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Assessment of poultry egg liking scores using sighted and blind people

Article in Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture · October 2019

DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.10073

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Research Article
Received: 25 March 2019 Revised: 9 September 2019 Accepted article published: 10 October 2019 Published online in Wiley Online Library: 11 November 2019

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.10073

Assessment of poultry egg liking scores using

sighted and blind people
Adrian Stelmasiak,a Krzysztof Damaziak,b* Julia Riedel,b
̇
Zaneta Zdanowska-Sa̧siadek,c Mateusz Bucław,d Dariusz Gozdowskie
and Brygida Kruziñskab

Abstract
BACKGROUND: Of the 18 043 bird species, the eggs of only hen and quail are generally available to consumers. Thus people are
deprived of the opportunity to benefit from the huge diversity of eggs offered by nature. Poultry eggs can vary in their color of
albumen and yolk, smell, taste and texture. In this study, sighted and blind people were employed for sensory evaluation with
the aim of determining the preferences of consumers toward hard-boiled and scrambled eggs of different species of birds, and
whether the appearance of these eggs has an effect on the perception of other sensory impressions.

RESULTS: Sighted people differently evaluated the texture of both boiled and scrambled eggs as compared with blind people.
This was mainly because blind people largely used their sense of touch for evaluation. All other attributes of boiled eggs were
evaluated similarly by both groups of panelists, whereas those of scrambled eggs were evaluated differently.

CONCLUSION: The obtained results unequivocally demonstrated that differences in taste of scrambled eggs when served hot
are easier to evaluate than those of boiled eggs. On the basis of ranking by the sensory panel, it was established that eggs of
birds belonging to the order Galliformes are more preferred by consumers than those of duck and goose. By contrast, eggs
of ostrich and emu are characterized by unfavorable sensory profiles; moreover, the albumen of boiled ostrich eggs has an
unsightly appearance.
© 2019 Society of Chemical Industry

Supporting information may be found in the online version of this article.

Keywords: boiled eggs; human sense; scrambled eggs; sighted and blind consumers

INTRODUCTION
Production of consumer eggs is constantly growing. This is due
to increase in consumption of eggs, especially by the people of
developing countries.1 There are many reasons for increase in egg
consumption. First of all, eggs are one of the most nutritious food
products in the world. They contain all the substances needed
for health, including proteins, fats and vitamins. However, it is
not just the presence of various compounds that makes eggs a
great source of food, but the proportions of those compounds
as well. The amino acid composition of eggs is highly stable
and hence eggs are recognized as a good source of protein for
humans.2 In addition, restrictions placed on egg consumption due
to the high content of saturated fat and cholesterol were relaxed
in 2006.3
Although scientists outdo each other in the search for factors
affecting the quality of eggs by modifying the nutrition, genetic
structure and environmental conditions of birds, the chemical
composition of eggs remains stable and is not subject to these
modifications.4 Furthermore, sensory examinations of eggs are
usually aimed at demonstrating the lack of influence of an exper-
imental factor on the smell or taste of eggs. The qualitative fea-
tures of eggs remain unchanged regardless of dietary or envi-
the eggs of different species of birds have the same properties.
The most important factor that determines the quality of eggs is
the species of bird from which the eggs were obtained. The con-
tent and structure of proteins and fats that affect the nutritional
value and sensory parameters of eggs vary in different species
of birds.6,7
∗ Correspondence to: K Damaziak, Department of Animal Breeding and Pro-
duction, Poultry Breeding Division, University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
E-mail: krzysztof_damaziak@sggw.pl
a Department of Technique and Food Development, Division of Engineering in
Nutrition, University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
b Department of Animal Breeding and Production, Poultry Breeding Division,
University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
c Department of Animal Improvement, Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding
of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Magdalenka, Poland
d Department of Poultry and Ornamental Bird Breeding, Faculty of Biotech-
nology and Animal Husbandry, West Pomeranian University of Technology
Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland
e Department of Experimental Design and Bioinformatics, University of Life
421

ronmental modifications.5 This leads to a question of whether Sciences, Warsaw, Poland

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 www.soci.org
Of several domesticated species, chickens are used for produc-
tion of eggs for consumption around the world. The marginal
production of eggs of quail and duck is worth mentioning. Eggs
of other domesticated species are used exclusively for reproduc-
tive purposes. Eggs obtained from hen are dominant in the food
market not only because of their exceptional nutritional or sensory
properties but also for economic reasons. The many years of selec-
tion of birds for the production of eggs and the predisposition of
the species to high egg laying have led to the possibility that hen
eggs can be produced in large quantities and sold at a relatively
low price.8,9 However, consumers are showing increasing interest
in the quality of eggs of other bird species. This is due to their
desire to experiment with new flavors and other sensory impres-
sions and their growing awareness of the value of eggs as a food
product. In addition, the willingness to consume these less popular
eggs results from the greater interest of consumers in the welfare
of animals grown in intensive conditions and the conviction that
the quality of mass-produced products is poorer compared with
others.10
Considering all the above, this study aimed to identify eggs of
which of eight species of birds were evaluated to be better in
terms of smell, taste, tenderness and overall liking by panelists.
Owing to the fact that sight modifies the perception of other sen-
sory impressions, we considered to eliminate this factor (employ
blind panelists) in order to be able to better observe and get to
know the work of other senses in assessing the liking of poultry
eggs. Recently, it has been proven by several studies that congen-
ital visual acuity is compensated for by other sensory modalities.
According to Wong et al.11 and others,12,13 visual impairment con-
tributes to structural and functional reorganization of those areas
of the brain that mediate the integration of sensory information
needed to perceive the world, in particular food identification.
The information about the fact that sight modifies the percep-
tion of food is not new, as evidenced by the famous statement of
Apicius of 1936 ‘We eat first with our eyes.’14 However, it is only
recently that the meaning of these words has become more sci-
entific and has become the basis for targeted sensory research.
Until now, blind people have been employed in the experimen-
tal study of sensory quality of, inter alia, fruit15 and meat.16 The
aim of this study was to rank the assessed products in terms of
liking scores. Since the appearance of boiled and scrambled eggs
varies depending on the species of bird, we hypothesized that the
sensory evaluation of eggs by blind and sighted people will give
different.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sighted participants signed an informed consent prior to taking
part in the study, whereas blind participants gave an oral consent
̇
which was signed by a formal guardian, the Director of the Elzbieta
Rózȧ Czacka Society for the Care of the Blind in Laski (Izabelin,
Poland). Data obtained within the study have been protected in
accordance with the Security Policy assumed at the SGGW, Regu-
lation of His Magnificence Rector No. 88/2013 of 3 December 2013.
The study was approved by the Warsaw University of Life Sciences
Ethics Committee for Scientific Research with Participation of
People.
Panelists
Two groups of panelists took part in the study. The first group
422
was represented by 119 sighted persons, including 77 men and
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A Stelmasiak et al.
42 women aged 19–23 years. The participants were randomly
recruited by means of electronic mail and leaflets. Those volun-
teers who declared that their senses of smell and taste were not
weakened as a result of the course of a disease (e.g. cold, rhini-
tis), that they consumed eggs at least once a week and did not
have allergies to any of the constituents of products obtained from
animals, with particular reference to egg albumen allergy, were
selected for the study. The second group was represented by 106
people who were completely blind from birth, including 58 men
and 48 women aged 18–26 years. The participants were chosen
̇
from among the charges of the Elzbieta ̇ Czacka Society for the
Róza
Care of the Blind in Laski so that they would meet the same require-
ments that were established for the sighted people. Among the
blind participants, only those who had blindness as a congenital
defect and that did not correlate with other sensory disorders were
selected. The procedures and aim of the study were explained in
detail to the participants, as well as their guardians, especially the
staff of the Society for the Care of the Blind, during the training ses-
sion organized before the beginning of the study, so that they were
fully aware of the study purpose. The participants were trained
in accordance with the guidelines.17,18 They were informed that
the subject of the study was poultry eggs, but not about the bird
species.
Egg characteristics
Sensory features of eggs obtained from eight species of poultry
were analyzed in the study: four species of Galliformes – hen (Gal-
lus domesticus), turkey (Meleagris gallapavo), guinea fowl (Numida
meleagris) and quail (Coturnix japonica); two species of water-
fowl – muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) and goose (Anser anser
domesticus); two species of ratites – ostrich (Struthio camelus) and
emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae).
Before eggs were purchased, the producers were asked to collect
eggs from the last 2 days. The eggs were transported in containers
adapted for transport to the laboratory and were placed at room
temperature (18–22 ∘ C).
Egg preparation for sensory study
Two sessions with a 7 day time interval were held for each group
of panelists: the first for hard-boiled eggs and the second for
scrambled eggs.
Boiled eggs
Eggs were placed in pots filled with water at a temperature of
30 ± 2∘ C and boiled on a heating plate (Bonnet, Saone, France).
The boiling time was recorded from the point at which the tem-
perature of the water reached 98 ∘ C. As the weight of eggs was
different, the boiling time of eggs obtained from different species
also varied as follows: hen, 10 min; turkey, 15 min; duck, 15 min;
emu, 60 min; guinea fowl, 8 min; goose, 25 min; ostrich, 90 min;
quail, 4 min. The boiling process was started first with ostrich eggs,
which had the highest weight, and subsequently the eggs of other
species were added, so that the process ended simultaneously for
eggs of all species. After boiling, the hot water was poured out
and the eggs were chipped so as to break their shell and cooled in
ice water for 10–40 min depending on the species. Then the eggs
were left at room temperature for a further 15–30 min. The eggs
were peeled from the shells and cut into representative portions
just before serving. Each individual portion of a boiled egg con-
tained approximately the same amount of yolk and albumen. The
mass of samples was maintained at 10 g (close to 3/4 of the weight
of a quail egg).
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Assessment of poultry egg liking scores
Scrambled eggs
Owing to the large amount, the need for transport and the care
required to maintain the freshness of the eggs, the scrambled eggs
were prepared from frozen eggs. For this purpose, the eggs were
broken on a tray and the yolk was separated from the albumen.
Because the eggs differ significantly in the proportion of yolk
and albumen depending on the species, it was assumed that all
samples will be standardized in this respect, and an average hen
egg was accepted as the standard: 35% yolk and 65% albumen.
After separation and unification of the samples, the mass of yolk
and the mass of albumen were frozen in separate disposable
polypropylene bags at −22∘ C. After freezing, the material was
repacked using a vacuum packaging machine (99% vacuum is
equal to 1.3 kPa) (Edesa, Barcelona, Spain) and again placed at the
same temperature until analysis. At 24 h before the preparation
of scrambled eggs as planned, egg masses were placed in a cold
store at 4 ∘ C for thawing. The scrambled eggs were fried on a sterile
pan (Kuppersbusch KCO 0050, Gelsenkirchen, Germany), which
was first heated to about 120 ∘ C. Before pouring the egg mass,
half a cube (∼100 g) of unsalted butter containing 820 g kg−1 milk
fat (Łaciate Butter Extra) was dissolved in the pan. After butter
clarification, the yolk and albumen of eggs of specified species
were poured in. The total mass of eggs of a given species that was
prepared each time for each group of panelists was about 3 kg.
To the egg mass, 48 g (∼16 g kg−1 ) of table salt was added while
scrambling, and the scrambled eggs were continuously mixed in
the direction of the center of the pan with a sterile spatula. Mixing
was continued until no visible liquid remained (∼3 min). The
prepared scrambled eggs were placed in gastronorm containers
under the cover. The containers were put into bain-maries (water
temperature 60 ∘ C). Once taken out, samples weighing about
10 ± 2 g were served immediately.
Consumer testing
Tests were conducted in the laboratory of Warsaw University of
Life Sciences in individual stations. During the tests, a temperature
of 22 ± 0.5 ∘ C, automatically controlled by air conditioners, was
maintained in the laboratory. Incandescent lighting was about
500 lx.19 Five persons took part in an evaluation simultaneously,
with the exception that each blind person was accompanied by
a guardian.
For the first session (boiled eggs), each station was equipped
with a white plastic tray, on which eight white cardboard trays
were laid. Both sighted and blind people evaluated the boiled
eggs without using cutlery. In the second session (scrambled
eggs), the sighted people evaluated the samples on the same
white trays with white disposable spoons (Dart Container Corpo-
ration, Hogsback Road Mason, MI, USA). Blind people were given
scrambled eggs in cardboard cups along with spoons from the
same company, which allowed them to evaluate independently.
The trays (for all panelists) and cups (for blind persons) were num-
bered with the same three-digit code, in which the last digit indi-
cated a specific sample: 1, hen eggs; 2, turkey eggs; 3, duck eggs;
4, emu eggs; 5, guinea fowl eggs; 6, goose eggs; 7, ostrich eggs;
8, quail eggs. The order in which the samples were given for an
evaluation was maintained the same. After evaluating each sam-
ple, to neutralize the taste, the participants were asked to take a
sip of bitter, slightly cooled tea and a bite of wheat bread.20 The
sighted persons were given a pen and evaluation sheets to sys-
tematically complete during the test, whereas the blind persons
were given the same cards that were filled in by the guardians and
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cards prepared in Braille. Each card contained short instructions for
evaluation and a short definition of each attribute. The color of the
eggs (only for sighted participants), smell, taste, tenderness and
overall liking were evaluated for each sample. The evaluation was
carried out using a modified five-point hedonic scale (1 = dislike
extremely, 3 = neither like nor dislike, 5 = like extremely).21
Statistical analysis
For each trait, mean and standard deviation were calculated. Com-
parisons of means calculated for each variable between sighted
and blind people were conducted using the Mann–Whitney U
test. Means calculated for various types of eggs (species) within
each group of people were compared using Duncan’s multiple
range test at a probability level of 0.05. Multivariate comparisons
between sighted and blind people were conducted using mul-
tivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Multiple regression and
analysis of correlations were applied for evaluation of relation-
ships between all examined traits and overall liking for poultry
eggs. In addition, evaluation of multivariate differences in sensory
traits of the analyzed eggs was conducted using cluster analysis
based on the means calculated for the species of poultry. Square of
Euclidean distance was adopted as a measure of distance for stan-
dardized data, and grouping of objects (species) was conducted
with Ward’s method. Results were depicted in the form of dendro-
grams. The analyses were performed using Statistica 12.22
RESULTS
Generalized distance calculation by multivariate analyses
of eggs of all species based on sensory assessments
by sighted and blind people
Results of the MANOVA and pairwise comparison for all sensory
traits of analyzed eggs are presented in Table 1 for boiled eggs
and Table 2 for scrambled eggs. According to the MANOVA results,
there was no significant difference between boiled eggs of hen,
turkey and duck in sighted people rank. Boiled eggs of ostrich, emu
and goose were different from the eggs of all other poultry species
in terms of sensory characteristics, as well as among themselves in
the opinion of sighted people. Ratings given by the blind people
for the liking scores of boiled eggs showed significant differences
between emu and all other species, ostrich and hen, turkey, duck,
guinea fowl, quail and between goose and hen. Results of cluster
analysis (Fig. 1) showed that boiled poultry eggs were separated
into two very distinct groups. Both sighted and blind people
classified ostrich and emu eggs in one group and all other poultry
eggs in another group.
According to the results of MANOVA, in the case of sighted
people, differences were observed in the sensory attributes of
scrambled eggs between emu, ostrich, goose and hen, turkey,
duck, guinea fowl, quail also between ostrich and goose, goose
and emu and between hen and duck as well as guinea fowl.
Evaluation of sensory parameters of scrambled eggs by blind
people showed more variation. The liking scores of scrambled
eggs were different between hen and emu, guinea fowl, quail also
between turkey and duck, emu and between emu and ostrich.
The results of cluster analysis for scrambled eggs showed dif-
ferences in evaluation between sighted and blind people (Fig. 2).
Sighted people distinguished the poultry species into two groups
as follows: (1) goose, ostrich and emu; (2) quail, duck, guinea fowl,
turkey and hen. By contrast, blind people distinguished the poultry
eggs into three groups: (1) quail and emu; (2) guinea fowl, goose
423
and duck; (3) ostrich, turkey and hen.
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Table 1. Results of MANOVA (Wilks’ test) and multivariate pairwise comparisons based on F-test for traits of boiled eggs

MANOVA: F = 19.07, P < 0.001

Multivariate pairwise comparisons

P values (below diagonal)\F statistics (above diagonal)

Sighted people
Species Hen Turkey Duck Emu Guinea fowl Goose Ostrich Quail

Hen 0.34 0.99 47.59 2.65 9.92 34.65 4.31

Turkey 0.853 1.15 53.71 5.29 9.36 35.06 4.20
Duck 0.417 0.338 71.50 0.91 10.69 42.13 2.13
Emu <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 83.84 35.26 7.35 92.35
Guinea fowl 0.036 0.001 0.458 <0.001 15.43 45.38 1.88
Goose <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 14.06 17.92
Ostrich <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 54.49
Quail 0.003 0.003 0.081 <0.001 0.117 <0.001 <0.001
Blind people MANOVA: F = 5.55, P < 0.001
Multivariate pairwise comparisons
P values (below diagonal)\F statistics (above diagonal)
Species Hen Turkey Duck Emu Guinea fowl Goose Ostrich Quail
Hen 0.94 2.10 19.51 0.77 2.72 11.15 0.56
Turkey 0.453 0.85 13.29 0.87 1.65 6.75 0.88
Duck 0.099 0.501 12.71 0.37 0.60 4.40 0.91
Emu <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 16.16 7.00 3.09 20.51
Guinea fowl 0.553 0.493 0.827 <0.001 1.20 5.96 0.18
Goose 0.044 0.181 0.665 <0.001 0.328 1.98 1.84
Ostrich <0.001 <0.001 0.005 0.026 0.001 0.117 7.13
Quail 0.695 0.487 0.465 <0.001 0.947 0.141 <0.001

Evaluation of poultry egg color by sighted people
Of the eggs of all eight poultry species, boiled eggs of guinea fowl
were characterized by the most attractive color (Fig. 3, Table S1).
Scrambled eggs of guinea fowl were rated high but not signifi-
cantly higher than scrambled quail eggs. Eggs of emu and ostrich
were clearly rated the worst in terms of color, in both hard-boiled
and scrambled form; however, boiled ostrich eggs were rated bet-
ter compared with emu eggs.
Evaluation of poultry egg smell by sighted and blind people
In the case of sighted people, the best smell (Fig. 3, Table S2) was
noted for boiled eggs of quail, hen, turkey, duck and guinea fowl.
The smell of boiled eggs of emu and ostrich was evaluated as
statistically worse than the eggs of the mentioned poultry species.
Blind people rated the smell of boiled hen eggs as the best;
however, a significantly worse smell than hen eggs was found only
for emu and ostrich eggs. Sighted people liked most the smell of
scrambled eggs from hen, turkey, guinea fowl and quail. According
to their evaluation, the smell of scrambled eggs from water birds
(duck, goose) was comparable to the smell of scrambled eggs
from guinea fowl and quail, but much worse compared with
scrambled eggs of hen and turkey. The lowest ratings for smell
were given by the sighted panelists to scrambled ostrich eggs, with
slightly better ratings to scrambled emu eggs. The comparison of
scores given by sighted and blind people for the smell of eggs
showed that both groups of panelists similarly evaluated the smell
of boiled eggs of all poultry species, while in most cases (four
out of eight species) the smell of scrambled eggs was evaluated
424
Evaluation of poultry egg taste by sighted and blind people
Sighted people did not rate the taste differently between the
eggs of hen, turkey, duck, guinea fowl and quail, in both boiled
and scrambled form (Fig. 3, Table S3). Hen eggs had the highest
scrambled egg taste ratings by the blind people but were not
significantly different from the turkey and ostrich eggs. Blind
people assessed scrambled eggs from emu as the worst in terms of
taste. As in the case of smell, the sighted and blind people rated the
taste of the boiled eggs of all species at a similar level. Differences
in the perception of taste were observed in the case of scrambled
eggs of hen, goose and ostrich, which were rated higher by the
blind people.
Evaluation of poultry egg tenderness by sighted and blind
people
The sighted people distinguished the boiled eggs of quail and
guinea fowl as having the best tenderness, while emu eggs
were characterized worst tenderness, which was confirmed also
by the blind panelists (Fig. 3, Table S4). The texture of boiled
ostrich eggs was rated better (relative to emu eggs), but the rat-
ing was lower than that given for the texture of boiled eggs
of all other poultry species in the assessment of both sighted
and blind panelists. The highest and comparable ratings for the
texture of scrambled eggs were given to those of hen, turkey,
duck, guinea fowl and quail. The sighted people gave lower rat-
ings for the texture of scrambled goose eggs, but higher than
that given for the texture of scrambled eggs of ostrich and emu,
which were evaluated as the worst. Similarly to the sighted peo-
ple, blind people gave the highest ratings for the texture of

differently. scrambled eggs of hen, turkey, duck and guinea fowl, but also

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Table 2. Results of MANOVA (Wilks’ test) and multivariate pairwise comparisons based on F-test for traits of scrambled eggs

MANOVA: F = 6.24, P < 0.001

Multivariate pairwise comparisons
Sighted people P values (below diagonal)\F statistics (above diagonal)
Species Hen Turkey Duck Emu Guinea fowl Goose Ostrich Quail

Hen 1.60 3.11 13.88 3.31 6.11 13.9 1.67

Turkey 0.181 1.69 18.54 0.79 7.79 15.41 1.11
Duck 0.019 0.159 11.78 1.10 3.19 10.6 0.6
Emu <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 17.36 4.02 0.81 12.28
Guinea fowl 0.014 0.536 0.359 <0.001 5.11 14.43 0.58
Goose <0.001 <0.001 0.017 0.005 0.001 5.61 3.63
Ostrich <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.524 <0.001 <0.001 10.57
Quail 0.163 0.355 0.662 <0.001 0.675 0.009 <0.001
Blind people MANOVA: F = 1.54, P = 0.039
Multivariate pairwise comparisons
P values (below diagonal)\F statistics (above diagonal)
Species Hen Turkey Duck Emu Guinea fowl Goose Ostrich Quail
Hen 2.28 2.46 8.60 2.69 1.96 0.73 3.30
Turkey 0.080 2.82 5.38 1.66 0.95 1.19 2.01
Duck 0.063 0.040 1.69 0.68 0.26 0.65 0.20
Emu <0.001 0.002 0.175 1.59 1.86 3.95 0.47
Guinea fowl 0.047 0.182 0.609 0.198 0.54 0.99 0.66
Goose 0.123 0.446 0.901 0.140 0.705 0.56 0.33
Ostrich 0.576 0.330 0.628 0.009 0.428 0.692 1.04
Quail 0.021 0.114 0.934 0.761 0.623 0.855 0.400

similar ratings for scrambled eggs of ostrich and goose. Multi-
variate analysis showed differences in texture evaluation between
sighted and blind persons for both boiled and scrambled eggs
(Table 3).
Evaluation of overall liking for poultry eggs by sighted
and blind people
The highest scores for overall liking (Fig. 3, Table S5) of boiled
eggs were given by the sighted and blind people to those of
the same poultry species, i.e. hen, turkey, duck, guinea fowl and
quail, between which no differences were observed. Both groups
of panelists gave lower ratings for overall liking for boiled goose
eggs and the least ratings for boiled eggs of ostrich and emu. The
highest scores for the overall liking of scrambled eggs were given
by the sighted people to those of turkey, guinea fowl, hen and
quail. In the case of the blind people, highest scores for overall
liking of scrambled eggs were given to those of hen and turkey,
and the score for overall liking of scrambled turkey eggs was
comparable to those of scrambled eggs of ostrich, goose, guinea
fowl and duck. The obtained results did not show differences in
the evaluation of overall liking of boiled eggs of particular poultry
species by sighted and blind people. By contrast, the scores given
by blind people for overall liking of scrambled eggs of goose and
ostrich were higher compared with those given by sighted people.
The results of multivariate analysis showed that unlike boiled eggs,
sighted and blind people differently evaluated the overall liking of
scrambled eggs, which showed that sight may have a significant
impact on the general acceptance in the case of sighted people
(Table 3).
The multiple regression and correlation analyses (Table 3) of the
eggs and the other examined attributes showed that taste had
the greatest influence in the case of sighted people. Texture was
found to have a major effect on the overall liking of both boiled
and scrambled eggs in the case of sighted people, especially when
visual assessment notes were not taken into account. Color played
a smaller role in the overall liking of boiled eggs compared with
taste and tenderness, but a larger role compared with smell. In
the case of blind people, taste, followed by tenderness, had the
greatest influence on the overall liking of the eggs, similarly to the
sighted people. Smell did not play a significant role in the overall
liking of boiled and scrambled eggs in the case of blind people.
DISCUSSION
Sensory quality of poultry eggs on basis of sensory
perceptions of sighted and blind people
The obtained results indicate that the sensory perception of
sighted and blind people is different, but this strictly depends on
the type of product being evaluated. In the case of boiled eggs,
only the texture was differently evaluated in multivariate analysis
by the sighted and blind people, whereas all other sensory features
were evaluated similarly. On the contrary, all sensory attributes
of scrambled eggs were evaluated differently by the sighted and
blind people. The difference in the tenderness assessment of both
boiled and scrambled eggs indicates that blind people mainly use
the sense of touch when assessing food compared with sighted
people. However, this does not result from the innate abilities of
the blind people, but only from their more frequent use of the
sense of touch in everyday life to get to know the world, includ-
ing eating. It has been proven by several studies that, owing to
the frequent use, the sense of touch is more effectively used for
425

relationship between the overall liking of boiled and scrambled identification by blind people compared with the sense of sight by

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 www.soci.org A Stelmasiak et al.

Figure 1. Dendrograms based on cluster analysis using Ward’s method for examined traits (smell, taste, tenderness and overall liking) of hard-boiled eggs
of eight different poultry species.

Figure 2. Dendrograms based on cluster analysis using Ward’s method for examined traits (smell, taste, tenderness and overall liking) of scrambled eggs
of eight different poultry species.

sighted people.23,24 However, there was one exception in this study
that is worth noting: the texture of scrambled quail eggs was rated
lower by blind people (3.50) compared with the rating given by
sighted people (3.71), whereas the texture of scrambled eggs of all
other species was rated higher. This confirms the earlier observa-
tions of Sipos et al.,15 who analyzed the sensory quality of apples,
and Damaziak et al.,16 who analyzed the sensory quality of poul-
try meat. During the tests, an interesting observation was noted
that the blind people always began their sensory evaluation from
recognition through the touch of the fingers, although this was not
imposed on them. On the contrary, the sighted people completely
skipped this activity and immediately started the assessment of
the smell, as if the visual image of the product replaced the need
of an evaluation by the touch of hands. It is difficult to present
this observation in numbers, but it leads to an assumption that
blind people not only have a sharp sense of touch compensating
for their lack of vision, but also more often and accurately use this
sense, which gives them a manual experience.
The differences observed in sensory perception between sighted
426
not the boiled ones. Hence particular attention should be paid
to understand how heat treatment could affect the sensory qual-
ity of eggs. While trying to find an explanation for differences in
the perception of the smell and taste of boiled and scrambled
eggs, it would be reasonable to first analyze the smell and taste of
raw eggs, if these characteristics can be determined at all. Recent
studies demonstrate that raw eggs contain a lot of fragrant com-
pounds, but the concentration of organic volatiles in fresh eggs is
so low that it is virtually unnoticeable to humans.23 These com-
pounds, i.e. esters, alcohols, alkenes and nitrogen compounds,
are detected using specialized measuring tools such as gas chro-
matograph/mass spectrometer24 or electronic nose23 However,
this goes beyond the natural perceptual abilities of a human.
Because the detection of aroma compounds at such low concen-
trations as they occur in fresh, raw eggs has become technically
possible only relatively recently, no analysis has been made so far
as to what effect heat treatment may have on their concentration.
Presumably in the case of boiled eggs, these compounds should
remain unchanged until shell peeling and even egg cutting. Prob-

and blind panelists were primarily related to scrambled eggs, and ably, both the shell and the egg membranes effectively block the

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Assessment of poultry egg liking scores www.soci.org

Figure 3. Color, smell, taste, tenderness and overall liking of different poultry eggs based on evaluation by sighted and blind people. a–d Different letters
indicate significant differences between poultry eggs in sensory parameters as assessed by sighted panelists based on Duncan’s multiple range test at 0.05
level of significance. w–z Different letters indicate significant differences between poultry eggs in sensory parameters as assessed by blind panelists based
on Duncan’s multiple range test at 0.05 level of significance. *Significant differences between sighted and blind panelists. 1 Results based on MANOVA for
comparison of assessment by sighted and blind people for all types of eggs (all species).
427

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 www.soci.org A Stelmasiak et al.

Table 3. Results of multiple regression and analysis of correlations for relationships with poultry egg overall liking (for all types of eggs)

Boiled eggs Scrambled eggs

Results of multiple Results of analysis Results of multiple Results of analysis
regression of correlation regression of correlation
Parameter ba Pb rc Pd ba Pb rc Pd

Sighted people
Color 0.154 <0.001 0.673 <0.001 0.131 <0.001 0.602 <0.001
Smell e 0.042 0.056 0.532 < 0.001 0.155 <0.001 0.640 <0.001
f 0.056 0.014 0.169 <0.001
Taste e 0.627 <0.001 0.875 < 0.001 0.640 <0.001 0.886 <0.001
f 0.651 <0.001 0.652 <0.001
Tenderness e 0.210 <0.001 0.748 < 0.001 0.147 <0.001 0.719 <0.001
f 0.295 <0.001 0.216 <0.001
Blind people
Smell 0.037 0.376 0.323 <0.001 0.001 0.998 0.271 0.001
Taste 0.668 <0.001 0.829 <0.001 0.597 <0.001 0.719 <0.001
Tenderness 0.262 <0.001 0.647 <0.001 0.281 <0.001 0.541 <0.001
a Standardized partial coefficient of multiple regression.
b P value based on multiple regression analysis.
c Coefficient of correlation.
d P value based on analysis of correlation.
e Regression and correlations of all analysis traits for sighted people.
f Regression and correlations of sighted people analysis without color.

emission of volatile substances from the inside of the egg dur-
ing boiling. In addition, the content of active fragrant compounds
may be different in albumen and yolk. The boiled albumen, which
owing to the denaturation takes on a compact structure, can be
an effective barrier preventing the release of the yolk smell. There-
fore it seems interesting that in most studies on sensory quality of
eggs, only boiled eggs were analyzed. Raw eggs basically have no
taste, or rather the taste is indistinct and difficult to define, because
they are neither sweet nor sour or salty or bitter. It is also diffi-
cult to classify their taste as umami.25 Certainly, it is impossible
to sense the differences in species with the help of the taste of
raw eggs.26 The results obtained in this study suggest, therefore,
that boiling does not lead to significant sharpening of the smell or
taste of eggs. On the contrary, scrambling is a process that not only
contributes to the sharpening of the smell, which can already be
recognized as typical for scrambled egg of a bird species, but also
enhances the taste. This is mainly due to the fact that the scram-
bled egg is a mixture of albumen and yolk, and heat treatment
involves the direct contact of the air and both egg components.
Thus the volatile fragrances contained in the yolk and albumen
can be simultaneously released and mixed with each other. War-
ren et al.27 demonstrated previously that only scrambling causes
the overall impression, release of sulfur and sweetness which are
typical sensory parameters of scrambled eggs.
Significant differences observed in the perception of the sensory
properties of scrambled eggs between the sighted and the blind
people were probably related to the hot serving of the dish as well
as the use of butter and salt in the scrambling process. According
to Green,28 heating of food to temperatures above 30 ∘ C leads to
the intensification of poorly perceptible flavors, release of volatile
aromas and increase in the recognition of odors by orthonasal
sensing. Owing to the high content of milk fat, the use of butter
improves and strengthens the taste of the product.29 Salt was
found to improve the perception of product thickness, enhance
428
overall flavor while improving flavor intensity.30 This is mainly due
to the fact that salt contributes to the neutralization of bitter tastes
and reduces water activity in food products. Reduction in water
activity in turn enhances the taste and improves the volatility of
taste components.31 All of these factors affected the strengthening
of sensory stimuli of scrambled eggs. Therefore it seems that
scrambled eggs, and not boiled eggs, should be used as research
material for sensory evaluation of eggs. However, a small group of
people could also evaluate the sensory properties of boiled eggs
with great precision. During the consumer test, the confidence
and precision of one of the blind women was a huge surprise,
who after assessing the seventh sample of a boiled egg expressed
her dissatisfaction that among the samples in which there were
eggs of hen, duck and goose, indicating the number under which
they were coded, there was no quail egg. In fact, quail egg was
rated as the eighth. It can be assumed that in addition to the high
sensory sensitivity achieved by the lack of vision, the woman had
an above-average sensory memory referred to as the memory of
the senses.32 Everyone has a smaller or greater ability to memorize
sensory characteristics of some food products such as fruits and
vegetables, but not many people are able to remember the taste
and smell of eggs of several species of birds to the extent that they
can distinguish them.33,34
Ranking of sensory quality of poultry eggs
The eggs selected for analysis can be divided into three basic
groups in terms of their origin: eggs of Galliformes (hen, turkey,
guinea fowl and quail); eggs of waterfowl, Anseriformes (duck and
goose); eggs of Ratitae (ostrich and emu). Considering both the
groups of panelists and all the analyzed attributes, the eggs of
all species of Galliformes were rated high and at a very similar
level. In addition, the eggs obtained the highest scores for overall
liking. In the case of eggs of hen and quail, their high ratings

sweetness, mask metallic or chemical off-notes and round out the could be related to the fixed taste and smell which were known

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Assessment of poultry egg liking scores
to the panelists, as these are typical consumer eggs. High scores
attained by eggs of guinea fowl and turkey indicate that although
for economic reasons they are not popular as consumer eggs,
they are not inferior to the eggs of hen and quail in terms of
sensory value. The most interesting observation regarding sensory
quality of Galliformes eggs was that turkey eggs were given very
high scores, which among the eggs of the discussed species
contain the largest share of fat and cholesterol and the highest
energy value.35
In the assessment by panelists, eggs of duck and goose were
evaluated as average in terms of sensory profile. Their quality was
evaluated as lower compared with that of Galliformes eggs, but
was generally rated better compared with Ratitae eggs. These
results indicate that eggs of duck and goose can be successfully
used as an alternative to hen eggs in the production of mayon-
naise, biscuits, cakes as well as meat products.35,36 However, sen-
sory indicators of processed products prepared using eggs of duck
and goose may not be better than traditional ones.
Boiled as well as scrambled emu eggs and boiled ostrich eggs
were rated the worst. An exception was that a high rating was
given by blind panelists for scrambled ostrich eggs. In terms of
chemical composition, ostrich eggs have the highest share of
unsaturated fatty acids, which is positively correlated with high
sensory quality.37 It seems that the favorable profile of fatty acids
and the lack of the possibility of visual assessment resulted in
scrambled ostrich eggs achieving high scores, but it should also be
noted that high scores were given only by the blind people. The
sighted people rated all attributes of ostrich eggs as poor, which
was due to the unsightly appearance of the albumen. Egg con-
sumers are used to the chalky white color of egg albumen and its
characteristic consistency. On the contrary, the boiled albumen of
ostrich egg white is translucent/glassy with a characteristic yellow
color. In addition, the structure and color of the scrambled albu-
men, which is grayish, also deviate from those of all others and do
not look appealing. It is difficult to explain why ostrich egg albu-
men attains such characteristics after heat treatment and appears
different from the eggs of all other species discussed. Interest-
ingly, the factors determining the color of yolk and egg shell are
the subject of interest to many scientists, as evident in numerous
studies.38–40 However, no one has reported on the factors affect-
ing the color of boiled or scrambled egg albumen thus far. Perhaps
the focus on the more popular hen or duck eggs, which have pure
white albumen, indicates that this feature is generally accepted
as a standard for bird eggs and does not allow variation. Regard-
less of what factors really affect the appearance of the cut egg
albumen, it is certain that they are dependent on the bird species
and directly affect the sensory assessment to a significant extent.
The results obtained in this study clearly indicate that both boiled
and scrambled ostrich eggs are not preferred by consumers, but
this is related to the unsightly appearance of the albumen, which
however does not negatively affect the taste, as evidenced by the
high scores given for scrambled eggs by the blind people. The fact
that the sensory profile of ostrich eggs is accepted by consumers
if they do not see the eggs is proven by the results of the study
by Abu-Salem and Abou-Arab.41 These authors demonstrated that
the mayonnaise prepared using ostrich eggs was rated better in
terms of sensory properties and was more acceptable by panelists
than the traditional one prepared using hen eggs. On the contrary,
products made from emu eggs demonstrated poor sensory qual-
ity, similar to the results observed for boiled and scrambled emu
eggs in this study. Takeuchi and Nagashima42 showed that the cake
made of emu eggs was pale and more fragile compared with the
J Sci Food Agric 2020; 100: 421–430 © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry
www.soci.org
cake made of hen eggs, and therefore emu eggs are not suitable for
the production of food products that are required to have integrity
and adhesion. Moreover, the authors noticed that the yolk of emu
eggs strongly fades during boiling, while the albumen becomes
more transparent.42 In our study, the albumen of boiled emu egg
was not transparent and looked similar to the boiled egg albu-
men of other species, while the boiled egg yolk lost its intense
color to such an extent that it could be compared to slightly yellow
cheese curd. Similar observations were noted for scrambled eggs,
in which, after frying, the yolk color was not significantly different
from the color of the albumen. Altogether, the results of evaluation
of the described sensory features lead to the conclusion that eggs
of Ratitae birds (ostrich and emu) are not preferred by consumers
for direct consumption, and also in preparation of processed prod-
ucts (emu).
In conclusion, owing to their strong sensory sensitivity, blind
people can play an important role in assessing the liking of food
products, including eggs. To a large extent, blind people evaluate
the liking of products with the help of their sense of touch,
both using hands and through biting and chewing, so that they
can evaluate food products without being influenced by their
appearance. In the future, it would be reasonable to carry out a
study to identify those blind people who, apart from their keen
sensory senses, have an above-average sensory memory. As might
be expected, such people are very few, but could be invaluable and
least subjective in the sensory evaluation of food products.
The obtained results showed that in the case of boiled eggs
it is difficult to determine the sensory liking, since their sen-
sory attributes, as long as they are not affected by factors such
as storage time, are poorly perceptible. The sensory profile of
eggs was perceived to be better when the eggs were prepared
in scrambled form and served to the panelists at a temperature
above 30 ∘ C. The eggs of birds belonging to the order Galliformes
were distinguished on the basis of attributes such as color, smell,
taste, tenderness and overall liking; thus consumer preferences
regarding the liking of eggs are consistent with economic pref-
erences on the food market. Ostrich and emu eggs were not pre-
ferred for direct consumption. However, our study demonstrated
that numerous properties of eggs of Ratitae birds are yet to be
explored further. Therefore, from the scientific point of view, it
will be important in the future to investigate the mechanisms
that cause the unusual appearance of the albumen of boiled
ostrich eggs and the loss of dyes from the yolk of heat-treated
emu eggs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the management, employees and
̇
charges of the Elzbieta ̇ Czacka Society for the Care of the Blind
Róza
in Laski, Izabelin, Poland for their great kindness, the opportunity
to conduct the study and their willingness to cooperate, and in
particular the nun Benita Hadamik for her help in coordinating the
study with the charges and for the adaptation and preparation of
sensory evaluation cards in Braille.
The research leading to these results was funded by the Faculty
of Animal Science and Faculty of Human Nutrition and Consumer
Sciences of Warsaw University of Life Sciences.
SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Supporting information may be found in the online version of this
429
article.
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 www.soci.org
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