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Chemistry
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Aldehydes and Ketones

Learning Objectives:
• Nomenclature and structure of aldehydes and
ketones.
• Preparation of aldehydes and ketones.
• Reactivity of aldehydes and ketones and their
comparison.
• Chemistry of aldehydes and ketones by their
reduction to alcohols
• Oxidation reactions of aldehydes and ketones.
Aldehydes and Ketones
Aldehydes:
Common names:

• The common names of aldehydes are obtained from the common names of
carboxylic acids containing the same number of carbon atoms.
• The ending -ic acid in the common name of the acid is replaced by the word
aldehyde.

• The positions of other groups on the chain are indicated by Greek letters
(𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾, 𝛿). Lettering starts on the carbon adjacent to the carbonyl group.

IUPAC Names:

• The letter - e in the name of the alkane is replaced with al.

• The positions of other groups on the chain are indicated by using numbers.
• Numbering starts from the carbonyl carbon.
• Aromatic aldehydes are not given IUPAC names.
Ketone:
Common names:

• The common names of ketones are obtained by separately writing the names of the
alkyl groups attached to the carbonyl carbon.
• The word ketone is then added as a separate word.
• The names of the alkyl groups are written alphabetically.
• When the two alkyl groups are the same, the prefix di - is added before the name of the
alkyl group.

• The positions of other groups are indicated by Greek letters, the 𝛼 - carbon atom being
the one adjacent to the carbonyl group.
• If the two alkyl groups in a ketone are the same, the ketone is said to be symmetrical, if
unlike, unsymmetrical.
IUPAC Names:

• The IUPAC names of ketones are derived from the names of alkanes having the
same number of carbon atoms.
• The letter e in the name of alkane is replaced with the suffix -one.
• The positions of the carbonyl group and of other groups on the chain are
indicated by numbers.
• Numbering is started from that end which is nearest to the carbonyl group.
• Aromatic ketones are not given IUPAC names.
Preparation Of Aldehyde And Ketone:
Preparation of formalin:
Laboratory method:

• Passing a mixture of methyl alcohol vapours and air over platinised asbestos or
copper or silver catalyst at 300 0C.

• Methyl alcohol is oxidized to gaseous formaldehyde which is absorbed in water.

The resulting mixture is called formalin.
• Formalin is a mixture of 40 % formaldehyde, 8% methyl alcohol and 52 % water.

Industrial method:

• Formaldehyde is manufactured by passing a mixture of methanol vapours and air

over iron oxide-molybdenum oxide or silver catalyst at 500 °C.
Preparation of acetaldehyde:
Laboratory preparation:
• Acetaldehyde is prepared in the laboratory by the oxidation of ethyl alcohol with
acidified sodium dichromate solution.

• A mixture of ethyl alcohol and sodium dichromate solution is run into boiling
dilute sulphuric acid. Immediately a vigorous reaction takes place and the
acetaldehyde formed in liquid state is immediately distilled off.
• This prevents the oxidation of acetaldyde to acetic acid.
• Ethyl alcohol remains in solution until it is oxidized.
• Pure acetaldehyde is obtained by redistillation.
Acetaldehyde can also be prepared by the dry distillation of a mixture of calcium salts of
formic acid and acetic acid.
 Industrial method:

• Acetaldehyde is prepared industrially by air oxidation of ethylene.

• Using palladium chloride catalyst with a cupric chloride promoter.

Preparation of acetone:
Acetone is prepared by dry distillation of calcium acetate.

Reactivity of carbonyl compounds:

• The carbonyl group has a 𝜎-bond and a 𝜋-bond. Thus it can undergo addition reactions.
• Most reagents react with the carbonyl group by adding to it.
• As oxygen is more electronegative, it tends to attract the 𝜋 electrons to it. This
attraction makes the carbonyl group a polar group.
• The oxygen atom has a partial negative charge on it and is nucleophilic, whereas the
carbon atom has a partial positive charge and is Electrophilic.

Nucleophilic addition reactions:

• As a result of the unsymmetrical electronic distribution about the carbonyl group,
the nucleophilic reagent can start the initial attack on the carbon.
 • It appears that whether the initial attack is to be by a nucleophilic reagent or by an
electrophilic reagent depends upon a particular reaction and upon the conditions under
which that reaction is carried out.
• In these reactions of aldehydes and ketones, the negative part of the reagent combines
with the electrophilic carbon of the carbonyl group, whereas the positive part, which is
usually hydrogen goes to the oxygen.
• The nucleophilic addition reactions of carbonyl group are catalysed by bases or acids.
• Remember that whether the addition is base-catalysed or acid-catalysed, the adduct is
the same.
• A base catalyst increases the nucleophilic character of the reagent, while an acid-
catalyst promotes the nucleophilic attack by increasing the positive character
(electrophilic character) of the carbonyl carbon atom.

Nucleophilic addition reaction:

Base catalyzed addition reaction:

• A base-catalysed nucleophilic addition reaction will take place with a strong

nucleophilic reagent.
• The base reacts with the reagent and generates the nucleophile.
• The addition is initiated by the attack of a nucleophile on the electrophilic carbon of
the carbonyl group.

Addition of HCN:

• Hydrogen cyanide adds to aldehydes and ketones to form cyanohydrins.

• The reaction is carried out by adding slowly a mineral acid to an aqueous solution of
sodium cyanide.
• The acid generates HCN from sodium cyanide in situ.
 The cyano group, — C ≡ N is hydrolysed by an aqueous acid into a carboxylic acid through
an acid amide.

• The reaction is used in the synthesis of 𝛼-hydroxy acids that contain one carbon
atom more than the number of carbon atoms in the starting aldehydes or ketones.
• Hydrogen cyanide itself is not very nucleophilic and does not ionize to from cyanide
to a significant extent.
• Thu,a source of cyanide ion such as NaCN or KCN is used.

• The hydroxide ion liberated in the formation of cyanohydrin reacts with

undissociated hydrogen cyanide and produces more cyanide ions, which in turn
react with more carbonyl compound.
Addition of Grignard’s reagent:

• Grignard reagents add to aldehydes and ketones to form adducts which on

hydrolysis with a dilute mineral acid (HCI, H2SO4) give alcohols.
Addition of sodium bisulphite:
Aldehydes and small methyl ketones react with a saturated aqueous solution of sodium
bisulphite to form a crystalline white precipitate of sodium bisulphite adduct.

Bisulphite on heating with a dilute mineral acid (HCl or H2SO4), regenerates the parent
aldehyde or ketone.
 The reaction is used for the separation and purification of carbonyl compounds from non-
carbonyl compounds such as alcohols.

Mechanism:
Sodium bisulphite ionises to form sulphite ions.

The sulphite ion acts as a nucleophile, since the sulphur atom is more nucleophilic than
oxygen, a C—S bond is formed.

Proton is attached to the negatively charged oxygen atom to form bisulphite addition
product.

Ketones in which both alkyl groups are larger than methyl do not react with sodium
bisulphite.

Condensation reactions:
The reactions, in which two molecules of the same or different compounds combine to form
a new compound with or without the elimination of a small molecule like H2O or NH3, are
called condensation reactions.

Aldol condensation:
• Aldehydes and ketones possessing 𝛼-hydrogen atoms react with a cold dilute
solution of an alkali to form addition products known as aldols.
• The name ‘aldol’ is given to the product because it contains both aldehyde and
alcohol functional groups.
• Two molecules of the same carbonyl compound condense to form an aldol.
 • The aldol compound readily loses water on heating in the presence of dilute acid to
form an unsaturated carbonyl compound.
• A carbon-carbon double bond is formed between the 𝛼- and 𝛽- carbon atoms.

Mechanism of aldol condensation:

Cannizaro’s reaction:
• Aldehydes that have no 𝛼-hydrogen atoms undergo Cannizzaro’s reaction.
• It is a disproportionation (self oxidation-reduction) reaction.
• Two molecules of the aldehyde are involved, one molecule being converted into the
corresponding alcohol (the reduced product) and the other into the acid in the salt
form (the oxidation product).
• The reaction is carried out with 50 percent aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at
room temperature.

Mechanism:
The hydroxide ion acts as a nucleophile. It attacks on the electrophilic carbonyl carbon to
form a complex anion.

The anion transfers a hydride ion to second molecule of formaldehyde.

The methoxide ion acts as a base and abstracts a proton from formic acid to form methanol
and formate ion.
The formate ion in the presence of alkali gives a salt of the acid.

Cannizaro’s reaction by benzaldehyde:

Haloform reaction:
It is given by:

•Acetaldehyde
•Methyl ketones
•Ethanol (only primary alcohol)
•Secondary alcohols containing the hydroxyl group on the second carbon
atom.
➢ The term haloform is used for the reaction because a haloform (chloroform,
bromoform or iodoform) is one of the products.
➢ From a synthetic point of view the haloform reaction affords a convenient method
for converting a methyl ketone to a carboxylic acid containing one carbon atom less
than the parent compound.
Iodoform test:
➢ The haloform reaction using iodine and aqueous sodium hydroxide is called the
iodoform test.
➢ It results in the formation of water insoluble iodoform which is a yellow solid.
➢ Iodoform test is used for distinguishing methyl ketones from other ketones. It is also
used to distinguish ethanol from methanol and other primary alcohols.
➢ It can be used to distinguish acetaldehyde from other aldehydes.
Acid catalyzed reactions:
➢ The acid catalysed nucleophilic addition reaction will take place with a weak nucleophilic
reagent.
➢ The addition is initiated by the proton (H+) liberated by the acid.
➢ The proton combines with the carbonyl oxygen atom and increases the electrophilic
character of the carbonyl carbon.
➢ As a result, the attack of the weaker nucleophile on the electrophilic carbon becomes
easier.
General mechanism:
Acid catalyzed reactions:
Polymerization of Aldehyde:
Both formaldehyde and acetaldehyde polymerize in the presence of dil. H2SO4 to give
metaformaldehyde and paraldehyde respectively.

Reactions of Ammonia Derivatives:

➢ The reaction is known as condensation reaction or addition - elimination reaction
because water is lost after addition occurs.

➢ Compounds containing the group, and water are formed.

➢ General reaction is given as:
 ➢ Some commonly used ammonia derivatives are hydroxylamine, NH2OH, hydrazine,
NH2NH2, phenylhydrazine, C6H5NHNH2, semicarbazide, NH2NHCONH2, and 2,4-
dinitrophenylhydrazine, NH2NHC6H3(NO2)2.
Reaction with hydroxylamine (H2NOH):
𝐻+
Aldehyde or ketone + hydroxylamine → Oxime

Reaction with phenyl hydrazine (H2N-NH2):

𝐻+
Aldehyde/ketone + Hydrazine → Hydrazones
Reaction with Phenyl hydrazines (C6H5-NH-NH2)
𝐻+
Aldehyde/ketone + Hydrazine → Phenyl hydrazones

Reaction with 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrzine (2,4-DNPH):

𝐻+
Aldehyde/ketone + 2,4-DNPH → 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazones

➢ It is identification test for Aldehyde and ketone because 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazones are

usually yellow or orange crystalline solids.
Addition of alcohols:

The hydrogen chloride gas acts as a catalyst.

Both the alcohol and the hydrogen chloride gas must be dry.
 ➢ The reaction may be used to protect the aldehyde group against alkaline oxidising
agents.
➢ To regenerate aldehyde, the acetal is hydrolysed in the presence of an acid.

➢ Ketones do not react under these conditions.

Reduction of Aldehyde and ketone to alcohols:

• Aldehydes are reduced to primary alcohols whereas ketones to secondary alcohols.
• The carbonyl group is converted into an alcohol.
• The reducing agents LiAlH4 and NaBH4 act as source of H-(hydride ion).

• Overall 2 H atoms are added across the to give H-C-O-H.

• Hydride reacts with carbonyl group in Aldehyde/ketone to give alcohols.
• Sodium borohydride reduces the carbon-oxygen double bond but not the carbon-
carbon multiple bond.
Mechanism:
➢ The tetrahydridoborate (III) ion, BH4- is source of hydride ion, H-.The hydride ion acts as
a nucleophile.
➢ It attacks on the electrophilic carbon of the carbonyl group to give an alkoxide ion.

➢ The alkoxide ion is protonated with water to give an alcohol.

Catalytic reduction:
➢ Aldehydes and ketones on reduction with hydrogen in the presence of a metal catalyst
like Pd, Pt or Ni form primary and secondary alcohols respectively.

Oxidation of Aldehyde:

• Aldehydes are easily oxidised by mild oxidising agents like Tollen's reagent, Fehling's
solution and Benedict’s solution.
• They are oxidised to carboxylic acids by strong oxidising agents such as K2Cr2O7 / H2SO4,
KMnO4 / H2SO4, and dilute nitric acid.
• The hydrogen atom attached to the carbonyl group in aldehydes is oxidised to OH
group.
➢ The carboxylic acid has the same number of carbon atoms as are present in the parent
aldehyde.

Oxidation of Ketones:

• Ketones do not undergo oxidation easily because they require breaking of strong
carbon - carbon bond.
• They give no reaction with mild oxidising agents. They are only oxidised by
strong oxidising agents such as K2Cr2O7/ H2SO4 , KMnO4 / H2SO4, and conc.
HNO3.
• In oxidation of ketones, only the carbon atoms adjacent to the carbonyl group
are attacked.
• The carbon atom joined to the smaller number of hydrogen atoms is
preferentially oxidized.
• In case of symmetrical ketones only one carbon atom adjacent to the carbonyl
group is oxidised and a mixture of two carboxylic acids is always obtained.

• However, in case of unsymmetrical ketones, the carbon atom joined to the smaller
number of hydrogen atoms is preferentially oxidized and the carbonyl group remains
with the smaller alkyl group.

Identification of carbonyl compounds

Detection tests for aldehydes and Ketones.
2,4 DNPH Test:
Aldehydes and ketones form a yellow or red precipitate with 2,4 dinitrophenylhdrazine
solution.
 Sodium Bisulphite Test:
Aldehydes and small methyl ketones form a crystalline white precipitate with saturated
sodium bisulphite solution.
Tollen's Test [Silver Mirror Test]:

• Aldehydes form silver mirror with Tollen’s reagent (ammoniacal silver nitrate solution).
• Add Tollen’s reagent to an aldehyde solution in a test tube and warm.
• A silver mirror is formed on the inside of the test tube.
• High quality mirrors are manufactured by using this principle.
• Ketones do not give this test.
Fehling’s Solution Test [an alkaline solution containing a cupric tartrate complex ion]:

• Aliphatic aldehydes form a brick-red precipitate with Fehling’s solution.

• To an aldehyde solution, add Fehling’s solution and boil.
• A brick red precipitate of cuprous oxide is formed.
• Ketones do not give this test.

Benedict's Solution Test |an alkaline solution containing a cupric

citrate complex ion]:
• Aliphatic aldehydes form a brick-red precipitate with Benedicts's solution.
• To an aldehyde solution, add Benedict's solution and boil.
• A brick-red precipitate of cuprous oxide is formed.
• Ketones do not give this test.

Sodium Nitroprusside Test:

• Ketones produce a wine red or orange red colour on adding alkaline sodium
nitroprusside solution dropwise.
• Aldehydes do not give this test.
 • Assessment 1
1. In aldehydes and ketones, carbon of carbonyl group undergoes the hybridization of type:
a. sp3
b. sp2
c. sp
d. sp3 and sp
2. Acetone may have the same molecular formula but different structural formula as that of:
a. Propanal
b. Diethyl ether
c. propanol
d. Propionic acid
3. What is the name of the compound if two valencies of carbon of carbonyl group are satisfied
by two alkyl groups:
a. Aldehyde
b. Ketone
c. Acid
d. Acid chloride
4. Which of the following is an example of unsymmetrical ketone:
a. Pentanone
b. Acetophenone
c. Benzophenone
d. All of these
5. Which of the following statement is true about acetone and acetaldehyde?
a. These are Positional isomers to each other.
b. These are Functional group isomers to each other.
c. These are carbonyl compounds but are not isomers to each other.
d. These are carbonyl compounds but are Chain isomers to each other.
6. Ketones can be prepared by hydration of alkynes in the presence of:
a. Water
b. Acid
c. Ammonia
d. Acetone
7. •Laboratory preparation of formaldehyde involves the passage of mixture of ______ over Pt-
asbestos at 300 oC.
a. Ethyl alcohol (vapors) and air
b. Methyl alcohol (liquid) and air
c. Methyl alcohol (vapors) and air
d. Rectified spirit only.
8. The catalytic oxidation of methyl alcohol is carried out when a mixture of methyl alcohol
vapours and air at 300 oC is passed over:
a. Nickel
b. Cr2O3+SiO2
c. Pt-asbestos
d. Al2O3
9. Methyl alcohol is oxidized to gaseous formaldehyde which on absorption in water produces
the mixture called:
a. Formaldehyde
b. Methanol
c. Methylene
d. Formalin
10. The accurate percentage composition of formalin is given as:
a. 52 % water,40% formaldehyde and 8% methyl alcohol
b. 52 % formaldehyde,40% water and 8% methyl alcohol
c. 52 % methyl alcohol ,40% formaldehyde and 8% water
d. 52 % water,40% methyl alcohol and 8% formaldehyde
 •
Assessment 2
1. When a mixture of C2H5OH and Na2Cr2O7 solution is run into boiling H2SO4(dil), a vigorous
reaction is carried out in which the product (X) is immediately distilled off. The product (X) is:
a. Acetic acid
b. Acetaldehyde
c. Ethanol
d. Water
2. Acetaldehyde can also be prepared by the dry distillation of a mixture of:
a. Formic acid and acetic acid
b. Calcium salt of formic acid only
c. Calcium salt of formic acid and acetic acid
d. Ethyl alcohol
3. Dry distillation of calcium acetate results in the preparation of:
a. Acetaldehyde
b. Acetone
c. Ethanol
d. Formalin
4. The carbonyl group has a sigma bond and a pi bond. Thus it can undergo:
a. Electrophilic substitution reaction
b. Nucleophilic substitution reaction
c. Nucleophilic addition reaction
d. All of these
5. In > 𝐶 = 𝑂 , which of the following is Nucleophilic in nature?
a. Carbon
b. Alkyl
c. Hydrogen
d. Oxygen
6. Hydrogen cyanide when adds to aldehydes and ketones form the final product:
a. Sodium cyanide
b. Hydrogen cyanide
c. Cyanohydrin
d. Hydrogen
 •
7. Acetaldehyde undergoes Nucleophilic addition reaction to produce acetaldehyde cyanohydrin
which on acid hydrolysis produces which of the following, the final product:
a. Acetone
b. Acid chloride
c. Ether
d. Lactic acid
8. The compound (X) forms the adduct (Y) on addition with Grignard’s reagent. The adduct (Y) on
hydrolysis with a dilute mineral acid give primary alcohol. The compound (X) is:
a. CH3COCH3
b. CH3CHO
c. NH3
d. HCHO
9. Which of the following carbonyl compounds do not give crystalline white ppt. with a saturated
aqueous solution of sodium bisulphite?
a. CH3CHO
b. (CH3-CH2-CH2)2CO
c. CH3COCH3
d. None of these
10. Which of the following aldehyde or ketone undergo aldol condensation reaction?
a. HCHO
b. C6H5CHO
c. CH3CHO
d. All of these
 • Assessment 3
1. In aldol condensation, the hydroxide ion acts as a base which removes
a. proton from any carbon of carbonyl compound
b. proton from α carbon of carbonyl compound
c. proton from β carbon of carbonyl compound
d. H- from α carbon of carbonyl compound
2. Which of the following is dispropotionation reaction of aldehyde?
a. Nucleophilic addition of Sodium bisulphite
b. Cannizaro’s reaction
c. Aldol condensation
d. Iodoform reaction
3. In Cannizaro’s reaction, OH- attacks on carbonyl carbon of reactant molecule to form complex
anion which transfers _____ to second reactant molecule.
a. H+
b. H
c. H-
d. O2-
4. Iodoform is the test which is applied to distinguish:
a. Methyl ketones from other ketones
b. Methanol from other Ethanol
c. Acetaldehyde from other aldehyde
d. All of these
5. In acid catalyzed Nucleophilic addition reaction, proton combines with the carbonyl oxygen
atom and increases the Electrophilic character of:
a. Oxygen atom
b. Hydrogen atom
c. Carbonyl carbon
d. Carbon of alkyl group
6. The polymerization of formaldehyde in the presence of dilute H2SO4:
a. Metaformaldehyde
b. Paraldehyde
c. Oxime
d. None of these
 Assessment 1
7. •The acid catalysed reaction of CH3CHO with hydroxylamine produces:
a. Ethanoate
b. Ethanaloxime
1. Positive rays are also termed as canal rays which are produce by
c. Acetaldehyde hydrazone
a. By combustion of gas.
d.
b. Ethanoic
By coolingacid
of the gas.
8. Thec.final product in the given
By the ionization of gasreaction
by cathodeis: rays.
+
d. Anode electrode 𝐻 as cathode rays is produced.
CH3CHO + NH2NHC6H5 →
a. Ethanaloxime
2. Positive rays are also termed as canal rays. These rays give flash on screen coated with
b. Phenylhydrazine
c.
a. Phenylhydrazone
AgCl
b.
d. ZnO
Paraldehyde
c. AgNO3
9. 1,1-diethoxyethane (acetal) is formed by the reaction of acetaldehyde in presence of an acid
d. ZnS
with:
a. Acetone
3. Positive rays are also termed as canal rays or anode rays. Which of the following is not true:
b. Their
a. Ethanoic
e/macid
ratio is constant
c. They
b. Grignard’sreagent
are deflected by electrical and magnetic field
c. Ethanol
d. They are produced by ionization of molecules of the residual gas
d. Their e/m ratio depends
10. The tetrahydrideoborate (III) ion,onBHnature of residual
4 is a source of: gas
+)
4. e/ma.forProton(H
positive rays changes with the change in gas to be filled in glass discharge tube. This
b. isHydride
value maximum (H-for
) which gas
c. Hydroxyl (OH-)
a.
d. Helium
Oxide (O2-)
b. Helium
c. Oxygen
d. Hydrogen

5. The canal ray with one proton bears the following charge:

a. -1.602x10-19C/kg
b. -1.602x10-19C
c. +1.602x10-19C/mol
d. +1.602x10-19C

6. Max planks proposed the quantum theory in 1900 to explain the emission and absorption of
radiation. Which is true among these

a. Energy travels in continuous form

b. Energy is emitted or absorbed continuously
c. Energy is not emitted or absorbed continuously
d. In case of light, energy packet is called quanta
 Assessment 4
•
1. Which of the following reagent oxidize the Aldehyde to carboxylic acid?
a. Tollen’s reagent
b. Fehling’s solution
c. K2Cr2O7/H2SO4
d. All of these
2. Ketones do not give reaction with the following oxidizing agent?
a. K2Cr2O7/H2SO4
b. KMnO4/H2SO4
c. Conc. HNO3
d. Fehling’s solution
3. Which of the following statement is considered incorrect about the oxidation of ketones?
a. In oxidation of ketones, only the carbon atoms adjacent to the carbonyl group are
attacked.
b. The carbon atom joined to the larger number of hydrogen atoms is preferentially
oxidised.
c. In case of symmetrical ketones only one carbon atom adjacent to the carbonyl group is
oxidised and a mixture of two carboxylic acids is always obtained.
d. None of these
4. Aliphatic Aldehydes form a brick red precipitate with Benedict’s solution. Which of the
following form the brick red precipitate?
a. Ag2O
b. Cu2O
c. Ag
d. Cu(OH)2
5. The compound which gives brick red precipitate with Fehling’s solution:
a. Benzaldehyde
b. Acetone
c. Butanone
d. Acetaldehyde
6. Tollen’s reagent used in silver mirror test to detect the aldehydes is:
a. 2,4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine
b. Alkaline solution containing cupric citrate complex ion
c. Ammonical silver nitrate solution
d. Alkaline solution containing cupric tartrate complex ion
7. •Which of the following test cannot be used to identify Aldehyde?
a. Fehling’s solution test
b. Benedict’s solution test
c. Sodium nitroprusside test
d. Tollen reagent test
8. The oxidation of butanone by mild oxidizing agent(Fehling’s solution) produces:
a. Acetic acid only
b. Formic acid and acetic acid
c. Formic acid only
d. Does not oxidize
9. The possible product in the oxidation of acetone by strong oxidizing agent (K 2Cr2O7/H2SO4) is:
a. Acetic acid and formic acid
b. Acetic acid only
c. Formic acid only
d. Ethanol and formic acid
10. The following reactions are given by carbonyl compounds (aldehydes and ketones):
a. Oxidation
b. Polymerization
c. Nucleophilic addition
d. All of these
 Key
•

Assessment 1

1. b
2. a
3. b
4. b
5. c
6. b
7. c
8. c
9. d
10. a

Assessment 2
1. b
2. c
3. b
4. c
5. d
6. c
7. d
8. d
9. b
10. c
 •
Key
Assessment 3

1. b
2. b
3. c
4. d
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. d
10. b

Assessment 4

1. d
2. d
3. b
4. b
5. d
6. c
7. c
8. d
9. a
10. d