate responses to external stimuli.
(iii) Thyroxine produced from thyroid gland is an iodinated derivative of amino acid
tyrosine. Very low level of thyroxine leads to hypothyroidism which is characterised by
lethargyness and obesity. Low level of iodine also leads to hypothyroidism and
enlargement of thyroid gland, Goitre. This condition is controlled by using iodised salts.
Very high level of thyroxine leads to hyperthyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid
glands.
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(iv) Steroid hormones produced by adrenal cortex are glucocorticoid and

mineralocorticoid. Glucocorticoid hormones control carbohydrate metabolism, modulate
inflammatory reactions and stress. Mineralocorticoid hormones control the level of
excretion of water and salt by kidney. If adrenal cortex does not function properly, it
results in Addison’s disease characterised by hypoglycemia, weakness and stress. It is
treated by using glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
Steroid hormones produced by gonads are responsible for secondary sexual
characteristics. Testosterone is produced in males and is responsible for secondary male
characteristics. Estradiol and progesterone are the main female sex hormones. Estradiol is
responsible for secondary female characteristics. Progesterone is responsible for
preparing the uterus for implantation of fertilised egg.
Q. What are the important functions of carbohydrates?
o The cell wall of bacteria and plants are made up of carbohydrates.
o Carbohydrates provide energy for plants and animals.
o Honey has been used as instant form of energy in ayurvedic system of medicine.
Q. Write two main functions of carbohydrates in plants.
o The cell wall of plants is made up of cellulose,a carbohydrates.
o Carbohydrates provide energy for plant growth.

1 An optically active compound having molecular formula C6H12O6 is found in two

isomeric forms A and B. when A and B are dissolved in water they show the
following equilibrium.
A Equilibrium mixture B
1120 52.20 190
(i) What are such isomers called?
(ii) Can they be called enantiomers? Justify your answer.
(iii) Draw the cyclic structure of isomer A in Haworth projection.
2 An optically active compound A of molecular formula C3H7NO2 can exist in three
forms depending on the pH of the medium.
(i) Structure of the compound A in aqueous medium. What are such ions called?
(ii) In which medium will the cationic form of compound A exist?
(iii) In alkaline medium, towards which electrode will the compound A migrate in
electric field?
3 What is glycylalanine and alanylglycine?
4 Glucose is soluble in water but cyclohexane is insoluble. Why?
5 Where does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg?
6 Classify the following into monosaccharide and disaccharide:
Ribose, 2-deoxyribose, maltose, galactose, fructose and lactose.
 17

7 Write the products formed when D-glucose reacts with the following. What
conclusion is drawn regarding the structure of glucose from these reactions?
(i) HI (ii) HCN (iii) NH2OH (iv) Br2 water (v) HNO3 (vi) Acetic anhydride
(vii) Tollen’s reagent
8 What are the limitations of open chain structure of glucose? Or
Enumerate the reactions of D-glucose which cannot be explained by its open chain
structure.
9 What is the effect of denaturation on the structure of proteins?
10 What are the common types of secondary structure of proteins?
11 What are the hydrolysis products of the following?
(i) Sucrose (ii) Lactose (iii) Maltose (iii) Glycogen (iv) Amylose
(v) Cellulose (vi) DNA (vii) RNA
12 Name the vitamins whose deficiency causes the following diseases.
(i) Scurvy (ii) Beri beri (iii) Rickets (iv) Pernicious anaemia