Intelligent Transportation Infrastructure, 2023, 1–8

https://doi.org/10.1093/iti/liad020
Research Article

Research on key technologies for intelligent and

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fine-grained construction of earth–rock dams based on
artificial intelligence
1,2
Biao Liu , Xiaohui Gong3 , Tao Meng3 , Yufei Zhao1,2, *
1 State Key Laboratory of Simulation and Regulation of Water Cycle in River Basin, China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, A-1, Fuxing

Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100038, China

2 Department of Geotechnical Engineering, China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, A-1, Fuxing Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100038, China
3 Xinjiang Xinhua Yarkant River Basin Water Resources and Hydropower Development Co., Ltd., Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region, Kashgar 844000, China

*Corresponding author: Department of Geotechnical Engineering, China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing 100038, China.
Email: zhaoyf@iwhr.com

Abstract
High dam construction is continuing to develop with new requirements for intelligent dam construction. New information technology
capabilities are providing paths for improved intelligent dam construction. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the key
technologies employed in the intelligent construction process of earth–rock dams. Starting with the multidimensional perception tech-
nologies and equipment utilized in earth–rock dam filling construction, it covers various aspects, such as the fine-grained management
of unit construction based on building information modeling, rapid detection and qualification testing of dam materials’ physical
characteristics, fast perception technology for material compaction, and unmanned driving technology for dam compaction equipment.
Additionally, this paper highlights an overview of the existing technical challenges and future prospects in intelligent construction for
earth–rock dams. These research results provide important references and lessons for the construction and development of high earth–
rock dam engineering.

Keywords: artificial intelligence, rolled earth–rock dam, intelligent detection of gradation, BIM model, rapid assessment on compaction
quality.

With the rapid development of information technologies, such

1. Introduction
Earth–rock dams are important hydraulic structures for current
water resources and hydropower development. They are increas-
ingly favored as the preferred dam type in China’s water resources
and hydropower projects due to their advantages such as local
material availability, cost-effectiveness, adaptability to deforma-
tion, high construction efficiency, excellent seismic performance,
and low carbon footprint. This preference is particularly evident
in regions with steep valleys, thick cover layers, frequent earth-
quakes, and abundant rock and soil materials, where earth–rock
dams are the optimal choice for water resources and hydropower
development. The quality of earth–rock dam construction directly
affects the safety and stability of dam operations, serving as a
crucial foundation for ensuring the full play of the socioeconomic
benefits of water resources and hydropower projects. Continuous
improvement of the quality control and dynamic management
of earth–rock dam construction is a critical area of research
in geotechnical engineering and construction technologies for
earth–rock dams. In recent years, with the construction of a series
of ultra-high dams, traditional construction methods and evalu-
ation approaches have become inadequate, and the digitalization
of dam construction has shown strong development momentum.
as cloud computing, the Internet of Things, and big data, the
construction quality, efficiency, and management of dams have
significantly improved by leveraging these advanced information
technologies. In China, the construction technology for earth–rock
dams has gone through stages of mechanization, automation, and
digitization. At present, the construction of earth–rock dams has
entered a phase of intelligent transformation, facilitated by these
advanced information technologies.
With the advancement of technology and research, compre-
hensive monitoring systems for dam compaction have been
widely applied (White et al. 2010, 2011; Zhong et al. 2018).
Zhong et al. (2009, 2011) fully considered the practical needs
of the construction of a high core wall rockfill dam, put
forward real-time monitoring indicators of compaction quality
and construction control standards in the rolling process, and
established a real-time monitoring system for compaction by
combining the Global Positioning System (GPS), General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS), PDA technology, automatic information
collection, and a graphic algorithm for visualizing the compaction
process. Its successful application in the Nuozhadu Project
demonstrates the effective control of compaction parameters and
ensures better construction quality. The successful application of

Received: June 29, 2023. Revised: October 16, 2023. Accepted: October 16, 2023

© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press and Southwest Jiaotong University.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which
permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 | Liu et al.
the digital dam intelligent compaction monitoring system in the
Nuozhadu Hydropower Station also signifies a new stage in the
development of digital dam intelligent compaction monitoring
systems. Chen et al. (2019) have developed unmanned driving
technology for compaction in dam construction that does not
require changes to the construction machinery’s hydraulic circuit,
electrical control system, and mechanical structure. Combined
with their real-time intelligent monitoring system for earth–rock
dam compaction parameters, they have achieved fine-grained
control throughout the entire process of dam compaction. This
technology has been successfully applied in the construction of
the Chushandian Reservoir in China, validating its applicability
and effectiveness. Huang et al. (2018) have developed a monitoring
system based on GNSS technology, wireless data communication,
the Internet of Things, and computer technology. This system
provides real-time monitoring of compaction parameters on the
working surface, including compaction tracks, compaction passes,
compaction speed, and layer thickness. By monitoring these
parameters, they have achieved control over the compaction
quality of the face rockfill dam. The feasibility and robustness of
the developed monitoring system have been verified in the face
rockfill dam of the Shuibuya Project in China. The practice has
demonstrated that this system provides a new and effective pro-
cess control method for compaction construction in dam projects.
It enables real-time, accurate, and automated monitoring of
compaction parameters, ensuring better construction quality.
An unmanned compaction system for the construction process
had been developed, including an on-site unmanned compactor
based on autonomous driving technology, a real-time dynamic
global positioning satellite system, a wireless communication
system, and a real-time remote monitoring center based on
the client/server model (Zhang et al. 2019b). The successful
application of this system in the dam compaction of the Qianping
Reservoir verifies its control effectiveness and superiority. The
system exhibits high automation, precision, efficiency, and
reliability, eliminating the inf luence of human factors and
ultimately improving the compaction quality and construction
efficiency of earth–rock dams. Liu et al. (2014) proposed a method
by combining the compaction values and compaction parameters
to achieve rapid and continuous evaluation of compaction
quality across the entire construction area. This method provides
timely feedback to the construction unit, effectively avoiding
quality defects and improving the construction quality of earth–
rock dams. In summary, with advancements in technology
and research, various research teams led by experts and
scholars have developed intelligent monitoring systems for dam
compaction. These systems enable real-time monitoring and
control of compaction parameters, ensuring the construction
quality of earth–rock dams. They incorporate technologies such
as GPS, wireless communication, autonomous driving, and
data visualization to achieve precise, automated, and efficient
monitoring. The successful application of these systems in
practical dam construction projects validates their effectiveness
and contributes to the continuous improvement of construction
quality in the field of earth–rock dams.
In recent years, with the rapid development of intelligent infor-
mation technology, intelligent monitoring systems for dam com-
paction during construction have been widely researched and
applied in dam quality control. These systems enable fine-grained
control of the entire compaction process and provide strong data
support for real-time evaluation of compaction quality across the
entire construction area. The intelligent compaction monitoring
system for dams has evolved and matured over time. It has
focused on several key areas, including fine management of dam
construction using building information modeling (BIM)-based
unit engineering, rapid detection and qualification testing of dam
material’s physical characteristics, quick sensing of compaction
degree for dam materials, and unmanned driving technology for
dam compaction construction equipment. These advancements
have greatly enhanced the efficiency and effectiveness of dam
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construction. This paper systematically summarizes the develop-
ment process and research progress of intelligent construction
for earth–rock dams. From the perspective of key technologies
in hydraulic engineering intelligent construction, it provides a
detailed introduction to the latest research progress and engineer-
ing practices in dam intelligent construction. Based on the current
research progress in this field, the paper discusses the technical
challenges and prospects of applying artificial intelligence meth-
ods in intelligent construction for hydraulic engineering.
2. Key technologies for intelligent and
fine-grained construction of earth–rock
dams
2.1 Technology of fine-grained management of
unit construction based on BIM model
Currently, BIM technology has become a widely used tool
by design and construction units in water conservancy and
hydropower projects. The structure model generated using BIM
technology is a multidimensional information model based on
a 3D geometric model, and it has evolved into a fundamental
technology in the informatization process of various industries
(Moayeri et al. 2017). Through the application of BIM technology,
it is possible to achieve proactive prediction in improving
production efficiency, reducing construction risks, minimizing
construction errors, accurately organizing and allocating per-
sonnel, and effectively controlling construction progress and
duration (Jia et al. 2022). In the construction process of water
conservancy and hydropower projects, particularly in dam
construction, establishing a BIM model for conventional water
conservancy hub dams based on relevant design information
serves not only as the foundation for the overall construction
design but also as a scientific basis for design units to develop
construction schedules for dam filling.
Integrating the BIM model obtained during the design phase of
the project with the construction environment model formed by
unmanned aerial vehicles, high-precision remote sensing images,
and other data, the BIM model can be further refined by standard-
ization and lightweight processing. This enables cloud-based BIM
model visualization, detailed decomposition, regeneration, and
real-time rendering based on construction data. It truly achieves
the digital twin of the construction process, providing an essential
foundation for intelligent and information-based management
during the operation phase of the project.
The model established by the design unit is combined, and
the model is standardized and lightweighted. First, the dam BIM
model is processed through format conversion, transforming it
into a format that can be directly loaded and parameterized for
decomposition and generation on a cloud-based browser, enabling
standardized generation and display of detailed models. Building
upon the inherited BIM model from the design unit, the main dam
model undergoes lightweight processing while retaining essential
structural information. Additionally, since the dam foundation
and slope rock masses are not extensively involved in the dam
construction process, the rock mass features adjacent to the dam
 Key technologies for intelligent and fine-grained construction
Figure 1. 3D terrain model constructed using GIS maps from the Google
Earth.
do not need to be displayed in the form of a BIM solid model in the
cloud. Therefore, in the real-time monitoring system for the con-
struction process of a hydraulic hub dam, the open Google Earth
system’s geographic information system (GIS) map (as shown in
Fig. 1) is used for cloud processing, allowing the dam BIM model
and GIS map to be coupled based on actual coordinates, forming
a comprehensive model that can be utilized and displayed during
the construction process.
The real-time intelligent monitoring system for dam construc-
tion, established in the previous sections of this paper, com-
bined with the cloud-deployed BIM model, enables real-time and
detailed management of each unit project during the soil and rock
dam construction. In the construction process, the management
follows a hierarchical structure of the unit project—sub-project—
division project, based on the actual division of the dam body. Tak-
ing the example of the Dashimen Water Reservoir Project, the dam
body can be considered as a unit project. Based on the division of
dam materials, it can be further divided into subprojects such as
asphalt concrete core wall, upstream and downstream transition
materials, upstream and downstream gravel shell materials, and
bank slope transition materials. For the Dashimen Water Control
Project, the BIM model on the web platform is finely divided
according to different dam materials and corresponding codes.
The division is based on the following criteria: for each subproject,
corresponding to its unit project in the design BIM model, a
detailed division is carried out. The division of fill layers for the
asphalt concrete core wall, upstream and downstream transition
materials, upstream and downstream gravel shell materials, and
bank slope transition materials is set at 30, 30, 80, and 30 cm,
respectively. The fill ranges for different divisions are determined
based on the actual model. Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of
real-time process management using the BIM model in the dam
construction of the Dashimen Water Control Project, as applied
by our research team.
In the actual process of dam construction, it is possible to
create the outline of a specific unit project based on real-time
parameters of the dam construction process. By utilizing the real-
time parameters, the outline of the unit project can be generated
to represent the actual construction progress. This outline is then
combined with the established design model of the dam using
Boolean operations to achieve a detailed cutting and generate
the construction unit or the construction face of the dam filling
process. The relevant construction information collected dur-
ing the dam compaction process is displayed within this model.
Figure 3 illustrates the display of the relevant layers of the actual
construction unit. Alternatively, the actual filling data can be used
to replay and showcase the dam construction process based on
the concept of a timeline. It allows for the selection of a specific
time period to view and display the results of the filling process.
| 3
2.2 Rapid grading and qualification testing of
dam materials
In the construction process of earth–rock dams, different-sized
dam materials are mixed in certain proportions and compacted
using various compaction techniques to achieve the required
density, meeting the demands of the upper structure on the fill
material. The particle size distribution of the earth–rock dam
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material directly affects the compaction quality of the fill mate-
rial. The real-time and accurate grading testing is crucial for qual-
ity control in dam construction. Traditionally, the grading char-
acteristics or particle composition of earth–rock dam materials
are determined using sieve analysis after the compaction process.
However, this traditional method is time-consuming, cannot pro-
vide real-time monitoring of the grading during the compaction
process, and does not allow for timely adjustment of compaction
parameters based on the grading parameters. This approach is
not conducive to quality control of dam material before construc-
tion and quality management during the construction process.
Therefore, researching real-time grading testing methods for dam
materials is an effective approach to ensure efficient evaluation
of dam construction quality. In recent years, many researchers
have conducted extensive studies on the analysis and parameter
extraction of particle composition characteristics in earth–rock
dam materials using digital image processing techniques. They
have accumulated rich experience and provided a solid foun-
dation for the development and research of image recognition
technology for grading of earth–rock dam materials.
The utilization of image recognition technology for macro-
scopic and microscopic shape feature analysis of particles origi-
nated in the 1960s. With the rapid development of computer tech-
nology, this technology was truly applied to the analysis of particle
shape, size, and composition ratio of soil and rock materials in
the 1990s. Over time, two main methods have been developed for
particle size analysis based on particle 3D shape capture and two-
dimensional 2D shape feature extraction and transformation. The
3D shape capture method based on particle morphology often
employs 3D laser scanning technology to quantify the actual
shape of particles (Haas et al. 2002; Komba et al. 2013; Mgangira et
al. 2013; Le Pen et al. 2013; Tian 2017). This algorithm exhibits high
robustness, and previous studies have shown that it is more accu-
rate and effective compared to 2D shape quantification methods
(Lee et al. 2007). However, this method requires precise equipment,
incurs high costs, involves complex operations, and has low detec-
tion efficiency, making it more suitable for laboratory environ-
ment testing rather than complex field construction inspections.
On the other hand, the 2D image-based shape feature extraction
and transformation method offers high detection efficiency and
simple operation. This method consists of two parts: particle 2D
image contour extraction and particle size distribution trans-
formation based on 2D shape features. It is suitable for on-site
particle size analysis in construction sites and has been studied by
numerous scholars. In terms of contour recognition, Amankwah
and Aldrich (2011) proposed a method combining mean shift
and watershed algorithms to identify particles in rock images,
demonstrating faster speed and better robustness compared to
standard methods. Bai et al. (2021) employed gradient watershed
for presegmentation, K-nearest neighbor algorithm for region
merging to avoid oversegmentation, and convex hull algorithm
for segmenting adhesive particles to avoid undersegmentation,
achieving a segmentation error less than 3 per cent compared
to manual segmentation and exhibiting good reliability. Qiao et
al. (2021) introduced an instance segmentation model based on
attention mechanism. The model used a single-shot detection
4 | Liu et al.
Figure 2. Real-time process management using BIM model.
Figure 3. Display of the actual construction of the downstream gravel and rock fill layer.
framework for object detection and U-Net network for semantic
segmentation. Attention mechanisms were applied in both the
detection and segmentation modules to focus on task-related
features, providing a new approach for visual recognition and
statistical analysis of rock fragment size distribution during tun-
nel boring machine excavation. Regarding size distribution trans-
formation, Wang et al. (2007) achieved fast detection of coarse
aggregate 3D digital image grading by introducing the particle
thickness-to-width ratio and conversion coefficients between cir-
cular and square sieves. The proposed method demonstrated high
accuracy and universality for different types of rock materials and
gradations. Lyu et al. (2019) utilized the independently developed
SMAS digital image analysis system to perform microstructure
analysis on collected images of sand particles. They used the
particle equivalent diameter (equivalent area circle diameter)
and particle area to equivalently represent the particle size and
mass of actual soil particles, achieving particle size distribution
analysis through transformation. Zhang et al. (2013) found that
using the short axis of an equivalent ellipse and the width of the
best-fit matrix are the most suitable parameters for representing
the particle size of coarse particles, with an accuracy of over
85 per cent. Existing research reveals that many scholars have
established relationships between particle planar morphologi-
cal features and 3D volumetric features to achieve particle size
distribution transformation and quantification. Various methods
for quantitative solution exist, all of which have shown certain
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practical effectiveness. However, the advantages and disadvan-
tages of applying these methods to solve particle size distribution
in actual engineering scenarios for soil and rock materials in dam
construction have not been thoroughly discussed and require
further analysis and exploration.
2.3 Fast perception technology for material
compaction
In response to the limitations of direct methods for measuring
compaction density, many researchers have proposed the use of
compaction sensing technology, specifically the use of on-board
compaction monitoring devices, as an indirect method to assess
the compaction characteristics of dam materials in real-time.
This approach aims to improve the efficiency of quality control in
earth–rockfill construction projects. The research on compaction
sensing technology initially started in the context of quality
control for road subbase materials, and the corresponding detec-
tion equipment and techniques have been applied in highway
construction for several decades. Researchers install monitoring
devices on compaction machinery to collect signals related to
the vibration characteristics of the compaction roller, such as
harmonic frequencies and accelerations. These signals are then
analyzed and processed from different perspectives to obtain
monitoring indicators that assess the real-time compaction
state of the materials, such as subgrade soil, granular soil, and
 Key technologies for intelligent and fine-grained construction
asphalt (Thompson and White 2008; Vennapusa et al. 2010;
Vennapusa and White 2016). With the advancement and
integration of modern sensor technology, computer technology,
and GPS technology, it has become possible to collect, transmit,
and visualize various compaction indicators in real-time. This
has led to the development of Roller-Integrated Compaction
Monitoring (RICM) technology. RICM technology serves as a tool
for assessing the quality of compacted materials and offers
significant potential for on-site control of construction processes
to meet compaction quality standards. In foreign studies, the
focus has been on applying RICM technology to road construction
and establishing the correlation between selected RICM indicators
and the properties of compacted materials and construction
operation parameters (Rinehart et al. 2012). In recent years, with
the rapid development of the hydropower industry in China, the
application of RICM technology in quality control for compaction
during earth–rockfill dam construction has gradually increased.
In the quality control process of earthwork compaction in
engineering projects, researchers have proposed three types of
RICM indicators based on different assumptions and analysis
methods:
(1) Indicators derived from acceleration analysis of vibration
signals. From the frequency domain analysis of vibration signals:
In 1978, Geodynamik and Dynapac companies from Sweden first
proposed the compaction meter value (CMV), which is a frequency
domain analysis indicator based on the vibration acceleration of
the roller. CMV is defined as the ratio of the acceleration ampli-
tude A2Ω corresponding to the first harmonic component of the
vibration signal to the acceleration amplitude AΩ corresponding
to the fundamental frequency of the vibration signal (Sandström
and Pettersson 2004). Experimental studies have verified the close
correlation between CMV and soil properties and mechanical
parameters of compacted soil (White and Thompson 2008). In
2002, Sakai company from Japan utilized acceleration sensors
installed on the drum to monitor the interaction between the
roller and the material and introduced a new indicator called
continuous compaction value (CCV). CCV considers not only the
acceleration amplitudes AΩ and A2Ω corresponding to the fun-
damental and first harmonic components of the signal but also
the acceleration amplitudes A0.5Ω at the locations of secondary
harmonics and A1.5Ω , A2.5Ω , A3Ω at the locations of higher har-
monics (Nohse and Kitano 2002; Mooney and Adam 2007). In
2008, Rinehart and Mooney considered the inf luence of higher
harmonic components of the acceleration signal and proposed
total harmonic distortion (THD) as a highly sensitive indicator to
evaluate the compaction state of soil materials. The larger the
THD, the greater the compaction density of the material, indicat-
ing the presence of higher harmonic components in the collected
roller vibration acceleration signal (Rinehart and Mooney 2008). In
2014, Liu et al. introduced a comprehensive compaction indicator
CV to characterize the compaction state of soil and rock dam
materials. CV is defined as the ratio of the acceleration amplitude
of the second harmonic component to the amplitude of the funda-
mental component of the collected vibration signal. Experimental
research revealed a strong correlation between CV and com-
paction parameters and quality, and a corresponding on-board
real-time monitoring device was developed to achieve continuous
and rapid evaluation of the compaction degree of dam materials
at any position in the filling and compaction work bin (Liu et al.
2014). In 2017, Zhang et al. (2017) proposed a roller-integrated
acoustic detection technique for coarse-grained materials and
adopted sound compaction value as an indicator to characterize
the compaction quality of the material. They also developed a
| 5
continuous compaction control acoustic detection system. The
abovementioned researches started mainly with the study of sub-
grade filling material, where the technology has been relatively
mature, and are subsequently applied to evaluate the compaction
assessment of earth–rock dam materials. The accuracy of the
compaction quality evaluation is high for fine-grained materials.
In the presence of large-sized and hard dam materials in the
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compacted materials, the above monitoring indexes will show a
sharp increase in the spectral analysis value, which will cause
misjudgment of the compaction condition of the dam materials.
From the time-domain analysis of vibration signals: Hua et al.
(2018) proposed continuous compaction indicators based on the
analysis of roller vibration acceleration signals. These indicators
include peak acceleration (ap), root mean square acceleration
(arms), and crest factor (CF). CF combines the dimensionless accel-
eration indicators ap and arms to describe the ability of a roller
to produce peak acceleration, which represents the maximum
reactive force exerted by the soil on the roller. The effect of the
unevenness of the dam material on CF is relatively small, and
CF index best characterizes the compaction degree of the rockfill
material .
(2) Indicators derived from mechanical analysis: Since 2002,
scholars from various countries have shifted their research on
compaction monitoring techniques from harmonic ratio analysis
indicators to indicators with mechanical significance, focusing
on the interaction between vibrating rollers and compacted soil
materials from a mechanical theory perspective. AMMANN com-
pany considered the interaction between the vertical vibration
of the soil–wheel–frame system and proposed the compaction
indicator KB, which represents the stiffness of the soil (Kaufmann
and Anderegg 2008). Anderegg and Kaufmann (2004) validated a
strong correlation between KB and soil stiffness based on non-
linear and chaotic vibration theories. BOMAG company proposed
a compaction indicator Evib related to the deformation modulus
of compacted materials based on the interaction between the
vibration force generated by the drum and the penetration of the
steel wheel into the soil (White et al. 2005). Caterpillar company
in the United States uses machine drive power (MDP) as a mea-
surement indicator for soil compaction. MDP describes the energy
required by the roller to overcome motion resistance during the
compaction process and is closely related to the stiffness and
modulus of the material. When the material is relatively loose,
more energy is required to overcome the motion resistance. As
the material gradually compacts and gains higher stiffness, the
energy required to overcome the resistance decreases (Zhang
et al. 2019a).
2.4 Auto-driving technology for compaction
construction equipment in dams
Auto-driving-based intelligent compaction for dam construction
is a self-driving intelligent construction system. Its system
structure is highly complex, incorporating not only conventional
vehicle functions such as acceleration, deceleration, braking,
forward and reverse movement, and turning but also artificial
intelligence that enables environment perception, task planning,
path planning, vehicle control, and intelligent obstacle avoidance,
resembling human-like behavior. It is a complex dynamic system
that integrates visual and auditory information, consisting of
interconnected and interactive components such as sensing
systems, control systems, and execution systems. With the
development of computer technology and artificial intelligence
techniques (including system engineering, path planning and
vehicle control technology, vehicle localization technology,
6 | Liu et al.
real-time processing of sensor information, and multisensor
information fusion technology), auto-driving-based intelligent
compaction for dam construction has gradually been developed
and applied in engineering projects (Zhang et al. 2019).
By utilizing a combined Browser/Server (B/S) and Client/Server
(C/S) technological architecture, the reliability of autonomous
driving technology in dam compaction construction has been
greatly enhanced (Zhang et al. 2021). This is achieved through
a web-based cloud platform on the client-side, which facilitates
the planning and dispatching of compaction tasks for the con-
struction machinery f leet. Additionally, portable digital terminals
are used on-site to receive construction equipment tasks, perform
performance self-checks, enable real-time safety monitoring, and
facilitate emergency stop controls. This integration of technolo-
gies significantly improves the reliability of autonomous driving
in dam compaction construction processes.
During the compaction construction process, path planning for
rolling is one of the core tasks in intelligent compaction for dam
filling. Through the cloud server, compaction tasks are scheduled
and allocated in a unified and reasonable manner based on
the requirements of the compaction operation and the status
of the compaction equipment. This enables an organized, safe,
and efficient autonomous rolling process. The planned paths are
transmitted wirelessly to the onboard unmanned driving control
system, which monitors the compaction equipment in real-time
to ensure it travels along the planned path (Zhang et al. 2023).
Based on the research results in high-precision satellite navi-
gation technology, autonomous real-time environmental percep-
tion technology, and intelligent mechanical control systems, an
unmanned driving system for compaction machinery in dam
filling has been developed. This system incorporates features
such as compaction route planning, construction environment
monitoring, obstacle avoidance, and emergency remote control
parking. It can strictly adhere to specified construction param-
eters and offers convenient installation and debugging of the
driving mechanism. The system allows for seamless transition
between conventional driving and autonomous driving, effec-
tively improving working conditions for construction personnel
and providing advanced means for the advancement of construc-
tion techniques. The system has been successfully applied in
the compaction construction of the Chushan Reservoir project
(Chen et al. 2019).
3. Technical challenges and prospects in
intelligent construction of earth–rock dams
In recent years, significant breakthroughs have been made in
the intelligent construction of earth–rock dams. However, there
are still some technical challenges that need to be addressed,
particularly in the rapid identification of aggregate grading and
the quick assessment of compaction quality. Further research
combining algorithms is required to facilitate the application of
intelligent construction in water conservancy engineering.
(1) The intelligent perception of aggregate grading character-
istics in earth–rock dams is currently inadequate. Real-time and
accurate grading detection plays a crucial role in assessing the
qualification of dam materials and controlling compaction qual-
ity during construction. However, existing intelligent monitoring
systems for dam compaction often rely on sieve analysis to obtain
the aggregate grading parameters after compaction is completed.
These parameters are manually collected and entered into the
system, lacking the precompaction aggregate grading character-
istics. Moreover, the perception capability of image recognition
for aggregate grading characteristics is limited. Additionally, dig-
ital images only ref lect the exposed surface of the earth–rock
materials after spreading. The sizes of the earth–rock materials
obtained through planar image recognition, as well as the derived
aggregate grading curves, may deviate from the actual results
obtained through excavation and sieve analysis. Therefore, how
to utilize the particle size composition characteristics obtained
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from surface digital images and perform rational conversion and
analysis to obtain size features that accurately ref lect the three-
dimensional situation of the earth–rock materials remains an
unresolved issue in current digital image recognition technolo-
gies. Addressing this problem is crucial for the effective promotion
of digital image recognition technologies in practical engineer-
ing applications. The development of traditional image recogni-
tion techniques and deep learning-based image recognition tech-
niques has provided a theoretical basis and technical support for
image-based particle size detection in soil and rock materials.
(2) The sensing technology for compactness in dam materials is
currently inadequate. Existing techniques for indirectly assessing
the compaction quality of earth–rock materials in dams suffer
from drawbacks such as low evaluation accuracy, unclear physical
significance of compaction characterization, and susceptibility
to multiple factors. Although previous research achievements
have been widely applied in practical engineering, using existing
indicators, such as relative impact compaction measurement
(RICM), to indirectly evaluate the compaction quality of stone-
filled dam materials still faces issues of low evaluation accuracy,
unclear representation of compaction characteristics, and sensi-
tivity to multiple factors. For example, indicators derived from
frequency domain analysis of vibration signals, such as coefficient
of variation (CV), THD, and continuous maximum value (CMV),
are greatly affected by the particle grading of the compacted
materials. In particular, when large-sized and hard dam materials
are present in the compaction process, these monitoring indi-
cators may exhibit a sharp increase in spectral analysis values,
leading to misjudgments of the compaction status. White and
Thompson (2008) have investigated that the discreteness of CMV
values increases with increasing material particle size, and for
materials with large particle sizes, the measurement error caused
by this discreteness renders CMV unsuitable for practical needs.
Additionally, indicators derived from mechanical analysis, such
as unit volume compaction energy, do not sufficiently consider
the inf luence of material grading. For poorly graded materials,
achieving the same unit volume compaction energy does not
guarantee consistent compaction levels. Controlling compaction
quality based on such indicators can result in significant devi-
ations. Overall, the current sensing technology for compactness
is inadequate, and various RICM indicators have not been widely
applied in the indirect evaluation of the compaction quality of
stone-filled dam materials. There is a need to develop a real-
time, continuous, and accurate nondestructive testing method for
indirectly assessing the compaction quality of stone-filled dam
materials, particularly for materials with larger particle sizes and
block stones or gravel. This elastic wave velocity in earth–rock
is quite sensitive to variables such as in situ stress, density, and
moisture content but is not directly inf luenced by the particle
shape. Therefore, obtaining the compaction wave velocity during
dam rolling construction can be used as an indicator of the
compaction quality of the coarse-grained geomaterials.
(3) The universality of compaction quality assessment models
is limited. Existing compaction quality evaluation models are
mainly developed for fine-grained soils with a small particle size
distribution range (<120 mm), while there is a lack of research
 Key technologies for intelligent and fine-grained construction
on earth–rock dam materials with a larger particle size distri-
bution range (0–400 mm). Additionally, the relationship between
compaction quality and various factors is complex and ambigu-
ous. Existing evaluation models inadequately consider the factors
inf luencing compaction quality, leading to poor universality of the
models. Furthermore, when evaluating the compaction quality
of earth–rock dam materials, limitations of the evaluation model
algorithms result in issues such as difficulties in adjusting initial
parameters and the models being prone to getting trapped in local
optimal solutions. Consequently, the existing models exhibit poor
robustness and adaptability. Therefore, there is a need for further
research to develop compaction quality evaluation models that
can account for the wide particle size distribution range of earth–
rock dam materials. These models should consider the complex
relationship between compaction quality and various inf luencing
factors, and address the limitations of single algorithm models
by improving the adjustability of initial parameters and avoiding
local optimal solutions. Enhancing the robustness and adaptabil-
ity of compaction quality evaluation models will contribute to
more accurate and widely applicable assessments in the field
of earth–rock dam intelligent construction. Accompanied by the
continuous development of the trend of crossover, penetration,
and integration between disciplines, meta-inspired algorithms
based on the idea of natural evolution have shown great potential
for application and development in optimizing single algorith-
mic models in recent years. Combining intelligent optimization
algorithms and artificial neural networks can optimize the initial
parameters such as weights and thresholds in the neural network
model, avoid the model from falling into local optimal solutions,
and significantly improve the performance of the model. It has
been widely used in signal image processing, pattern recogni-
tion, function optimization, model prediction, and other practical
engineering fields. With the help of an intelligent optimization
algorithm and a neural network model to establish a compaction
quality assessment model of earth–rock dam materials, one can
greatly improve the quality inspection efficiency for fill and crush
construction.
4. Conclusions
Empowering traditional dam construction techniques with
rapidly advancing intelligent technologies and enhancing the
level of intelligence and smartness in water engineering dam con-
struction is the current trend in the development of digital twin
engineering and smart dam construction. High dam construction
is continuing to develop with new requirements for intelligent
dam construction. New information technology capabilities are
providing paths for improved intelligent dam construction. This
paper provides a comprehensive review of the development of
intelligent construction technologies for earth–rock dams. It
focuses on the fine-grained management technology of unit
engineering based on BIM, rapid detection and qualification
assessment of dam material physical properties, fast perception
of compaction quality, and unmanned driving technology for
dam construction equipment. This paper concludes with an
overview and summary of the existing technical challenges and
prospects in the field of intelligent earth–rock dam construction.
Currently, the intelligent dam construction technology for
earth–rock dams is transitioning from the exploratory stage
to the systematic development stage. In the future, the level
of intelligent construction will continue to f lourish. With the
continuous deepening of theoretical research, technological
means, and engineering practices, and the gradual improvement
| 7
of relevant intelligent standards and specifications, the level of
smart dam construction will reach new heights.
Conflict of Interest statement
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/iti/article/doi/10.1093/iti/liad020/7330545 by Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta user on 17 March 2024
inf luence the work reported in this paper.
Funding
This study was supported by the Basic Research Project of
China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research
(GE0145B042022).
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