ASSIGNMENT –2

GUPTA AND POST GUPTA PERIOD

 INTRODUCTION
• In Ancient Indian, the Gupta empire was set up in the mid
3rd century A.D and lasted till 543 A.D. The founder of the
Gupta empire was Sri Gupta. The Gupta empire reached
its prominence in 320 A.D. • A major part of the country
was under the reign of the Gupta dynasty. The homeland
of the Guptas is not known for sure, but scholars believe
that the Guptas might have originated from either Bengal
or Prayaga. • Though the Gupta empire was not as large as
the Maurya empire, the Guptas kept the entire North India
politically united for more than a century. • There are
several sources like literary works, inscriptions,
epigraphical and numismatic sources which reconstruct
the history of the Gupta age. • Information about
genealogy and the rise of Guptas is provided in
contemporary literary works like Devichandraguptam and
Mudhrakshasam. • An account of the social, economic and
religious conditions of the Gupta empire was left by the
Chinese traveller Fahien. • Inscriptions such as the
Allahabad pillar inscription, the Mehrauli Iron pillar
inscription mention the achievements and reign of the
Guptas.
Origin Of Gupta Empire

• With the decline of the Maurya empire, two

large political powers appearedd. They were
the Satavahanas (Andhras), who set up rule
over the Deccan and the South and the
Kushans, who took control of the North.
• Around A.D.230, the Kushans rule in north
India ended and the Murundas, who are
believed to be the relatives of the Kushans,
took over a good part of central India.
Murundas reign lasted only for about 25
years.
• Around A.D.275, on the ruins of Kushan
empire, Gupta empire was set up and a large
part of the former dominions of both the
Kushans and the Satavahanas came under
their rule. For more than a century, North India
was politically united under their reign.
• Chronology Of Gupta Empire

• Beginning with Sri Gupta, over the

period of 200 years the Gupta
empire reached its prominence
until the reign of Skandagupta,
after which the weak rulers of the
Gupta dynasty reigned and
eventually led to the decline of
the empire.
 Gupta Dynasty – Kings

Chandragupta I (A.D. 319-334)

• Succeeded Ghatotkacha as the ruler
• He was the first important king of the Gupta dynasty
• The Gupta Era began with his accession to the throne in A.D.320
• He was the first king to be called Maharajadhiraja.
• He married the Lichchhavi princess (Possibly from Nepal), Kumaradevi. With this matrimonial
alliance, he strengthened his position and added prestige to the Gupta dynasty.
• The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription explains in detail about his lengthy conquests.
• Magadha, Saketa and Prayaga were brought under the authority of the Gupta dynasty by him.
• During his period, Pataliputra was the capital city of the Gupta empire.
 Samudragupta (A.D.335-380)
• He was the son and successor of Chandragupta I.
• The Gupta Kingdom enlarged enormously under his reign.
• The people and the countries conquered by him are engraved in the Allahabad inscriptions.
• His conquests can be classified into five groups.
• His conquest extended even outside India. According to the chinese sources, the ruler of Sri Lanka
(Meghavarman) sent a missionary to seek permission from Samudragupta for building a Buddhist temple at
Gaya.
• He believed in policy of violence and conquest
• His court poet Harishena wrote a glowing account on Samudragupta’s military exploits
• V.A.Smith praised him as the Napoleon of India for his bravery and generalship
• Though he brought most parts of the country under the Gupta empire, he exercised direct administration only
over the Gangetic plains and central India. In the remaining areas, the former rulers could continue with the
annual payment to the treasury. This gave rise to the unique political situation called Samandha system (Vassal
kings).
 Chandragupta II (A.D. 380-412)

• According to Devi Chandragupta, Ramagupta (elder brother of Chandragupta II) was the successor of Samudragupta. He surrendered to the Saka
ruler Dhurudevi.
• Chandragupta II invaded the enemy camp and captured the throne.
• The Gupta empire saw the high watermark under the reign of Chandragupta
• He strengthened his political power through matrimonial alliance. He married the Naga princess of central India, Kubernanga. He married his
daughter Prabhavati to Rudrasena II, a Vakataka prince.
• With the death of Rudrasena II, Prabavathi became the virtual ruler and promoted the interests of her father Chandragupta II. In this way he had
indirect control over the Vakataka kingdom (Central India).
• With profound influence in Central India, territories such as western Malwa and Gujarat which were under the rule of Shaka Kshatrapas were
conquered.
• To commemorate the victory over Shaka Kshatrapas, he performed horse sacrifice (Ashvamedha) and called himself Vikramatitya.
• Ujjain was made the second capital of the Gupta empire during the reign of Chandragupta II.
• Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription claims his authority over the northwestern part of India.
• The chinese pilgrim, Fa Hien visited India during his reign.
• His court was adorned by 9 scholars who were known as Navaratnas(nine gems) of his court. They were Kalidasa, Amarasimha, Dhanvantari,
Shanku, Varahamihira, Kshapanaka, Ghatakarapara, Vararuchi and Vetala Bhatta
 Kumaragupta (A.D. 415-455)
• He was the son of Chandragupta II
• He took up the title Mahendraditya

Kumaragupta (A.D. 415- • He founded the Nalanda University with gained the
international importance
455)
and • Gupta empire began to face Hunas invasion during his
Skandagupta (A.D. 455- period. Although he tried to avoid the invasion of Hunas
into India, his successors proved to be weak.
467)
Skandagupta (A.D. 455-467)
• He is considered the last great ruler among the Gupta
dynasty.
• He defeated the Huns invasion and Pushyamitra's threat.
 What Caused the Fall of the Gupta Empire?

• Both external and internal forces contributed to the Gupta Empire’s demise. External forces included the White
Huns, Vakatakas, and other developing countries’ repeated efforts to invade the mighty Gupta kingdom.
• Skandagupta was considered the Gupta Empire’s final great emperor. Invasion threats, on the other hand, began
during Kumaragupta I’s reign.
• The Pushyamitra clan had attempted multiple unsuccessful invasions of the Gupta Empire, but had always been
destroyed by Kumaragupta, the skillful Gupta Empire monarch. The Huns tried to overrun the Gupta Empire
several times during Skandagupta’s rule, but Skandagupta defeated them each time.
• Skandagupta’s successors, on the other hand, were weak and unable to rule the huge Empire. One of the key
reasons for the Gupta Empire’s demise was the invasion of the Huns, sometimes known as the White Huns.
Following Skandagupta’s death, the Huns were successful in invading the Gupta Empire. Many provinces of the
Gupta Empire, including Malwa, Gujarat, and Thanesar, were conquered by the Huns.
• Despite their steadily dwindling authority, the Guptas are reported to have fought the Huns for a while,
preventing the enemy from conquering their Empire. To keep the Huns out of northern India, Narasimha Gupta
of the Gupta dynasty made an alliance with the autonomous kingdoms.
 EDUCATION DURING THE GUPTA PERIOD

• The education system during the Gupta period was given utmost importance. Holy places and capitals of kingdoms were the common centers of learning. Among the
capitals, Pataliputra, Valabhi, Ujjain and Padmavati were famous centers of learning while Ayodhya, Mathura, Nasik and Kanchi were famous centers of education. There
were the Agrahara villages which had learned Brahmans who were supported by the revenues of these villages assigned to them for maintenance by the state. The
teachers often attracted students from everywhere.
• In South India centers of learning were known as Ghatikas. System of Education during Gupta Age According to Manu there were two types of teachers acharya` and
`upadhya`. The acharyas were entrusted with fundamental teachings of Vedas, Upanishads and Kalpasutra. The acharyas took their work as `work of charity` and refrained
from taking fees from pupils.
• The Upadhyas took teaching as a profession and charged the pupils. For scholarly education, study of Dharmashastras, Smriti, itihasa-puranas and heterodox scriptures
were included in the syllabus.
• For non-scholarly education, mathematics, science of warfare, astronomy, astrology and medicine were included. Education was generally permitted to the people
belonging to the upper stratum of society. Brahmins were eligible for all types of education, while the Kshatriyas and Sudras were eligible only for some items of learning.
But the Sudras were deprived completely from any light of education.

• The most famous centers of learning were the monastic college founded mostly by the Buddhists.These centers contributed to the building of a harmonious cultural life
of the people.

• Taxila, Varanasi, Ujjain and Amravati were other famous centres of learning before the Gupta Age. University of Taxila, though had lost its former glory due to Hun invasion
yet had kept its standard. Valabhi in Gujarat and Vikramasila in Bihar were other famous centers of learning. Technical education was also imparted by the guilds.
Technical training included metallurgy, ivory and diamond cutting, woodwork. This was usually done in the family itself as professions had become hereditary.

• Sometimes artisans took outside students as trainees. Elementary education probably commenced at the age of five and was imparted by teachers who were called
Darakacharyas. Lipisalas or primary schools did exist in many villages. Children used to write either on wooden boards in colour or by the finger on the ground covered
with sand. Excellence in metallurgy is proved by the Iron Pillar, Delhi of King Chandra.
 Literature of Gupta period

• The Gupta period (approximately 4th to 6th centuries CE) in ancient Indian history was marked by significant
cultural and intellectual achievements. While there is limited surviving literary material directly from this period,
some notable works and developments laid the foundation for later classical literature. Some of the important
literary works and contributions during the Gupta period include:
1. Kalidasa's Works:
Shakuntala (Abhijnanasakuntalam): Attributed to the great poet and playwright Kalidasa, "Shakuntala" is a Sanskrit
play that is considered a masterpiece of classical Indian literature. It is a romantic drama that tells the story of King
Dushyanta and the enchanting Shakuntala.
Meghaduta (The Cloud Messenger): Another famous work by Kalidasa, "Meghaduta" is a lyrical poem that
narrates the story of a yaksha (a celestial being) who sends a cloud as a messenger to convey his love to his wife.
2. Bhartrihari's Vairagya Shataka: - Bhartrihari, a renowned scholar and poet, is believed to have composed the
"Vairagya Shataka." This work reflects on the transient nature of life and the pursuit of detachment (vairagya).
Bhartrihari's writings span philosophical, ethical, and literary themes.
3. Vatsyayana's Kamasutra:
Attributed to Vatsyayana, the "Kamasutra" is a significant treatise on human sexuality, relationships, and social
conduct. While it is often associated with the art of lovemaking, the text also addresses broader aspects of life and
society.

4. Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya:
Aryabhata, a mathematician and astronomer, wrote the "Aryabhatiya," a significant Sanskrit astronomical work.
While it is primarily a mathematical and astronomical treatise, it also includes verses that touch upon various
aspects of life and philosophy.

5. Harsha Charita by Banabhatta:

Banabhatta, a renowned poet and scholar, wrote the "Harsha Charita," an important historical biography of King
Harsha of the Vardhana dynasty. The work provides insights into the sociopolitical and cultural aspects of the Gupta
period.

6. Plays and Dramas:

The Gupta period saw the flourishing of Sanskrit drama. Besides Kalidasa, other playwrights contributed to the
development of theatrical arts. While many specific plays have been lost to time, the era laid the groundwork for
later Sanskrit dramas. It's important to note that the surviving literary works from the Gupta period are limited, and
some attributions may be uncertain. Additionally, the Gupta period played a crucial role in shaping classical
Sanskrit literature, setting the stage for laterrary developments in India.
 Education during Vedic Period

• The education system that first evolved in ancient India is known as the ‘Vedic’ education
system. This education was based on the ‘Vedas,’ and as a result, it was given the name
‘Vedic Educational System.’ This system possesses unique characteristics, because as the
‘SUTRAS’ were restricted in their influence over many domains of study. Consequently,
education was confined only to the upper castes, which are also known as BRAHMACHARIS.
• During this time, the educational system that prevailed differed significantly from
contemporary approaches. It was not accessible to all; instead, it focused more on fostering
culture, traditions, and practices that guided and encouraged humanity.
• The demand for education came from a limited section of society, and there was no need for
an elaborate organizational structure for education. The education system evolved gradually,
concentrating on the holistic development of the individual by addressing both the inner
and outer self. Therefore, the foundation of Indian culture lies in the Vedas, which are four in
number.
1. Rig-Veda, 2. Samveda, 3. Yajurveda, and 4. Athareveda
• Apart from the, some educational research has subdivided the Vedic
Education period into the Brahmin Period, Upanishads Period, Sutra (Hymn)
Period, etc.
• However, throughout these periods, there was a predominance of the Vedas,
and there was no meaningful change in the aims and ideals of education.
• During the Vedic period, most of the upper castes, forming Brahmins or
Kshatriyas, received their education in a unique system called GURUKULAM.
• Students underwent their education by living with their preceptors in
forests, far removed from cities, towns, or villages.
• The lives of the students, known as SHISYAS, were very rigorous and
demanding. The educational process was largely monopolized by the
Brahmins, as they were a small section of society.
• According to historians, the Indian education system in urban learning
centers became increasingly visible between 500 BCE to 400 CE. Physical
education held significance as a curricular area for pupils
 Shruti and Smritis
• Shruti
• •The term "Shruti" literally means "to hear," It refers to
the sacred texts that form the Vedas, Brahmanas,
Aranyakas, and Upanishads, as these texts were originally
passed down through oral tradition from teacher to
student.
• These texts are regarded as the most authoritative and
are believed to have unquestionable truth or eternal
knowledge; they are also regarded as a commanding
treatise of all later Literature.
• • Shruti literature is the earliest Literature of Hinduism. As
opposed to Smriti, or that which regular people
remember, Shruti's works are thought to have been
heard and transmitted by earthly sages.
• Although Shruti is seen as having greater authority, the
Smriti writings have a greater impact on contemporary
Hinduism.
• Smriti
• Smriti, or "Remembered," is a type of Vedic sacred Literature based
on human memory and thought to have been written by post-Vedic
sages and scholars. Smriti Literature refers to the entire body of post-
Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature, including Vedanga,
Shad darsana, Itihasa, Puranas, Maha Kavyas, Upveda,
Agamas, Upangas, Tantras, etc.
• These texts are less authoritative than Vedic Shruti literature, but
they are used to interpret and understand Vedic philosophy. These
texts are also regarded as a "friendly treatise" for early Vedic
Literature.
• Over time, the term "Smriti" came to be used specifically in
reference to works dealing with social behavior and the law, such as
the renowned Manu-smriti (Laws of Manu).
• However, Smriti scriptures are more widely known to
modern Hindus. The texts include the Kalpa-sutras, significant
religious manuals; the Puranas, collections of prehistoric myth,
tradition, and history; and the Ramayana and Mahabharata, two of
India's greatest epics.
 Aims of education in Vedic period

• The main aim of Vedic education was the development of physical, moral, spiritual,
and intellectual powers to achieve salvation.
• Overall, the aim of education was the complete realization of self and the freedom
of the soul.
• Despite this, the core aims of education were categorized into four sections:
1. Realize the supreme: This method is to achieve Supreme Consciousness
(Brahman);
2. Develop powers: This approach is to develop physical, moral, and intellectual
powers;
3. Attain salvation: This process is to achieve salvation through education; and
4. Inculcate piety: This method is to instill a spirit of piety and righteousness
 Educational Curriculum for Vedic period

• Ancient Indian education originated from the Vedas, serving as the primary source of Indian
philosophy of life. This educational system played a crucial role in Indian society by
promoting celibacy, control over the senses, and purity of life.
• Consequently, during this period, the method of teaching was inherently known as
psychological in nature.
• The curriculum during the Vedic period was predominantly centered on the teaching of
Vedas and Vedic literature, imparting spiritual and moral lessons. Physical education was
also included, where students needed to learn archery, wrestling, hunting, dancing, etc.
• The Vedic education system emphasized practical knowledge learning.
• The syllabus covered subjects ranging from spiritual to materialistic knowledge, including
Vedas, Vedic grammar, arithmetic, knowledge of gods, knowledge of the absolute,
knowledge of ghosts, astronomy, logic, philosophy, ethics, conduct, etc. However, students
spent most of their time in self-study, thinking, and meditation.
 Methods of Instruction during Vedic period

• There was no single method of instruction that was adopted and they face many challenges and opportunities,
such as improving access and quality.
• The Vedic system of education was characterized by cordiality and the pursuit of the highest truth and supreme
knowledge. This process aimed at leading individuals from unreality to reality, darkness to light, and death to
immortality. In this system, feeling served as a direct method of learning, along with lectures, dialogues, debates,
discussions, and question-and-answer sessions.
• During the Vedic period, the question-and-answer method and discussions common, and storytelling also
adopted according to the need. Students would pose questions based on their needs, and the Guru would then
provide explanations. The Vedic system outlined mainly three steps of learning to follow.
1. Sravana: In this approach, students listen to the text as it is spoken by their teacher, known as the Guru, ensuring
that knowledge is conserved and transmitted to the upcoming generation.
2. Manana: It means to internalize or assimilate what was given to the student. Therefore, this process is known for
deliberation and reflection on the topic.
3. Nididhyasana (Meditation): This is truth realized and attended, and it has to be considered indispensable for
the realization of supreme reality.
 Role of Teacher during Vedic period

• Teachers were a highly honored class, esteemed even by kings, as the aim of education was not merely to buy
knowledge for preparation in this life but for the complete realization of self and the liberation of the soul from
the chains of both present and future existence.
• Therefore, the ‘ACHARYA’ (Teacher/Guru) was the focal point of all learning, situated in natural surroundings. The
age limit for ‘UPANAYAN’ (Student/Siksha) was decided by them, respectively, with Brahmin children at the age of
8, Kshatriyas at 11, and Vaishyas at 12.
• The teacher was accepting an extremely limited number of students because moral fitness and unimpeachable
conduct of the pupils were the main criteria for admission.
• Teachers (ACHARYA) provided physical, materialistic, and spiritual knowledge to their students, taking full
responsibility for the development of children’s personalities and characters. In the Vedic period, the inculcation
of social and civic duties was one of the core responsibilities for teachers, as they believed it was necessary for a
better future life.
• Therefore, in education, teachers are the most important components, because the teacher provides physical,
materialistic, and spiritual knowledge. They (Guru/Teachers) also satisfy the curiosity and needs of students,
acting as their spiritual father and taking care of them in the same manner as a father care for his son.
 Financial Support during Vedic period

• During the Vedic period, which spanned from around 1500 BCE to 500 BCE in
ancient India, the educational system was centered around the Vedas, the
oldest sacred scriptures of Hinduism.
• The primary means of financial support for education during this period came
through the system of Gurukulas. Gurukulas were residential schools or
hermitages where students, known as shishyas, lived with their guru (teacher)
to receive education. The financial support for the Gurukulas came from
several sources:
1. Guru Dakshina: Students, upon completing their education, would offer
Guru Dakshina, which was a form of gratitude or payment to their teacher. This
could be in the form of money, livestock, or services. The Guru Dakshina helped
sustain the guru and the Gurukula.
2. Royal Patronage: Kings and wealthy patrons often supported Gurukulas and
esteemed teachers by providing them with financial assistance, land, or other
resources. In return, the Gurukulas played a vital role in educating the youth and
preserving traditional knowledge.
3. Yajnas (Sacrificial Rituals): The performance of yajnas, which were elaborate
Vedic rituals, required the services of trained priests. Gurukulas often produced
skilled priests who played a central role in conducting these rituals. As a result, the
Gurukulas received financial support from those organizing the yajnas.
4. Donations from the Community: Local communities could also contribute to the
financial well-being of Gurukulas through donations of food, resources, or other
necessities.
The Gurukul system was characterized by a reciprocal relationship between the
teacher and the student, emphasizing not only the transfer of knowledge but also
the cultivation of values and virtues. This system continued to play a significant role
in education and cultural preservation throughout ancient Indian history
 Buddhist system of Education

• Buddhism originated as a phenomenon within Hinduism and gave rise to various

offshoots of Hindu philosophy. The Buddhist period of education in India spanned
from 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.
• During this time, the main subjects of Buddhist education included spinning,
weaving, cloth printing, tailoring, accountancy, painting, Ayurveda, and surgery.
• These teachings held immense significance, serving as a source of inspiration for
both individual and social development. Throughout this period, India experienced
an elevated level of development in literature, philosophy, arts, commerce,
agriculture, and methods of warfare.
• The entire educational system was overseen by monks, providing for both religious
and secular forms of education. It is likely that the practices of Buddhist education
varied in different countries and at various times, according to educationists.
 Aims of Buddhist Education

• Buddhism’s system of education did not differ significantly from that of the Vedic age, as the
primary aim remained the preparation for a good and moral life. Religious education held
the highest priority, with concerted efforts directed towards fostering social integrity,
morality, piety, humility, and virtuous qualities.
• These values were not only emphasized but also institutionalized, making education
accessible to all. Consequently, a practical and region-specific education system appeared,
catering to the common people and contributing significantly to the development of
education, attracting individuals from all sections of society.
• As a result, the teachings of Buddhism in this context can be distilled into three major points,
often referred to as:
1. Discipline
2. Meditation
3. Wisdom.
 Curriculum of Buddhist Education

• The Buddhist system is well-known for ushering in the golden age of India’s culture
and civilization with the rise of Buddhism in the country. Progress permeated all
aspects of civilization under the influence of Buddhism, and the education system
placed importance on both occupational and technical dimensions.
• Students were exposed to a comprehensive approach, encompassing both
theoretical and practical methods. The educational process was structured into two
stages: primary and higher education.
• Primary education focused on imparting skills in reading, writing, and arithmetic,
while higher education covered subjects such as religion, philosophy, Ayurveda, and
military training.
• Importantly, individuals had the freedom to choose their subjects without any
restrictions and medium of Buddhist education was the common language of the
people.
 Role of Teacher in Buddhist Education
• In the Buddhist period, there were no organized Gurukuls; instead, education was imparted through Monasteries and Viharas.

• The Monk (teacher) bore full responsibility for the education, clothing, food, and residence of the student monk. The teacher, usually a monk, had the duty of
keeping proper academic standards and decorum within the Viharas. Rules and regulations applied uniformly to all groups and m embers within a Viharas,
regardless of their status or standing. The teacher was also responsible for providing medical treatment to the student whene ver he fell ill. During this period,
teachers played a crucial role in aiding the Bhikshus (students) by imparting instruction on the following factors, which is also known as noble eightfold path.

1. Right View / Understanding

2. Right Intention / Thought

3. Right Speech

4. Right Action

5. Right Livelihood

6. Right Effort

7. Right Mindfulness

8. Right Concentration.

• Buddhist schools did not runisolation; rather, they formed a federal structure of organizations known as Viharas or Monasteries. These monasteries served as
centers of education, teaching not only the doctrines of Buddhism but also other subjects. The primary aim aimst monks was to propagate Buddhism.
Moreover, Buddhist asceticism developed its own set of rules and regulations based on its distinct perspective and definition of the ascetic life
 Financial support during Buddhist education
system
• Here are some key aspects of the financial support system during the Buddhist education system:
1. Royal Patronage: Kings and rulers played a significant role in supporting Buddhist monastic
institutions. They would provide land, wealth, and other resources to the monasteries to ensure the
financial stability of the monks and the smooth functioning of the educational and religious activities.
2. Donations from the Community: Local communities often contributed to the financial well-being of
Buddhist monasteries. Lay followers would donate food, clothing, and other necessities to the monks,
supporting their daily needs and educational pursuits.
3. Individual Offerings and Alms: The Buddhist monastic tradition involves monks relying on alms
(food and other offerings) provided by the lay community. Laypeople would make individual offerings
to monks as a way of accumulating merit and supporting the monastic lifestyle.
4. Land Grants: Similar to other ancient educational systems, land grants were a common form of
endowment for Buddhist monasteries. Donated lands provided a sustainable source of income for the
monastic community, helping to meet their financial needs.
5. Craftsmanship and Skills: Some Buddhist monasteries engaged in various economic activities,
such as craftsmanship and trade. Monks with specific skills might produce goods or provide services,
and the income generated would contribute to the financial support of the monastery.

6. Educational Services: Buddhist monks were often involved in teaching and disseminating
knowledge. In some cases, fees or offerings from students or their families could contribute to the
financial support of the educational activities within the monastic system.

The combination of royal patronage, community support, individual offerings, and economic
activities allowed Buddhist monastic institutions to thrive and maintain their educational and
religious functions. The support system was closely tied to the principles of dana (generosity) and the
reciprocal relationship between the monastic community and the lay followers.
 Agraharas
• The Agrahara built around the temples were either arranged along the three sides of the main temple otherwise, the most seen pattern
is the concentric circles around the temple. The Agrahara were often built on land donated by the royals and often the land was divided
among the migrant Brahmins based on the social hierarchy existing within their caste group.
• The Agrahara were usually followed a linear planning, quite in contrast to the arrangement of rooms around the courtyard we see in the
traditional houses. The planning and architecture of these two housing patterns have evolved over time taking into consideration
various parameters like the local climate conditions, availability of local building materials and the skill employed in the construction.
• The courtyard houses of Agrahara show a direct response to the place's climate conditions. In the hot humid climatic conditions of this
region, the courtyard ensures easy ventilation. Traditionally, the sloping roof of the houses lets in a little sunlight to the traditional Kerala
houses' interiors; this is compensated r by the large courtyard.
• The courtyard has some religious association too, traditionally in Vastu, the open courtyard in a house is considered as the ‘devasthana’,
The most sacred place assigned to the gods and hence construction is not allowed there. In old houses we can often see the sacred tulsi
planted and worshipped in the center of the courtyard.
• The Agraharas also incorporates a courtyard in its design Agraharas served as centers of learning and teaching. South Indian kingdoms
also had other cultural institutions known as Ghatika and Brahmapuri.
• A Ghatika was a center of learning, including religion, and was small. An agrahara was a bigger institution, a whole settlement of learned
Brahmins, with its own powers of government and was keptnerous donations from the society. Temples, Mathas, Jain Basadis and
Buddhist Vihara.
 Financial support in Agraharas education
system

• Financial support for individuals in agraharas came from various sources:

1. Land Grants: The primary form of endowment for agraharas was land. Kings and
wealthy patrons would donate land to Brahmin families and scholars. The revenue
generated from these lands helped sustain the individuals residing in the agrahara.
2. Tax Exemptions: Agraharas were often granted tax exemptions, allowing the
residents to retain a significant portion of the produce or revenue generated from the
endowed lands. This exemption provided financial relief to the inhabitants.
3. Royal Patronage: Kings and rulers played a crucial role in supporting agraharas.
They would not only grant lands but also provide financial aid and protection to the
Brahmin communities residing in Agraharas.
4. Donations from the Community:The local community, recognizing the importance of the religious and
educational activities conducted in agraharas, often contributed in the form of donations, gifts, or services.
This communal support helped sustain the agrahara system.

5. Temple Endowments: Some agraharas were associated with temples, and part of the temple
endowments would be allocated to support the residents of the agrahara. This was especially common in
regions where agraharas were closely linked to temple activities.

6. Education-Related Activities: Since agraharas were centers of learning, individuals residing there often
engaged in educational and religious activities, including teaching. The fees or offerings received for
educational services contributed to their financial support.

Agraharas were an integral part of the socio-religious fabric in ancient South India, fostering education,
religious practices, and cultural development. The financial support provided to individuals in agraharas
was crucial for the continuity of these institutions and their contributions to the community.
 Lipi Shaala

• "Lipi Shaala" is a term in Hindi where "Lipi" means script or

writing, and "Shaala" means school or classroom.
• So, "Lipi Shaala" can be translated to mean a school or learning
center that focuses on teaching various scripts or writing
systems.
• This term is commonly used to describe institutions or programs
that aim to educate individuals in different writing systems, such
as regional scripts or languages.
 Guild Education System

• Guilds were associations of artisans or merchants who oversaw the practice of

their craft in a particular town or city.
• Guilds played a significant role in medieval and early modern economies by
setting standards for craftsmanship, training apprentices, and regulating
trade.
• The term "guild education system" involves a system where education and
training are organized or overseen by professional guilds or associations.
• In such a system, these guilds take responsibility for ensuring lofty standards
of education and training within a particular industry or profession.
 Financial Support during Post Gupta period

• During the post-Gupta period in ancient India, which spans roughly from the 6th to the 12th centuries,
the financial support systems for education underwent changes with the decline of the classical Gupta
Empire. The nature of financial support during this period was influenced by the emergence of
regional kingdoms, religious institutions, and changing economic structures.
Here are some key elements:
1. Royal Patronage: While the Gupta Empire had a strong central authority that supported education,
the post-Gupta period saw the rise of various regional kingdoms. Many of these kingdoms continued
the tradition of royal patronage for scholars, artists, and educational institutions. Kings would offer
grants of land, resources, or funds to support learning centers and scholars.
2. Temple Endowments: The construction and maintenance of temples became a focal point for
patronage during this period. Wealthy individuals and rulers would make significant donations to
temples, and part of these endowments would be allocated for educational and scholarly activities.
Temples often served as centers of learning and cultural development.
3. Local Community Support: Educational institutions also received support from local communities.
Contributions in the form of donations, land grants, or offerings from prosperous individuals or communities
helped sustain schools, scholars, and centers of learning.

4. Guilds and Trade Communities: In urban centers, trade guilds and merchant communities played a role in
supporting education. They might contribute funds or resources to establish and maintain schools, especially for
specific skills related to trade and commerce.

5. Individual Philanthropy: Wealthy individuals, including merchants and landowners, continued to play a
crucial role in supporting education. They would make personal donations or endowments to scholars and
educational institutions, fostering a culture of philanthropy.

6. Continuation of Traditional Systems: The Gurukula system, where students lived with their teacher in a
residential setup, continued to exist in some regions. Financial support in such systems often came from offerings
made by students' families or through the patronage of local rulers.

7. Islamic Influence: With the advent of Islamic rule in parts of India, new systems of education emerged, often
centered around madrasas. Financial support for these institutions came from Islamic rulers, waqf (endowment)
systems, and community contributions.

The post-Gupta period was marked by decentralization, diverse cultural influences, and a shift in political power.
As a result, financial support for education became more localized and diversified, with contributions coming
from various quarters, including regional rulers, religious institutions, communities, and individuals
 Universities

• The Gupta period in ancient Indian history (approximately 4th to 6th centuries CE) was
characterized by significant advancements in various fields, including education. However,
specific details about universities during this period are limited. Instead, the focus was often
on educational centers, monastic institutions, and scholarly activities.
Here are six renowned centers of learning during the Gupta period:
1. Nalanda:
• Location: Bihar
• Specialization: Buddhist studies, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, and various other
disciplines.
• Features: Nalanda is one of the most well-known ancient universities in India, reaching its
zenith during the Gupta period. It had a vast campus with monasteries, libraries, and lecture
halls. It attracted scholars and students from across Asia.
2. Taxila (Takshashila):
Location: Northwest India (in present-day Pakistan)
Specialization: Mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, and various arts and sciences.
Features: While Taxila's prime was during the earlier Maurya period, it continued to be a prominent center of
learning during the Gupta era. It attracted students and scholars from various parts of the world, contributing to a
diverse and rich academic environment.

3. Vikramashila:
Location: Bihar
Specialization: Buddhist studies, philosophy, and related disciplines.
Features: Vikramashila was another significant Buddhist university set upng the Pala dynasty, which succeeded the
Gupta period. Like Nalanda, it played a crucial role in the dissemination of Buddhist teachings.

4. Odantapuri:
Location: Bihar
Specialization: Buddhist studies, philosophy, and related fields.
Features: Odantapuri was a renowned Buddhist center of learning, set up the Pala dynasty. It attracted scholars and
students interested in Buddhist philosophy and scriptures.

5. Valabhi (Vallabhi):
Location: Saurashtra (Gujarat)
Specialization: Grammar, literature, and legal studies.
Features: Valabhi gained prominence for his studies in grammar, literature, and legal matters. It was considered a
major seat of learning during ancient times, attracting students interested in various disciplines.
6. Ujjain:
Location: Madhya Pradesh
Specialization: Astronomy, mathematics, and related sciences.
Features: Ujjain was known for its achievements in astronomy and mathematics during the Gupta period.
Scholars like Aryabhata made significant contributions to these fields, and Ujjain played a role as a center of
intellectual activity.

It's important to note that while these centers of learning existed during the Gupta period, the concept of
modern universities did not precisely match the educational structures of ancient India. The educational
system was often decentralized, with students seeking knowledge from accomplished teachers in various
specialized fields
 POST GUPTA PERIOD
• Harshavardhana also called Harshavardhana, (born c. 590 CE—died c. 647), was a ruler of a large empire in northern India from
606 to 647 CE. o Harsha’s reign seemed to mark a transition from the ancient to the medieval period, when decentralized regional
empires continually struggled for hegemony.

He was the last ruler of the Vardhana Empire, the last great empire in ancient India before the Islamic Invasion. After the fall of
great Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century CE, under whom India saw its own golden age, it was Harshavardhana who
unified most of northern India and ruled for four decades from his capital Kanyakubja

The Pushyabhuti dynasty, also known as the Vardhana dynasty, came into prominence after the decline of the Gupta Empire.
He was succeeded by his elder son, Rajyavardhana.

After his brother’s death, at the age of 16, Harshavardhana became the undisputed ruler of Thaneshwar (modern-day Haryana).
o Being one of the largest Indian empires of the 7th Century CE, it covered the entire North and North-western India.
In the east, his empire extended till Kamarupa and ran all the way down to the Narmada River.
It is said that his empire was spread across the present day states of Orissa, Bengal, Punjab and the whole of Indo-Gangetic
plain. o The Vardhana Empire consisted of two distinctive types of territories: areas directly under Harsha’s rule such as Central
Provinces, Gujarat, Bengal, Kalinga, Rajputana, and the states and kingdoms which had become feudatories under him including
Jalandhar, Kashmir, Nepal, Sind, Kamarupa (modern-day Assam)
 Administration and the Empire
It is said that Harshavardhana’s empire reminded many of the great Gupta Empire, as his administration was similar to that of the
administration of the Gupta Empire.
There was no slavery in his empire and people were free to lead their life according to their wish.
His empire also took good care of the poor by building rest houses that provided all the amenities required.
In many texts, Harshavardhana has been described as a noble emperor who made sure all his subjects stayed happy.
He did not impose heavy taxes on his people and the economy was somewhat selfsufficient.
His capital Kannauj (in present day Uttar Pradesh) attracted many artists, poets, religious leaders and scholars who traveled from far and
wide.
He also maintained cordial relations with the Chinese. He even sent an Indian mission to China, establishing a diplomatic relationship
between India and China. The famous Chinese monk and traveler Xuanzang spent eight years in his empire. During the course of his rule,
Harshavardhana built a strong army.
Historical records suggest that he had 100,000 strong cavalry, 50,000 infantry and 60,000 elephants during the peak of his reign. Further,
during Harsha’s reign, there was paucity of coins in most parts of North India. This fact suggests that the economy was feudal in nature.
Independent rulers, collectively known as ‘Mahasamantas,’ paid tribute to Harshavardhana and also helped him by supplying military
reinforcements.
This played an important role in the expansion of Harshavardhana’s empire.
 Art and Education

Harsha was a patron of both art and education. He himself was an author and
wrote three Sanskrit plays, Nagananda, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika. One-fourth of
his revenue went for patronizing scholars.
Further, Hiuen Tsang gives a quite vivid description of the famous Nalanda
University which was at its zenith during Harsha’s reign.
Nalanda had around 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers.
The curriculum included Vedas, Buddhism, philosophy, logic, urban planning,
medicine, law, astronomy, etc.
Also, a famous Indian writer and poet named Banabhatta served as the
‘Asthana Kavi’ (primary poet of the kingdom) in the court of Harshavardhana.
 Society and Religion

• Caste system was prevalent among Hindus. They were divided into four castes or varna:
Brahmana, Vaishya, Kshariya and Shudra, which among them had their own subcastes. The
status of women declined as compared to the liberal era of earlier times.
Satipratha (widow immolation) was common, and widow remarriage was not allowed in
higher castes. o Harsha was a worshiper of Shiva in the beginning but later became a
Mahayana Buddhist.
Yet, he was tolerant of other faiths.
With a view to popularize and propagate the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism, Harsha
arranged at Kanyakubja a great assembly which was presided over by Hiuen Tsang, in 643 CE.
Also, every five years religious ceremonies were celebrated at the ancient city of Allahabad.
Here, he held the ceremony of Dana, or giving, which lasted for three months. During this,
most of the wealth accumulated in the last five years was exhausted
 Death and Legacy

• Harsha’s empire marked the beginning of feudalism in India.

• Land was granted in villages, which made the local landlords powerful.
This led to the weakening of the empire and gave rise to local feuds. Harsha had to
be in constant movement to keep things in order.
After ruling over most parts of North India for more than 40 years, Harsha died in 647
C.E.
Since he did not have any heirs, his empire collapsed and disintegrated rapidly into
small states.
The demise of King Harshavardhana marked the end of the mighty Vardhana
dynasty.
 Literature during Post Gupta Period

1. Bhakti Poetry: The post-Gupta period saw the rise of Bhakti poetry, expressing devotional sentiments toward deities. Notable poets and
their works include:
• Shankaracharya: He wrote devotional hymns and philosophical works, such as the "Bhaja Govindam" and the "Soundarya Lahari."
• Bhakti poets like Alvars and Nayanars: In South India, Alvars (Vaishnavite saints) and Nayanars (Shaivite saints) composed devotional
hymns praising Vishnu and Shiva, respectively.

2. Kavya Literature: Raghuvamsha by Kalidasa (6th-7th century):

Although Kalidasa belonged to the Gupta period, some later poets emulated his style, and works like the "Raghuvamsha" continued to be
influential in the post-Gupta era.

3. Drama: Vikramorvashiya by Kalidasa:

Although believed to be a Gupta work, this play continued to be popular and performed during the post-Gupta period.
Bhavabhuti (8th century): His plays, including "Malatimadhava" and "Uttararamacharita," are notable contributions to Sanskrit drama.

4. Prose Literature: Dandin (7th-8th century):Known for his prose work "Dashakumaracharita," a collection of romantic tales.

Bana (7th century): Authored "Harshacharita," a biography of King Harsha.

5. Epics and Puranas: Bhagavata Purana (9th-10th century): This Purana, attributed to Vyasa, is a significant
scripture in the Bhakti movement, emphasizing devotion to Lord Krishna.

Vikramaditya Charita (11th century): An epic poem by Bilhana, celebrating the legendary king Vikramaditya.

6. Kavya and Champu Literature: Bhatti's "Bhattikavya" (7th century): A mahakavya (epic poem) celebrating the
victory of Lord Rama over Ravana.

Bilhana's "Chaurapanchashika" (11th century):A champu (mixture of prose and verse) work depicting the love
story of a princess and a thief.

7. Mathematics and Astronomy: Aryabhata II's "Mahasiddhanta": A Sanskrit work on mathematics and astronomy.

8.Jain Literature: Jinasena's "Adipurana" (9th century): A major Jain work narrating the lives of the first 22
Tirthankaras.

Hemachandra's "Yoga-shastra" (12th century):A treatise on grammar and rhetoric.

The post-Gupta period was also marked by the flourishing of regional literatures in languages such as Kannada,
Telugu, Tamil, and Bengali. The literature of this time reflects a continued engagement with classical Sanskrit
traditions alongside the development of distinctive regional literary traditions.
 Sangam Age
• The Sangam period or age, specifically the third Sangam period, is a period of history in ancient Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and portions of Sri
Lanka that lasted from around the 6th century BCE to around the 3rd century CE.
• It was named after the well-known Sangam schools of poets and philosophers based in Madurai.
• It was named after the Sangam academies that flourished during that era under the royal patronage of the Pandya rulers of M adurai.
• Eminent intellectuals gathered at the sangams to serve as censors, and the best writing was rendered in the form of anthologies.
• These literary works were among the first examples of Dravidian literature.
• According to Tamil traditions, three Sangams (Academies of Tamil poets) were held in ancient South India, generally known as
Muchchangam.
• The First Sangam is said to have taken place in Madurai, and it was attended by gods and mythical sages. This Sangam's literary work is
not available.
• Only Tolkappiyam survived from the Second Sangam, which was held in Kapadapuram.
• Madurai also hosted the Third Sangam. A handful of these Tamil literary works have survived and can be used to recreate the Sangam
period's history.
• It was attended by many poets who generated extensive literature, but only a handful survived.
• These Tamil literary works continue to be valuable materials for reconstructing the history of the Sangam Age.
 Sangam Literature
• Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics – Silappathikaram and Manimegalai – are among the works in the Sangam literary corpus.

• Tolkappiyam, written by Tolkappiyar, is the first piece of Tamil literature.

• It is a study on Tamil language, but it also discusses the political and economic realities during the Sangam period.

• Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal, and Padirruppattu are the works included in the Ettuthogai or Eight Anthologies.

• Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunarruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Madurai Kanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai, and
Malaipadukadam comprise the Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls.

• Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal, and Padirruppatu are the eight works included in Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies).

• Pathinenkilkanakku features eighteen pieces, the most of which deal with ethics and morals. The most important is Thirukkural, written by Thiruvalluvar.

• Elango Adigal's Silappathigaram and Sittalai Sattanar's Manimegalai both include useful information on Sangam politics and society.

• Scholars are still divided on the dating of the Sangam literature.

• The fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and Cheran Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries is the primary anchor of Sangam chronology.

• Silappathigaram, as well as the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, confirm this.

• In addition, Roman coins minted by Roman emperors in the first century A.D. were discovered in abundance in numerous locations around Tamil Nadu.

• As a result, based on literary, archaeological, and numismatic evidence, the most likely dating of the Sangam literature ha s been assigned to the third century B.C. to the
third century A.D.
 Sangam age - Political History

• During the Sangam Age, South India was dominated by

three dynasties: the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas.
• The Sangam Period literary allusions are the primary source
of knowledge about these countries.
 Cheras
• The Cheras ruled over Kerala's centre and northern regions, as well as the Kongu
area of Tamil Nadu.
• Their capital was Vanji, and they controlled the ports on the west coast, Musiri and
Tondi.
• Cheras's insignia was a "bow and arrow."
• The Pugalur inscription from the first century AD mentions three generations of
Chera monarchs.
• The Cheras' significance stemmed from trading with the Romans. They also erected
an Augustus temple nearby.
• Senguttuvan, often known as the Red Chera or the Good Chera, was the greatest
monarch of Cheras in the second century A.D.
• His military exploits are detailed in the epic Silapathikaram, including his trip to the
Himalayas, where he destroyed numerous north Indian kingdoms.
• Senguttuvan popularised the Pattini cult, or worship of Kannagi as the ideal bride, in
Tamil Nadu.
• He was the first to send an embassy from South India to China.
 Cholas
• During the Sangam era, the Chola monarchy stretched from the
contemporary Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh.
• Their capital was first located in Uraiyur but was later relocated to Puhar. Karikala was
a well-known Sangam Chola ruler.
• Pattinappalai depicts his childhood and military triumphs.
• He vanquished the powerful confederacy of the Cheras, Pandyas, and eleven smaller
chieftains at the Battle of Venni.
• Many Sangam poetry reference this occurrence.
• Another significant fight fought by him was Vahaipparandalai, in which nine enemy
chieftains surrendered before him.
• Karikala's military accomplishments elevated him to the position of ruler of the whole
Tamil kingdom.
• During his rule, trade and commerce prospered.
• He was in charge of reclaiming forest lands and bringing them back into agriculture,
bringing wealth to the people. • He also erected Kallanai across the Kaveri River and
several irrigation canals.
 Pandyas
• The Pandyas reigned over what is now southern Tamil Nadu.
• Madurai was their capital. The first Pandyan rulers were Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi, and
Mudathirumaran.
• There were two Neduncheliyans present. The first was known as Arya Padai Kadantha Neduncheliyan (one who
defeated Aryan armies).
• He was responsible for Kovalan's execution, for which Kannagi burnt Madurai.
• Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra (He who won the war of Talaiyalanganam) Neduncheliyan was the other. Nakkirar
and Mangudi Maruthanar both commended him.
• He received this title after defeating his opponents in the Battle of Talaiyalanganam, which took place in the
Tanjore district.
• With this win, Neduncheliyan won control of the whole state of Tamil Nadu.
• Mangudi Maruthanar's Madurai Kanji portrays the socioeconomic status of the Pandya nation, particularly the
booming harbour of Korkai.
• Uggira Peruvaludhi was the last renowned Pandyan ruler. The invasion of the Kalabhras caused the Pandyan
power to wane during the Sangam Age.

Minor Rulers Sangam age - Minor Rulers

• Minor chieftains were important throughout the Sangam era. Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay, and Adiyaman were
well-known for their charity and support of Tamil poets.
• As a result, they were dubbed Kadai Elu Vallalgal.
• They were strong and popular in their own domains, while being subordinate to the Chera, Chola, and Pandya
emperors.
 Sangam age - Polity
• During the Sangam period, thehereditary monarchy was the type of government.
• The monarch had also sought an opinion from his minister, court poet, and the imperial court, known as avai.
• The Chera rulers were known as Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, and Villavar, while the Chola kings were known as
Senni, Valavan, and Kili, and the Pandya kings were known as Thennavar and Minavar.

• Each Sangam dynasty had its own royal emblem: a carp for the Pandyas, a tiger for the Cholas, and a bow for the Cheras.
• A number of leaders and officials attended the imperial court, known as avai.
• A huge group of officials, split into five councils, helped the king. Ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), military commanders
(senapathi), envoys (thuthar), and spies (orrar) were among them.
• Each monarch had a regular army as well as their own Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
• Land revenue was the primary source of governmental revenue, and customs duties were also levied on international
commerce.

• The Pattinappalai are customs officials who work in Puhar's harbour. War booty was also a significant source of revenue for the
royal treasury.
• Roads and pathways were well-maintained and monitored 24 hours a day, seven days a week to prevent robbery and
smuggling.
 Sangam age - Society
• Kurinji (hilly trails), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal), and Palai (desert) are the five land
divisions of Tolkappiyam.
• The individuals who lived in these five divisions had their own primary jobs as well as gods to worship.
• Kurinji – chief deity Murugan – chief occupation hunting and honey collection.
• Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.
• Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation agriculture.
• Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.
• Palai – the supreme god Korravai is the major occupation of robbery.
• Tolkappiyam is also used to refer to four castes: arasar, anthanar, vanigar, and vellalar. The governing class was
known as arasar.
• Anthanars were influential in Sangam politics and religion. Vanigars were traders and merchants.
• The vellalas worked in agriculture. Other tribal tribes identified in the Sangam civilization included the Parathavar,
Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar, and Pulaiyar.
• During this time, primitive tribes such as the Thodas, Irulas, Nagas, and Vedars existed
 • Agriculture was the most important employment. Rice was the most widely grown crop.
• Other crops were ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon, and a variety of fruits.
• The Chera people were well-known for their love of jackfruit and pepper. Paddy was the main crop in Chola
and Pandya territory.

• The Sangam period's handicrafts were popular. Weaving, metal work and carpentry, ship construction, and
the creation of jewellery from beads, stones, and ivory are among them.

• As internal and external commerce was at its pinnacle during the Sangam era, there was a high demand for
these things.

• Cotton and silk clothing spinning and weaving reached a high level of excellence.
• Cotton clothing as thin as a mist of steam or a snake's slough are mentioned in the poetry.
• The cotton clothing produced at Uraiyur was in high demand in the Western world.

Sangam age -
• During the Sangam Age, both domestic and foreign trade was properly regulated and swiftly carried out.
• The Sangam literature, Greek and Roman narratives, and archaeological evidence all give much material on
this topic.

Economy • Merchants moved products from place to place on carts and on the backs of animals. Internal trade mostly
relied on barter.
• South India and the Greek kings conducted external commerce. Roman commerce grew in prominence after
the Roman Empire's rise.
• As large ships carrying valuable products reached Puhar's harbour, the city became a foreign commercial
hub.
• Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikamedu, and Marakkanam are other commercially active ports. Periplus's author
delivers the most important information on overseas commerce.
• A plethora of gold and silver coins minted by Roman Emperors such as Augustus, Tiberius, and Nero were
discovered around Tamil Nadu.
• They show the breadth of commerce and the presence of Roman traders in Tamil Nadu.

• Cotton garments, spices such as pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, and turmeric, ivory items, pearls, and
precious stones were the principal exports of the Sangam period.

• The most important imports were gold, horses, and sweet wine
 Sangam age - Religion and Worship

• Seyon or Murugan, the Tamil God, was the major god of the Sangam era.
• Murugan worship has an ancient origin, and festivals related to God Murugan were documented in
Sangam literature.
• He was given six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu in his honour.
• Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan, and Korravai were also worshipped throughout the
Sangam era.
• The Hero Stone, also known as Nadu Kal worship, was important throughout the Sangam era. • The
Hero Stone was created to commemorate the warrior's valour in combat.
• Many hero stones with tales carved on them have been discovered in various locations of Tamil Nadu.
• This type of remembrance of the departed has a long history.
 Sangam age - Position of Women

• There is a wealth of material in the Sangam literature that may be used to track
the situation of women throughout the Sangam period.
• Women poets such as Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkai Padiniyar
flourished and contributed to Tamil literature throughout this time period.
• Women's bravery was also lauded in several poems.
• Karpu, or chaste life, was seen to be the finest virtue of women. It was
common practice to marry for love. Women were given the right to pick their
life mates.
• Widows, on the other hand, had a wretched life. Sati was also widely practised
in society's upper echelons.
• The monarchs and nobility patronised the class of dancers
 Sangam age - Arts

• Poetry, music, and dance were prominent among the Sangam

people. The monarchs, chieftains, and nobility made generous
payments to poets.
• Panar and Viraliyar, two singing bards, packed the royal courts.
They were masters of traditional tunes and dances.
• Music and dance were highly developed arts.
• The Sangam literature mentions a variety of Yazhs and drums.
Kanigaiyar did a dance. People's favourite form of entertainment
was koothu
 End of Sangam age

• The Sangam period gradually declined at the end of the third

century A.D.
• For almost two and a half centuries, the Kalabhras occupied
Tamil land. There is very little knowledge about the Kalabhra
reign.
• During this time, Jainism and Buddhism rose to prominence.
• The Pallavas of northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas of southern
Tamil Nadu pushed the Kalabhras out of Tamil Nadu and
established their reign.
 Literature of Sangam Age
• The Sangam era, which is generally considered to span from 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE in South India, is known for its rich
literary output in Tamil. The Sangam literature consists of poems composed by various poets, and it is classified into two ca tegories: the
'Aham' (inner or subjective) and 'Puram' (outer or aims. These poems provide insights into the social, cultural, and economic aspects of
ancient Tamil society.
Some notable literary works from the Sangam era include:
1. Tirukkural (circa 1st century BCE to 1st century CE):
Author: Thiruvalluvar
Genre: Ethical and didactic literature
Content: Tirukkural, also known as the Kural, is a classic Tamil work consisting of 1,330 couplets organized into three books: Virtue (Aram),
Wealth (Porul), and Love (Inbam). It covers various aspects of human life, morality, and governance.
2. Pathupattu (Ten Idylls):
Authors: Various poets
Genre: A collection of poems expressing themes of love, war, and nature
Content: Pathupattu is a compilation of ten Sangam anthologies, each featuring poems on diverse subjects. It includes "Ainkurunuru,"
"Kuruntokai," and "Natrinai," among others
3. Ainkurunuru (Five Hundred):
Authors: Various poets
Genre: Love poetry
Content: This anthology consists of 500 poems exploring the theme of love in various forms. The poems provide a glimpse into
the beauty of Tamil poetry and the romantic sentiments prevalent during the Sangam period.
4. Kuruntokai (Hundred Short Poems):
Authors: Various poets
Genre: Love poetry
Content: Kuruntokai is a collection of 400 short poems that revolve around themes of love, separation, and the longing for the
beloved. The poems are characterized by simplicity and emotional depth.
5.Pattupattu (Ten Idylls):
Authors: Various poets
Genre: Epic poetry
Content: Pattupattu comprises ten idylls that narrate heroic deeds, valor, and the lives of kings and warriors. It is a valuable source
for understanding the socio-political aspects of the Sangam period.
6. Agananuru (The Book of Elegies):
Authors: Various poets
Genre: Elegies
Content: Agananuru is a collection of 400 poems that commemorate the heroic deeds and sacrifices of warriors. It provides
insights into the martial ethos of the ancient Tamil society.
7. Purananuru (The Book of Praise):
Authors: Various poets
Genre: Praise poetry
Content: Purananuru consists of 400 poems celebrating the virtues and achievements of kings and patrons. It serves as a historical
document shedding light on the political and cultural milieu of the Sangam period. These literary works from the Sangam era are
considered significant cultural and historical treasures, providing a window into the life, ethos, and poetic brilliance of ancient
Tamil society.
 Muslim Education System
• Education is the knowledge of putting one’s potentials to maximum use. Without education no one can find proper path in this world.
Education is the means by which societies have been known in history to grow out of oppression to democratic participation an d
involvement. Education in Islam is not merely of acquiring intellectual knowledge but it is a means of molding the nature and character
of an individual so that they can collectively represent Islamic values and human greatness.
• The terminology of education from Muslim perspective is often defined by Muslim scholars from three different dimensions which are
reflected in different concepts introduced, important among them are; tarbiyyah–the process of education that gives emphasis on
physical and intellectual development of an individual, tahzīb–the process of education that gives emphasis on nurturing good human
beings with knowledge of the faith and the noble codes of conduct/ethics approved by Islam, so that he may place himself and deal
with others in society with justice and talim–the process of education that is based on teaching and learning.It was during the medieval
period Muslim ruler’s especially, the Mughals started a new system of education based on Quran and hadith popularly known as Muslim
education.
• The Muslims establish Maktabs, Madrassas and Mosques for giving education. They considered education as the greatest of all gifts and
believed that it is better to educate ones child than to give gold in charity.The tradition of the Prophet also makes it obligatory to the
Muslims to acquire knowledge. The theory of education in Islam is discussed by number of Muslims thinkers, including men of
eminence like Imam Ghazzali and Ibn Khaldun and the aims of education according to Muslim ideals have been propounded and
discovered by Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Ghazali, Ibn Jamaah and others (Kureshi, 2011). The Muslim education is pregnant with
democratic values. It entitles every individual for getting education. It does not discriminate for colour.
 • The philosophy of education determines the aims and objectives of education. There are
different philosophies of education. Naturally there are different aims and objectives of
education.
• Having read the place of knowledge, education and training in Islam let us see the aims
and objectives of Muslim education: Durrani discussing the objectives of Muslim
education says: “The objective of education is to obtain knowledge of reality and
captivation of natural phenomena but life should not be unbridled wisdom and thought”
(Durrani, 1984: 50). Islam is purely educational movement. It lays no restriction on
learning of modern sciences and neither the modern sciences are against Islam.

Objectives of • Alamgeer, 2012: 156 says: The overall objective of education should be to transfer to the
new generation the accumulated knowledge, insights and experience of past generation

Muslim
and to guide it at once to extend and expand this heritage and to develop that
individual character which is enlightened and pure and disciplined enough to enable
them to prefer the collective good to personal gain and live as part of a society of

Education universal brotherhood. It requires such educational institutions which have adequate
space and equipment for instruction and games and sufficient number of qualified
teachers and coaches who are fully aware of and dedicated to the objectives of Islamic
view of life and possess ideal individual character.
• Hence the main objectives of Muslim education were to spread of Islamic knowledge
and to prepare human beings who obey God and are ready to do anything for His
pleasure and possess high Islamic and moral values like the habits of truth, honesty and
hard work so that they do not commit any theft or dishonesty inside and outside the
school. They should develop the sacrifice as second nature and such qualities which
make tolerant, respect for elders, love for younger’s and favour and grace to peers as a
part of their character.
 Types of Educational Institutions

• The main institutions for teaching and learning during the period of Muslim rule in India were Maktabs, Madrasas,
Khanqahs, Dargahs and Karkhanas. Maktab is a primary centre which functions in a Masjid or a small modest
building and provides instruction in religious as well as some secular subjects. Also reading, writing and
arithmetic was taught to the students in maktabs.
• Admission to Maktabs was marked by a colorful ceremony called Bismillah Khani. The ceremony was performed
at the time of admission when the child was four years, four months and four days old and was asked to recite the
verses of Quran.
• Madrasa is an institution that provides education generally up to senior secondary level. Khanqahs were
analogous to the monasteries of medieval Europe and mostly imparted moral and religious education based on
the teaching of the Quran. Dargahs were tombs of celebrated saints which wouldpropagate their philosophy.
• Yet another type of institutions was known as Karkhanas which provided technical training in handicrafts based
on the system of apprenticeship. They were, in fact, manufacturing centres where apprenticeship was observed
and practice of craftwork was done under the guidance of a teacher who had earned reputation in a particular
vocation. The word Madrasa includes all the above types of Islamic educational institutions prevailing all over the
Globe (Dash, 2014).
 Muslim Education in British India
• The advent of British rule found a system of instruction existing among both Hindus and Muhammadans in each case connected with their religious institutions. The
policies of British colonial rule (1757–1947), however, made the most indelible marks on Madrasa education, not only directly, wherein their policies have impacted on the
structure, functions and curriculum of Madrasas, but also indirectly, through the prompting of responses from the Ulema and the Muslim community that determined the
contours and the content of Madrassa education.

• However, as far as Muslim education is concerned, in British India, Warren Hasting was the first man who took a major step and founded a Madrasa in Calcutta in 1781.
The Madrasa was solely meant to promote and encourage the study of Arabic, Persian and Urdu languages.

• However, the obligation of the government in the field of education was not recognized until 1814 when the East India Company sanctioned an annual grant of one lack
rupees for the revival and improvement of literature, the encouragement of learnt natives of India and for the introduction a nd promotion of knowledge of Science
among the inhabitants of the British Territories of India.

• In 1835, the Governor General Lord William Bentinck made the law that it was the prime obligation of the government to make better arrangements for the teaching of
English and also issued a resolution that all the funds appropriated for the purpose of education would be best employed on the English education alone.

• Subsequently, Lord Macaulay, the first Law Member of the Governor-General's Council in India, stressed the British Government to establish education system that can
secure the interests of the British and was very clear in his philosophy as “we must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the
millions whom we govern, a class of persons Indian in blood and color but English in taste, in opinion, in morals and in intellect” (Macaulay, 1835). British educational
policies were regarded by Muslim leaders as a threat to the integrity of their religion and culture. English education was not seen by the Muslims as merely being a
medium for the transference of knowledge but as a vehicle for the Christianization of Indian Muslims. Muslims, who were now behind the Hindus in terms of having an
English education, also lost their traditional system of education.

• The native schools were totally excluded from the financial support of the government and consequently large number of indigenous schools which were deprived of
state support gradually deteriorated in efficiency. The adaptation of a foreign language as the medium of instruction also ra ised a barrier between the educated and the
masses. The Britishers were fully conscious that education was essential for the consolidation of their rule. They appointed various commissions to look in to the system of
education and to recommend measures for it, The Woods Dispatch of 1854 brought special attention of the Government of India, towards improvement and wider
The Indian Education Commission (1882) was appointed under the chairmanship of Sir William Hunter. The
commission laid much emphasis on the promotion of education among the Muslims and recommended following
suggestions for its improvement:-
I. Indigenous schools for the Muslims should be liberally encouraged to add secular subjects to their curriculum.
II. Scholarship should be made available to Muslim students at all levels.
III. The benefits of Muslim educational endowments should be reserved for the Muslim students to promote their
education.
IV. Special provision should be made to increase the number of Muslim teachers and other officers.
V. Higher English education for Muslims both in schools and colleges should be encouraged. During the 19th
century some attempts were made to bring reforms in the curriculum of traditional Muslim education and to attract
Muslims to modern secular education.

But no attempt was made to prepare such a scheme of education which may be acceptable to all classes of people
or to evolve an integrated system of education contributing traditional and modern system of education. In 1917
Calcutta University Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Sadler. The commission made several
recommendations for school education and university education. However, it made the following remarks about the
traditional Muslim education.
‘Whatever may be the underlying motives, the preference of the Muslims for Maktabs and Madrasas to
secular ordinary schools was a patent fact proved by the experience of century and borne out by statistical
evidence….
A considerable portion of the mussalmans under instruction are still pupils in Maktabs and Madrasas. This means
that the community is anxious for a system of education which will enable it to prepare its social and religious
personality and its communal traditions.”In the colonial era, the Gurukul system and Madrasa system began to
decline
 Muslim Education after Independence
• Education is the instrument of change and development for the society. It trained and develops the manpower resources, transforms the
society as well as change the status of a person from one status to another in social hierarchy.
• Education according to Indian tradition is not merely a means of earning a living; nor is it only a nursery of thought or a school for
citizenship, it is initiation into the life of spirit and training of human souls in the pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue
(Radhakrishnan). In contemporary world particularly in developing countries modern education is seen as a means and goal for
modernization. Growth of education is considered as a sign of human growth and development. In 1951 the literacy in India was
18.53%, which increased to 64.8 % in 2001 and reached 74.04% in Census 2011.
• The National Commission for Minorities in India has identified Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Parsees which constitute 18.8%
of the total population of the country as religious minorities, while Hindus are the majority group. Among these various minorities,
Muslims occupy an important position in Indian society. India has one of the largest Muslim populations in the world about 17 2 million
constituting about 14.2 percent of total population.
• It is observable phenomenon that the educational status of Indian Muslims is very low. The status of Indian Muslims has a poor human
development status because of widespread illiteracy, low income, irregular employment and high incidence of poverty. In this country
the communities like Parses, Christians and Hindus, had an earlier start in the educational field, while the Muslims entered into this field
at a much later stage.
• Education is an indispensable means for helping the Muslims out of their economic misery because economic dependency is the m ajor
factor contributing to the low status of Muslims. Indian Muslims are far behind in achieving the literacy status because of their economic
conditions, non availability of schools, more drop-outs, less likely to survive educationally, lack of resources in the available schools, low
level of interest in education and lack of honest leadership in the community (Shazli and Asma, 2015).
• The Muslim education suffered a serious setback in the year 1947, when the country was divided on the basis of
religion. After the independence initiative for educational development for minorities were started in India, in
late 1970s, which geared up after The Sixth Annual Report (1983-84) of the Central Minorities Commission which
confirms the backwardness of the Muslims.
• It states that out of 172 districts of the country identified as backward by the Planning Commission, 39 districts,
including, seven classified as most backward have a sizeable Muslim population. In the National Sample Survey
43rd round conducted in 1990 it was revealed that only 2.3% male and 0.8% female Muslims had acquired
graduate qualification in the country.
• The 55th Round of the NSS (1999-2000) has provided an analysis of the levels of education achieved by Hindus
and Muslims at all India and at the state levels. According to the survey Muslims participation in higher education
in urban and rural areas in 1999-2000 was 3.9% and 0.8% respectively whereas Hindus participation rate was
11.5% and 1.8% respectively.
• The National Sample Survey Organization made estimates of a few indicators in 1987-88 and many more for
1993-94 and 1999-2000. In urban India, the Muslim illiteracy rate that was as much as 14 percentage points
higher in 1993-94 had narrowed a bit to 11 percentage points by the end of the decade (Saima, 2012).
• After a long stony silence on the issue of educational backwardness of the Indian Muslims since Independence,
the Government of India ultimately decided to publicly appreciate the fact that Muslims are educationally most
backward and special actions have to be taken to remove this. Several provisions concerning education of
minorities were incorporated in the National Policy of Education (NPE), 1986 and its Programme of Action (POA),
1992. Both the NPE and POA emphasis the need of special efforts to bring the educationally backward minorities
(which include Muslims) on par with the rest of the society and to make them participate fully in the national
development activity.
• Many long term and short term programmes were started in the form of affirmative actions to improve the educational status of
minorities (1983) like Area intensive Programme for Educationally Backward Minorities, Modernization of Madrasa, Moulana Azad
Education Foundation Scheme (1989), Free Supply of Books and Stationary and Merit Scholarship and Pre-examination Coaching
scheme for the weaker sections. However the conditions of the Muslims continued to deteriorate, as depicted by the report of the Dr.
Gopal Singh High Power Panel for Minorities (1983); the 43rd, 50th and 61st rounds of the National Sample Survey Organization
(NSSO) in 1988, 1994, and 2004-05 respectively; the seventh annual reports of the National Commission for Minorities; the report of
the Committee of Governor on the welfare of minorities (1998); the resolution and representations of minority parties and
organizations, and others.
• Hence the various research studies on Muslim minority conducted after the independence revealed their educational backwardness.
But the issue came into lime light after 2001. After the independence, religion wise data was published for first time in the Census 2001
and educational backwardness of Muslim community was an eye opener for policy makers and also for implementers. There after m any
initiatives were taken in favour of the education of the Muslim minority. These include renewal of Prime Minister’s 15 point programme
in 1983 and setting up of Prime Minister’s High level Committee on social, economic and educational status of the Muslim comm unity.
• In 2004, the Standing Committee of ‘National Monitoring Committee for Minorities ‘was constituted. Its primary aim was to know the
difficulties that were being faced by the minorities in the field of education, and whether or not the schemes run/introduced by the
central government for the educational elevation of the minorities were being properly dealt with by the provincial/local government.
In one of its recommendations, the committee suggested a way of introducing modern education in Madrasas without disturbing their
regular affairs. In 2006, National Monitoring Committee for Minority Education (NMCME) was reconstituted with the aim to attend the
issues related to the education of minorities on an ongoing basis.
• In 2006, the NEMEI’s powers were enhanced by creating an exclusive Ministry of Minority Affairs. In addition, the Ministry plays a pivotal
role in planning, coordination and development programmes for the benefit of the minority communities. The Madrasa education has
been formally linked with the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). NIOS is a government-funded examining body which
provides distance mode education to children missing out at elementary and secondary level and has nationwide coverage. NIOS, in
selected states, now conducts examinations in modern subjects introduced to Madrasa students and awards certificates to the students.
NIOS also gives courseware and certification to good quality need-based vocational courses, for example the “Hunar” Vocational
Project for Muslim girls in the State of Bihar. The Government of India opened residential schools Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidhalaya for
the girls of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes and minorities in backward districts where female literacy is
below the national average and wide gender gap exist (Manju, 2014),