(AMCP 706-350) - Engineering Design Handbook - Wheeled Amphibians-U.S. Army Materiel Command

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AMC PAMPHLET AMCP 706-350
GOO
ENGINEERING DESIGN
HANDBOOK
WHEELED
AMPHIBIANS
'~~-~~ C--
Reproduced by
NATIONAL TECHNICAL
INFORMATION SERVICE
-- B •0
Springfield, Va. 22151
HEADQUARTERS, U.S. ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND JANUARY 1971
.m• . .•-m .z - " d • '

Best
Avai~lable
Copy
HEADQUARTERS
UNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20315
AMC PAMPHLET 11 January 1971
No. 706-350
ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK
WHEELED AMPHIBIANS
IThis document box been approved

for pubik release and sale; its
distibution Is unlimited I
I..
TABLE OF CONTENTS S
Paragraph Page ,
................. xiv 4k
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ......
LIST OF TABLES ........... . . ..........
... .. xiX • .
LIST OF SYMBOLS .......................... ... xxii • •

PREFACE. .. .. .. ... . ........ ........ ............ xxvii t
PART ONE. BACKGROUND INFORMATION o
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1-1 Purpose of the Handbook ...................... 1-1

1-2 Definition ........ ........................ 1-1
1-3 Principal Elements of the Wheeled Amphibian ...... .1-1
1-3.1 Hull ........ .......................... 1-1
1-3.2 Propulsion System ......................... 1-1
1-3.2.1 Power Plant ........................... 1-2
1-3.2.2 Power Train ........................... 1-2 - 0 0
1-3.2.3 Propulsors ............................ 1-2
1-3.3 Suspension System ......................... 1-2
1-3.4 Steering System .......................... 1.2
1-3.5 Auxiliary Systems ......................... 1-2
1-3.5.1 Electrical System ........................ 1-3
1-3.5.2 Hydraulic System ........................ 1-3
1-3.6 Payload ........ ........................ 1-3
1-3.7 Fuel ........ .......................... 1-3
CHAPTER 2. FACTORS AFFECTING THE DESIGN
OF WHEELED AMPHIBIANS
Section I. Military Requirements 0 _ 9
2-1 The Military Mission and Environment ............. 2-1
2-2 Establishment of Military Requirements ............ 2-2
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2-2.1 General ........ ........................ 2-2

2-2.2 Qualitative Materiel Development Objectives
(QMDO) ....... ........................ 2-2
2-2.3 Qualitative Materiel Requirements (QMR) ....... .2-3
2-2.4 Small Development Requirements (SDR) ......... 2-3
Section II. Engineering Requirements
2-3 The Mission of Army Wheeled Amphibians .......... 2-4

2-4 Operational Requirements and Limitations .......... 2-4
2-4.1 General ........ ........................ 2-4
2-4.2 Waterborne Performance ..................... 2-5 0 0
2-4.2.1 Speed and Power ...... .................. 2-5
2-4.2.2 Maneuverability ......................... 2-5
2-4.2.3 Seakeeping ...... ..................... 2-5
2-4.3 Overland Mobility and Performance ............. 2-6
2-4.3.1 Soft-soil Mobility ........................ 2-6
2-4.3.2 Rough Ground and Obstacle Performance ....... 2-6 0 S
2-4.3.3 Slope Performance ..... ................. 2-6
2-4.3.4 Maneuverability ....... .................. 2-6
2-4.3.5 Dimensional Requirements ................. 2-6
2-4.3.6 Improved Road Performance ................ 2-7
2-4.4 River Bank Performance ...................... 2-7
2-4.5 Performance When Entering and Leaving
Landing (LST) and Dock-type (LSD) Ships ........ 2-7
2-4.6 Cargo-carrying and Handling Requirements ........ 2-7
2-5 Transportability Requirements and Limitations ..... .2-7
2-5.1 General ........ ........................ 2-7
2-5.2 Unrestricted Highway Transportability ........... 2-8
2-5.2.1 Width ....... ........................ 2-8
2-5.2.2 Height ............................... 2-8 • 5
2-5.2.3 Length. ............................... 2-8
2-5.2.4 Axle Loading ....... .................... 2-8
2-5.2.5 Gross Weight ....... .................... 2-8
2-5.3 Rail Transportability ........................ 2-8
2-5.4 Air Transportability ........................ 2-9
2-6 Climatic Environment Criteria ................... 2-9 0
2-7 Electrical System Special Regulations .............. 2-9
2-8 Special Regulations for Fuels, Lubricants, and
Hydraulic Fluids ........................... 2-9
2-9 Maintenance Requirements ..................... 2-9
2-9.1 General Considerations ...... ................ 2-9
2-9.2 Maintainability Criteria ...................... 2-9
2-9.3 Reliability Criteria ......................... 2-10
2-9.4 Use of Standard Military Components ............ 2-10
2-10 Human Factors ....... ..................... 2-11
References ........ ........................ 2-12
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CHAPTER 3. PAST AND PRESENTLY OPERATIONAL

WHEELED AMPHIBIANS
Section I. Brief History of Wheeled

Amphibian Development
3-1 General Requirements Which Led to the

Development of Recent Amphibians .............. 3-1
3-2 The Amphibious Jeep ...... .................. 3-1
3-3 The DUKW ............................... 3-1
3-4 The SUPERDUCK XM147 ..................... 3-2
3-5 The GULL XM148 .......................... 3-3
3-6 The DRAKE XM157 ......................... 3-3
3-7 The Present Family of Operational Logistic
Wheeled Amphibians ......................... 3-4 0 0
3-7.1 The LARC LX ........................... 3-5
3-7.2 The LARC V ............................. 3-6
3-7.3 The LARC XV ........................... 3-8
Section II. Tabulation of Vehicle Characteristics

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3-8 Vehicle Characteristics of Past and Presently
Operational Wheeled Amphibians ................. 3-11
Bibliography ....... ....................... 3-18
PART TWO. DESIGN OF WHEELED AMPHIBIANS
CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN PROCESS

4-1 Phases of the Design Process ................... 4-1
4-2 Control of the Design Process ................... 4-1
4-3 Information Flow in the Design Process ............ 4-2
4-4 Organization of Design Chapters ................. 4-2
References ....... ........................ 4-2 0 _
CHAPTER 5. PARAMETRIC AND CONCEPTUAL

DESIGN STUDIES
5-1 Objective............................... 5-1

5-1.1 Basic Purpose ...... ..................... 5-1 *
5-1.2 Relation to Design Cycles .................... 5-2
5-1.3 Design Criteria ........................... 5-2
5-1.3.1 Simplicity ....... ...................... 5-2
5-1.3.2 Durability ....... ...................... 5-2
5-1.3.3 Vulnerability ....... .................... 5-2
5-1.3.4 Weight ....... ....................... 5-2
5-1.3.5 Arrangements .......................... 5-3
5-1.3.6 Safety (Human Factors) ................... 5-3
5-1.3.7 Maintainability ...... ................... 5-3
5-1.3.8 Reliability ............................. 5-3
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5-1.3.9 Availability ... ..................... 5-4

5-1.3.10 Effectiveness ....... .................... 5-4
5-1.3.11 Economy ....... ...................... 5-4
5-2 Conceptual Design Procedures ................... 5-4
5-2.1 Typical Design Inputs and Outputs .............. 5-4
5-2.2 Basic Design Iteration Cycle ................... 5-5
5-3 Size and Arrangements ........................ 5-7 0 0
5-3.1 Design Interrelationships ..... ............... 5-7
5-3.2 Area, Volume, and Arrangement Relationships . ... 5-7
5-3.3 Dimension and Coefficient Relationships ......... 5-13
5-3.3.1 Buoyancy ....... ...................... 5-14
5-3.3.2 Waterborne Stability-Intact ................. 5-16
5-3.3.3 Trim ................................ 5-17 0
5-4 Weights and Centers ...... ................... 5-17
5-4.1 Weight Equation and Weight Groups ............. 5-17
5-4.2 Weight Data ....... ...................... 5-18
5-4.2.1 Group A-Hull Structure ................... 5-18
5-4.2.2 Group B-Machinery ...... ................ 5-18
5-4.2.3 Group C-Drive Train ...................... 5-18
5-4.2.4 Group D-Marine Propulsor ................. 5-18 0 0
5-4.2.5 Group E-Running Gear and Suspension System . 5-19
5-4.2.6 Group F-Miscellaneous Systems .............. 5-21
5-4.2.7 Group M-Margins ..... ................. 5-21
5-4.2.8 Group L-Loads ....... .................. 5-21
5-4.3 Center of Gravity Locations ................... 5-22
5-4.4 Margins ....... ..................... 5-23 0
5-5 Performance and Powering ...................... 5-26
5-5.1 Basic Concepts ........................... 5-26
5-5.2 Hull and Appendage Resistance ................ 5-26
5-5.3 Propulsor and Power Required ................. 5-26
5-5.4 Land Performance ......................... 5-27
5-6 Example Calculations ......................... 5-29
References ...... ......................... .5-33
CHAPTER 6. PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6-1 Objective ........ ......................... 6-1

6-1.1 Basic Purpose ....... ..................... 6-1 0
6-1.2 Relation to the Design Cycle ................... 6-1
6-2 Procedure. ......................... 6-1
6-2.1 Typical Inputs and Outputs ................... 6-1
6-2.2 Preliminary Design Iteration Cycle .............. 6-2
6-3 Propulsion System Development ................. 6-2
6-3.1 Candidate Engines ......................... 6-2
6-3.2 Water Propulsor ....... .................... 6-4
6-3.3 Land Propulsion and Mobility ................. 6-4
6-3.4 Power Train .......................... 6-4
6-3.5 Maintainability and Reliability Considerations ..... .6-5
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6-4 Initial Hull Lines and Arrangements ........... 6-5 S

6-4.1 Engineering Approach ...................... 6-5
6-4.2 Dimension Limits and Goals .................. 6-5
6-4.3 Component Sizes and Weights ................. 6-6
6-4.3.1 Sources of Information ................... 6-6
6-4.3.2 Typical Sizes ....... .................... 6-6
6-4.4 Block Arrangement ...... .................. 6-6
6-4.5 Hull Lines ....... ....................... 6-10
6-4.5.1 Purpose of Hull Lines ..................... 6-10
6-4.5.2 Preliminary Lines Drawing ................. 6-10
6-4.5.3 Lines Development ...................... 6-10
6-5 Development of Basic Structural Design ............ 6-10
6-5.1 Forces ....... ......................... 6-11
6-5.2 Materials ............................... 6-11 0 6
6-5.3 Structural Configuration ..................... 6-11
6-5.4 Design of Basic Hull Structure ................. 6-11
6-6 Weight and Center of Gravity ................... 6-11
6-6.1 Systematic Weight Estimate ................... 6-11
6-6.2 Center of Gravity Estimate ................... 6-14
6-7 Waterborne Performance ...................... 6-15 S 0
6-7.1 Speed and Power ...... ................... 6-15
6-7.2 Statical Stability and Trim ................... 6-15
6-7.3 Seakeeping and Maneuverability ................ 6-15
6-8 Land Performance ....... .................... 6-28
6-8.1 Speed and Tractive Effort ................... 6-29
6-8.2 Side Slope Stability ...... .................. 6-29
6-8.3 Approximate Mobility Index.................. 6-29
6-9 Model Testing ....... ...................... 6-29
6-9.1 Necessity for Model Testing ................... 6-29
6-9.2 Types of Model Tests ...................... 6-30
6-9.2.1 Resistance ............................. 6-30
6-9.2.2 Self-propulsion ...... ................... 6-30
6-9.2.3 Maneuverability ......................... 6-30 0
6-9.2.3.1 Free Running ......................... 6-30
6-9.2.3.2 Captive Model ...... .................. 6-30
6-9.2.4 Seakeeping ...... ..................... 6-31
6-9.2.5 Propulsion ............................. 6-31
6-9.3 Schedule of Tests ...... ................... 6-31
6-9.4 Possible Locations for Model Tests .............. 6-32
References ....... ........................ 6-36
CHAPTER 7. DETAILED DESIGN
Section I. Hull Design
7-1 Hull Lines ........ ........................ 7-1

7-1.1 General Description and Explanation ............ 7-1
7-1.1.1 Lines Fairing Procedure ................... 7-1
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7-1.1.2 Developable Surfaces ...................... 7-4

7-1.1.2.1 Advantage of Developable Surfaces .......... 7-4
7-1.1.2.2 Amphibian Hull Developable Surfaces ........ 7-4
7-1.1.2.3 Surface Development Procedures ........... 7-4
7-1.2 Waterborne Speed and Resistance Considerations . . . 7-8
7-1.2.1 Hull Shape and Fairness ................... . . 79 7 . .
7-1.2.2 Chines and Spray Strips ................... 7-10 . •
7-1.2.3 Wheels and Wheel Wells ................... 7-10
7-1.2.4 Appendages ........................... 7-11
7-1.3 Waterborne Propulsion Considerations ........... 7-11
7-1.4 Waterborne Maneuverability Considerations ...... .7-11
7-1.5 Seakeeping and Surfing Considerations ........... 7-13
7-1.6 Buoyancy and Waterborne Stability ............. 7-13
7-1.6.1 Buoyancy ....... ...................... 7-13
7-1.6.1.1 Calculation Procedures ................... 7-13
7-1.6.1.2 Curves of Form ........................ 7-15
7-1.6.2 Transverse Stability ...................... 7-16
7-1.6.2.1 Positive Stability ...................... 7-16
7-1.6.2.2 Range of Stability ...................... 7-17
7-1.6.2.3 Dynamic Stability ...................... 7-17 0 0
7-1.6.2.4 Cross Curves of Stability ................. 7-18
7-1.6.2.5 Initial Stability ........................ 7-19
7-1.6.2.6 Calculation of Initial Stability .............. 7-20
7-1.6.2.7 Heeling Forces ...... .................. 7-24
7-1.6.2.8 Stability Criteria ...................... 7-25
7-1.6.2.9 Grounded Stability ...-.-.-.-.-.-.-...... 7-26 0 0
7-1.6.2.10 Damaged Stability ..................... 7-26
7-1.6.3 Free Surface Effects ...................... 7-27
7-1.6.4 Longitudinal Stability and Trim .............. 7-27
7-1.6.5 Freeboard ............................. 7-29
7-1.7 Land Operation Considerations ................. 7-29
7-2 General Arrangement ......................... 7-30
7-2.1 Cargo ........ ......................... 7-30
7-2.2 Machinery ....... ....................... 7-30
7-2.3 Auxiliary Systems ......................... 7-30
7-2.4 Structure ............................... 7-31
7-2.5 Buoyancy, Trim, and Stability ................. 7-31
7-2.6 Safety .............................. 7-31
7-2.7 Human Factors Engineering ................... 7-31 0 0
7-3 Hull Structure ...... ......... ............. 7-32
7-3.1 Forces ........ ......................... 7-32
7-3.1.1 Longitudinal Forces ...................... 7-33
7-3.1.1.1 Waterborne .......................... 7-33
7-3.1.1.2 Landborne .......................... 7-33
7-3.1.2 Torsional Forces ........................ 7-35
7-3.1.2.1 Waterbome .......................... 7-35
7-3.1.2.2 Landborne ...... .................... 7-35
7-3.1.3 Local Forces ...... ................... 7-36
7-3.1.3.1 Water Forces ........................ 7-36
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7-3.1.3.2 Other Impact or Shock Forces ........... 7-36

7-3.1.3.3 Semi-static Forces ................... 7-38 S 0
7-3.1.3.4 Vibration ...... ................... 7-38
7-3.2 Materials ....... ...................... 7-39 "
7-3.2.1 Comparison Parameters .................. 7-39
7-3.2.2 Steel ....... ....................... 7-42
7-3.2.3 Fiberglas ...... ..................... 7-44
7-3.2.4 Aluminum ...... .................... 7-46 0
7-3.2.5 Glass ....... ....................... 7-58
7-3.3 Structural Configuration ................... 7-60
7-3.3.1 Shell Plating ...... ................... 7-60
7-3.3.2 Stiffeners ........................... 7-62
7-3.3.2.1 Monocoque ...... .................. 7-62
7-3.3.2.2 Corrugations ........................ 7-72
7-3.3.2.3 Plate and Stiffeners ................... 7-74
7-3.3.3 Indirect Framing ..................... 7-80
7-3.3.4 Ramps ....... ...................... 7-80
7-3.3.5 Miscellaneous ........................ 7-80
7-3.4 Detail Design ....... .................... 7-81
7-3.4.1 Factors of Safety ...................... 7-81
7-3.4.2 Fasteners ........................... 7-81 0 0
7-3.4.2.1 Mechanical ........................ 7-81
7-3.4.2.2 Welding ....... .................... 7-83
7-3.4.2.3 Adhesives ...... ................... 7-88
7-3.4.3 Miscellaneous Details ................... 7-90
Section II. Propu(sion System Design
7-4 Horsepower Requirements ..... .............. 7-91

7-4.1 Waterborne Power Requirements ............. 7-91
7-4.1.1 Elements of Amphibian Waterborne
Resistance ....... .................... 7-92
7-4. .1.1 Frictional Resistance .................. 7-93
7-4.1.1.2 Residuary Resistance ................. 7-94 -
7-4.1.1.3 Scaling Laws and Model Tests ........... 7-97
7-4.1.2 Amphibian Resistance Data ............... 7-98
7-4.1.2.1 Data Plots ...... ................... 7-99
7-4.1.2.2 Influence of Basic Hull Form on
Resistance ......................... 7-99
7-4.1.2.3 Influence of Appendages on Amphibian 0 0
Resistance ......................... 7-99
7-4.1.2.4 Influence of Rough Water on
Amphibian Resistance ................. 7-108
7-4.1.3 Design Waterborne Power Estimate ........ .7-110
7-4.2 Land Operation Power Requirements .......... 7-112
7-4.2.1 Required Tractive Effort ................. 7-113
7-4.2.2 Available Tractive Effort ................. 7-113
7-4.3 Special Performance Requirements,
Water-land Interface ..................... 7-114
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7-4.3.1 Surf Operations .................. 7-114

7-4.3.2 Exiting from Rivers ..................... 7-117
7-5 Final Engine Selection ..................... 7-117
7-5.1 General Discussion ...................... 7-117
7-5.2 Criteria for Wheeled Amphibian Engines ....... 7-117
7-5.2.1 Engine Rating ...... .................. 7-118
7-5.2.2 The Amphibian Environment ............. 7-122 0
7-5.2.3 Weight, Volume, and Cost Effectiveness ..... .7-123
7-6 Power Train Design ...... .................. 7-123
7-6.2 Characteristics and Criteria ................. 7-124
7-6.2.1 Necessary Power Train Characteristics ...... .7-124
7-6.2.2 Desirable Power Train Characteristics ....... 7-124
7-6.2.3 Power Train Criteria ................... 7-125
7-6.2.3.1 Power Ratings ...................... 7-125
7-6.2.3.2 The Amphibian Environment ............ 7-125
7-6.2.3.3 Weight, Volume, and Cost Effectiveness . ... 7-125
7-6.3 The Marine Power Train ................... 7-125
7-6.3.1 Transfer Case ........................ 7-125
7-6.3.2 Propulsion Motor ..................... 7-126 0 0
7-6.3.3 Propulsor Shaft ........................ 7-126
7-6.3.4 Bearings and Seals ...................... 7-126
7-6.3.5 Marine Propulsor ..................... 7-126
7-6.4 The Automotive Power Train ............... 7-126
7-6.4.1 Power Train Types ..................... 7-126
7-6.4.1.1 Mechanical ........................ 7-126 0 0
7-6.4.1.2 Hydrostatic ...... .................. 7-127
7-6.4.1.3 Electric ....... .................... 7-127
7-6.4.2 Power Train Components ................ 7-127
7-6.4.2.1 Torque Converter ................... 7-127
7-6.4.2.2 Transmissions and Transfer Cases ......... 7-128
7-6.4.2.3 Differentials, Drive Shafts, and
Universal Joints ...................... 7-128
7-3.4.2.4 Pumps, Motors, and Generators .......... 7-128
7-6.5 Brakes ............................ 7-129
7-7 Marine Propulsor Design ..................... 7-129
7-7.2 Criteria for Propulsion Units ................ 7-129
7-7.3 Propeller Types ......................... 7-130 •
7-7.3.1 Screw Propeller in Tunnel ................ 7-130
7-7.3.2 Kort Nozzles ......................... 7-131
7-7.3.3 Controllable-reversible Pitch Propellers ...... .7-132
7-7.3.4 Contra-rotating Propellers ................ 7-132
7-7.3.5 Vertical Axis Propellers .................. 7-133
7-7.3.6 Vertical Shaft, Right-angle Drives ........... 7-133
7-7.3.7 Water Jets ........................... 7-133
7-7.4 Introduction to Theory of Propellers .......... 7-134
7-7.4.1 Momentum Theory ..................... 7-134
7-7.4.2 Blade Element and Circulation Theories ..... .7-136
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7-7.4.3 Factors Which Influence Propeller 0 0

Performance ...... ................... 7-137
7-7.4.3.1 Propeller Advance Speed ............... 7-137
7-7.4.3.2 Thrust Deduction ............... 7-137
7-7.4.3.3 Relative Rotative Efficiency ............. 7-137
7-7.4.3.4 Propulsive Efficiency .................. 7-137
7-7.4.3.5 Hull Efficiency ..................... 7-138
7-7.4.3.6 Propulsion Factor Data ................ 7-138
7-7.4.4 Propeller Cavitation ..................... 7-138
7-7.4.4.1 Theory of Cavitation .................. 7-138
7-7.4.4.2 Cavitation Effects ................... 7-142
7-7.5 Screw Propeller Design ................... 7-144
7-75.1 Requirements ........................ 7-146
7.b.2 Selecting Blade Characteristics ............. 7-146 0 •
7-7.5.2.1 Design Variables ..................... 7-146
7-7.5.2.2 Design Charts ....................... 7-148
7-7.5.2.3 Procedures ........................ 7-148
7-7.5.3 Cavitation Diagram ..................... 7-163
7-7.5.4 Strength ............................ 7-167
7-7.5.5 Towing or Overload Conditions ............ 7-168 0 •
7-7.5.6 Astern Thrust ........................ 7-169
7-7.5.7 Service Allowance ...................... 7-169
7-7.5.8 Numerical Examples ................... 7-169
7-7.5.9 Geometry of the Screw Propeller (Drawings) . 7-172
7-7.6 Model Tests ..................... 7-173
7-7.6.1 Laws of Similitude ..................... 7-174
7-7.6.2 Open Water Tests ..................... 7-175
7-7.6.3 Self-propulsion Tests ................... 7-175
7-7.6.4 Cavitation Tests ...................... 7-177
Section III. Suspension System Design
7-8 Suspension Systems Appropriate for Use

on Wheeled Amphibians ..................... 7-177
7-8.1 Criteria for Suspension Syste..is ............... 7-178
7-8.2 General Discussion of Design ................ 7-178
7-8.3 Effects of Marine Environment .............. 7-178
7-8.4 Vehicle-soil Mechanics ..... ............... 7-178 0 0
7-8.4.1 Shearing Strength of Soil ................. 7-178
7-8.4.2 The Cone Index ........................ 7-179
7-8.4.3 The LLL Soil Value System ............ 7-179
7-8.4.4 Correlation of Various Soft Soil Indexes . ... 7-179
7-8.4.5 Other Aspects of Terrain-vehicle
Technology ...... .................. 7-180
7-8.4.5.1 Roughness ........................ 7-180 -
7-8.4.5.2 Obstacles........................ 7-182
7-8.4.5.3 Bank Egress ...................... 7-182
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7-8.5 Tire Selection ........................ .. 7-183 0 0

7-8.5.1 Tire Tread ....... ................... 7-183
7-8.5.2 Estimating Tire Weight .................. 7-183
Section IV. Steering System Design
7-9 Steering System Design ................... .7-184

7-9.1 Waterborne Steering Theory ............... 7-184
7-9.1.1 Steering Forces ....................... 7-184
7-9.1.2 Directional Stability and Maneuverability . . . 7-187
7-9.1.3 Steering at Very Low or Zero
Speed of Advance ..... ............... 7-188
7-9.1.4 Steering When Reversing ................. 7-188
7-9.1.5 Steering in Rough Water and in Surf ...... .7-189 0 0
7-9.2 Design of Marine Steering Systems ........... 7-189
7-9.2.1 Design Criteria ...... ................. 7-189
7-9.2.2 Rudders ........ ................... 7-190
7-9.2.2.1 Theory of Operation ..... ........... 7-190
7-9.2.2.2 Geometrical Considerations ............ 7-192
7-9.2.3 Trainable Propulsors .................. 7-193
7-9.2.3.1 Water Jets ....... .................. 7-193
7-9.2.3.2 Outdrive Units ...... ............... 7-194
7-9.2.4 Ducted Thrusters .... ............... .. 7-195
7-9.2.5 Box Rudders ....... .................. 7-195
7-9.2.6 Steering Linkages ...... ............... 7-195
7-9.3 Waterborne Steering by Means of the Wheels . .. 7-196
7-9.4 Overland Steering System ................. 7-196 - •
7-9.5 Location of the Steering Position, Controls,
and Indicators ....... .................. 7-197
Section V. Auxiliary Systems
7-10 Auxiliary System Design .... .............. .7-199 - 0

7-10.1 Hydraulic Systems ...... ................ 7-199
7-10.2 Electrical System ...... ................. 7-201
7-10.3 Fuel Systems ........................ .. 7-202
7t10.4 Cooling Systems ...... ................. 7-203
7-10.5 Control Systems ...... ................. 7-203
7-10.6 Navigation Systems .................... .7-203
7-10.7 Communication Systems ................ .. 7-203
7-10.8 Ventilation System ...... ................ 7-204
7-10.9 Lubrication System ...................... 7-204
7-10.10 Fresh Water System ...... ............... 7-205
7-10.11 Compressed Air System ................. .. 7-205
7-10.12 Cargo Handling System .................. 7-205
7-10.13 Fire Fighting System .................... 7-206 10
7-10.14 Bilge Pumping System ...... .............. 7-206
7-10.15 Mooring and Anchoring Systems ............. 7-207
7-10.16 Exhaust System ................. 7-207
X- O 0
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AMCP 706-350
0 O
Paragraph Page
7-10.17 Safety and Lifesaving Systems ............. 7-208
7-10.7-8 Heating arid Defrosting Systems ............ 7-208
7-10.19 On Equipment Materiel (OEM) ............ 7-208
7-10.20 Cold Weather Kit ...................... 7-208
Section VI. Cost Estimating

7-11 Cost Estimating and the Overall Design
Process ....................... 7-208
7-11.1 The Total, or Life Cycle, Cost Concept ...... .7-209
7-11.2 Cost Estimating Method ................. 7-209
7-11.3 Research and Development Costs ........... 7-209
7-11.4 Design Costs ...... ................... 7-210
7-11.5 Construction Costs ..................... 7-210
7-11.5.1 Estimating Methods ................... 7-210 0 0
7-11.5.2 Multiple Construction Savings ........... 7-211
7-11.5.3 Manufacturer's Estimates ............... 7-211
7-11.5.4 Current Costs ...................... 7-212
7-11.6 Testing Costs ......................... 7-212
7-11.7 Operation, Maintenance, and Repair Costs . . . 7-212
* 0
Section VII. Detail Design Coordination,
Summary, and Output
7-12 Design Coordination, Summary, and Output . . . 7-213
7-12.1 Scheduling ...... .................... 7-213
7-12.2 Detail Design Planwork .................. 7-213
7-12.3 Final Design Report .................... 7-213 0 0
References ...... ..................... 7-214
PART THREE. EVALUATION AND TESTING OF WHEELED AMPHIBIANS

CHAPTER 8. EVALUATION AND TESTING
8-1 Objective of Tests and General Discussion ...... .. 8-1 0 0

8-2 Types of Tests ...... ................... 8-2
8-2.1 Category I Tests ...................... 8-2
8-2.1.1 Engineering Tests .................... 8-3
8-2.1.2 Service Tests ........................ 8-3
8-2.1.3 Integrated Engineering Service Tests ...... .8-3
8-2.1.4 Environmental Tests .................. 8-3
8-2.1.5 Confirmatory Tests (Type I) ............. 8-3
8-2.1.6 Check Tests ...... .................. 8-3
8-2.2 Category 1I Tests ...................... 8-4
8-2.2.1 Research Tests ...................... 8-4
8-2.2.2 Feasibility Tests ...................... 8-4
8-2.2.3 Component Engineering Tests ............ 8-4
8-2.2.4 Engineer Design Tests .............. 8-4 0
8-2.2.5 Research and Development Acceptance
Tests ............................. 8-4
8-2.2.6 Product Improvement Tests ............. 8-4
xi
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AMCP 706-350

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8-2.2.7 Preproduction Tests .................. 8-4 0 0
8-2.2.8 Initial Production Tests ................ 8-5
8-2.2.9 Comparison Tests ................... 8-5
8-2.2.10 Acceptance Tests .................... 8-5
8-2.2.11 Reconditioning Tests .................. 8-5
8-2.3 Special Tests ...... ................... 8-5
8-2.3.1 Confirmatory Tests (Type II) ............ 8-5
8-2.3.2 Surveillance Tests ................... 8-5
8-2.4 Sequence of Tests ..................... 8-5
8-3 Responsibility for Vehicle Tests ............. 8-5
8-4 Description of Amphibian Tests and Test
Procedures ...... ..................... 8-8
8-4.1 General ............................ 8-8
8-4.2 Engineering (Quantitative Tests) ........... 8-9 0 0
8-4.2.1 Static Tests, Instrumentation, and
Calibration ........................ 8-10
8-4.2.2 Land Tests ........................ 8-10
8-4.2.2.1 Determination of Weight, Center of
Gravity, and Adequacy of Lifting Eyes . . 8-10
8-4.2.2.2 Maximum Draw Bar Pull and Towing 0 6
Pad Tests ........................ 8-11
8-4.2.2.3 Bilge Pump Tests ................... 8-11
8-4.2.2.4 Minimum Turn (Steering) Radius and
Response Time Tests ................ 8-11
8-4.2.2.5 Winch Tests ..................... 8-11
8-4.2.2.6 Tire Inflation System Tests ........... 8-11
8-4.2.2.7 Ramp Tests ..................... 8-11
8-4.2.2.8 Fan (Cooling) Tests ................. 8-11
8-4.2.2.9 Brake System Tests ................. 8-13
8-4.2.2.10 Parking Brake Tests ................. 8-13
8-4.2.2.11 Speed Trials (Maximum) ............. 8-13
8-4.2.2.12 Fuel Consumption Tests ............. 8-14
8-4.2.2.13 Gradability Tests ................... 8-14 . 0
8-4.2.2.14 Rolling Resistance Tests ............. 8-14
8-4.2.2.15 Off-road Mobility and Obstacle Tests . . .. 8-14
8-4.2.3 Water Tests ........................ 8-14
8-4.2.3.1 Stability Tests ..................... 8-14
8-4.2.3.2 Moment to Trim One Inch (MT1) ...... .8-14
8-4.2.3.3 Speed Trials (Power and Fuel
Consumption) ..................... 8-15
8-4.2.3.4 Tactical Diameter (Turning Circle)
Tests ...... .................... 8-15
8-4.2.3.5 Crash Stop Tests ................... 8-17
8-4.2.3.6 Astern Operation and Maneuvering Tests . . 8-17
8-4.2.3.7 Bollard Pull Tests .................. 8-18
8-4.2.3.8 Towing Tests ..................... 8-18 - • .
8-4.2.4 Surf Tests ...... ................... 8-18
8-4.2.5 Other Tests........................ 8-18
References ............................ 8-19
xii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Concluded)
Paragraph Page
PART FOUR. HIGH SPEED AMPHIBIANS 0 0

CHAPTER 9. HIGH SPEED AMPHIBIANS
9-1 Introduction .................... 9-1

9-2 Planing Hull Amphibians .............. 9-1
9-2.1 Existing Planing Hull Amphibians (LVW-X1 0 0
and LVW-X2) ................... 9-2
9-2.1.1 Waterborne Speed and Power of
LVW-X1 and LVW-X2) ............ 9-2
9-2.1.2 Accelerations of the LVW Vehicles ....... 9-2
9-2.1.3 Control .................... 9-9
9-2.2 Future Planing Hull Amphibians ......... 9-9
9-2.2.1 Drag ...................... 9-9
9-2.2.2 Accelerations in Waves ............. 9-11
9-2.2.3 Vehicle Characteristics ................ 9-12
9-3 Hydrofoil Amphibians ................... 9-13
9-3.1 Existing Hydrofoil Amphibians ............ 9-16
9-3.1.1 The Flying DUKW ................... 9-16 .. .
9-3.1.2 The LVH-X1 ....................... 9-16 0 0
9-3.1.2.1 Characteristics .................... 9-18
9-3.1.2.2 Performance of LVH-X1 ............. 9-19
9-3.1.3 The LVH-X2 ....................... 9-19
9-3.1.3.1 Characteristics .................... 9-19
9-3.1.3.2 Waterborne Speed and Power of
LVH-X2 ........................ 9-25
9-3.1.3.3 Accelerations of LVH-X2 in Waves ..... .9-25
9-3.1.3.4 Control Characteristics of LVH-X2 ..... .9-26
9-3.2 Future Hydrofoil Amphibians ............. 9-26
9-4 Surface Effect Amphibians ................. 9-30
9-4.1 Rigid Sidewall Surface Effect Amphibians . . .. 9-31
9-4.1.1 Hydrokeel Amphibians ................ 9-32
9-4.1.2 Captured Air Bubble (CAB) Amphibians. . .. 9-34 -0
9-4.2 Flexible Skirt Surface Effect Amphibians . . .. 9-38
9-5 Displacement Form High-speed Amphibians . . .. 9-41
9-5.1 Characteristics ........................ 9-41
9-5.2 Performance ........................ 9-43
9-6 Comparison of Vehicle Types for Use as
High-speed Amphibians ................... 9-43 0 0
References ...... ..................... 9-45
GLOSSARY ........ ............................. G-1
INDEX ....... ................................ ..- 1
xiii
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AMCP 706-350 0
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FigureNo. Title Page
3-1 DUKW General Arrangement Sketch ............ 3-2

3-2 SUPERDUCK General Arrangement Sketch ......... .. 3-4
3-3 GULL XM148 General Arrangement Sketch ........... 3-5
3-4 DRAKE XM157 General Arrangement Sketch .......... 3-6
3-5 LARC LX General Arrangement Sketch ........... ... . 3-7 O
3-6 LARC V General Arrangement Sketch ............... 3-8
3-7 LARC XV General Arrangement Sketch .............. 3-9
3-8 LARC Amphibians: LARC LX, LARC XV, and LARC V.. 3-10
3-9 WW II DUKW, SUPERDUCK, and Prototype of the
LARC V .................................. 3-10
5-1 Conceptual Design Flow Chart for Wheeled Amphibians . 5-6
5-2 Design Characteristic and Performance Interaction ..... .5-8 0
5-3 Interrelation of Hull Design and Performance ........ .. 5-9
5-4 Interrelation of Hull Features ...................... 5-10
5-5 Running Gear Changes vs Performance ............... 5-11
5-6 Running Gear Features ...... ................... 5-11
5-7 Interrelation of Mechanical Features ................ 5-11
5-8 Wheeled Amphibian Cargo Loading ................. 5-12
5-9 Weight Group A-Hull Structure ................... 5-19
5-10 Specific Engine Weights for Multi-fuel or Diesel Engines . . 5-20
5-11 Weight Group C-Drive Train ...................... 5-21
5-12 Weight Group E-Running Gear and Suspension System 5-22
5-13 Weight Group F-Miscellaneous Systems .............. 5-23
5-14 Weight Group A-CG Locations ................... 5-24
5-15 Weight Group F-CG Locations ................... 5-25 0 0
5-16 Nomograph for Estimating Propeller Efficiency 7 .... 5-28
5-17 Concept Design Sketch ...... ................... 5-33
6-1 Preliminary Design Flow Chart for Wheeled Amphibians 6-3
6-2 Typical Marine Engine Outline .................... 6-7
6-3 Typical Envelope of Space Required for Maintenance
and In Situ Repairs ...... ..................... 6-8
6-4 Typical Stripped Engine Outline . .6. . . . . ....... 6-9
6-5 Minimum Thickness of Aluminum Shell Plating
With No Permanent Set ......................... 6-16
6-6 Minimum Thickne•s of Aluminum Shell Plating
With Slight Permanent Set < t/2 ..... .............. 6-17
6-7 Minimum Thickness of Aluminum Shell Plating
With Permanent Set > t/2 ........................ 6-18
6-8 Weight Growth of Recent Experimental Off-road
Vehicles, and the LARC V and LARC XV ............. 6-27
6-9 Side Slope Stability Definition Sketch ............... 6-29
7-1 LARC V Lines Drawing ......................... 7-2
7-2 Preliminary Body Plan ...... ................... 7-5
7-3 Development of Sides .......................... 7-6 - 9
7-4 Development of Bottom by Intersecting Tangents ..... .. 7-8
7-5 Use of Parallel Tangents ......................... 7-9
7-6 Final Body Plan ....... ....................... 7-10
7-7 Wheeled Amphibian Tunnel Data ................... 7-12
xiv
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0w • .. ..0 .. . 0'" 0.....
AMCP 706-350 - - ..
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
7-8 Interaction Between Rudder and Tunnel Walls ......... 7-13

7-9 Definition Sketch for Area and Center of Area
Using Simpson's Integration ...................... 7-14
7-10 Bonjean Curves for LARC V ...................... 7-16
7-11 LARC V Hull Section Area Curve to Design Waterline . . . 7-17
7-12 Amphibian With Positive Stability ................. 7-17
7-13 Statical Stability Curve ...... ................... 7-18
7-14 Cross Curves of Stability ...... .................. 7-19 0 •
7-15 Statical Stability Curve, Initially Unstable Vehicle ..... .7-20
7-16 Stability Criteria ....... ...................... 7-25
7-17 Grounded Amphibian Stability ................... 7-26
7-18 Coefficients of Free Surface for Rectangular Tanks
When Inclined to 50 Heel ........................ 7-28
7-19 Bending Moment Curves for LARC V (Sagging) ....... .7-34 0
7-20 Bending Moment Curves for LARC V (Hogging) ........ 7-34
7-21 Forces for Maximum Bending Moment (Landborne) . .. 7-35
7-22 Bending Moment Curves for LARC V (Landborne) ..... .7-36
7-23 Wave Height and Maximum Speed for Solitary
Deep Water Waves ............................. 7-37
7-24 Fatigue Strength as a Function of Stress Cycles ....... .7-43
7-25 Bend Characteristics for Alloy 5457 Sheet ............ 7-50
7-26 Effect of Bend Orientation on Bend Characteristics..... .7-51
7-27 Springback Test Tooling........................ 7-51
7-28 Springback of Alloy 5457 Sheet at Various Radii ...... .7-52
7-29 Developed Length Chart ...... .................. 7-53
7-30 Developed Length of 900 Bends ................... 7-54
7-31 Bend Allowance Chart-1 0 Bend ................... 7-55
7-32 Bend Allowance Chart-900 Bend .................. 7-56
7-33 Typical MIG Hand-held Welding Guns............... 7-57
7-34 Modified Goodman Range-of-stress Diagram to
Determine Typical Axial Stress Fatigue Strength
for Aluminum Alloy 5456-0 ...................... 7-59
7-35 Plating Stress as a Function of Plating Pressure ......... 7-72
7-36 Bottom Plating Deformation Curves ................. 7-73
7-37 Rectangular Flat Plate With Two Edges on
Elastic Supports ............................. 7-74
7-38 Nomenclature and Plot of Constant "A" for
Corrugated Material ............................ 7-75
7-39 Combined Shear Load and Tension Load on Steel
Bolts (With an Ultimate Tensile Strength of
125,000 psi) ....... ........................ 7-85
7-40 Minimum Wrench Clearances ...................... 7-86
7-41 Unit Bearing Strength of Sheets on Rivets............ 7-87
7-42 Unit Bearing Strength of Sheets on Bolts ............. 7-88
7-43 Typical Transverse Shear Strengths of Aluminum
Fillet Welds ....... ......................... 7-91 9
7-44 Three Possible Areas of Failure in a Double Fillet
Weld ........ ............................ 7-91
7-45 Standard Skin Friction Lines ...................... 7-96
Xv
S.... ,a4..nk
Figure No. Title Page
7-46 Comparison of Resistance Coefficients for Model and 0

Full-scale Vessel ....... ...................... 7-98
7-47 Resistance of DUKW ....... .................... 7-100
7-48 Resistance of GULL ........................... 7-101
7-49 Resistance of DRAKE .......................... 7-102
7-50 Resistance of LARC V ...... ................... 7-103
7-51 Resistance of LARC XV ........................ 7-104 0 0
7-52 Resistance of LVW ...... ..................... 7-105
7-53 Resistance of LVH-X2 .......................... 7-106
7-54 Comparison of Amphibian and Landing Craft
Resistance ................................. 7-107
7-55 Amphibious Vehicle Drag Coefficients ............... 7-108
7-56 Drag Coefficient of Wheels and Wheel Wells ........... 7-109
7-57 LARC V Added Resistance in Regular Head Waves ..... .7-111
7-58 Rolling Resistance vs Speed on Level Asphalt Surface . ... 7-114
7-59 Rolling Resistance vs Speed on Soft Sand Surface ...... .7-114
7-60 Engine-converter Performance ..................... 7-1' -
7-61 Predicted Land Performance of LARC XV ............ 7-1
7-62 Relationships Between Wave Period and Wave Speed
and Between Wave Length and Water Depth .......... -126i
7-63 Breaker Height vs Water Depth .. .. .. .. ... . ...... 7-121
7-64 Surf Operation Diagram for Wheeled Amphibian . . . 7-122
7-65 LARC-type Land Power Train .................. 7- 2712
7-66 Two Views of a Model LARC V ..................
7-67 Principle of Actuator Disc Propeller ................. . 35
7-68 Ideal Efficiency (from Simple Momentum Theory) ..... ..- 136
7-69 Pressure Distribution for a Typical Foil Section. ....... 7-143
7-70 Schematic Diagram of Critical Cavitation Number as a
Function of Foil Angle of Attack .................. 7-144
7-71 Typical Propeller Performance Curves as a Function of
Cavitation Number oa........................... 7-145
7-72 General Arrangement of Troost B-4 Series Screws ...... .7-147
7-73 Design Chart Based on Troost B-2.30 Series Data ...... .7-150 O
7-74 Design Chart Based on Troost B-3.35 Series Data ...... .7-151
7-79 Design Chart Based on Troost B-4.70 Series Data ...... .7-156 0 0
7-82 Design Chart for Troost B-3.50 Screw in Nozzle ........ 7-159
7-86 Nozzle Definition Sketch ........................ 7-163
7-87 Cavitation Diagram for Screws Designed According to
the Circulation Theory for a Homogeneous Velocity
Field ......... ............................ 7-164
xvi
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AMCP 706-350
7-88 Axial Force on Nozzle With the B-3.50 Screw Series . ... 7-165 0 0
7-89 Axial Force on Nozzle With Lhe B-4.40 Screw Series . . . 7-165
7-90 Axial Force on Nozzle With the B-4.55 Screw Series . . . 7-166
7-91 Axial Force on Nozzle With the B-4.70 Screw Series . ... 7-166
7-92 Helicoidal Surface With Constant Pitch .............. 7-172
7-93 Helicoidal Surface With Radially Varying Pitch ....... .7-172
7-94 Various Projections of a Screw ................... 7-173
7-95 Open-water Characteristics for DTMB Propeller 4008 . ... 7-176
7-96 Cumulative Frequency of Rating Cone Indexes ....... .7-183
7-97 Effective Rudder Angle for a Rudder Behind a Ship
During a Turn ....... ........................ 7-185
7-98 Geometry of a Turning Circle ..................... 7-186
7-99 Results of Spiral Maneuvers ...................... 7-188
7-100 Schematic Diagram of a Wave Approaching a Beach 0 •
Showing the Distribution of Particle Velocities ......... 7-190
7-101 Slope of Lift Coefficient as Function of Aspect Ratio
for Rectangular Wings .......................... 7-190
7-102 Effect of Reynolds Number on Maximum Lift Coefficient
for Various Aspect Ratio Foils ................... 7-191
7-103 Effect of Reynolds Number on Stall Angle for Various
Aspect Ratio Foils ............................ 7-192
7-104 Ackermann Steering ........................... 7-197
7-105 4-wheel Steering ............................. 7-197
7-106 Crab Steering ....... ........................ 7-198
7-107 Typical Learning Curve ......................... 7-211
8-1 Testing Performed at Various Stages in the Life Cycle
of an Army Wheeled Amphibian ................... 8-6 0 0
8-2 Center of Gravity Determination ................... 8-12
8-3 Towing Pad Test Procedure ...................... 8-13
8-4 Diagram of Steering Radius Test ................... 8-13
8-5 Righting Moment Determination by Inclining Test ..... .8-15
8-6 Typical Waterborne Statical Stability Curve for
an Amphibian ....... ........................ 8-16 0
8-7 Plan View of Typical Water Course for Amphibian
Speed Runs ....... ......................... 8-16
8-8 Method for Determination of Waterborne Turning
Radius ........ ........................... 8-17
8-9 Bollard Pull Test Method ...... .................. 8-18
9-1 LVW-X1 in High-speed Waterborne Mode ............. 9-3
9-2 LVW-X2 in Land Mode ......................... 9-3
9-3 External Dimensions of LVW-X1 ................... 9-4
9-4 LVW-X1 Speed and Power; Model Test and Full Scale
Data ........ ............................. 9-8
9-5 "V" Bottom Planing Hull Vertical Accelerations
for LVW-X2 in Head Seas ........................ 9-9
9-6 Nomograph of Speed, Displacement, and Froude S •
Number ........ ........................... 9-10
9-7 LVW-X1 Stern Arrangement ...................... 9-13
9-8 Comparison of Planing Hull Amphibian Drag .......... 9-13
xvii
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AMCP 706-350
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Concluded)
9-9 Series 62 Lines .... ...................... 9-14

9-10 General Arrangement of LVW-X3 (Model) ............ 9-15
9-11 Planing Hull Added Drag in Waves ................. 9-16
9-12 Planing Hull Accelerations at Bow ................. 9-17
9-13 High-speed Amphibian-Planing Hull Type, Base
Vehicle Configuration .......................... 9-18
9-14 High-speed Amphibian-Planing Hull Type, Effect -
of Payload ........ .......................... 9-20

9-15 Flying DUKW, Foilborne ...... .................. 9-21
9-16 LVH-X1 on Land ............................ 9-21
9-17 LVH-X1 Operating Foilbome ...................... 9-22
9-18 External Dimensions of LVH-X1 ................... 9-23
9-19 LVH-X2 on Land ....... ...................... 9-24
9-20 LVH-X2 Operating Foilborne ...................... 9-24 0 0
9-21 External Dimensions of LVH-X2 ................... 9-25
9-22 Hydrofoil System for LVH-X2 .................... 9-25
9-23 Hydrofoil Drag ....... ....................... 9-26
9-24 Hydrofoil Added Drag in Waves ................... 9-29
9-25 LVH-X2 Vertical Accelerations in Head Seas ........... 9-30
9-26 Hydrofoil Motion Limited Speeds .................. 9-32 0
9-27 High-speed Amphibian-Hydrofoil Type,
Configuration 1 ....... ....................... 9-33
Configuration 1, Principal Foil Dimensions ............ 9-33
Configuration 2 ....... ....................... 9-34 - - -
Configuration 2, Principal Foil Dimensions ............ 9-34
Effect of Design Payload ...... .................. 9-35
9-32 ARC(K)-X1 Dimensions ......................... 9-36
9-33 ARC(K) Rough Water Data ...................... 9-37
9-34 ARC(K) Added Drag in Waves ................ .... 9-38
9-35 Hydrokeel Accelerations in Head Seas............... 9-39
9-36 High-speed Amphibian-Hydrokeel Type, Base
Vehicle Configuration .......................... 9-39
9-37 High-speed Amphibian-Hydrokeel Type, Effect
of Payload ........ .......................... 9-40
9-38 High-speed Amphibian-CAB Type ................. 9-41
9-39 High-speed Amphibian-CAB Type, Effect of Payload . . . 9-42
9-40 High-speed Amphibian-Catamaran Type ............. 9-42
xviii
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AMCP 706-350
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title Page . ..
3-1 DUKW-Vehicle Characteristics . ............... 3-11

3-2 SUPERDUCK (XM147E3)-Vehicle Characteristics ..... .3-12
3-3 GULL (XM148)-Vehicle Characteristics ............. 3-13
3-4 DRAKE (XM157)-Vehicle Characteristics ............ 3-14
3-5 LARC LX-Vehicle Characteristics ................. 3-15
3-6 LARC V-Vehicle Characteristics ................... 3-16 0 •
3-7 LARC XV-Vehicle Characteristics ................. 3-17
5-1 Engine Compartment Volumes and Areas ............ 5-13
5-2 Crew Cab Data for Wheeled Amphibians ............. 5-13
5-3 Characteristics of Production Wheeled Amphibians ..... .5-15
5-4 Freeboard Ratios, Wheeled Amphibians (Full Load
Condition) ................................. 5-16 .
5-5 Location of Zero Trim LCB and LCF for Wheeled 9
Amphibians ....... ......................... 5-17
5-6 Wheeled Amphibian Weight Groups ................. 5-18
5-7 Wheeled Amphibian Land Mobility ................. 5-29
6-1 Typical Preliminary Design Plans ................... 6-2
6-2 Sources of Dimension Limits ...................... 6-6
6-3 Typical Aluminum Boat Scantlings ................. 6-12 0 6
6-4 Scantlings for Recent Army Amphibians ............. 6-13
6-14 -
6-5 Steel Beam Proportions .........................
6-6 Recommended Weight Classification for Wheeled
Logistic Amphibians ........................... 6-19
6-7 Model Test Facilities........................... 6-33
7-1 Simpson's Integration for Full Load Displacement and KB . 7-22
7-2 Simpson's Integration for I, at Full Load Displacement ... 7-23
7-3 Military Specification Numbers for Hull Materials ..... .7-40
7-4 Base Cost of Hull Materials ...................... 7-41
7-5 Relative Fabrication Costs per Pound (With Respect
to Aluminum) ............................... 7-42
7-6 Strength-weight Ratios ...... ................... 7-42
7-7 Typical Minimum Elongation ..................... 7-42
7-8 Relative Areas Under Typical Stress-strain Curves ...... .7-42
7-9 Relative Energy Absorbed for Equal Weights .......... 7-42
7-10 Relative Deflections ........................... 7-43
7-11 Relative Fatigue Stress/Density ................... 7-44
7-12 Mechanical Properties of Construction Materials ........ 7-45
7-13 Basic Temper Designations ...................... 7-47
7-14 Aluminum Plate Products-Standard and Maximum
Sizes Available ............................... 7-48
7-15 Approximate Radii for 900 Cold Bend Sheet and Plate . . . 7-49
7-16 Galvanic Series ....... ....................... 7-58
7-17 Relative Allowable Load at Elastic Failure for
Four Theories of Failure ...... .................. 7-62
7-18 Formulas for Flat Rectangular Plates ................ 7-63 - .
7-19 Stiffener Shapes in General Use ................... 7-76
7-20 Limits of Wide Integrally Stiffened Extrusions ......... 7-77
7-21 Combined Stiffener on Plate Formulas ............... 7-78
xix
__ _ _
9 6 0 0 *0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •@ 0
AMCP 706-350 - 0
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table No. Title Page
7-22 Typical Factors of Safety ........................ 7-82

7-23 SAE Bolt Grade ......................... 7-84
7-24 Allowable Load on Fillets (13,600 psi Shear on Throat) . 7-88
7-25 Fatigue Strength of Steel Welds ................... 7-89
7-26 Tensile Strength of MIG and TIG Butt Joints ......... 7-90
7-27 Shear Strength of Welded Aluminum Alloy ........... 7-90
7-28 Comparison of Properties for Epoxy Adhesives ....... .7-92 0 0
7-29 Values of Mass Density p for Fresh and Salt Water ..... .7-94
7-30 Values of Kinematic Viscosity v for Fresh and
Salt Water ................................. 7-95
7-31 Estimate of Added Resistance of LARC V in
Sea State 3 ........ ......................... 7-112
7-32 Design Rolling Resistance of LARC V and LARC XV. . ... 7-113
7-33 Calculation of Available Tractive Effort for LARC XV . . . 7-115
7-34 Gain in Ideal Efficiency for Shrouded Propellers ...... .7-132
7-35 LARC V Propulsion Characteristics ................. 7-139
7-36 LARC XV Propulsion Characteristics ................ 7-140
7-37 DRAKE Propulsion Characteristics ................. 7-140
7-38 GULL Propulsion Characteristics ................... 7-141
7-39 LVW (Hull Mode) Propulsion Characteristics .......... 7-141 0
7-40 Vapor Pressure of Fresh Water ................... 7-142
7-41 Characteristics of Troost B-Series Propellers ..-.-...... 7-148
7-42 Troost B-Series Profiles, Ordinates., and Thicknesses . . . 7-149
7-43 Representative Propeller Materials .................. 7-167
7-44 Comparison of Soft Soil Mobility Indexes ............ 7-181
7-45 Performance Characteristics of Several Wheeled 0 0
Amphibians ....... ......................... 7-182
7-46 Offsets for NACA Symmetrical Sections ............. 7-193
7-47 LARC V Controls ....... ...................... 7-204
7-48 Bilge Pump Rates ......................... 7-207
7-49 LARC Amphibian Maintenance, Man Hours/Operation
Hours ........ ............................ 7-213 0
8-1 Amphibian Development Commands ................ 8-7
8-2 Amphibian Test Sites and Capabilities ............... 8-9
8-3 Typical Type II Confirmatory Test Agenda ........... 8-18
9-1 LVW-X1 Vehicle Characteristics ................... 9-5
9-2 LVW-X2 Vehicle Characteristics ................... 9-6
9-3 Power Limited Speeds of LVW Planing Hull Amphibians . . 9-7
9-4 Wind and Sea Scale for Fully Arisen Sea ............. 9-7 0 S
9-5 Planing Hull Accelerations in Following Seas .......... 9-11
9-6 Subjective Reactions of Personnel to High-speed
Amphibian Motions ........................... 9-11
9-7 Sustained Speed of LVW in Head Seas ............... 9-11
9-8 LVW-X2 High-speed Turning Diameters .............. 9-12
9-9 LVW-X2 Surf Mode Turning Diameters .............. 9-12 0 0
9-10 LVH-X1 Vehicle Characteristics ................... 9-27
9-11 LVH-X2 Vehicle Characteristics ................... 9-28
9-12 LVH-X2 Power Limited Speeds ................... 9-29
9-13 LVH-X2 High-speed Turning Diameter ............... 9-31
xx
0, 0 _0. - 0 _0 -0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0-
AMCP 706-350
LIST OF TABLES (Concluded)
Table No. Title Page

9-14 LVH-X2 Surf Mode Turning Diameters ............... 9-31 0 S
9-15 High-speed Support Amphibian-Catamaran Type ..... .. 9-43
9-16 Relative Ranking of Vehicle Types for Use as
High-speed Amphibians ......................... 9-44
* 0_..
. • .o ... _.
• ..... •• . ••• . • •• •• S......• _ S_ -
xxi
AMCP 706-350 a -
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Notes: The same symbol in many instances is used to represent more than one parameter. This is 0 S
caused by the complex nature of amphibian design requiring many engineering
disciplines. The symbols have been chosen to preserve familiar notations found in
literature concerning each discipline.
Dimensional units are assigned to each symbol. Dimensionless quantities are indicated
by "nd". In some equations, it may be necessary to convert the dimensional units in
order to make the formula dimensionally correct; e.g., ft to in. or ft-lb/sec to hp.
A
2
= jet area, ft ; projected frontal BTF = propeller blade thickness fraction
2
area, ft 2 ; propeller disc area, ft ; (- tD), nd
regular wave amplitude, f! b = distance or lever arm, ft; span of
AEF = expanded bladed area of a the foil, ft; undeflected tire 2
propeller, ft
2 width, in.; deceleration, ft/sec
Aco,,p = planform area of machinery bf = breadth of outstanding flange of
2 a balanced stiffener, in.
compartment, ft
Acoo
0 = planform area of radiator and CAB = captured air bubble
ducting, ft 2 CL = centerline
Ae = effective aspect ratio, nd CB = block coefficient, nd
Aena = planform area of machinery in CD = drag coefficient, nd
2 = aerodynamic drag coefficient, nd
machinery compartment, ft CDA
All = projected frontal area of faired CA = drag coefficient of faired hull, nd
hull, ft 2 C,, = drag coefficient of wheel and

A. = operational availability, nd wheel wells, nd
Ap = average availability of parts, nd CF = frictional resistance coefficient,
A. = projected frontal area of wheels, nd
ft 2 C. free surface coefficient, nd
AR = aspect ratio, nd CIT transverse inertia coefficient, nd
ARC(K) = Amphibious Research Craft C1 a = slope of lift coefficient curve for
(Hydrokeel) shroud in free stream flow, nd
a = distance or lever arm, ft; CLa - slope of the lift coefficient curve
2 for a shroud enclosing a thrusting
acceleration, ft/sec
B = maximum molded breadth at the propeller, nd S
waterline, ft; web material CR = residuary resistance coefficient,
ultimate tensile strength, psi; nd
center of buoyancy; beam, ft CT - load coefficient, nd; total
BAR = blade area ratio, i.e., ratio of the resistance coefficient, nd
actual area of propeller blades to CrpT propeller thrust coefficient, nd
area nD 2 /4, nd = average cone index of soil, psi
BARC = Barge-Amphibious-Resupply- c = coefficient of (soil) cohesion, psi;

Cargo (on early designation of cord of rudder, ft; shroud length
LARC LX) parallel to propeller centerline, ft
BHP = brake horsepower, hp D = deep water depth, ft; distance or
BM = vertical distance from center of lever arm, ft; drag force, lb;
buoyancy to the metacenter, ft propeller diameter, ft;
(subscript t denotes transverse undeflected tire diameter, in.
metacenter, 9 denotes Daug = average vehicle depth, ft
longitudinal metacenter) D, = slipstream diameter, ft
BOA = overall breadth, ft DHP = delivered horsepower, i.e., the
xxii
AMCP 706-350 0 0
LIST OF SYMBOLS (Continued)

power actually delivered to the Hm = mean draft, ft
wheels or propeller, hp Ho = deep water wave height, ft ...
DTMB = David Taylor Model Basin HPA = power required by auxiliary 0 S
d = depth of stiffener or corrugation; systems, hp
depth of water, ft; distance or h = head of water, ft
lever arm, ft; inside diameter of 1h = atmospheric pressure in feet of
propeller shroud, ft; tire depth, water, ft
in. hH = depth of immersion of the screw
dr = rim diameter, in. axis, ft 0 0
E = modulus of elasticity, psi; system h. = vapor pressure, ft of water
energy due to wave action, ft-lb I = moment of inertia, in 4 at ft 4
Fe = work required to heel vehicle it = moment of inertia with respect
through an angle of 0 degrees, to flange, in 4
ft-lb = mass moment of inertia,
EAR = expanded area ratio of a ft-lb-sec 2
propeller (= AE/A), nd = moment of inertia with respect
EHP = effective horsepower, i.e., to web, in!
resistance X speed + 550, hp == moment of inertia of free
F = force, lb; steel temper-as surface, in 4 and ft 4
fabricated
FA = vertical force applied to aft J = speed coefficient, nd
wheels, lb K = general symbol for constant;
Fý = stress at failure from axial baseline (also BL); rake of
loading, psi propeller blade, in./ft; soil
FF = vertical force applied at forward consistency parameter; modulus
wheels, lb of deformation
FN = Froude number, nd KT = thrust coefficient, nd
F. = stress at failure from compressive K0 = torque coefficient, nd --
loading, psi KB = vertical distance from the . .

F. = force component in a given baseline to the center of
direction x, lb buoyancy, ft
F, = tensile yield stress, psi KG = vertical distance from the
f = propeller material constant baseline to the center of gravity,
A = compressive stress from bending ft
load, psi KG = virtual center of gravity above - 0
= compressive stress from axial baseline, ft
load, psi k = radius of gyration, ft; ratio of
fd = compressive stress from loads operating hours to total hours,
normal to plating, psi nd
G = average gradient to cone index of L = length, ft; lift force, lb
sand versus depth, psi/in.; center LD = wave length, ft
of gravity LM = length of model ship, ft
GM = metacentric height, ft L. = deep water wave length, ft
GVW = gross vehicle weight, lb (same as L, = length of full size ship, ft
LOA = overall length, ft
GZ = righting arm, ft LARC = Lighter- Amphibious-Resupply -
g = acceleration constant 32.2 Cargo
ft/sec 2 LCSR = Land-Craft-Swimmer- e r
H = draft forward or aft, ft; steel Reconnaissance
temper--strain hardened; SHP at LCVP(T) = Landing-Craft -Vehicle-Personnel
maximum continuous rating, hp (test)
Hb = height of breaking wave, ft LLL = Land Locomotion Laboratory,
xxiii
• ,.. .e
.. • ..... .....oo_...
. . .. • . ..o . ..o ••• 0
AMCP 706-350

U. S. Army-Tank Automotive power, ft-lb/sec
Command Pm = dynamic pressure, psi
LVK = Landing Vehicle Hydrokeel type Pr = pitch, at given nd radius
2 r, ft
= Landing-Vehicle-Personnel P = local pressure, lb/ft
LVPT
Tracked Pay = ATAC average ground pressure,
LVW = Landing Vehicle Wheeled psi
LWL = length at waterline, ft Q = torque, ft-lb; intersection of the
LCB = distance of the center of grounding force vector with
buoyancy forward of the amphibian centerline
transom, ft; longitudinal center QK = height along centerline from Q to -O-- -
of buoyancy the baseline, ft
LCG = distance of center of gravity q = length of shear plane, in.;
forward of the transom, ft dynamic head (=/2p V2 ), lb/ft 2 ;
= moment arm of rudder stock, ft; dynamic pressure 2 of the
wheelbase, ft undisturbed fluid, lb/ft
M = metacenter; moment about ship's R = propeller radius, ft; radius of
CG, ft-lb; mass of vehicle, slugs turn, ft; reliability, nd;
MB = bending moment, ft-lb revolutions at maximum
MB. = bending moment at x section, continuous rating, rpm
ft-lb Raem = aerodynamic drag, lb
Mc/4 = moment about quarter chord R~w = average added resistance, lb
point, ft-lb Re = Reynolds number, nd
Me' = inverse of Eklund mobility RF = frictional resistance, lb 0 0
factor, nd RR = residuary resistance, lb
A = initial turning moment, ft-lb RT = total resistance, lb
Mr = moment about rudder stock, Rw = added resistance in regular waves,
ft-lb lb
MDT = mean downtime, hr Ry = grade resistance, lb
MTBF = mean-time-between-failures, hr RPMMOX = revolutions at maximum S
MT/1 = moment t. trim one inch by the continuous rating, rpm
stern, ft-lb r = undeflected tire radius, in.;
MTTR = mean-time-to-repair, hr fraction of total radius divided
MWR = mean width ratio of propeller by R, nd
blades, nd S = rudder or foil area, ft 2 ; wetted
m = mass, slug surface area, ft2 ; shear strength,
rh = mass rate of flow, slug/sec psi
N = rotational speed, rpm SHP = shaft horsepower, hp
NACA = National Advisory Committee on SHP,,,o. = shaft horsepower at maximum
Aeronautics continuous rating, hp
NDCC = nondirectional cross country s = fillet size, in.
NPL = National Physics Laboratory, s = slip ratio, nd
England T = deep water wave period, sec; 0 0
NUGP = nominal unit ground pressure, psi natural roll period, sec; propeller
n = rotational speed, rps; soil sinkage thrust, lb; transverse distance or
characteristic exponent arm, ft; transverse shear strength,
o = steel temper-annealed psi; steel temper--thermally
P = power, hp; grounding force, lb; treated; trim, in.
delivered power, ft-lb/sec T. = turning moment, ft-lb
P. = pressure at a given depth; psi or t = blade thickness, in.; plate or web
lb/ft 2 ; reference pressure thickness, in.; thrust deduction,
pressure, psi; power, hp; nd;mission time, hr
grounding force, lb; delivered tf = flange thickness, in.
xxiv
4_ _O_
...
0 . 0...• 0 0. •* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • • 0
AMCP 706-350 - -

t. = web thickness, in. Wshear = web shear strength, lb
U = wind speed, ft/sec; reference Wtension = web tensile strength, lb
velocity, ft/scc W, = maximum rated load en tire at 0 0
Ulr = critical speed, ft/sec designed inflation pressure, lb
U. lIx2 = final and initial velocities of the WCB = West Coast Branch, Amphibian
body in the x direction, ft/sec Vehicle Division, Development
U = local velocity, ft/sec C en ter, Marine Corps
V = forward speed, ft/sec Development and Education
V. = propeller speed of advance, Command 0 0
ft/sec; initial or upstream WL = waterline
velocity, ft/sec W'L' = heeled or inclined waterline
Vcomp = volume of machinery w = length between steering pivots,
compartment, ft 3 ft; material constant; wake
Vcooi = volume of radiator and ducting, fraction, nd; width of bottom of
ft 3 corrugation, in. "
Vd = design speed, mph or ft/sec w1 = weight of the ith component, lb
e volume of machinery, ft 3 wx = weight of vehicle in section x, lb
V = jet velocity, ft/sec X = distance from base plane to the
= ratio of jet velocity to the center of gravity, ft
advance speed, nd x = displacement in any direction, ft
VK = vehicle speed, nautical miles per x = distance from base plane to the
hour (knots) center of gravity for the it'h S
V. = initial speed, ft/sec component, ft 2
V. = ship speed, ft/sec x - horizontal acceleration, ft/sec
V, = final or downstream velocity, y = neutral axis above reference axis,
ft/sec in.
VCI = average rating cone index of field y = vertical acceleration, ft/sec 2
soils for a minimum of 50 passes, Z = number of propeller blades
psi z = vertical displacement, ft; sinkage,
v = mean flow velocity over rudder, in.
ft/sec
v1 = mean slipstream velocity, ft/sec GREEK LETTERS
W = weight of shifted item, lb;
average load on one tire, lb; a = effective inflow angle, deg;
width of blades at one-quarter rudder angle of attack, deg - 0
radius, in.; width of top of A = displacement, lb; gross weight, lb
corrugation, in.; steel Aý = virtual displacement, lb
temper-solution heat treated A. GZ = righting moment, ft-lb
WA = hull structure weight, lb At = duration of impact, sec
WB = machinery weight, lb V = displaced volume, ft 3
Wc = drive train weight, lb 5 = rudder helm angle, deg 9 0
WD = marine propulsor weight, lb e = strain, in./in.
WV/ = running gear and suspension 71B = propeller efficiency in
weight, lb nonuniform wake, nd
Wi, = miscellaneous system weight, lb 7 = ideal efficiency, nd
WL = load weight-including fuel, 77o = open water propeller efficiency,
crew, and payload, lb nd
W•I = weight margin, lb 7,p = propulsive efficiency, nd
W-r = vehicle weight, lb 7r = -elative rotative efficiency, nd
Wf,,w, lie = shear strength at web fusion 77T = transmission efficiency-between
lines, lb engine and propulsor, nd
XXV
~ .~. *0 0 ~O S 0 0 0 0_0 0 ...

AMCP 706-350
W -
LIST OF SYMBOLS (Concluded)

0 = heel angle, deg a. = shear stress in weld, psi
0M = maximum roll angle, deg oy = tensile or compressive yield .
Or = propeller pitch angle at nd radius stress, psi 0 S
r, deg 01.02.03 = principal tensile or compressive
X = wave length, ft; linear scale ratio, stress, psi
nd r = shear stress, psi
p = viscosity of fluid, slug/ft-sec = angle of friction, deg; angle of
= kinematic viscosity (= p/ p), grade with the horizontal, deg
ft2 /sec g 4l = wave spectral density ordinate,
p = mass density, slug/ft3 ft 2 -sec
P, = mass density of water displaced x;, = nozzle wake fraction
by hull, slug/ft 3 12 = sweep angle of one-quarter chord
Pt = mass density of liquid with free line, deg
surface, slug/ft 3 C = wave frequency, rad/sec
pg = weight density of fluid, lb/ft 3 = natural frequency of the system,
a =-cavitation number, nd; normal rad/sec 0 0
stress on the soil, psi; tensile or (. = angular rudder rate, deg/sec
compressive stress, psi o2 .W1 = final and initial angular
oc, = critical cavitation number, nd velocities, rad/sec
* 0
xxvi
0 90 -- 0 0 ~ ~e 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 *0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 S
PREFACE
The Engineering Design Handbook Series of the Army Materiel Command 0 5

is a coordinated series of handbooks containing basic information and
fundamental data useful in the design and development of Army materiel
and systems. The handbooks are authoritative reference books of practical
information and quantitative facts helpful in the design and development of
Army materiel so that it will meet the tactical and the technical needs of the .... ....
Armed Forces. 0 0
This handbook has been prepared as an aid to engineers designing wheeled
amphibians. Fundamental design information not readily attainable
elsewhere is presented along with requirements and problem areas that are
unique to the wheeled amphibian. Part One introduces the principal
elements of the wheeled amphibian, design requirements, and a history of
amphibian development. The actual design process is described in Part Two
preliminary
in which the amphibian evolves from concept design through
design and finally to detail design. Part Three deals with evaluation and
testing of wheeled amphibians as an important link in the design process.
Probable developments in future high-speed wheeled amphibian design are
described in Part Four.
The material presented in this handbook is composed of data and design
P information gathered from many sources; however, treatment is limited to 0 0
one of condensation and summary because of the vast scope of the subject.
References appear at the end of each chapter for guidance in acquiring
complete information on any topic.
When reference is made to Military Specifications, regulations, or other
official directives, it is done so to reveal the existence of these documents. In
this respect, the user should obtain the current editions for applications. 0 S
This handbook was prepared by Hydronautics, Incorporated, under
subcontract to the Engineering Handbook Office of Duke University, prime
contractor to the Army Materiel Command for the Engineering Design
Handbook Series. Technical supervision and guidance were given by an ad
hoc working group under the co-chairmanship of Frank X. Stora and John F.
Sargent, Mobility Equipment Research and Development Center, Ft. Belvoir,
Virginia.
The Handbooks are readily available to all elements of AMC, including
personnel and contractors having a need and/or requirement. The Army
Materiel Command policy is to release these Engineering Design Handbooks
to other DOD activities and their contractors and to other Government
agencies in accordance with current Army Regulation 70-31, dated 9
September 1966. Procedures for acquiring these Handbooks follow: S0 _
a. Activities within AMC and other DOD agencies order direct on an
official form from:
Commanding Officer
Letterkenny Army Depot
ATTN: AMXLE-ATD
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 17201 9 9
xxvii
*...
9. . __S S 0 S
0 S S 0 .
AMCP 706.350
b. Contractors who have Department of Defense contracts should submit

their requests through their contracting officer with proper justification to:
Commanding Officer
Letterkenny Army Depot
ATTN: AMXLE-ATD
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 17201
c. Government agencies other than DOD having need for the Handbooks
may submit their request directly to:
Commanding Officer
Letterkenny Army Depot 0 0
ATTN: AMXLE-ATD
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 17201
or
Commanding General
U. S. Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMCAM-ABS
Washington, D. C. 20315
d. Industries not having Government contracts (this includes colleges and
universities) must forward their requests to:
Commanding General
U. S. Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMCRD-TV
e. All foreign requests must be submitted through the Washington, D. C.
Embassy to:
Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence
ATTN: Foreign Liaison Office
Department of the Army
All requests, other than those originating within DOD, must be
accompanied by a valid justification.
Comments and suggestions on this handbook are welcome and should be
addressed to Army Research Office-Durham, Box CM, Duke Station,
Durham, N. C. 27706.
xxviii
..._ A
•_o
0
* 0 __ _0 . o ..... • 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706M350
PART ONE BACKGROUND INFORMATION
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION O 0
1-1 PURPOSE OF THE HANDBOOK performance must be sacrificed to achieve
reasonable cross-country mobility. Note,
The necessity for an item such as the wheeled however, in Southeast Asia the LARC V was
amphibian arose from unprecedented demands often used extensively in land operations since
of WW II to move large amounts of equipment its cross-country mobility in sand and clay
and supplies from ships to storage facilities, or greatly exceeds that of a truck.
users ashore where no ports existed. Since its The wheeled amphibian is designed to be used
inception, the wheeled amphibian has played an exclusively in a logistic-over-the-shore (LOTS)
important and ever increasing role in the United role. Current amphibians have been used on
States Army. secondary missions such as passenger ferry boat,
Unfortunately, the evolution of wheeled river patrol boat, and minesweeper. Its primary
amphibian design has not been thoroughly function is to transfer cargo and, in some cases,
documented. There exists no concise, generally personnel from ships anchored off-shore to
accepted explanation of wheeled amphibian dispersed locations, or direct to material users,
design; furthermore, much of the design data located several miles inland from the beach.
and technology in this area is scattered, and in
some cases exists only in the memories of the 1-3 PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF THE 0 0
men who were involved in developing these WHEELED AMPHIBIAN
vehicles. This situation could retard the future
technological advancement of the wheeled The wheeled amphibian is a complex item. A
amphibian since much that has been learned discussion of the principal elements or features
may either be forgotten or lost as one generation follows.
of designers is replaced by another. In general,
without good documentation, cataloging, and 1-3.1 HULL
information availability; progress is slowed, Te
efforts are duplicated, and money is wasted. The hull of a wheeled amphibian is the
The purpose of this handbook, then, is to enclosure which contains the crew
present that information from past and current compartment, cargo compartment, engine
design experience which is most useful for compartment, and numerous other vehicle
designers of future amphibians. components. The amphibian hull differs
fundamentally from the body of other military
1-2 DEFINITION automotive assemblies in that it must satisfy
certain marine design criteria. Specifically, it
An amphibian is a unique craft designed to be must exhibit the required stability and
equally well suited for self-propelled operation buoyancy characteristics as well as have a
both in the water and on land. This handbook is configuration that will result in an acceptable
concerned only with amphibians which use speed-power relationship for waterborne
rubber-tired wheels as the propulsors for land operations. In summary, the purpose of the
operation. amphibian hull is twofold-it serves as a boat
The fact that an amphibian must inherently hull and as a truck body.
possess both land and water capabilities
indicates that design compromises must be made 1-3.2 PROPULSION SYSTEM
since the requirements for a good boat differ S S
from those for a good land vehicle. In most The propulsion system is that system of
cases, land performance must be sacrificed to components which converts energy from a fuel
achieve seaworthiness and waterborne source into a form usable by the amphibian and
1-1
S.. • .... _• •o... . . .... • .... • • • • •0 S

AMCP 706-350
transmits this energy to those devices which of vehicle motion. The most successful types are
develop the thrust or tractive effort required for the waterjet, the paddle wheel, and the screw
propulsion. This system may be considered to propeller. Variations of these three basic types
include the three major subsystems defined in have been theoretically or experimentally
the paragraphs which follow, considered. All standardized U. S. wheeled 0
amphibians to date have used screw propellers.
1-3.2.1 Power Plant
1-3.3 SUSPENSION SYSTEM
The power plant is that part of the propulsion
system which converts the energy of the fuel The suspension system is that series of
source into mechanical energy. It includes not mechanical components between the vehicle 0 •
only the engine but also the fuel, lubrication, frame or hull and the ground. The function of
cooling, exhaust, hydraulic, and electrical this system is to provide a flexible support for
systems. The engine types most commonly used the assembly, which has good stability and
are internal combustion types, i.e., gasoline, control characteristics and which will allow the
Diesel, and gas turbine. A detailed discussion of required overland speed to be attained. Though
the various types of power plants appears in there are many types of suspension systems, the
Chapter 7. one that will receive the most attention in this
handbook will be the "rigid" type in which the
1-3.2.2 Power Train wheel assemblies are the only element in the
system.
The power train is that system of components The suspension system is functionally useful
which transmits the useful energy produced at only in the land mode. However, it must be
the output shaft of the power plant to the considered in the waterborne mode since the S S
ultimate point of application, i.e., the wheels and the wheel wells are a major source of
propulsors. The wheeled amphibian normally resistance and greatly influence the waterborne
has two sets of propulsors-wheels for land performance capability of the vehicle.
operation, and a marine propulsive device,
usually a screw propeller, for waterborne 1-3.4 STEERING SYSTEM
operation. This means that the wheeled
amphibian has two power paths. In most cases, The steering system is that assembly of
the power path is common for either mode of components and linkages which enables the
operation up to a transfer case. At this point, operator to control the direction of the vehicle.
there are separate drive shaft take-offs for the For land operation, steering systems are
wheels and the propeller. The major components normally designed to provide for two-wheel
of the power train are clutches, transmissions, steering or selective two-wheel, four-wheel, and
transfer cases, drive shafts, differentials, axles, oblique steering. For waterborne operations, 0
and brakes. On the other hand, power steering can be accomplished by rudders or
transmission may possibly be effected by trainable thrust devices, by training the wheels
electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic systems with (as for land operation), or by combinations of
quite different components. these methods.
1-3.2.3 Propulsors 1-3.5 AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 0 0
The propulsors are those devices to which the Auxiliary systems are those systems which
power train delivers the mechanical power cannot be included in any of the previous major
developed by the power plant. For overland categories because they are not related to any
operations, the propulsors are the wheels which one of these categories, or because they are
apply the required tractive effort to the ground. support systems related to several of them. Of
The waterborne propulsor is usually a device those auxiliary systems discussed in Chapter 7, 0 •
which develops thrust by acceleration of water the electrical and hydraulic systems are the most
in the direction opposite to the desired direction important.
1-2
. ._ 9 ... •.• 0 . 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 -
1-3.5.1 Electrical System 1-3.6 PAYLOAD

The electrical system of an amphibian
performs the same type of functions and services The wheeled amphibian is primarily a logistic
as the electrical system of any military vehicle; its payload is cargo. This cargo may be
automotive vehicle. In general, electrical power small vehicles, personnel, or containerized,
must be supplied to communications equipment, palletized, and loose general cargo. The primary
interior and exterior lighting systems, engine aim of logistic amphibian design is to produce a
starting and ignition systems, heaters, pumps, vehicle which can effectively and efficiently
fans, etc. While the standard Army automotive deliver a required amount of cargo.
vehicle electrical system is a 24-V DC single-wire
system incorporating a generating, distribution, 1-3.7 FUEL
and storage system; the more costly two-wire
marine wiring system is desired for amphibians The required fuel load (subject to operating
due to its waterborne operating environment, range) is of the same order of importance as the
1-3.5.2 Hydraulic System payload carrying ability. Usually, for a given
amphibian, the total weight of cargo and fuel
A hydraulic power system is commonly used that can be carried is a constant. Thus, the more
on amphibious vehicles to perform a host of fuel that is required to perform the mission(s), 0
auxiliary powering functions. The most common the less will be the weight of cargo which can be
uses of hydraulic systems are to provide power carried. In some cases, the fuel consumption
to the steering system, the cargo winch, the characteristics of a power plant will be the
ramp cylinders, the cargo and bilge pumps, and primary consideration for its selection or
the cooling fan motors, rejection.
1-3
• • • • • • • • • • • 0
AMCP 706-350 -
CHAPTER 2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE DESIGN OF WHEELED AMPHIBIANS
SECTION I MILITARY REQUIREMENTS

2-1 THE MILITARY MISSION AND 720 short tons per day receiving rate), one light
ENVIRONMENT amphibian company (1,080 short tons per day
delivery rate), and one heavy amphibian platoon
The use of amphibians for logistic support (360 short tons per day delivery rate), all under 0
was initiated during WW II due to the lack of terminal battalion control. Other small craft
suitable port facilities and because unfriendly (barges, picket boats, etc.) will be assigned as
areas were not directly accessible to large required.
ocean-going vessels. The LARC V, the LARC The lighterage assignments given are based on
XV, and the LARC LX are the newest post-war, an average situation in which approximately 25
wheeled, logistic amphibians and they follow the percent of all cargo moving over the beach will
initial concept of the DUKW which was begun in be vehicular or heavy equipment. Containerized,
1942. palletized, and loose general cargo comprise the
The development of true amphibians is remaining 75 percent. The tonnage capabilities
motivated by the advances in weaponry which of the amphibian units are specifically tailored
have prohibited the establishment of large to this 75-25 ratio of the 1,440-ton division
beachheads. Thus, the present concept calls for requirement. The heavy amphibian delivers the
the amphibians to move up and over the beach outsized items (comprising the 25 percent) and 0
to dispersed materiel dumps located a moderate the light company handles the remainder
distance inshore from the beach. Amphibians are (comprising the 75 percent).
used to transport materiel from ships located up Thus, any improvement in the characteristics
to 10 miles off-shore to destinations as far as 5 of the amphibian which results in increased
miles inland. General wartime planning figures speed, mobility, or payload will provide quicker,
indicate that approximately 80 percent of all more efficient supply to the forces ashore. S
cargo entering a theater of operations will be This handbook is intended for use by
delivered through dispersed beach terminals, and designers who are relatively inexperienced in the
20 percent will move through established design of wheeled amphibians. Therefore, it is of
terminal facilities. the utmost importance that the severity of the
To satisfy dispersion requirements, the military environment be appreciated. Military
average beach terminal will work only two ships vehicles must be inherently more rugged and
at a time. As a general rule, these ships will be reliable than commercial equipment.
anchored several miles off-shore, and amphibians Commercial vehicles are not designed to meet
will transport cargo over the beach to multiple the rigors and widely divergent demands of the
transfer points or directly to users. These military environment. In fact, the development
locations will be as close to the beach as of the commercial automotive vehicle is
practicable, while avoiding the establishment of attributable, to a great extent, to safe smooth
congested materiel depots which are lucrative roads with good traction. Such roads are 0 0
targets for the enemy. virtually nonexistent in many combat zones.
Each of the two-ship discharge sites will The military vehicle must be capable of
support a division tonnage requirement of 1,440 operating with satisfactory mobility over terrain
short tons per day. Normally, five of the which ranges from deep mud, sand, and steep
discharge sites will be dispersed a minimum of 5 rocky topography to paved highways. It must be
miles apart, under terminal command control, to reliable in arctic climates as well as in tropical 0 0
support a force of five divisions (7,200 short regions.
tons per day). These sites will be operated by A wheeled amphibian must not only be
two terminal service companies (each having a reliable under the above stated conditions. It
2-1
0_
0 0 0 -00 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 40
AMCP 706.350
must also be seaworthy in Sea State 3, survive Materiel Development Objectives (QMDO),
the loads imposed by plunging surf, and operate Qualitative Materiel Requirements (QMR), or
in a highly corrosive environment when Small Development Requirements (SDR), is
waterborne. Since it is a military vehicle, it may provided by the U. S. Army Combat
be called upon to effect landings under enemy Developments Command (CDC). 0 0
fire. These QMDO's, QMR's, and SDR's are
Perhaps the most important characteristic of established as a result of needs created by
the military environment is the lack of highly combat development studies for the
skilled operators for wheeled amphibians. In determination of Army doctrine (how the Army
most cases, the military operator is young and of the future is to be organized and equipped,
inexperienced; and in combat, it is only natural and how it is to fight). 0
to worry more about one's safety than the New requirements documents are prepared by
proper operation of complicated and CDC and also in draft form by any agency or
sophisticated controls. Other characteristics of command of the Army. A QMDO may be
the military environment are excessive dirt, initiated at any stage in the research and
subjection to explosive impact, and perhaps long development cycle and may result from a
periods of operation with little or no combat development study, operational
maintenance. experience, development experience, S S
The major features of the military technological breakthroughs, etc. QMR's and
environment are listed: SDR's may be processed directly if the
a. High shock and vibration produced by development is known to be feasible. However,
off-road operations over rough terrain, air drop if feasibility is uncertain, the usual procedure is
operations, high explosive blast, and ballistic to prepare a QMDO to provide the necessary
impact data. Then a QMR, with its associated military 0 0
b. Extreme temperature ranges. extcnding characteristics, is formulated.
from arctic to tropical Detailed procedural information regarding the
c. Operations under conditions of extreme life cycle of Army materiel is provided in Ref. 2.
dust 2-2-2 QUALITATIVE MATERIEL DEVELOPMENT
d. Operations in deep mud
e. Operations in ice and snow OBJECTIVES (QMDO)
f. Amphibious operations through heavy seas A QMDO is a Department of the Army (DA)
and plunging surf approved statement of military need for the
g. Operations under conditions conducive to development of new materiel, the feasibility of
corrosion and fungus growth. Corrosion is a which cannot be determined sufficiently to
particular problem for the wheeled amphibian
operating in the marine environment, permit the establishment of a qualitative
h. slopes
Operations involving long steep grades and military
side originates requiirment. The QMDO
from requirements normally
generated by
sid Extened ocombat development studies conducted by CDC.
i. Extended operations under conditions of Th M O a pr v o s y d f n , pe t i s o
low speed and high load The QMDO as previously defined, pertalns to
items of materiel which are not sufficiently
j. Operator abuse in the form of overload, within the state-of-the-art to permit immediate
misuse, improper maintenance and neglect development and, therefore, require further
A more detailed description of the military research. In general, these items are three to 0 0
environment may be obtained from Refs. 1 and eight years away from the firm establishment of
16. their military characteristics. The QMDO states
2-2 ESTABLISHMENT OF MILITARY in general terms the objective, the operational

REQUIREMENTS and organizational concepts for employment,
and a description and full justification for the
2-2.1 GENERAL item. 0
The Army Materiel Command (AMC) Direc-
The generation of military requirements for tor of Research, Development and Engineering
Army materiel in the form of Qualitative is responsible for processing all new materiel
2-2
_ 0
AMCP 706.350
objective documents and for insuring that for approval. Concurrently, the AMC would
adequate QMDO plans are prepared. After the nurmally prepare and forward a Technical
draft QMDO is reviewed by other interested Development Plan (TDP) to the Office of the
agencies, it is revised and submitted by CDC to Chief of Research and Development (OCRD)
DA for approval and staffing. Upon DA defining the approach for achieving the QMR. 9 0
approval, the QMDO is published in the Combat The TDP should contain a history of the project.
Development Objectives Guide (CDOG) which a detailed plan for its development, a test
contains all approved DA operational objectives, program, maintenance and reliability concepts
organizational objectives. QMDO's, QMR's and and goals, firm scheduling and funding plan, a
SDR's. Within the DA staff, the Chief of quality assurance plan, a configuration
Research and Development will assign management plan, a new equipment training
responsibility to a development agency whose plan, and perhaps a procurement plan.
purpose will be to prepare a QMDO plan which The new QMR will not be approved in the DA
will insure that appropriate research and unless the TDP indicates that the following
development is conducted in support of the prerequisites have been fulfilled:
QMDO. Upon approval of the QMDO plan by a. Primarily engineering rather than
the DA Chief of Research and Development, the experimental effort is required.
AMC will assign prime, attendant, or sole b. "Building block" components and
responsibility for the QMDO to one or more of technology are sufficiently in hand.
its commands or laboratories to perform the c. A thorough trade-off analysis has been
necessary work. made.
d. The best technical approach has been
2-2.3 QUALITATIVE MATERIEL REQUIREMENTS selected.
(OMR) e. The mission and performance envelopes • S
After research and exploratory development are defined and optimized for technical
have progressed to the point where the AMC feasibility and cost effectiveness.
feels it is possible to translate the knowledge and f. The cost effectiveness of the proposed item
data acquired by the laboratories-in support of has been determined to be favorable in relation
the QMDO-into a feasible system, it will to the cost effectiveness of competing items (on
recommend that the CDC prepare and issue a a DOD-wide basis).
QMR. The QMR is directed toward the g. Cost and schedule estimates are credible
attainment of new or substantially improved and acceptable for full scale development.
materiel which will significantly advance the Upon DA approval, the QMR will be
Army's ability to accomplish its mission, published in the CDOG.
Unlike the QMDO, the QMR is much more
specific in describing the requirement. It states 2-2.4 SMALL DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS
major materiel needs in terms of military (SDR)
characteristics and priorities, and relates the
materiel to the operational and organizational An SDR states an Army need for the
context in which it will be used. The QMR is development of equipment which can be
prepared as soon as possible after the need is developed in a relatively short time, and does
established and probable feasibility is not warrant the major effort required in
determined. The CDC staffs the QMR within its developing a QMR. An SDR is normally 0 S
own organization for organizational, considered to be an appropriate requuirements
operational, and doctrinal concepts; with the document if:
AMC it assures that the proposed requirements a. The development item is of proven
are within the state-of-the-art. It also checks feasibility,
with the Chief of Personnel Operations for b. Time required for development is 2 years
personnel implications, and checks with the or less, and
United States Continental Army Command for c. Research. development, test, and
training and training device implications. The evaluation costs will not exceed $2.5 million,
QMR is then forwarded by the CDC to the DA and the projected investment of "Procurement
2-3
0 S0
• 0 • 0 5 • 0 0 • S 0 0 0 0 0 • 0
AMCP 706-350
of Equipment and Missiles, Army" funds (PEMA establishing SDR's contain a brief description,
funds) will not exceed $10 million, purpose, priority, justification of need, and cost
SDR's are staffed and approved by of development. Projects initiated as a result of
Headquarters, DA, in a manner similar to that SDR's are handled in the same manner as they
prescribed for QMR's. Recommendations for are for QMR's. 0 S
SECTION II ENGINEERING REQUIREMENTS
2-3 THE MISSION OF ARMY WHEELED amphibians are preferred for logistical support.
AMPHIBIANS Since this handbook is directed to the design of
wheeled amphibians, greater emphasis is placed
Amphibians are a unique class of vehicles on requirements for cargo transport.
capable of extended operations over both land
and sea. Unfortunately, some of the criteria for 2-4 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND
good water performance conflict with criteria LIMITATIONS
for good land performance. As a result, any S S
amphibian design must be a compromise, a 2-4.1 GENERAL
hybrid vehicle which is not likely to exhibit
either optimum land or water performance. The operational requirements for an
Hence, for efficient utilization, amphibious amphibian define its intended mission or use.
vehicles should be used where their special They range from basic requirements-such as
characteristics are clearly indicated, i.e., for payload, capacity, and roll stability-to special
missions which require both land and water requirements such as cold weather starting and
operation. air drop capabilities. Proper selection of the
The primary functions of Army amphibians requirements demands careful consideration of
may be divided into two categories--1) tactical, the limitations involved. The requirements must
and (2) logistical support. Tactical uses include never be specified arbitrarily since this
direct support of assault and combat operations, procedure leads to mutually prohibitive
including transport of personnel, supplies, light requirements that preclude the development of a
artillery, ammunition, missiles, etc., across satisfactory vehicle. For example, if payload is
beachheads and rivers. The seaworthiness and specified, the gross vehicle weight should not be
surfing ability of amphibians can be used to arbitrarily stipulated.
achieve strategic and tactical advantage by Amphibians are subject to limitations
operating at places and in weather considered imposed by nature and by the state of
impossible for landings by conventional landing technology. The laws of nature cannot be S S
craft. Logistic uses involve supply and resupply opposed. However, natural laws which impose
of general cargo, from deep water shipping restrictions on present amphibians may possibly
anchored offshore, directly across beaches to be circumvented in future designs if the problem
inland transfer points. Amphibians are not is attacked with initiative and imagination. Any
limited to these functions. Their versatility such development would, of course, be classified
renders them capable of many diverse as a major breakthrough. There has been no such
operations, as determined by circumstances and breakthrough in amphibian design since the - 0
the operator's imagination, development of the first WW II DUKW.
Tracked amphibians are generally less Limitations imposed by the state of technology
vulnerable to enemy fire than wheeled will continue to be surmounted with future
amphibians. On the other hand, wheeled development and technological progress. For
amphibians are capable of higher speeds both in example, advances in engine design will result in
water and over hard, smooth soil and roads. lighter, more efficient power plants so that _ O S
Hence, tracked amphibians are generally better future amphibians may have greater range and
suited to tactical support, whereas wheeled speed capabilities with no increase in weight.
2-4
___________ .
AMCP 706-350
Operational requirements and limitations for problem rather than on a safety requirement
amphibians will continually change with changes basis.
in mission and use, and advances in vehicle The type of power plant may be either
technology. The designer should be aware of the specified or specifically limited for such reasons
process and underlying principles used to as maintenance and safety. For example, gas
determine the amphibian requirements. In many turbines may not be allowed because personnel
instances the designer must initiate changes in in the field are not experienced in the special
the requiiements in order to alleviate conflicts maintenance procedures for these engines.
within the requirements or to bring the Gasoline engines may be prohibited because of
requirements in line with the limitations the fire hazard.
imposed by the current state of technology. The A minimum allowable speed may be specified
requirements should be written to allow for for amphibians that will perform tactical
reasonable, low risk advances in technology so missions. The reasons for high speed in this case
that the designer is induced to incorporate these are obvious.
advances in developing a new amphibian. In this A requirement which is often specified is a
manner, progress is assured in the evolution of minimum range or endurance for continuous
amphibian vehicles. On the other hand, operation. The speed and power of the design
unreasonable requirements will result in wasted are indirectly affected by this type of 0 S
effort and in some cases the requirement may be requirement and others which apply to the
met, but the added capability does not justify various aspects of performance.
the necessary expense.
The paragraphs which follow are presented in 2-4.2.2 Maneuverability
order to identify some of the basic areas in Maneuverability requirements are likely to be
rqieetand
which requirementstheareunderlying the natureand
specified, principles of in Maneuveraitterms,
inqualitative r irmnable
viz., are tolikelyetoeb
maneuver • 0
requirements, aalongside a ship in Sea State 3, safely negotiate
philosophy involved in their determination. 10-ft plunging surf, etc. These requirements
2-4.2 WATERBORNE PERFORMANCE imply rather than specify a degree of
maneuverability. This approach is
understandable in view of the difficulty in
A typical mission for a wheeled amphibian is applying meaningful quantitative measures to
the transfer of supplies from a ship stationed such a broad concept as maneuverability.
offshore to an inland depot. Waterborne
peffsormane requniremnts arepspeiedsorn e
performance requirements are specified so that b Specific
tpltd maneuvering
iiu characteristics
olr ul may aiu also
the proposed amphibian
aphbia will
theproosd wll bee able to rcie
bletoreceive bestipulated. Minimum
allowable turning bollard
diameter (tactical maximum
pull, diameter),
carry it to the beach allowable heel during amturna
cargo at efficiently,
quickly, and and
the ship's side safely. and maximum allowable heel during a turn are
common specifications. The difficulty with
2-4.2.1 Speed and Power these characteristics is that they are only
qualitatively associated with good
Minimum speed and power requirements for a maneuverability. Furthermore, safety and the
logisticmumsphiband
logistic amphibian mayoer
may rbe based
eens uon
upona ability
much toonpass operator
through surf
skillprobably
as ondepend as
vehicle
considerations for safe operation through surf, characteristics.
.r
Speed and power are, of course, closely related.
It is desirable to have adequate speed so that the 2-4.2.3 Seakeeping
amphibian can match the speed of waves
advancing toward the beach. It must have Seakeeping requirements, like those for
sufficient power to pass through these same maneuverability, are apt to be qualitative in
waves on the return trip. Particular minimum nature. The same requirement may be applicable
values are not generally specified, but are left to to maneuverability and seakeeping, i.e., the
the discretion of the designer. It is more likely ability to negotiate a 10-ft plunging surf implies - 0 S
that design speed will be selected on a basis of a certain degree of seakeeping ability as well as
optimization studies of the entire logistic maneuverability.
2-5
_ 0
S 0 0 0 ~
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0
Other requirements which relate to over a ditch, bump, or vertical wall of particular
seakeeping are more specific. Reserve buoyancy, size and geometry. Speed is not of particular
statical stability, and range of stability are all importance here. These ground profiles and
good indicators of relative seakeeping ability and obstacles are not necessarily representative of
minimum criteria may be specified, based on the conditions that an amphibian will face in the 0 0
experience with successful amphibious field. However, such requirements are easily
operations and general practice. Self-bailing confirmed by proof tests, and performance
cargo decks or automatic bailing of cargo wells capability over these simple courses is indicative
and watertight hatches are additional of the relative mobility of the amphibian over
requirements that enhance seakeeping ability, rough terrain.
2.4.3 OVERLAND MOBILITY AND PERFORMANCE 24.3.3 Slope Performance
Overland performance requirements are Slope performance requirements for military

prescribed to assure that the amphibian will be vehicles have traditionally been specified as the
able to negotiate any reasonable terrain between ability to negotiate a 60-percent grade and
the water and the inland depot. Increased 30-percent side slope of smooth dry concrete.
off-road mobility is generally the strongest (The tangent of the angle between the ground S
motivation for these requirements, and safety is and the horizontal plane is expressed as a
not as demanding a consideration here as in the percentage. Thus, a 100-percent grade
case of waterborne performances. corresponds to a 45 deg angle.) These
performance requirements, like those for
2-4.3.1 Soft-soil Mobility obstacles, do not represent conditions that the
amphibian will meet in the field, but they do set
A requirement that simply states that a a standard which is easy to confirm by
vehicle must be able to negotiate mud and sand prototype testing.
or some other soft soil is too general to be of Side slope requirements are used mainly to
practical use to the designer because there are so specify the degree of stability that a vehicle
many different types and grades of soil. A better must possess. Grade requirements present a good
requirement would specify one or more types of test of overall vehicle toughness. The
soil and a particular minimum index for each. A specifications are usually written to include the
soil index is a quantitative measure of some capability of the brakes to hold the vehicle on
physical property of the soil which can be the grade, and the ability to climb and descend
empirically related to the vehicle trafficability. the grade in both forward and reverse gear.
Several soil indexes are tabulated in Table 7-44. Grade tests put large loads and stresses on the
It should be noted that the indexes do not take power train, the engine and its cooling system,
into account all of the soil properties which and the suspension system. 0 0
affect mobility and are, therefore, only
approximate guides. 2-4.3.4 Maneuverability
Minimum soft soil mobility requirements that
are given in terms of mobility (soil) indexes A minimum turning diameter is generally
should be based on experience with operational specified as the requirement on maneuverability.
amphibians and the proposed mission of the new Other requirements which may be made include
design, i.e., the types and grades of soil most the maximum safe speed at which a specified
likely to be encountered, turn may be negotiated, four-wheel steering, and
crab steering.
2-4.3.2 Rough Ground and Obstacle Performance
2-4.3.5 Dimensional Requirements
Rough ground performance requirements are
usually specified in terms of a minimum Limitations on overall vehicle length, width, S
acceptable speed over some standard, and height are generally based on
reproducible, hard ground profile. Obstacle transportability criteria and are discussed in par.
performance is specified by the ability to pass 2-5.
2-6
0 S
S 0 0 . .. 0 5 .... 0 0
AMCP 706-350
Brake angle, angles of departure and 2-5 TRANSPORTABILITY REQUIREMENTS

approach, and bottom clearance may be AND LIMITATIONS
specified. However, these characteristics are
mainly associated with obstacle clearance and 2-5.1 GENERAL
may be superfluous if the requirements for 0 •
obstacle performance are comprehensive. The design of wheeled amphibians is governed
by various restrictions which limit and control
24.3.6 Improved Road Performance their size, weight, and shape. Among these
restrictions are those imposed by the need for
The requirement for improved road unrestricted transportability in any or all of the
performance is simply a specification for transportation modes-rail, air, road, and ship. 0 0
maximum sustained speed. This requirement was The transportability requirements are usually
compromised for recent amphibian designs specified in the military characteristics for each
because it conflicted with the requirements for developmental vehicle.
waterborne performance which were considered The policy of the Department of Defense
more important. Rigid suspension system design with regard to transportability of items of
rather than power was the limiting factor for materiel, as set forth in AR 705-8, Ref. 3, states
these vehicles. A reasonable speed for overland that transportability must be a major
travel in convoys is 30 to 35 mph. consideration when establishing the priority of
design characteristics for a new item of materiel
2-4.4 RIVER BANK PERFORMANCE or equipment, to readily permit transport by
available means. Special or unique arrangements
To this date, there probably have been no of schedules, right-of-way, clearances, or other . ...
requirements written specifically for river bank operating conditions, will be undertaken only in 0 0
performance of amphibians. To some degree, exceptional cases and after first obtaining
requirements for soft soil mobility and obstacle approval from the appropriate transportation
performance provide for this special capability, agency, including the following designated by
This is an area that is in need of research and the Department of Defense:
development. It is likely that more a. Dept. of the Army: DCSLOG, Director of
comprehensive riverine requirements may be Transportation, U. S. Army, Washington, D. C.
developed for future amphibian designs. 20315
b. Dept. of the Navy: Naval Supply Systems
2-4.5 PERFORMANCE WHEN ENTERING AND Command Headquarters, Washington, D. C.
LEAVING LANDING (LST) AND c. Dept. of the Air Force: Headquarters, Air
DOCK-TYPE (LSD) SHIPS Research and Development Command,
Washington, D. C.
Capability for entering and leaving particular d. U. S. Marine Corps: Commandant, Marine - - -_
classes of ships is often specified. Such a Corps, Washington, D. C.
requirement should be based on the intended The designer must consider the limitations of
use of the amphibian and, particularly, its the particular modes of transportation specified
proposed method of deployment, or selected for the vehicle to determine the
maximum allowable dimensions and weight for
2-4.6 CARGO-CARRYING AND HANDLING an amphibian. The sources which are at the 0
REQUIREMENTS disposal of the designer to determine these
limitations are:
a. The Highway Weight and Size Limitations

The flexibility and usefulness of a logistic established by the Federal Aid Highway Act of
amphibian are greatly enhanced if it is capable 1956.
of self-loading and unloading of cargo. Thus, b. The highway regulations of the individual
requirements may be written to this end States of the United States.
prescribing that loading ramps and/or winches c. The physical limitations of highways in
be incorporated in the design. foreign countries.
2-7
- - - - - - -
AMCP 706-350 0 0
d. The Outline Diagram of Approved Limited 2-5.2.3 Length

Clearance of the Association of American
Railroads The maximum overall length of a wheeled
e. Weight limitations of individual carriers, vehicle comprised of a single, nonarticulated -
available in the current issue of the Railway Line unit (in most cases wheeled amphibians will falll
Clearance publication for individual railroads of into this category) shall not exceed 35 ft. For
the United States, Canada, Mexico, and other wheeled vehicles comprised of an articulated
nations double unit, such as a tractor-trailer, the overall
f. Diagram of the Bern International Rail length should not exceed 50 ft.
Interchange Agreement with weight limitations
applicable to the railroads of individual 2-5.2.4 Axle Loading
countries for all items that may require
transportation by rail in foreign countries An axle load is defined as the total load
g. Loading and storage limitations of ocean transmitted to the road by all wheels whose
vessels, and Army and Navy cargo handling centers are included between two parallel
procedures which are applicable transverse vertical planes 40 in. apart, extending
h. Regulations of the Department of across the full width of the vehicle. For the
Transportation (U. S. Coast Guard), the U. S. continental United States and overseas, the
Army Mobility Equipment Command, and the maximum axle load (subject to gross weight
U. S. Navy, covering water transportation limitations) is 16,000 lb for axles spaced
For convenience some of the main restrictions between 3V2 ft and 7'/2 ft. For vehicles, designed
are presented in the paragraphs which follow, for highway operation in the continental United
For more complete information refer to Refs. I States, and with axles spaced more than 71h ft
through 9. from the nearest adjacent axle, the maximum 0 0
permissible load is 18,000 lb; for vehicles
2-5.2 UNRESTRICTED HIGHWAY designed for overseas operations, it is 16,000 lb.
TRANSPORTABILITY
2-5.2.5 Gross Weight
Ref. I prescribes maximum dimensions and
weights for pneumatic-tired, highway, and The maximum permissible gross weight for a
off-the-road type vehicles for unrestricted wheeled vehicle designed for highway operations
highway operations. Oversize and/or overweight (subject to axle load limitations) is 36,000 lb for
vehicles, as defined by the state roads vehicles having a distance of 10 ft or less
commission of a particular state through which between the extreme front and rear axles, ,ind
the vehicle is to be moved, are subject to certain increases 850 lb for each foot of axle spacing
procedures which usually involve the over 10 ft to a maximum of 60,000 lb. This
procurement of a permit with payment of a fee maximum gross weight exceeds the statutory •
and with movement restricted to certain limits of some states in the U.S.A. and special
highways at specific times of the day. permits are required.
2-5.2.1 Width 2-5.3 RAIL TRANSPORTABILITY
The maximum overall width of wheeled The requirements for transportability by

vehicles for unrestricted highway movement is railroad are set by certair ,.learances determined
96 in. by bridges, tunnels, platforms, power
transmission poles, and various wayside
2-5.2.2 Height structures that may be encountered. Required
clearances have been compiled and used to
The maximum overall height of wheeled produce the clearance outline diagrams in Rcf.
vehicles designed for unrestricted highway 1. These diagrams set the maximum allowable
operation in the continental United States is cross section of a vehicle as loaded upon a
12.5 ft. The maximum allowable overall height railway car for shipping. In cases where vehicles
for overseas highway operations is 11 ft. of larger cross section are to be transported,
2-8
0 0
0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
they must be reducible in size by suitable 2-8 SPECIAL REGULATIONS FOR FUELS,
disassembly to meet the diagram limits. LUBRICANTS, AND HYDRAULIC
FLUIDS
2-5.4 AIR TRANSPORTABILITY
Specifications for fuels, lubricants, and 0 S
When designing military vehicles for airlift, hydraulic fluids are given in par. 3-2.5 of Ref. 1,
consideration must be given to the size, weight, and Ref. 13.
and location of the vehicle's center of gravity;
the size, location and configuration of the 2-9 MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS
aircraft loading apertures; the size and
configuration of cargo compartments (including 2-9.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS -
limiting features that may prevent the full use of
available space); the strength of the aircraft floor The design of a wheeled amphibian must
and loading ramp; the location, capacity, and provide an available and reliable tool for the
type of tie-down fittings used; the allowances Army. These two objectives are a function of
for loading controls and auxiliary equipment; the design as well as the maintenance performed
and the air transportability requirements after the vehicle is built.
specified in MIL-A-8421A (USAF), Ref. 4. Each Reliability can be designed into the vehicle
vehicle should be designed to be transportable in and thus reduce maintenance. Maintenance that
a maximum number of aircraft types to permit is relatively easy to perform because of
maximum use of available aircraft and to accessibility or other criteria discussed in the
alleviate the possible shortage of a particular paragraphs which follow will make the vehicle
type. When designing vehicles for aerial delivery available and more reliable. Thus availability,
(airdrop), vertical and horizontal clearances in reliability, and maintainability are all 0 S
aircraft must be considered; in addition, the interrelated.
designer must make allowances for the weight
and space taken up by the aerial delivery 2-9.2 MAINTAINABILITY CRITERIA
equipment and for the motions of the
"package" as it leaves the aircraft. Additional Maintainability is a characteristic of good
data and guidance can be found in Refs. 5, 6, design. A vehicle is maintainable if the specified
14, and 15. maintenance can be carried out routinely so that
the vehicle continues to meet stipulated
2-6 CLIMATIC ENVIRONMENT CRITERIA performance requirements. The definition of
maintainability must be related to some
Amphibians are frequently subjected to harsh measurable quantities which will significantly
corrosion environment resulting from frequent influence the designer's layout or machinery
operation in and out of salt water. This and arrangement, or choice of components. These 0 0
other environmental requirements are discussed quantities are realistic descriptors:
in Ref. 7. mean-time-to-repair (MTTR);
mean-time-between-maintenance (MTBM); and
2-7 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM SPECIAL mean downtime (MDT). This type of approach
REGULATIONS to maintainability is described in Ref. 10.
To design maintainability into a wheeled 0
The Department of the Army has established amphibian, the designer should hypothesize
a 24-V DC system as a design standard, as possible failures and determine procedures for
specified in AR 705-19, Ref. 8. repair. This process will immediately present the
General design considerations--such as major factors involved, including:
generating systems, voltage control, wiring a. Possible cause of failure
harness, weatherproofing, suppression of radio b. Access
interference, etc.--are discussed briefly in Ref. 1 c. Tools
and detailed treatment of some of the above d. Repair parts
factors may be found in Ref. 9. e. Fasteners
2-9
k ~ S S
I ... . .. _ •* * .. .0 5 5 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 S
f. Specialists required for a complex repair, oversized or overpowered drives and propulsion
Some of the specific criteria which are directly systems, etc.
applicable to the maintainability of wheeled b. Design with expendable parts which can
amphibians are given in par. 3-3.1 of Ref. 1. be routinely replaced.
One of the tools available for achieving 0
2-9.3 RELIABILITY CRITERIA increased reliability is prototype testing which
can provide knowledge of problem components
Wheeled amphibians will tend to become before the vehicle is delivered to the operator. It
more complex and sophisticated. The more will also provide the designer with an evaluation
complex a system becomes, the greater the of his work and suggest areas for improvement.
tendency to failures. A complex system will not The ease of maintenance, or lack of it, will
necessarily be an unreliable one, but complexity become obvious during tests. Testing can also
does imply that the designer's work must reflect provide information on which to base estimates
a greater than usual concern for component of future MTBF's, especially if a detailed log of
reliability, the vehicle's history is maintained. This log, if
Reliability is defined as the probability that carried through the life of the vehicle, will be
materiel or equipment will perform its valuable in providing performance data to the
designated function for a prescribed period of designer. • 0
time under stated conditions. The criteria listed Reliability components are selected from
under maintainability will also apply because of service experience. Performance data will be
their relationship to reliability. Reliability is available for parts which have been used
often expressed quantitatively as extensively, or tested by the Army or the
mean-time-between-failures (MTBF). The three manufacturer. Use of such components improves
questions raised by this term are: reliability because their known behavior can be 41
1. What is a failure? designed into the system under consideration.
2. What causes a failure?
3. How is MTBF increased? 2-9.4 USE OF STANDARD MILITARY
A failure may be defined as a deficiency COMPONENTS
which prevents a component or subassembly
from performing its intended function under The major benefits to be gained from
specified conditions. standardization are in the following
The failure of a wheeled amphibian may be areas-improved reliability, improved
due to defective components, weak components maintainability, reduced maintenance cost,
and defective subassemblies or equipment, or reduced procurement cost, and reduced
environmental conditions such as rough seas, procurement time. Hcwever, standardization is
extremely steep slopes, etc., beyond the not intended to hinder design improvement.
capabilities of the vehicle. No system can ever be Design improvements should take precedence -
assumed to be 100 percent reliable. The cost to over standardization whenever the improvement
design a wheeled amphibian which approached outweighs the advantages of standardization.
100 percent reliability would be prohibitive. The contribution of standardization to
The approach to improved reliability is: improved reliability includes:
a. Design for increased MTBF's a. Use of standard items which are produced
b. Subject the product under development in large quantities insures a greater level of
or any developed component to prototype uniformity and refinement.
testing b. Use of standard items avoids long storage
c. Use component parts which have a record periods. Because of low demand, nonstandard
of reliability items usually spend long periods in storage and
To increase MTBF, there are two are thus exposed to component deterioration.
simultaneous approaches which are directly c. Standardization promotes item familiarity,
related to the design process. These are: thereby minimizing the chances of -
a. Design for ruggedness, i.e., use high safety misapplication, faulty handling, or faulty
factors and low working stresses, install installation.
2-10
0 0 0
• . 0 0 ... •_ .e 0 . .. 0 0 • 0 0
AMCP 706-350 - S
Standardization contributes to improved are familiar to personnel and the tools are
maintainability and reduced maintenance costs available.
in the following ways: e. Use of known components will allow
a. Increased reliability reduces the frequency interchangeability between vehicles.
and extent of maintenance, thus reducing f. Components are part of an existing 0 0
maintenance costs. logistical support system.
b. Maintenance downtime will be reduced Pertinent information concerning standard
since standard items will be more readily items which will help the designer are:
available and repairs will be more quickly a. FederalCatalogingHandbook,H6-1.
effected. b. Numerical Index of Descriptive Patterns,
c. Because of volume production, standard and other specifications and standards in 0S
items will usually be less expensive than accordance with MIL-STD-143.
nonstandard items. c. Army Repair Parts List.
d. Costs associated with the logistic aspects d. FederalSupply Catalog and AR 7 50-1.
of maintenance will be reduced since
standardization allows greater
interchangeability. 2-10 HUMAN FACTORS
Standardization reduces the time and cost of
system procurement because the development Human factors affect a wide variety of
costs of nonstandard items are avoided. Even in engineering requirements. Amphibians cannot
cases where the nonstandard item is less operate without guidance and control by man.
expensive, this saving may be offset by the cost Hence, the designer must give due consideration
of introducing a new item into the supply to the physiological and psychological
system. limitations of the human being. The operator S S
To summarize, the designer should attempt to and crew must be reasonably comfortable, have
use standard military components in his design sufficient space in which to perform their
for the following reasons: functions, and have controls that are easily
a. Use of off-the-shelf items is cheaper than accessible and operable. More important,
paying for the development of new items. however, are the requirements for safe operation
b. Components are readily available and have that include limits of human tolerance to
short delivery times, vibration, noise, and shock.
c. Components have known properties and Refs. 10, 11, and 12 discuss, in detail, the
have more predictable reliability. various aspects of human factor engineering
d. Use of known components will facilitate which must be considered in developing
and speed maintenance because the components satisfactory requirements.
- o0
•0 0
2-11
0 5 5 S 5 0 0 S S S S 0 0S0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0
REFERENCES
1. AMCP 706-355, Engineering Design 9. TM 9-8000, Principles of Automotive 0 0

Handbook, Automotive Series, The Vehicles, January 1956.
Automotive Assembly. 10. AMCP 706-134, Engineering Design
2. Army Programs-Guide to Life Cycle of Handbook, Maintainability Guide for
Army Materiel, Hq. U. S. AMC, June 1965. Design.
3. AR 705-8, Department of Defense 11. TM 21-62, Manual of Standard Practicefor
Engineering for Transportability Program, human Factors in Military Vehicles. -
December 1964. 12. HEL-STD-S-1-63, Maximum Acceptable
4. MIL-A-8421A (USAF), Air Noise Level for Army Materiel Command
Transportability Requirements General Equipment, Human Engineering
Specifications for, October 1956. Laboratories, Aberdeen Proving Ground,
5. J. P. Hendricks, "C-5A to Revolutionize U. Maryland, 1963.
S. Military Airlift", Aviation Week and 13. AMCP 706-123, Engineering Design
Space Technology, 20 November 1967. Handbook, Hydraulic Fluids. 0
6. AMCP 706-130, Engineering Design 14. AR 70-39, Criteria for Air Transport and
Handbook, Design for Air Transport and Airdrop of Materiel.
Airdrop of Materiel. 15. MIL-STD-209, Slinging Eyes and
7. AR 70-38, Research, Development, Test, Attachments for Lifting and Tying Down
and Evaluation of Materiel for Extreme Military Equipment.
Climatic Conditions, May 1969. 16. AMCP 706-115, Engineering Design
8. AR 705-19, Electrical Systems in Motor Handbook, Environmental Series, Part
Vehicles, 27 May 1966. One, Basic Environmental Concepts
2-12
_._ . 0 0
9_ . • . 0 * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 -
CHAPTER 3 PAST AND PRESENTLY OPERATIONAL WHEELED AMPHIBIANS
SECTION I BRIEF HISTORY OF WHEELED AMPHIBIAN DEVELOPMENT 0 0
3-1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS WHICH components of the parent vehicle were used in a
LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF lightweight, welded hull. A propeller mounted in
RECENT AMPHIBIANS a tunnel, the necessary power take-off, a marine
rudder, bilge pump, capstan, and other marine - S
Although the concept was not new, appurtenances were added to complete the
amphibians first came into prominence during conversion.
WW II. In both the European and Pacific Over 12 thousand units were produced after
Theaters, the problem was the execution of limited field tests indicated the amphibious jeep
assault and supply missions on unfriendly and had maximum speed of 65 mph on land and 6
(especially in the Pacific Theater) undeveloped mph in water. Insufficient testing of early
shores. This led to the development of various production models, inadequate inspection and
amphibians. The need for logistic support under supervision of production, failure to provide for
assault conditions led to the development of the a continuing development program, failure to
type amphibian with which this handbook is provide adequate training, and, particularly,
concerned-the logistic support wheeled failure to consult the using services before
amphibian. The DUKW, the first operationally production began resulted in early rejection of .
successful, mass-produced wheeled amphibian, the project as a technical and tactical failure. 0 0
grew out of the necessity to move However, many lessons were learned from this
unprecedented tonnages of supplies and unfortunate experience that were applied most
equipment from ship to shore storage dumps profitably in the development of the DUKW.
over undeveloped beaches. The DUKW served a
primary role in U.S. Army amphibious assault 3-3 THE DUKW
logistic operations throughout the war and for 0 0
some time thereafter. The DUKW was the first operationally
After WW II, developments in military effective wheeled logistic amphibian, although it
equipment dictated that amphibians with a was not used exclusively for supply functions.
greater cargo delivery rate were required. This The basic development effort for this vehicle
requirement stems from the great increase in fire consisted of using the operationally proven GMC
power and mobility of the Armed Forces. Study 6 X 6 truck and wrapping a watertight hull
of amphibian speeds and sizes required to around it. This was an expedient approach,
provide the increased capability led to the chosen because war time pressures did not
realization that a "family" of amphibians was permit extensive development and design time
needed for flexibility in meeting various logistic (spring of 1942).
problem demands. The chassis of the GMC, CCKW 2½-ton, 6 X 6
A brief history of wheeled amphibian truck was the basic structure and was enveloped
development follows, starting with the in a welded steel barge type hull. The CCKW S
amphibious jeep and proceeding to the present. transmission, with five speeds forward and one
reverse speed, was retained. The truck
3-2 THE AMPHIBIOUS JEEP suspension system was retained, except that
water seals were added. A marine power
During the Autumn of 1941 the 1/4-ton, 4 X train-including screw propeller, shafting, power
4 general purpose truck was converted into an take-off, and a rudder-completed the major
amphibian, the "amphibious jeep", for use in modifications. These changes gave the original
carrying personnel. The chassis, power plant, 21h-ton truck the desired amphibious
transmission, differential, and wheel characteristics.
3-1
........0 . . 0 .o .. 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 -
Following the initial introduction and (adding 18 in. to the stern of the vehicle), and of
production, certain design modifications were providing covers for the front wheel housings.
made to the DUKW to improve its waterborne The capability and adequacy of the DUKW,
capability. These included the following: which was the result of a hasty but intensive
a. Originally, the cab was placed over the design effort, is attested to by the fact that the 0 S
engine (forward) in the interest of operator DUKW did not become obsolete until nearly
visibility and maximum cargo space. two decades after its introduction. The DUKW's
Subsequently, the cab was moved just aft of the were capable of transporting 5,000-lb payloads
engine. This change increased the forward deck through plunging surf in excess of 10 ft and
length, increasing operator protection and could attain land speeds up to 50 mph. The
providing better engine accessibility. At the characteristics of the DUKW are given in Table 0
same time, the cargo compartment was widened 3-1 and Figure 3-1.
in order to maintain available cargo space.
b. Water speed was increased from 5 mph to 3-4 THE SUPERDUCK XM147
6.5 mph. This was a result of modifications to
the propeller, propeller location, engine In the early 1950's, an improved version of
carburetion, engine HP requirements, hull shape the WW II DUKW was conceived, and was 0
C11
31' - 0"
*""
• 0
U U
Figure 3-1. DUKW General Arrangement Sketch
3-2
ft ... 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
named the SUPERDUCK. The first prototype percent greater than those of the DUKW. The
produced was designated the XM147. It was GULL employed a molded bow, rather than the
tested in the surf off Monterey, California, in barge-type bows used on previous vehicles.
1954. After brief testing, it was realized that Another innovation was the use of a
certain major deficiencies existed which needed glass-reinforced plastic hull. The GULL also had 6 0
correction. This resulted in the development of a greatly increased power over all the previous
revised vehicle named the XM147E1 wheeled amphibians, and featured unskirted
SUPERDUCK. This version included, as a'major wheel wells and an enclosed cab like the XM147.
improvement over the DUKW and XM147, a Vehicle characteristics are given in Table 3-3 and
prototype commercial torque converter and Fig. 3-3.
transmission. The XM147E1 employed a new The vehicle prototype, as built, was 0 6
power train, raised bow with surf plate, 10-ply considerably over the design weight. This
desert-type nylon tires, and an attempt at overweight caused many components to fail
improved marine steering. This vehicle was which, otherwise, may have been satisfactorily
tested alongside the DUKW for comparison. The designed. The GULL carried a very large winch
XM147E1 demonstrated superior land mobility, with an inadequate foundation. Finally, the
but was inferior to the DUKW in surf vehicle was plagued by failures in the glass fiber
operations. Tests were prematurely concluded reinforced plastic hull. The state of the art in
when the XM147E1 was swamped in heavy surf molding plastic hulls was in its infancy when the
and severely damaged. GULL was built. These problems, especially the
Another improved version of the weight problem, caused the project to end
SUPERDUCK, the XM147E2 was then prematurely so that the GULL concept was
developed. This amphibian employed an integral never fully evaluated.
watertight hull and was provided in two modes,
one with steerable propeller and one with 3-6 THE DRAKE XM157
rudders. During the tests, it was determined that
this vehicle demonstrated inadequate engine The XM157 DRAKE was initially conceived
cooling in the land mode of operation. It was as a 5-ton 6 X 6 vehicle similar to the XM147
also found that the transmission lacked adequate SUPERDUCK. However, experience gained from
cooling and that the transfer cases were the XM147 and XM148 prototypes led to
unsatisfactory for sustained marine services, changing the concept to an 8-ton, 8 X 8
This led to the final revised version of the amphibian having substantially increased marine
SUPERDUCK designated XM147E3, capability.
incorporating over 80 recommended changes The DRAKE used many components
based on test results of the XM147E2. This common to the SUPERDUCK and, in addition,
vehicle was tested in surf at Monterey, had several unique features. It employed two
California, until it was swamped. A decision was independent power plant and drive train
then made to discontinue further consideration assemblies, each driving one forward and one
of the vehicle. The XM147E3 SUPERDUCK rear axle. The power train consisted of a torque
demonstrated only marginal improvement over converter in series with six-speed gearing, a
the DUKW in most areas and needed major combination two-speed land-drive transfer case,
power train modifications in order to correct its and a two-speed marine propulsion power
deficiencies. The characteristics of the take-off. Dual trainable, retractable propellers 0 0
SUPERDUCK XM147E3 are given in Table 3-2 driven through universal joints provided the
and Figure 3-2. marine propulsion and steering. Aluminum
construction was used for both frame and hull.
3-5 THE GULL XM148 An air bellows suspension with independently
sprung axle allowed partial retraction of the
During the period of SUPERDUCK wheels and axles during waterborne operation.
evaluation, another experimental vehicle was Tests demonstrated that the DRAKE was
introduced, designated the XM148 GULL. Its superior in land mobility to the XM147 and
physical dimensions were approximately 15 DUKW. Its air suspension system provided good
3-3
AMCP 706-350
0 *
331-711-
0 0
Figure 3-2. SUPERDUCK GeneralArrangement Sketch

lateral stability, and control was facilitated by differential. The vehicle was also poorly
power steering. The central tire inflation system designed from a maintenance standpoint. To
also contributed to this mobility. In the service the engine, it was necessary to remove
waterborne mode, it demonstrated the cab. Since there was no major improvement
maneuverability superior to that of previous in performance over the SUPERDUCK, the -0
amphibians. However, there was a marked concept was abandoned.
directional instability in the waterborne mode.
It also proved capable of higher waterborne 3-7 THE PRESENT FAMILY OF OPERA-
speeds than the previous amphibians. Vehicle TIONAL LOGISTIC WHEELED
characteristics are given in Table 3-4 and Fig. AMPHIBIANS
3-4. .
The greatest deficiency in the DRAKE design The present family of amphibians consists of
was that some bearings were underdesigned 3 vehicles-the LARC LX, the LARC V, and the
resulting in numerous breakdowns in the LARC XV, which are capable of handling 60
3-4
' _9._J _
0_ *• _ .0 0 .. 0 •O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 -
0.
17' -9"
36' - 0"
0n
0
*• 0
o 0 0~
o 0
Figure 3-3. GULL XM148 GeneralArrangement Sketch

tons, 5 tons, and 15 tons of payload, used by the military services. The LARC LX will
respectively. It is fitting to refer to these three transport the remaining 25 percent. A
amphibians as a family since they complement description of each vehicle follows.
one another in fulfilling the overall logistic
requirements for amphibious operations. There 3-7.1 THE LARC LX
exists a concept of usage for these amphibians
and each one fulfills a part. The LARC V will The first of the family to be developed was
transport nonmobile general cargo and has the LARC LX. In fact, the LARC LX concept
maximum roadability. The LARC XV will was initiated quite some time before the other 0 0
transport nonmobile general cargo (it can carry LARC's. Development of this amphibian was
three loaded CONEX containers), lighter types initiated in 1951 and was carried forward during
of mobile equipment, and has good roadability. the same period of time as the SUPERDUCK
The LARC LX will carry all the heavy mobile development.
and nonmobile equipment and has limited The LARC LX was developed to meet
roadability. The LARC V and LARC XV will requirements for an amphibious vehicle of large 0*
transport 75 percent of all the dry cargo, general size to transport heavy and bulky equipment
cargo, special cargo, ammunition, and other from ship to shore and across unimproved
Class IV wheeled and tracked vehicles, which are beaches. The LARC LX is a Diesel-powered,
3-5
S. ..•
. •
.*O . •. O~ 0. .. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
18' -5" 0 0
42 -0"
Figure3-4. DRAKE XM157 General ArrangementSketch
rubber-tired, amphibious lighter, with a bow transmits the power through a coupling and a
loading ramp, center cargo compartment, closed final drive unit to a set of planetary gears in the
stern, and wing machinery spaces. The basic wheel hub. Braking is accomplished by
structure is of welded steel. Four 6-cylinder GM restraining the drive shafts, using air brakes
Detroit Diesel engines are used for the attached at the miter box.
propulsion power plant. Wheel steering is accomplished by the use of S S
For marine propulsion, the two engines on tiller arms splined to the top of each wheel
the port side are connected end to end by a fluid column, and attached to two hydraulic rams
coupling and shaft joined to a gathering box. which provide the steering power. Marine
The box is connected via a right angle drive to steering is accomplished by the use of a wire
the reverse and reduction marine gear. Power is rope loop which is attached to the starboard
then transmitted from the marine gear, through front wheel steering arm and to the quadrant *
shafting, to a propeller. The starboard which controls the two welded steel rudders.
installation is identical. The characteristics of the LARC LX are given in
The land drive is so arranged that each of the Table 3-5 and Fig. 3-5.
four wheels is independently driven from one of
the Diesel engines. A torque converter and 3-7.2 THE LARC V
transmission are mounted at one end of each
engine. Each transmission is coupled to a miter The LARC V was the first true production 9
box by a spheriflex coupling. The miter box replacement for the WW II DUKW. Unlike the
effects the necessary right angle drive to the DUKW which, for the sake of expediency, was
wheel column. The wheel column in turn designed more or less as a floatable truck, the
3-6
* S S
AMCP 706-350 - -
0..
28' -6"
62' -5"
0 06
Figure 3-5. LARC LX GeneralArrangement Sketch
LARC V was designed from the ground up as a divided -for driving the wheels and/or the
true amphibian. Its mission is to transport propeller. The amphibian is equipped with 18 X
nonmobile general cargo from ship to shore, 25 in., 12-ply, off-road type, low-pressure, S
over undeveloped beaches and roads. The LARC tubeless tires, which also serve as the suspension
V has been in service and classified Standard A system. Land-mode steering is provided using
since 1960 and has been in troop unit service the bow wheels. Marine steering is provided
since 1963. through cables attached to the land steering
The production model of the LARC V is a linkage. The rudder and the front wheels operate
wheeled amphibian powered by a together. The single propeller operates in a
300-horsepower, four-cycle, 8-cylinder, tunnel and is fitted with a Kort nozzle. The
Cummins Diesel engine providing land designed speed is 10 mph in water and 30 mph
propulsion through 2 or 4 driven, rubber-tired over land under full load conditions. The hull is
wheels, and waterborne propulsion through a constructed of aluminum.
single propeller. The width was increased by 1.0 The effectiveness of the LARC V, due to its
ft during development to satisfy stability increase in both cargo capacity and water speed,
requirements. The engine, which is located in can best be expressed by comparison with other 0 0
the stern of the amphibian (over the propeller amphibians. Based on evaluation tests, the
tunnel), drives forward to a centrally located LARC V is the equivalent of 2.4 DUKW's or 1.6
transfer differential transmission, where power is SUPERDUCK's. The LARC V has demonstrated
3-7
_.9 .o. .. o....

... • • • • • • • S
AMCP 706-350
superiority to the SUPERDUCK in land fork lift truck for unloading nonmobile cargo,
mobility, maintainability, and design and using a ramp for mobile cargo.
simplification; it is also a lighter vehicle. The The LARC XV is powered by two 4-cycle,
vehicle characteristics are given in Table 3-6 and 8-cylinder, V-type Diesel engines, the same as
Fig. 3-6. are used in the LARC V. The vehicle is driven on
land through four large, low-pressure tires which
3-7.3 THE LARC XV also serve as the suspension system. As with the
LARC V, the beam was increased, during
Since the LARC LX was developed to fulfill development, by 2.0 ft for stability. In water, it
requirements for transport of bulky, heavy is propelled by a single 4-bladed propeller.
cargo, and the LARC V for transport of small Steering is hydraulic; 2-wheel, 4-wheel, and
general cargo; the LARC XV was developed to oblique steering are possible. Marine steering is
meet requirements for a medium self-propelled accomplished by a 3-bladed box rudder which is
lighter. The mission of the LARC XV is to actuated by the same hydraulic system which
transport nonmobile general cargo and lighter provides for land-mode steering. Wheels and
types of mobile equipment from ship to shore, rudder turn together. The LARC XV hull is
over the beach, and over the roads. The LARC constructed of aluminum.
XV is designed for expedient unloading using a A unique feature of the LARC XV is that it is 0 0
© ©
35'-0"
* 0
L IT 0• 0
Figure 3-6. LARC V GeneralArrangement Sketch
3.8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a_0 0
AMCP 706-3500
a two-way vehicle. In the waterborne mode, it is thus providing good visibility for the operator.
operated in the direction which places the LARC XV characteristics are given in Table 3-7
boat-shaped bow forward and the cab aft, thus and Fig. 3-7.
providing good operator protection. In the land Fig. 3-8 shows the LARC family of .
mode, it is operated in the opposite direction, amphibians and Fig. 3-9 shows the DUKW,
with the cab forward and the bow to the rear, SUPERDUCK, and prototype LARC V.
0 0
20' -10"
451-0"-
Figure 3-7. LARC XV GeneralArrangement Sketch
3-9
_ 0
* S *S 0~ 0 6 0 S 0 0 S
AMCP 706-3500 0
Figure 3-8. LARC Amphibians: LARC LX, LARC XV, and LARC V
Figure 3-9. WW If DUKW, SUPERDUCK, and Prototype of the LARC V

3-10
0
AMCP 7W63500 0
SECTION II TABULATION OF VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS

3-8 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS OF PAST AND PRESENTLY OPERATIONAL WHEELED
AMPHIBIANS
TABLE 3-1 DUKW-VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Manufacturer General Motors Corp.
Width, ft-in. 8-2-7/8

Length, ft-in. 31-0
Height, ft-in. 9-21h
Min Ground Clearance, in. 111/
Freeboard, in. 24 fwd; 16 aft
Draft, ft-in. 3-6 fwd; 4-3 aft
Wheelbase, ft-in. 13-8 0
Track Width, ft-in. 5-3-5/8
Angle of Approach, deg 38
Angle of Departure, deg 25
Break Angle, deg 15
Land Speed, mph 50
Water Speed, mph 6.2
Land Range, mi 240
Water Range, mi 35 at 6 mph
Turn Radius (Land), ft 35
Turn Radius (Water), ft 20
Cargo Capacity 5,175 lb or 25 troops 0 0
Cargo Space (LXWXH), ft-in. 12-4 X 6-10 X 2-4
Total Weight, lb 20,055
Grade Ability, % 60
Surf Ability, ft 10
Engine Data GMC Model 270 0 S

6-cyl gasoline engine
93 BHP at 2750 rpm
Fuel Type Gasoline 72-80 octane
Marine Propulsor 3-bladed propeller; D = 25 in.;
P= 14 in.
Suspension System Truck type; leaf springs; 6 X 6 •
Brake System Hydraulic
Tire Size 11 X 18 in. 10-ply
Land Steering 2-wheel, mechanical
Marine Steering Rudder
Crew Size 2 5
Hull Material Steel
Central Tire Inflation System
3-11
~ S
0i
0 0 *00 0 9 @ 0 S 0 0..
AMCP 706-350 -
TABLE 3-2 SUPERDUCK (XM147E3)-VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Manufacturer General Motors Corp.

Width, ft-in. 9-3/8
Length, ft-in. 33-7
Height, ft-in. 9-4
Min Ground Clearance, in. 13
Freeboard, in. 35 fwd; 28 aft
Wheelbase, ft-in. 13-8
Track Width, ft-in., 5-11%
Land Speed, mph 48
Water Speed, mph 7
Cargo Capacity, lb 8,000 _ O
Grade Ability, % 60 at 1.64 mph
Surf Ability, ft 10
Engine Data GMC 302-55; 6-cyl gasoline engine, -
155 hp
Fuel Type Gasoline
Fuel Capacity, gal 108
Marine Propulsor 3-bladed propeller; D - 31 in.,
P= 25 in. .
Suspension System Truck Type, Leaf Spring; 6 X 6
Brake System Air over hydraulic, disc type
Tire Size 12.5 X 20 in.; 12-ply
Land Steering Recirculating ball type, 2-wheel,
power-assisted
Marine Steering Single Rudder
Electrical System 24-V DC
Crew Size 2
Hull Material Welded Steel
3-12
4111
0 *• 0 •0 0• • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0.
TABLE 3-3 GULL (XM148)-VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Manufacturer ACF Brill
Width, ft-in. 5-9

Length, ft-in. 36-0
Height, ft-in. 9-101h
Min Ground Clearance, in. 20-5/8 0
Angle of Departure, deg 30 .
Land Speed, mph 63
Water Speed, mph 8 0
Land Range, mi 360
Water Range, mi 66
Cargo Capacity, lb 10,000
Cargo Space (LXW), ft-in. 16-5 X 8-4
Engine Data Hall-Scott Model 485; 6-cyl; 300 BHP - -
Fuel Type Gasoline
Suspension System 6 X 6
Land Steering 2-wheel
Hull Material Glass-reinforced plastic -
3-13
* 0
* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0I
AMCP 706-350 0 6
TABLE 34 DRAKE (XM157)-VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Manufacturer General Motors Corp. 0 0
Width, ft-in. 42-0

Length, ft-in. 10-0
Height, ft-in. 10-10
Freeboard, in. 28
Land Speed, mph 44 0 0
Water Speed, mph 9
Land Range, mi 396
Cargo Capacity, lb 16,000 -0
Total weight, lb 49,200
Grade Ability, % 60
Engine Data (2) GMC, Model 302, 155 hp
Fuel Type Gasoline
Marine Propulsor (2) Steerable propellers; D = 31 in.;
P = 24 in.
Suspension System Air bellows type; 8 X 8; partial
retraction O
Brake System I (i.e., no redundancy)
Tire Size 14.75 X 20 in.; 10-ply
Land Steering 4-wheel (front)
Marine Steering Directed thrust (trainable propeller)
Hull Material Welded aluminum 0
Central Tire Inflation System
3-14
• .... .....
O ...• _ok
_ _O 9... ___• . O, • q• 0_ - • o
AMCP 706-350
0
TABLE 3-5 LARC LX-VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Manufacturer/Designer Treadway/Pacific Car and Foundry 0 -

Width, ft-in. 26-11
Length, ft-in. 62-5
Height, ft-in. 19-7 reducible to 14-7 for shipping
Freeboard, ft-in. 5-0 fwd; 4-6 aft
Draft, ft-in. 8-2 fwd; 8-8 aft
Track Width, ft-in. 23-2
Break Angle, deg 13% 0 0
Land Speed, mph 17 (loaded); 20.5 (empty)
Water Speed, mph 7 (Loaded); 7.5 (empty)
Land Range, mi 300 at 10 mph
Water Range, mi 150
120,000 0
Cargo Capacity, lb
Cargo Space (LXWXH), ft-in. 41-11 X 14 X (6-2 fwd; 4-6 aft)
Grade Ability, % 60
Side Slope, % 25
Surf Ability, ft 14 0 0
Engine Data (4) GM Series 6-71 Diesel; rated at
165 BHP at 2100 rpm; separate
drive for each wheel
Fuel Type Marine Diesel
Marine Propulsor (2) 3-bladed propellers; D = 48 in.,
P = 29 to 32 in.
Suspension System Rigid, 4 X 4
Brake System Air type, B. F. Goodrich Model
H-500-1
Tire Size 36 X 41 in., 4 8-ply rating 0
Land Steering Hydraulic selective 2-wheel,
4-wheel, or oblique
Marine Steering Twin rudders
Electrical System 24-V DC single-wire
Hydraulic System, gal 300
Crew Size 4-5 - • .0
Hull Material Welded steel
Unit Cost $390,000 (6/68)
3-15
. 0
V -0 ._O.*. ~ 0 * . -0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350-
TABLE 3-6 LARC V-VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Consolidated Diesel Electric

Manufacturer/Designer Corporation/Ingersoll-Kalamazoo
Div. of Borg-Warner0 0
Width, ft-in. 10-0
Length, ft-in. 35-0
Height, ft-in. 10-2
Freeboard, in. 10 0 0
Draft, ft-in. 4-3
Angle of Approach, deg 20.7
Break Angle, deg 15
Land Speed, mph 28
Land Range, mi 200
Water Range, mi 25
Turn Radius (Land), ft 36.5 • 0
Turn Radius (Water), ft 77 clockwise, 59 counter-clockwise
Cargo Capacity 10,000 lb or 20 troops
Total Weight, lb 30, 950
Grade Ability, % 60 at 2.41 mph ...........
Side Slope, % 20 .
Surf Ability, ft 10
Engine Data (1) Cummins 8-cyl, 4-cycle Diesel
engine; 300 BHP at 3000 rpm
Marine Propulsor (1) 3-bladed shrouded propeller;
D = 30 in., P = 30 in.
Suspension System Rigid, 4 X 4
Brake System Hydroretarder and hydraulic disc on
transmission shaft
Tire Size 18 X 25 in; 12-ply
Land Steering Power assist-2-wheel
Marine Steering Single rudder and front wheels
Hydraulic System, gal 19
Crew Size 2
Hull Material Welded aluminum
Bollard Pull, lb 3,260
Unit Cost $44,200 (6/68)
3-16
S_ • 0
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 3-7 LARC XV-VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Freuhauf, Inc./Ingersoll-
Manufacturer/Designer Kalamazoo Div. of Borg-Warner 0 0
Width, ft-in. 14-6

Length, ft-in. 45-0
Height, ft-in. 13-8
Min Ground Clearance, in. 161h (to propeller shroud)
Freeboard, in. 15
Draft, ft-in. 5-1
Wheelbase, ft-in. 204101h
Angle of Approach, deg 22%
Angle of Departure, deg 301h 0
Break Angle, deg 131h
Land Speed, mph 29.9
Land Range, mi 200
Water Range, mi 120
Cargo Capacity 30,000 lb or 53 troops
Grade Ability, % 40 at 1 mph 0 S
Side Slope, % 25
Surf Ability, ft 12
Engine Data (2) Cummins V-8 Diesel engine; 4-cycle;
300 BHP at 3,000 rpm
Marine Propulsor (1) 4-bladed propeller with modified
Kort nozzle; P = 36 in.,D = 34 in.
Brake System (4) Hydraulic disc
Tire Size 24 X 29 in.; 16-ply rating
Land Steering Selective 2-wheel, 4-wheel, or oblique;
hydraulic power
Marine Steering 3-blade box rudder and wheels
Hydraulic System, gal 25; 1,900 psi closed center
Crew Size 2
"HullMaterial Welded aluminum 0 0
Bollard Pull, lb 7,700
Unit Cost $165,000 (6/68)
3-17
__9_ 0
.0
* 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Transportation Equipment and Related Roy S. Rice and Ewald F. Schroeder, A Review 0
Problems, Vol. 1, Summary Technical Report of of Current and Future Amphibious Surface
Division 12, NDRC, Washington, D. C., 1946. Vehicles, Vol. II, Hydrodynamic Considerations,
CAL Report No. GM-2127-R-1, Cornell
"Lighter Amphibious Resupply Cargo", U. S. Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, N. Y.,
Army, July 1965. (Brochure) 31 October 1966.
"Lighter Amphibious (LARC-V) Self-Propelled, R. C. Kerr, Review of Revised Military and

Aluminum, 5-Ton, Design 8005 FSN Technical Characteristics. Carrier, Cargo,
1930-710-5728", U.S. Army Mobility Amphibious, 5-Ton Tactical Support, Arabian
Command, St. Louis, Missouri, 17 February American Oil Co., N. Y., 12 March 1957.
1965. Type II Confirmatory Test of Lighter,
"Operation and Maintenance of Lighter, Amphibious (LARC V) Self-Propelled, Diesel,
Amphibious, Resupply, Cargo, 15 Ton Aluminum 5-Ton Design 8005, Report of
(LARC-XV) FSN 1930-710-5729", U.S. Army USATECOM Project No. 7-3-0283-01-A, U.S.
Mobility Command, St. Louis, Missouri, March Army Test and Evaluation Command, Ft. Lee,
1966. Virginia, October 1963.
MIL-L-58017B(TC), Lighter, Amphibious: Charles D. Roach, Design of Wheeled
(BARC), Self-Propelled, Diesel, Steel, 60 Ton, Amphibians, U.S. Army Transportation
61 Ft., Design 2303, 25 July 1962. Research Command, Virginia, 21 April 1960,
AD-637 843.
MIL-L-58063(MO), Lighter, Amphibious:
(LARC XV) Self-Propelled, Diesel, Aluminum, Research, Investigation and Experimentation in
15 Ton, Design 8004, 20 March 1963. the Field of Amphibian Vehicles, Borg-Warner
Corp., Ingersoll-Kalamazoo Division, Final
MIL-L-58017C(MO), Lighter, Amphibious: Report 1957.
(BARC), Self-Propelled, Diesel, Steel, 60 Ton, Service Test of Lighter, Amphibious Resupply,
61 Ft., Design 2303, 17 September 1963. Cargo, 5-Ton, LARC-5, Final Report, Marine
Corps Landing Force Development Center,
Neil J. Mizen, A Review of Currentand Future Marine Corps Schools, Quantico, Virginia.
Amphibious Surface Vehicles, Vol. 1, Vehicle
Reviews, CAL Report No. GM-2127-R-1, LARC XV Lighter, Pilot Model, No. 5, Vol. 1,
Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, Test Report, Phase 1, Fruehauf Corp., Military
N.Y., 31 October 1966. Products Division, 1 May 1966.
_ 9 0
3-18
S.. . .......0 . ...
* 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
A
AMCP 706-350
PART TWO DESIGN OF WHEELED AMPHIBIANS
CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN PROCESS
4-1 PHASES OF THE DESIGN PROCESS It is important to realize that, in general, the
successive design phases of a wheeled amphibian
The design of a wheeled amphibian may be will not be carried out by the same group. In the 0 0
considered to take place in four phases. In the past the conceptual and preliminary designs have
course of these phases the design progresses been conducted by designers working directly
from general considerations, such as size and for the U.S. Army. The final design and some
power, to specific considerations including the testing have been carried out by the contractor
design, selection and arrangement of who builds the prototype vehicle. The remainder
components and, finally, testing and evaluation, of the testing is conducted by the U. S. Army
The four phases of the design process are: Test and Evaluation Command (USATECOM).
1. Conceptual Design. During this phase the This division of the design process introduces
basic characteristics of the candidate amphibian problems in control and information flow in the
are developed. This design work is done in design. These areas are covered in pars. 4-2 and
support of system studies and used to develop 4-3. However, design could also be obtained
realistic and specific requirements. under the "Total Package Procurement"
2. Preliminary Design. During this phase the concept. In addition, design and other phases in 0 0
characteristics developed in the conceptual a weapon system's life cycle could be a function
design are checked and modified until the of a Department of Defense or Department of
requirements are satisfied. This is done by Army Project Manager, or an AMC Product
designing, selecting, and arranging the major Manager. Project/Product Management of an
components and systems of the amphibian. This equipment at any period during its life cycle
includes the necessary major hardware trade-offs vests one individual with ultimate responsibility
to produce a cost-effective vehicle, for all aspects of the item he manages. The
3. Detail or Final Design. During this phase Project/Product Manager cuts across all
the preliminary design is developed into a set of functional lines engineering, logistics,
final plans from which the amphibian can be programming and procurement-thereby greatly
built. This involves the design, selection, and improving the vertical and horizontal
arrangement of all components and systems in coordination between these activities. The
the amphibian. concept of project/product management is • •
4. Testing and Evaluation. During this phase presented in Refs. 1 through 4.
prototype vehicles are subjected to the tests
necessary to show that the design satisfies the 4-2 CONTROL OF THE DESIGN PROCESS
requirements. Testing and evaluation provide
feedback on the validity of the design In order to produce a successful wheeled
procedures used, and define the defects and amphibian in a reasonable time, the design
problems that must be overcome for the process must be under the direction of a central
amphibian to meet the requirements. Later in authority. The person or persons who act as this
the life cycle, testing is carried out as part of authority must have the technical ability and
product improvement programs. authority to direct and control the design
These four phases of the design process are development. They must also be responsible for
known by a variety of names. In general there is the design satisfying the requirements.
no sharp break between the different design Experience in the design of many different items . S
phases; rather, they tend to overlap. This is has shown that when the responsibility for the
especially true for the conceptual and satisfactory performance of the end product is
preliminary design phases. clearly defined, the chances of success early in
4-1
. S
AMCP 706-350 0
the project are greatly increased. This problem between phases--such as requirements, plans,
and, in particular, the need to establish and calculations--other information is useful.
responsibility through quantitative testable end This includes the assumptions made, the
requirements are covered in detail in Ref. 5. important technical decisions, the reasons for -
As indicated in par. 4-1, the entire design these decisions, and, if appropriate, a brief
process will probably not be carried out by one description of the design philosophy.
group. As a result, those with the ultimate Horizontal information flow becomes more
authority and responsibility must plan for the important as the number of designers working
necessary supervision, schedules, information, on a design increases and is thus most important
and coordination. In particular, time can be during final or detail design. This information is
saved if there is the proper coordination among used to coordinate concurrent work on different
the final design, prototype construction, and parts of the design. The need for coordination
testing. This includes the formulation of test among designers working such components as
teams, approval of regulatory bodies, the the hull, running gear, and drive train is obvious.
development of engineering test programs, and
the correction of problems uncovered in tests. 4-4 ORGANIZATION OF DESIGN
CHAPTERS
4-3 INFORMATION FLOW IN THE 0 0
DESIGN PROCESS The next four chapters of this
handbook-organized by phases of the design
The design of a wheeled amphibian is, by its process-present wheeled amphibian design
nature, an iterative procedure. Assumptions are procedures, techniques, and data. Chapter 5
made, then checked by calculations and layouts, covers conceptual design; Chapter 6 covers
and then modified as necessary. These iterations preliminary design; Chapter 7, detail design; and 0 0
are repeated until a satisfactory design has been Chapter 8, testing and evaluation. Each of these
developed. The actual iteration cycles used are chapters presents the procedures, techniques,
presented in Chapters 5 and 6. and data appropriate to the particular design
Because of its iterative nature, the success of phase. There is some repetition of topics
the design process depends on the timely flow of between chapters since the same topics must be
information. The more the design work is considered in more than one phase of the design. - -
speeded up by concurrent work on different In effect, Chapters 5 through 8 form an

parts of the design, the more critical the interrelated group and should be considered as
problem becomes. The information flow in a such. In order to understand the proper use of
design is both vertical from phase to phase and some of the general design procedures and data
horizontal within a given phase. presented in Chapters 5. and 6, it will be
If different design phases are carried out by necessary to review the basic concepts presented
different groups of designers, vertical in Chapter 7. This is especially the case with 6
information flow becomes important. In respect to waterborne resistance, propulsion,
addition to the usual information transferred and stability.
REFERENCES
1. DOD 3200.9, Initiation of Engineeringand 4. AR 70-17, System/Project Management, 19

OperationalSystems Development, 1 July January 1968.
1965. 5. C. J. Nuttall, Jr., Ground-Crawling: 1966
The State-of-the-Art of Designing Off-Road
2. DOD 5010.14, System/Project Vehicles, Contract Report No. 3-162,
Management, 4 May 1965. Wilson, Nuttall, Raymond Engineers, Inc., 0
3. AMCR 11-16, ProjectManagement. Chestertown, Maryland, May 1967.
4-2
0 0
0 0 00 ~O
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
CHAPTER 5 PARAMETRIC AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN STUDIES

5-1 OBJECTIVE impossible conflicts and lead to a practical 0 0
vehicle if a great deal of time and effort is not to
The basic objective of conceptual design be wasted. The recommended approach to
studies of wheeled amphibians is to define basic achieve this goal is the development of
technical and performance characteristics for use conceptual designs which include all of the
in evaluation studies and for input to following requirements. This procedure will confirm that
design phases. Parametric design studies involve it is feasible to meet the requirements and
the development of a number of conceptual facilitate a realistic estimate of the scope of
designs in which the inputs are varied effort required.
systematically to determine design c. Background or Input Data. System analysis
interrelationships, trade-offs, and optimum studies on military systems may be conducted
characteristics. These studies must be carried out by or for elements of the United States
rapidly and in sufficient detail to identify the Government that make use of wheeled
gross characteristics of the craft, and to establish amphibians. The amphibian designer will be 0
feasibility and technical problems areas, asked to provide technical data on the selection
of wheeled amphibians for use in these systems.
In many cases these systems will be intended for
5-1.1 BASIC PURPOSE a future date and it will be necessary to develop
information on vehicles that can be designed and
A parametric design study or a conceptual produced by that date. To provide the required S S
design may be carried out for a number of data for the system analysis, conceptual designs
reasons, including the following: based on the expected technology must be
a. Trade-off and Optimization Studies. In the developed. It may be expected that large scale
early stages of the design process it is necessary system studies would be used to identify the
to choose an optimum combination of need for new wheeled amphibian designs and
characteristics from the many possible define their performance requirements.
alternatives. Included in these alternatives are d. Technological Projections. The
variables such as dimensions; hull material; and technological projection is intended to
selection of engine, propulsor, and drive train, determine the probable affects of technological
These selections are made from trade-off studies advances on the characteristics of wheeled
which involve the development of conceptual amphibians. A simple example of this might be
designs based on the possible alternatives. The the determination of the effect on the
choice is then made among the possibilities on characteristics of a 5-ton payload amphibian if - 0
the basis of a selection criterion which is often the design were based on the use of a new engine
in the form of a cost-effectiveness ratio. Ref. 1 with advanced characteristics. This type
presents a detailed discussion of the use of question is best answered with a conceptual
conceptual designs in this type of optimization design which makes use of the proposed
study. The information and data developed in technological advance. The technological
such studies form the inputs to the preliminary projection study may provide impetus for the 9
design phase. development of new components or designs
b. Requirement Development. The military based on new components if it indicates large
or performance characteristics for a wheeled gains in effectiveness are possible.
amphibian will be given in a requirement or Depending on the purpose, a large number of
specification such as a QMR (Qualitative conceptual designs may be necessary to develop
Materiel Requirement) or SDR (Small the needed information and the conceptual
Development Requirement). The initial form of design procedure must be such that it can be - •
this type of requirement comprises the input to carried out rapidly with minimum effort. In
the start of the conceptual design phase. In their many cases the conceptual design procedures are
final form these requirements must be free of programmed for a computer.
5-1
-. . S
AMCP 706-350
5-1.2 RELATION TO DESIGN CYCLES and maintenance. The desire for improved
performance is always at odds with simplicity
The parametric studies or conceptual design because these improvements inevitably arise
form the first phase of the design development from increased sophistication and complexity.
process and serve the purposes described in par. The trade-off between simplicity and
5-1.1. In a design which will continue into the performance is quite difficult because simplicity
preliminary and detail phases, the conceptual is generally a qualitative factor. However, every
design phase must provide information on effort should be made to limit complexity to a
expected technical characteristics, performance, minimum consistent with the attainment of
and any basic trade-off studies performed. The desired performance and cost objectives.
conceptual design phase should also identify • 0
critical problem areas which will require 5-1.3.2 Durability
modification during the following design phases.
In this connection it is important to note that Durability is associated with the ability of the
design assumptions made during the conceptual amphibian (and its components) to operate
design should be conservative in nature. It has under adverse conditions over an extended
been shown repeatedly that a design that is period of time and yet remain free from material
marginal in meeting performance objectives at failures, i.e., its life expectancy. Unfortunately,
this early phase will not meet them in the later this attribute usually evolves from additional
phases. material weight.
The most useful quantitative measure of
5-1.3 DESIGN CRITERIA durability is the statistical
mean-time-between-failures (MTBF). The MTBF
Many factors must be considered in the of a component is found by testing statistical •
selection and design of the amphibian samples of the component. The "confidence"
configuration and its systems, subsystems, and level ascribed to the value of MTBF is a function
components. The relative importance of each of the number of sample components which are
factor will depend on the particular tested to failure. The greater the number of
requirements and goals, i.e., criteria, that have samples, the higher the level of confidence.
been prescribed for a given concept. Factors to Experience with similar components can be used 40
be considered include, but are not limited to, to predict the MTBF in lieu of tests, in which
simplicity, durability, vulnerability, weight, case the confidence level depends on the degree
arrangements, safety (human factors), of experience with similar components and their
maintainability, reliability, availability, similarity to the new component.
effectiveness, and cost. These factors are not
independent. For example, ease-of-maintenance, 5-1.3.3 Vulnerability
reliability, and economy are all associated with 0
simplicity. Components which are susceptible to damage
Criteria are most useful in trade-off studies or should be afforded any protection which does
evaluation when the factors can be compared on not unduly compromise normal operation. For
a quantitative basis, i.e., a numeric value may be example, sensitive electronic equipment may be
assigned to the variables. In many cases it is specially mounted to isolate it from vibration
impossible to find a quantitative measure so that damage. Trade-offs must be studied in some 0 0
comparison must be made on a strictly cases, e.g., housing the propeller in a tunnel
qualitative basis. The paragraphs which follow certainly decreases its vulnerability, but the
define the various factors which are used as question arises as to what extent are propulsive
design criteria and indicate where quantitative efficiency and maneuvering characteristics
evaluations may be made. degraded by this arrangement.
5-1.3.1 Simplicity 5-1.3.4 Weight •

Simplicity of design leads to reliability and An amphibian is heavier than either a truck or
economy, and eases the problems of operation boat with comparable payload capacity. The
5-2
0 0 0 0 *0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
wheeled amphibian must carry wheels and propeller so that the shaft must be uncoupled
suspension systems not found on boats; a hull and drawn from the stuffing box to make the
and waterborne propulsion system are not propeller change. Any item under consideration
necessary on trucks. As a result, weight is a for future amphibian designs should be rated
critical factor in the selection of every according to its ease-of-maintenance and its
component. Of course, quantitative comparisons contribution to the total amphibian
are easily made with respect to weight. maintenance requirement.
A quantitative measure of maintainability is
5-1.3.5 Arrangements the mean-time-to-repair (MTTR), another
statistical concept. . . ....
The multiplicity of systems on an amphibian
require that careful consideration be given to 5-1.3.8 Reliability
arrangement of components and systems.
Qualitative considerations include: placement Reliability is the probability that an item will
of components with easy access for successfully perform its intended function for a
maintenance; location of operator's station to specified time interval (mission time) under
afford a good field of view; location of cargo stated conditions. Logistic amphibians are
deck (and ramp) for easy loading; and keeping normally required to operate for two 10-hr 0 0
all parts of the electrical system out of the bilges mission periods, each 24-hr day, without a
where they would be subjected to corrosive salt failure that will interrupt the mission.
water environment. Reliability is a function of durability and
Quantitative considerations are the amphibian mission length. The reliability R of an item with
stability and trim which are functions of the an exponential distribL tion of failures is given
weight and center of gravity of all the by:
components taken collectively. Strict limitations
are always set on the stability of an amphibian. R = et/m (5-1)
5-1.3.6 Safety (Human Factors) where
There are many aspects of the amphibian t = mission time, hr ...... .....
design which must take into consideration the m = MTBF, hr 9 0
safety and comfort of the operators and support
personnel. The main hazards are capsizing in surf Thus, the reliability of an amphibian having
and the physiological effects of intensive 150-hr MTBF and 10-hr mission time is:
accelerations, vibrations, and noise. For
example, the vibration criteria for Army land R= e-10/15 0 = 0.936 or 94%
vehicles is that the allowable energy level 0
absorbed by personnel be limited to 6 watts. Conversely, the expected number of failures is
Other human factors are discussed in Refs. 2 and six per one hundred missions.
3. The reliability of an amphibian is a complex
function of the reliability of each component
5-1.3.7 Maintainability •nd system. Refs. 4 and 5 give detailed
Eliscussion of multi-component reliability.
The environment in which the amphibian Eq. 5-1 is based on the simplifying •
operates decreases t6e life expectancy of ;Lssumption that the failure rate has an
components and increases maintenance, and exponential distribution so that the probability
replacement '. of parts. Surf operations, in bf failure in a time interval of duration At is
particular, with frequept groundings on beaches unique, i.e., dependent on the length of the
and coral reefs give rise to short life expectancies interval only; independent of the starting time
for unprotected propellers. The replacement of a of the interval. This is a poor assu, iption for 0 0
screw on an amphibian is ordinarily 4uite many items that show signs of wearing out as
routine. However, the LARC XV was designed revealed by sharp increases in the probability of
with the bearing and support struts aft of the failure with increasing time. For example,
5-3
.. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0' 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 - -
rubber tires have a much greater probability of 5-1.3.10 Effectiveness

blow-out after the tread has worn down to the
cords. Periodic replacement of such items is The effectiveness of a logistic amphibian is
necessary to maintain the desired level of ass, .-iated with its productihity. The
reliability, effectiveness is measured in terms of transported 0 0
cargo in ton-miles. This is the product of
5-1.3.9 Availability payload, speed, and time in operation. The
speed should be the average speed for a
Availability (operational) is the probability complete cycle including time for loading and
that a system or item when used under stated unloading. Effectiveness may also include the
conditions and in an actual supply environment corrections for reliability and availability.
shall operate satisfactorily at any given time.
Availability (operational) A,, is a function of 5-1.3.11 Economy
durability, maintainability, and the procurement
time of unavailable parts: Cost is probably the most important criterion
in the design of an amphibian and also the most
A - m (5-2) difficult to assess. For any given item or system
m + md having comparable capabilities, the economic
analysis consists of the comparative costs of
where development, production, operation, and
m = MTBF, hr maintenance amortized over the life of the
md = mean downtime (MDT) including vehicle. If the capabilities of the system are not
supply downtime, administrative comparable, it may be difficult if not impossible
downtime, and mean-time-to-repair; to fix a basis for economic comparison. If one 41
but preventive maintenance downtime system does not meet the required functional
is zero; hr criteria, it is totally unacceptable regardless of
how economical it might be; this would be a
MDT is given by: false economy. Amphibians with different
capabilities can be compared on the basis of a
m k~
= + (1 - A,,)m]I, hr (5-3) cost-effectiveness ratio, the cost divided by the
Ld effectiveness in dollars per ton-mile of payload - 0
where transported.
k = ratio of normal operating hours to 5-2 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PROCEDURES
total hours, nd
m, = MTTR, hr Before starting on any phase of the design
Ap = average parts availability, nd process the designer must have a clear 0
1-A = average parts unavailability, nd underst the input i ato the
m, = mean procurement time for repair understanding of the input information, the
parts, hr required output, and the procedures or steps
which lead from the input to the output. All
For example, the availability of an amphibian phases of the design of a wheeled amphibian are
having 150-hr MTBF required to operate 20 hr similar in that the procedure involves an itera live
each 24-hr day; and assuming MTTR = 3 hr. A series of calculations, drawings, and decisions 0 0
0 which should result in a satisfactory solution. -
= 0.85, and m, = 20 days or 480 hr: T'he design phases are distinguished from one
another by the degree of detail involved in the
150 design calculations, drawings, and decisions. The
150+ 20 [3 0.71 or 71% conceptual phase is the most general.
10 24
5-2.1 TYPICAL DESIGN INPUTS AND OUTPUTS 0
In this example, the main factor limiting the The inputs to the conceptual design phase can
availability is the supply delay time, k(1-A, )m. be considered as functional inputs, goals, and
5-4
* _ 0
0 0 0 0 0.. 0 0 0 0 0 0 "
AMCP 706-350
constraints. These should be given in the form of of all the components must be equal to or less
military or performance requirements such as a than the available volume in the hull, (3) the
preliminary QMR or SDR. The functional inputs center of gravity and buoyancy must lie on the
specifically define the productive requirements same vertical line, and (4) the waterborne and
of a wheeled amphibian. Basically this involves a side slope stability must be satisfactory.
definition of payload, speed, and range. The basic steps in the conceptual design
Information should be provided on the weight; process and the iteration loops are shown in the
volume; deck area; center of gravity and flow chart presented in Fig. 5-1. With the input
character of the payload; and the performance data available, the first step will be to estimate
requirement in terms of waterborne and land the length, breadth, and depth of the hull and
speed, slope and grade climbing ability, soft-soil select the hull form type. These first estimates
mobility, surfing ability, and range or are based on experience with past designs with
endurance. similar payloads. The second step will be to
The design goals in the conceptual phase are estimate the gross vehicle weight and center of
general statements of desired characteristics gravity location. These estimates may be based
which are to be considered in designing to meet on the payload-gross weight ratios of previous
the functional inputs. These goals, for example, wheeled amphibians. These initial steps serve to
involve the objective of obtaining the vehicle of establish an initial condition from which the
minimum size, weight, and cost; and maximum design iteration can proceed.
reliability and maintainability that will satisfy The first step in the iteration cycle is the
the functional requirements. selection of the running gear arrangement and
The design constraints are limitations which components, based on the estimate of
have, for some reason, been placed on the dimensions, weight, and centers. This selection
technical characteristics of the design. These, includes the number of wheels, their location, 0 0
might include such things as limitations on the wheelbase, and tire size. The mobility
beam, weight, clearances, engine, and materials. requirements in the functional inputs will
These constraints are almost always imposed provide the criteria for the land gear
because of considerations of transportability, arrangement. The next step in the cycle will be
mobility, or compatibility with other to estimate the power required to meet the
equipment. It must be realized that when performance inputs. In general, the power
constraints of this nature are imposed on the required to meet the waterborne speed will
design, it may not be possible to meet all of the govern. In some cases a particular engine will be
functional requirements. Thus, one of the specified so that an estimate of the expected
important results of the conceptual design phase performance will be required.
is the identification of the conflicts between the With the information available at this stage, a
design constraints and the functional calculation of the gross vehicle weight and
requirements. center of gravity can be made. This calculation S •
The outputs of the conceptual design of a must be checked against the gross vehicle weight
wheeled amphibian include a summary of the and center of gravity assumed in the selection of
expected design characteristics and performance, land gear and power required. If the two do not
simple arrangement sketches, and all supporting agree within a few percent, the design loop must
data and calculations. be repeated until agreement is reached.
After the completion of the inner iteration
5-2.2 BASIC DESIGN ITERATION CYCLE loop, a calculation of the waterborne stability
and trim can follow. This calculation is of great
The basic design iteration cycle involves the importance since the stability and trim criteria
systematic variation of the design characteristics must be satisfied. In general, the stability and
until the functional requirements and trim calculated initially will not agree with the
constraints are satisfied. The variation of the criteria. As a result, some modifications in the
design characteristics in the iteration is based on dimensions and arrangements will be necessary.
the following fundamental conditions which At this point the volume and area required by all
must exist for a wheeled amphibian: (1) weight components should be checked against the
must equal buoyancy, (2) the volume and area available volume and area in the hull. A simple
5-5
• • • • • • • • • • • S
0 S 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0
f INPUT: REQUIREMENTS AND CONSTRAINTS
SELECTION OF ASSUMED INITIAL .

DIMENSIONS AND CONDITIONS j •
INITIAL WEIGHT AND

CENTER OF GRAVITY
ESTIMATE
MOBILITY CALCULATION
WHEEL ARRANGEMENT
TIRE SELECTION
POWER REQUIRED CALCULATIONS

OR SPEED AND
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
WEIGHT AND 0 0
CENTER OF GRAVITY
CALCULATION
• [AE•G CHECK '"

WIHT AND CENTER .NO0 NEW WEIGHT AND"
ALCULATIONS CENTER OF GRAVITY .
AAINST ESTIMATE,,, ESTIMATE
YES
Y
WATERBORNE STABILITY AND

TRIM CALCULATION
DIMENSION REVISION AND

ARRANGEMENT LAYOUT
SCHECK NO
REUTS AGAINST GOALS • N
ADREQUIREMENTS
SYES
F DESIGN SUMMARY 0 0
Figure 5-1. ConceptualDesign Flow Chart for Wheeled Amphibians

5-6
• . _1 _ _
St_ ... •...• * _O..*• .9_ .. . .• ••. • • • • •

AMCP 706-350
arrangement sketch can be made for this Fiberglas structure in sufficient detail to
purpose. If it is necessary to revise the calculate a realistic weight. However, it should
dimensions or arrangements, the iteration must not be necessary to develop special data on
be repeated from the beginning point. Of course items such as engines, drive trains, and running
with each time through the cycle, the gear.
information from preceding cycles is available to
aid in making the required calculations, 5".1 DESIGN INTERRELATIONSHIPS
selections, and decisions. In this way, the
process is made to converge to a design which Before undertaking a conceptual design, the
satisfies the functional inputs, goals, and designer must have a thorough understanding of
constraints. When this point is reached, a design the basic interactions between the performance - .
summary is prepared. and design characteristics. This knowledge is
The remaining paragraphs of this chapter required for making the selections and
present some of the data and calculation compromises to produce a rapid convergence of
procedures needed to carry out the steps in the the iterative parts of the design cycle. A
conceptual design procedure discussed, summary of these interactions is presented in
Ref. 6 for high water speed, planing hull
5-3 SIZE AND ARRANGEMENTS amphibians. These interactions have been
modified to apply to conventional wheeled
In general, the data and calculation amphibians and are presented in Figs. 5-2
procedures used in the conceptual design through 5-7.
procedure are developed from experience with Fig. 5-2 presents the interactions between
past successful designs in order to develop the design characteristics and performance in terms
conceptual design output in the shortest time of primary or secondary influence of a given S 0
with a minimum of manpower. For example, design characteristic on the indicated
during preparation of the conceptual design, hull performance characteristic. Fig. 5-3 presents a
structural plans will normally not be developed more specific indication of the interrelation of
to the state that a weight estimate can be hull design characteristics and performance. This
prepared by direct calculation. Instead, the hull figure is arranged to indicate the effects of a
weight estimate will be made from known change in a hull design feature on a given
relationships among size, shape, and weight performance characteristic. Of course, various
variations developed from data on past designs. hull design features are not independent of one
As a result, conceptual design data must be another. Fig. 5-4 presents the interrelationships
updated each time information on a new design among hull design features in terms of primary
becomes available. Further, as the or secondary influences.
state-of-the-art with respect to vehicle The running gear will affect both land and
components advances, the conceptual design waterborne performance. Fig. 5-5 shows the 0 9
data must be updated. This applies to such items effect of an increase or change in running gear
as engines, transmission systems, running gear, characteristics on performance. Fig. 5-6 presents
and controls. the interrelationships among running gear
The designer must be careful that the use of features in terms of primary or secondary
data from past vehicles, in the designing of new influences. The final figure dealing with design
vehicles, does not inhibit his use of new interrelations is Fig. 5-7 which indicates the S
concepts and developments. In order to take primary and secondary influences of mechanical
advantage of such advances, it may be necessary features.
to carry out some steps of the conceptual design
in much greater detail than normally required. 5-3.2 AREA, VOLUME, AND ARRANGEMENT
For example, when studying ;the effect of RELATIONSHIPS
Fiberglas. hull construction on vehicle
characteristics, data on the weights of existing During conduct of the conceptual design it is
steel and aluminum hulls would not be of much necessary to determine the area and volume
use. It would be necessary to lay out a typical required for the major components and to
5-7
_~ ~ - 0 5 0 0 ~
AMCP 706-350 0 0
WATER FEATURES LAND FEATURES CARGO

FEATURES
INDEPENDENT LUJ 0 a cc.

Z . . .
o_ , z D
z0
0C 0
-J L
>e _J 0
LI 2 z2 C2
WATER PERFORMANCE I I I I 1 2 2 1 2
SURF & BEACHING PERFORMANCE I 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 2
OFF-ROAD PERFORMANCE I 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 21
ON-ROAD PERFORMANCE 2 1 2 12 2 2
TRANSPORTABILITY1 12
1 - PRIMARY INFLUENCE
2 - SECONDARY INFLUENCE
Figure 5-2. Design Characteristicand PerformanceInteraction
arrange these in a logical fashion. These major available from manufacturers' data. Typically
components are the payload, machinery, the power per cubic foot of block volume (block •
running gear, crew, and marine propulsor, volume defined as overall length X overall width
The payload or cargo that a wheeled X overall height) of currentoo production Diesel. • •
amphibian can carry is determined by its weight, engines range from 4 to 8 BHP per cubic foot
vertical center of gravity, and the required deck and 8 to 10 BHP per cubic foot for current
area. In many cases both the cargo weight and production gas turbine engines. The power per
its area will be given as input to the conceptual square foot of planform area (planform area
design. In the event that only the weight of defined as overall length X overall width) of •
cargo is given, Fig. 5-8 can be used Ito estimate 0
o ~ Z
current production Diesel engines ranges from
the area required. This figure presents the design 14 to 20 BHP per square foot and 30 to 50 BHP
weight of payload per square foot of cargo deck per square foot for current production gas
area for the production wheeled amphibians. turbines.
Data are also given on the unit weight of actual During the conceptual design it is necessary to
cargo carried by the LARC V and LARC LX in estimate the area and volume of the machinery •
Southeast Asia in late 1967 and early 1968. In space. This requires data such as that in Table 5-1
general, the cargoes have been lighter than the which presents the ratios of block machinery
vehicles were designed to carry, i.e., load volume and planform area, and the machinery
limitations are deck area rather than weight. compartment volumes and areas for several
Data are also presented in Fig. 5-8 on the wheeled amphibians. Data are also presented in
loadings of CONEX and A.S.A. standard 8 X 8 Table 5-1 on the area and volume of the radiator
X 20 ft commercial containers. compartments for the wheeled amphibians with
In general, the block volume and planform liquid-cooled engines.
area of typical machinery items such as engines, In a wheeled amphibian the crew is stationed
transmissions, and transfer cases are readily in a cab which provides protection from the
5-8
AMCP 706-350
All-1IOYIiJOcSNY111
3:DNVWSOASd ciVOI + + +
A1I1IflY1S IYNinlafhONol
A1I9Y8IS NdO1S MIS +
00 30I
31ONV 3sfliSVd~a
31ONY HD)VOlIddV+
3DNVSV31:) ONnfos
AfllI9OW lboS JJOS - ~ - ~0 0

LU
u ONIHD)V3 GNY AiniSv jiflS + + ++ + +
LU Al-all +
SS3NI1INDIb V3S +
LU
DNVISIS3S
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U..
z u
o z
7, < 0
t/ 3 1.- 1fl LU
> LU -
4 U-
LU LLU <
LU>
LU w LU
I> - < '0
tA 0
+ LU ~I ~LU
0~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u 0
AMCP 706-350
-- z0
INDEPENDENT Z
"-JV u~L L Ui
LU a- (0 0
CL. < x
APPROAH &DPARTUEANGLENTI
BEM U>I <2 2 0 ! Z] I-
co 2
DEPENDENT *2 2 0I CL
~ 0 z
LENGTH 2 2 2 1 2
BEAM 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2
APPROACH & DEPARTURE ANGLE I 1 2
GROSS VEHICLE WEIGHT 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2
LCG 2 N1
BOWSHAPE 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
STERN SHAPE 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
FREE BOARD 2 2 2 2 \ 2 2
VCG 2122 222 2 1
RUNNING GEAR 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2
WATERBORNE STABILITY I 1 1 2 2 1 2
RAMP 2 2 2 1 1 2
• AS AFFECTED BY HULL DESIGN ONLY
1 - PRIMARY INFLUENCE
2 - SECONDARY INFLUENCE
Figure 5-4. Interrelationof Hull Features
elements when in the water, in surf, and on land. The arrangement of the major items in the
Table 5-2 presents the planform area and volume hull is governed by considerations of center of
of the cabs on several amphibians as a function gravity location, access, maintenance, and
of the number of seats in the cab. It should be visibility. The longitudinal location of the center
noted that the LARC XV has different forward of gravity of the loaded amphibian should be
directions on land and water and, as a result, the such that it floats with no trim or a little trim by
cab is arranged for the driver to face in either the stern. The running gear should be located so
direction, as required. that the loading on the wheels is equal. The S S
Information on the area, volume, and vertical center of gravity should be as low as
arrangement of the running gear and marine possible consistent with other requirements such
propulsor is given in pars. 5-5.3 and 5-5.4. as freeboard.
5-10
AMCP 706-350 0 0
LAND PERFORMANCE WATER

PERFORMANCE
INDEPENDENT - - - - - -- - - -
z z
0 Z z
.00 0
-I 40
DEPENDENT 0 z +D- 0
00
+ =BETTER
BETE < s0 4 u su s -
TTR
NUMBER OF TIRES (SINGLES) + - + + + + + + + +
MDEENE DIAMETER + + + + + + +
SECTION WIDTH + + +
SUSPENSION DEPTH + + - -- -
TIRET
ACKERMANN + +
STEERING
MOE ARTICULATED FRAME + +
WHEEL DIRECT +
DIE FRICTION + +
GROSS VEHICLE WEIGHT * .
"AS AFFECTED BY RUNNING GEAR DESIGN
Figure 5-5. Running Gear Changes vs Performance
INDEPENDENT z z
OD EINDEPENDENT 0
Sz
DEN E D D DEP ENDE
DENT_ 0 Z Z
\-
I2 \ I
Z GROSSVEHICLE
WEIGHT I I 2 Z Z I Z
NUMBER
OF TIRES I \• I 1 2 2 2 1 Ul SIZE Z 0 0
TIREDIAMETER T I \ ý T 2 1 2 1 HULL
FO RuM2
TIRESECTIONWIDTH I I I N 2 1 GEAR
RUNNING SIZE 1 1 2 1 2 1
1 1 2 CONFTGURATION
GEAR
RUNNING 2 2 1 1 "
WHEELDRIVEARRANGEMENT 2 1 2
E
MALRIN
SYSTEM, I 1 I 2
SERN MO 2E2 1POWER
PO E SYSTEM,
LAND I2 2 2
SION DEPTH 2 1 T P E N NN
SUSPEN
GUL 22 2 2 22LANDSTE ERUINECONEFIGURATION
UAS BYRUNNING GEARDESIGN

AFFECTED -PRI2Y INF2U2NCE
y INFLUENCE
2 - S CONDAR
I - PRIMARY
2 - SECONDARY
Figure 5-6. Running Gear Features Figure 5-7. Interrelationof Mechanical Features
5-11
, - - - - -l - OERYTE.l ARINE
. ... 2
AMCP 706-3500 -0
u- uJ 0 0 0
oj w U 0
zz
0- 0~ 0~
cc Lln Lf
>x C)
0 C)00
I- 0
0 -x
Zoo
0 Z)
0 0< C0 0
U LU 1
0- DC CO0C -
I -- .0 ___ 0 0 0
.i ._ ........
AMCP 706-350 - •
TABLE 5-1 ENGINE COMPARTMENT VOLUMES AND AREAS
Max A_ V A 0 _V.-
Vehicle Engine Type BHP Cooling en BHP BHP

coBPn Comp ft2 /BHP ft3 /BHP
LARC V Diesel 300 Liquid 0.33 0.264 0.058 0.172
LARC XV Twin Diesel 600 Liquid 0.308 0.204 0.060 0.248 0 0
LARC LX Four Diesels 660 Liquid 0.224 0.128 0.127 0.508
LVH-X2 Gas Turbine 1100 Air 0.47 0.260 - -
2
A eng = planform area of machinery in compartment, ft
2
A -=planform area of compartment, ft
3
Veng = block volume of machinery in compartment, ft
V = volume of compartment, ft 3 0 0
camp
2
Ac,, = planform area of radiator and ducting, ft
V -= volume of radiator and ducting, ft 3
TABLE 5-2 CREW CAB DATA FOR WHEELED maintenance. This implies that hatches should
AMPHIBIANS be located over major components such as
engines and transmissions. In general, locating
Cab Area, Cab Vol, the cab over major components will reduce
Seats Seat Seat access to such components and complicate the
Vehicle in Cab running of control systems. The cab should be
ft 2 ft 3 located so that the driver's visibility is not
obstructed by the cargo or the amphibian
structure. The number of components located
LARC V 3 11.3 62.7 under hatches on which cargo will be loaded
should be minimized. Such hatches are often
LARC XV 4 14.9 70.8 damaged and leak.
LARC LX 1 28.0 140.0 5-3.3 DIMENSION AND COEFFICIENT RE-

LATIONSHIPS
LVH-X2 2 16.8 95.0
The hull dimensions are a function
of the
volume, area, and arrangement requirements of
The usefulness of an amphibian is strongly the major components, as covered in par. 5-3.2, 0 0
affected by the ease with which it can be as well as the required buoyancy, stability, and
maintained and repaired. Good maintainability trim. Any one of these items could have the
is assured by providing sufficient access and effect of fixing a minimum value for one of the
working space around those items which require principal hull dimensions which include the
5-13
* 00 0 0 0 0 411 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
overall length, the waterline length, the overall the required freeboard as well as mean draft.
breadth, the waterline breadth, the hull depth at The freeboard requirements are a function of
various locations, and the draft to the hull the range of stability and reserve buoyancy
bottom at various locations, criteria which are presented in par. 7-1.6.2. At
this stage in the conceptual design there will be 0 ]
5-3.3.1 Buoyancy insufficient information to calculate the range of
stability and reserve buoyancy to check an
When an amphibian is floating in the static assumed freeboard. Accordingly, it is necessary
equilibrium, Archimedes' Law requires that its to base an estimate of the freeboard on data
weight be equal to the weight of the displaced from past designs, as given in Table 5-4.
fluid, i.e., buoyancy. The weight of the It should be noted that the distribution of
displaced fluid is directly proportional to the freeboard is a function of the arrangement of
volume of the amphibian below the free surface, the cargo deck. Two arrangements of cargo
which, in turn is related to the dimensions. decks have been used for wheeled amphibians,
During the conceptual design phase, the viz., the "wet deck" and the cargo compartment
dimensions needed to obtain the required arrangements. In the wet deck type, the cargo is
buoyancy are estimated without preparing carried on a watertight deck located above the
detailed drawings of the hull. load water line. Water on deck from surf or 0
In general, the buoyancy for different types waves will run overboard without entering the
of amphibian hulls can be estimated by using the bilges. The LARC V and LARC XV have this
"block coefficient" which is representative of type of arrangement.
the particular hull type. The block coefficient In the cargo compartment arrangement, the
CB is defined by: cargo is carried on a deck below the waterline
and is protected by high freeboard and
GVW coamings. Water which enters the cargo
CB = LBH.pg' compartment from surf and waves flows into the
bilge and must be pumped out. The LARC LX
where and the DUKW are arranged in this manner.
GVW = gross vehicle weight, lb The wet deck arrangement has the advantage
pg = density of fluid, lb/ft
3 of being much safer in surf or high seas, and . . .
L = overall or waterline length, ft unloading can take place without the necessity 0
B = overall or waterline breadth, ft for lifting the cargo over the high sides and
Hm = mean draft, ft coamings. This arrangement has the disadvantage
of placing the center of gravity of the cargo
relatively high, which requires an increase in hull
The value of the block coefficient used must dimensions for stability. Conversely, the cargo
be consistent with the choice of overall or compartment arrangement provides for a . 0
waterline dimensions. In general, it is preferable reduced height of the cargo center of gravity,
to use the waterline dimensions if available since thus reducing the hull dimensions. It has the
this avoids problems with adjustments for disadvantage of the possibility of swamping in
overhangs and bumpers. Table 5-3 contains high surf or waves and relatively greater
information on the dimensions and block difficulty in unloading.
coefficients of existing wheeled amphibians. From Table 5-4 it may be noted that the
These data can be used for estimates of freeboard forward is greater than the freeboard
reasonable block coefficients for new designs. It aft. This is the result of trim and not due to
should be noted that the block coefficient of the greater hull depth forward. In general, when
DUKW is lower than the LARC's despite its estimating the freeboard forward and aft for the
scow-type hull form. This is the result of the purpose of establishing the hull depth, it is
proportionately larger wheel wells and tunnels proper to use the mean of the bow and stern
required by the 6 X 6 arrangement of the freeboard ratios. It is desirable for the forward - •
running gear and the sprung suspension. and aft freeboard to be about the same, with the
In order to estimate the hull depth at forward freeboard slightly greater, so that large
different locations, it is necessary to determine trim angles do not develop at large heel angles.
5.14
• ° " • • 7- 0
0 0 0~0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
• 1
AMCP 706-350-
3 .4t-
I I l r
CL
33H 0
32 0
33.0 I w' I
2)~r 0t
0
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I- 33 C
33 32 3 '
0 , ,-3 3. (I3 > >>a
ca
33.32
3 '**I-I L
33'0;
o.x -3 x3
z 5_15
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 5-4 FREEBOARD RATIOS, WHEELED AMPHIBIANS

(Full Load Condition)
Vehicle Freeboard Midships FreeboardForward FreeboardAft 0 0

Mean Hull Draft Freeboard Midships Freeboard Midships
LARC V 0.39 3.42 2.58
LARC XV 0.46 3.73 2.66
LARC LX 0.935 1.05 0.95
To Deck To Coaming
DUKW 0.61 1.00 1.21 0.79
5-3.3.2 Waterbome Stability-Intact For wheeled amphibians a good estimate of KB

is given by:
For a wheeled amphibian to operate safely in
the water, its geometry and arrangement must
be such that, when heeled, the couple produced KB = 0.50 Hm, ft (5-6)
by the buoyant force acting up and the weight • S
acting down will tend to right the amphibian. where
The criteria for acceptable values of this here
restoring moment under different conditions, H = mean draft of hull, ft
and procedures for calculating the moment, are The BM is calculated from the equation
covered in detail in pars. 7-1.6.2 and 7-1.6.3.
During the conceptual design study, the time I ,....... ..
and information may not be available to BM=V-,ft (5-7)
perform detailed calculations and check all of
the stability criteria. Therefore, the most
important criteria must be selected and where
calculation procedures developed to check these waterse moen of inertia e
criteria. The criterion usually considered is the waterplane area about its centerline,
initial stability expressed in terms of the GM or ft 4 v o
metacentric height. The concept of GM is v = displaced volume of the amphibian,
covered in all textbooks on naval architecture ft 3
and in pars. 7-1.6.2 and 7-1.6.3. The GM value is
determined from the relation: Since the exact shape of the waterplane will not
be known during the conceptual design, I may
be estimated from •
(5-5)
GM = KB + BM - KG
where I =-C, TB 3 L, ft 4 (5-8)

KB = vertical distance from the hull bottom
to the center of buoyancy, ft
BM = vertical distance from the center of where
buoyancy to the metacenter, ft CIT = transverse inertia coefficient, nd 0 •
KG = vertical distance from the hull bottom B = overall or waterline beam, ft
to the center of gravity, ft L = overall or waterline length, ft
5-16
AMCP 706-350 --
0 0
Table 5-3 presents values of the transverse center of area of the waterplane. The draft H at
inertia coefficient CIT for several wheeled any point can be calculated from
amphibians based on both the waterline and T
overall dimensions. In Table 5-3 it should be H =Hm + d ft (5-10)
noted that the value of CT is largest for the 12 LWL
DUKW. This is due to the aft wheel well being where

completely under the free surface at the full Hm = mean draft, ft
load condition. T = trim, in.
The vertical height KG of the center of d = distance from LCF to point that the
gravity is obtained from the weight and center draft is calculated, ft
estimate. From this value of KG and the LWL= load waterline length, ft - -
calculations in Eqs. 5-6, 5-7, and 5-8 the intact Note: If the point in question is forward of
waterborne stability can be determined from Eq. the LCF, d is (-) and if the point is aft of
5-5. the LCF, d is (+).
5-3.3.3 Trim Procedures for estimating the value of MT1 are

presented in par. 7-1.6.4.
Trim is defined as the difference in the drafts
measured forward and aft. To float in static 5-4 WEIGHTS AND CENTERS
equilibrium, the center of buoyancy must be on
the same vertical line as the center of gravity. In The key step in the conceptual design process
general, any nonsymmetrical weights can be is the estimate of the vehicle weight and location
balanced so that the center of gravity is on the of center of gravity. A realistic estimate of these
longitudinal centerline. Equilibrium is thus items is of great importance because of their 0
satisfied if the longitudinal center of buoyancy controlling effect on concept feasibility and the
and gravity, measured from the same reference estimated performance of the amphibian. An
point, are equal. During the conceptual design unrealistic weight and center estimate will
studies, values of trim will be calculated for greatly increase the work required during the
various loading conditions. preliminary and detail design phases.
The trim T can be calculated from the 0 0
following approximate equation: 54.1 WEIGHT EQUATION AND WEIGHT GROUPS
T = A(LCB - LCG) , in. (5-9) It has been found from long experience in
MT1 ship and boat design that the best way to make
where realistic weight and center estimates is to
A = gross vehicle weight (GVW), lb establish a weight equation that relates the sum
LCG = distance of center of gravity forward of a number of weight groups to the gross . . .
of the transom, ft
LCB = distance of the center of buoyancy at TABLE 5-5 LOCATION OF ZERO TRIM LCB AND
zero trim forward to transom, ft LCF FOR WHEELED AMPHIBIANS
MT1 = moment to alter trim one inch,
ft-lb/in. Vehicle LCB/LWL LCF/LWL
A positive trim calculated from Eq. 5-9 is 0
defined as trim by the stern, i.e., draft aft is LARC V 0.495 0.485
greater than draft forward.
An estimate of the value of LCB can be
obtained from the data on existing wheeled LARC LX 0.490 0.498
amphibians given in Table 5-5. 1
It should be noted that the amphibian NOTE: LCB and LCF are measured from the aft . •
actually trims about the longitudinal center of end of the load waterline.
flotation LCF, the longitudinal location of the
5-17
0 0
AMCP 706-350
vehicle weight. Such a weight equation for TABLE 5-6 WHEELED AMPHIBIAN WEIGHT
wheeled amphibians is given by GROUPS
Gross Vehicle Weight = G VW = WA + WB Major Group Descripiion

(5-11) •
+ WC + WD + WE + WF + WM + WL A Hull Structure
B Machinery
where the subscripts refer to the major weight C Drive Train
groups thaL, combined, equal the gross vehicle D Marine Propulsor
weight. A description of these weight groups is
given in Table 5-6. E Running Gear and Suspension 0 S
A detailed breakdown of the items included F Miscellaneous Systems
in each of the eight major groups listed in Table M Margin
5-6 is given in par. 6-6.1.
L Loads, including fuel, crew,
and payload
a
5-4.2 WEIGHT DATA
In order for the weight equation, Eq. 5-11, to 54.2.2 Group B-Machinery
be useful in the conceptual design, methods
must be developed to estimate the total weight The weight of engines varies with the type,
of each major weight group. This has been power, date of development, and intended use.
accomplished by taking "as built" weight data Weight data on a number of engines that could - - -
from existing wheeled amphibians, and be used in a wheeled amphibian are presented in
separating the data into the major weight Fig. 5-10. In addition to the engine proper,
groups. These data were then related to vehicle other items included in Group B are listed in
characteristics and parameters which are known par. 6-6.1. For wheeled amphibians these items
during the conceptual design stage. The resulting amount to between 1.5 and 3.0 lb/BHP for
data are described in the paragraphs which liquid-cooled internal combustion engines, and
follow. between 0.5 and 1.0 lb/BHP for air-cooled
internal combustion and gas turbine engines.
54.2.1 Group A-Hull Structure
54.2.3 Group C-Drive Train
The hull weight was found to be most closely
related to the parameter The weight of the drive trains of several
wheeled amphibians is presented in Fig. 5-11 as
Hull Size Parameter LOA(BOA +D.,,)(5-12) a function of brake horsepower. With the
100 exception of one point, these data all apply to
mechanical drive trains. The exception, which is
where marked, applies to the estimated weight of a
LOA = length overall, ft hydraulic drive train proposed for the Mobile
BOA = breadth overall, ft Floating Assault Bridge-Ferry in 1961.
Da g = average depth, ft
54.2.4 Group D-Marine Propulsor
The average depth is defined as the projected
vertical profile area of the hull and cab divided The weight of the items in weight Group D
by the overall length. The weights of Group A totals between 2.0 lb/BHP (around 300 BHP) to
for several wheeled amphibians are plotted about 1.5 lb/BHP (around 600 BHP) for existing
against this parameter in Fig. 5-9. It should be amphibians. These weights apply to systems 0 0
noted that the LARC LX is steel while the rest using propellers in tunnels with Kort nozzles.
of the amphibians included in Fig. 5-9 are Values in this weight group will depend greatly
aluminum. on the propeller diameter, rpm, length of
5-18
S0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 .... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4.,,
AMCP 706-350 O
shafting, and type of propulsor. The use of a 5-4.2.5 Group E-Running Gear and Suspension
right angle drive system on a conventional System
wheeled amphibian would increase the weight of
Group D to about 3.0 lb/BHP. The use of The weights of the running gear and
waterjets would result in a Group D weight of suspension systems of several wheeled 0
?' :ut 3.5 lb/BHP, including the weight of water amphibians are presented in Fig. 5-12 as a
;n the pump and ducting. Of course, the weights function of gross vehicle weight. The LARC
of the right angle drive and waterjet propulsor series of amphibians does not have sprung
will also depend greatly on the detail suspensions but depends instead on the
characteristics of the system. flexibility of the tires for spring action. The
100,000 - -
80,000 - -•_ _ _ _
6C, 000T
40,000 ------ ___
20,000
LU
10,000
' 8000 -
0 0 LARCV
M 6000 -_ LARC XV
(W L_ LARC LX
uJ LVW
4000 --- 0
V LVH-X2 0 0
LOA = OVERALL LENGTH
BOA = OVERALL BREADTH

2000 L)
D =AVERAGE HULL DEPTH
avg
1000
1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100
LOA(BOA+D ) 0 0
g
HULL SIZE PARAMETER,
Figure 5-9. Weight Group A-Hull Structure

5-19
• •• • •• • • • • • • • • • 0
AMCP 706-350
16
* 0
14.
0 NONTURBOCHARGED INTERNAL COMBUSTION

El TURBOCHARGED INTERNAL COMBUSTION
12 o- A GAS TURBINE
SDEVELOPMENTAL INTERNAL COMBUSTION (1968)
- 10 *
-o
0m
I-OQ 0 I__O
8o 0
000t [] S S
0
O:
0- 6 E0 l_[ _ _ 0 _ _ _
00
S~0 0 o
0 0 0E0
0 *
Figure 5-10. Specific Engine Weights for Multi-fuel or Diesel Engines

* S
5-20 0 2 00 040 600 80 100 10 0 100 0
. .. -
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 S0 -W
0 -0 p,.ACP
0 0 0
00
00
U-3O
to axr
boo tioo
adsu nse~jS cat'e

5 . et" ateG~
-1
10 u M ta il'
.lc'a~e 5 A .
atlo10 et2t.k7 - epe Mal
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. ht~ Pa 144 tedp o aly ar
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a bXs datav eq~ipxan ts

~sIW
Ihe~~~ ~ wih
wet ? 501
ahalY.cI
'360
Q00
z 0
z0
600 0
00 0 0
Ik 20o
ht,~~~ tj7LOCARoN nl
LeX
es
VVan
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le be
t s anit ad Cal
i -l be bfte
g ne Ve,4P a gona
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JTae
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best ch-n of beun
ea estimer tn ' tehil tn Mak conceptuaan Gr
up
oTi-ad
fao e e ty~inr~ th.t 5 oftia
dei
a m~ o h~b 1 ee t ajr
ri~ neIre seriC de ltu,iti
arv atcorrfn glis d~ teo~ ~'aD
nCdatane romb
~ c ent~
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SIn
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of -,theulte
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1~ P,o1sii l
dktc eu Cella fos
Pre are loade Co e Ant
udi-a an
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ave aontei
ah CGa'nhh h
cu inat
_11selgh of4 0 onshav an the
5.f Ca
tO40i.aboveheen assumnedt.
th argo
deck.
AMCP 706-350 -
0 0
100, 000,
80,000
60,000 0 LARC V 0 •
I0 LARC XV
40,000 ZS LARC LX
0 LVW
V LVH-X2
S 20,000 " •
I-n
Z 10,000
Uj 8000 -
U
U 6000
0 t__ ____
o __ __ _--__ _
4000 - ' !
2000
1000 1 _
10,000 50,000 100,000 500,000 1,000,000 0 0
EMPTY VEHICLE WEIGHT , LB
Figure 5-13. Weight Group F-MiscellaneousSystems
5-4.4 MARGINS center of gravity would be reasonable. In the

event that components are to be used for which 9 0
Margins are generally added to estimated "as built" weight (of identical or similar items)
empty vehicle weight and empty vehicle vertical are not available, a larger margin should be
center of gravity to account for items that are added to the appropriate weight groups. In this
overlooked or underestimated. For a case the margin should be on the order of 5 to
conventional wheeled amphibian on which the 10 percent of estimated weight of the
conceptual design estimates are based on reliable component. It should be noted that conceptual 0 0
"as built" data from similar vehicles, these designs in which weight estimates are based on
margins can be small. Values on the order of 3 past designs have some small built-in margin due
to 5 percent on the empty weight and vertical to advancing technology. This tends to support
5-23
AMCP 706-350 a
0.8
0 LARC V
0 0 LARC XV 0 0
Sz
S0.6 - LARC LX
U-
0
0.20
.,IL
200 304 007
OVERALL LENGTH LOA,FT

(A) LCG •
-O
00
1.4
1.0 ..
Z- 0.6
0.2 _ 1
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • * 0
0 2 4 6 6 10
AVERAGE HULL DEPTH DLavgFT
(A) VCG
Figure 5-14. Weight Group A--CO Locations
5-24
1 .4
AMCP 706-350 0
0.8
0 LARC V
)0 0 LARC XV
Z
< - A LARC LX
, 0.6
C
U-
0o 00
0.2
20 30 40 50 60 70
OVERALL LENGTH LOA, F T
(A) LCG
1.2
0.8
C[]
0.4
0 3 4 6 6 10
AVERAGE HULL DEPTH D FT
gFT
(B) VCG
Figure 5-15. Weight Group F--CG Locations

5-25
0 0
AMCP 706-350 - O
the use of small margins during the conceptual material should be reviewed and understood
designs. before any attempt is made to calculate
The use of a large or small margin depends to resistance for a conceptual design.
some extent on the design policy and goals. If The procedure available for the calculation of
initial cost is most important, a large margin resistance is the selection of the appropriate drag
should be used and if performance is more coefficient from Figs. 7-55 and 7-56. The drag
important, a low margin should be used in coefficient for the faired hull shape can be
association with minimum weight. Design obtained from Fig. 7-55, and the drag
policies or goals of this type should be clearly coefficient for the wheels and wheel wells can be
defined so that in the preliminary and detail obtained from Fig. 7-56. In this way it is - -
design phases, for example, lightweight possible to account for combinations of hull 4 0
components are used in spite of higher cost forms and running gear sizes, and arrangements
when performance is controlling, that have not been tested. The resistance is then
given by
5-5 PERFORMANCE AND POWERING
2
R., '/2pV (C, 11All + C,•A.), lb (5-13)
During the conceptual design phase an
estimate of the power required or performance where
will be made, using the estimated vehicle weight R7. =total resistance, lb 3
and characteristics. At this stage in the design p =mass density of water, slug/ft
there is not enough information or time to V =forward speed, ft/sec
conduct model tests and detailed propulsor C,) 1 =drag coefficient of faired hull, nd
calculations to arrive at an estimate of A, =projected frontal area of faired hull,
performance or power required. Accordingly, ft 2
data from previous designs must be used. CJ,,' = drag coefficient of wheels and wheel
wells, nd
5-5.1 BASIC CONCEPTS A, = exposed frontal area of wheels, ft 2
In the event that the design speed point is not
In a true wheeled amphibian the power in calm watet, the procedures and data
required to obtain the necessary water speed will presented
- in par. 7-4.1.2.4 may be used to
almost always be greater than that needed to estimate the added resistance.
meet any of the land performance requirements.
As a result, during the conceptual design the 5-. PROPULSOR AND POWER REQUIRED
power required is selected on the basis of
waterborne performance unless some very The brake horsepower required by a wheeled
unusual land performance requirement is given. amphibian is defined by 0 0
However, the land performance, and especially
off-road mobility, affects the geometry of the BHP DHPHP h (5-14)
hull and the size and arrangement of the running A
gear. This in turn affects the power required to
meet the waterborne performance. Thus, where
consideration during conceptual design must BHP = brake horsepower of the engine, hp
also be given to those aspects of land DttP= delivered horsepower to the 0
performance involving mobility. propulsor, hp
7,r = transmission efficiency between
5-5.2 HULL AND APPENDAGE RESISTANCE engine and propulsor, nd
HPA = horsepower required by auxiliary
The first step in determining the power systems, hp
required is to estimate the resistance of the The fundamental principles involved in the
amphibian at the design speed and condition. calculacion of the delivered horsepower to the
The fundamental principles involved in wheeled propulsor are presented in pars. 7-7 through
amphibian resistance and data on past designs 7-7.6.4. These paragraphs should he reviewed
are presented in pars. 7-4.1 through 7-4.1.3. This before an estimate of DHP is made for a
5-26
• O• • •• • • • • • • • • • 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
conceptual design. In ti;e event that the A line is drawn between the values of Vý and D
amphibian is propelled with a screw propeller, on the appropriate scales. A second line is drawn
the procedure which follows may be used to between point "A" and the value of T on the
obtain a preliminary estimate of the required thrust scale. The value of n. = 0.38 is read
delivered horsepower. (compared to 0.33 from model tests). If this 0 0
In order to make a preliminary estimate of value is reduced by 0.04, as previously suggested
DIIP, the power required by the propulsor to to arrive at a more realistic value, the required
achieve the desired design speed, the designer horsepower may be calculated (Eqs. 7-54 and
must obtain appropriate values of: 7-96)
a. Drag R.r and effective horsepower ElP at
the design speed V0• DIIP = E1P (I - w) 0
70(0.748) 250 h6) -
7,,(1 - 0 0.34(0.955)0.647
b. Thrust deduction t and wake fraction w
c. Relative rotative efficiency T,. and the
propeller diameter D In the event that a propulsor other than a
Fig. 5-16 is a nomograph which may be screw propeller is selected, an estimate of the
used to make a quick estimate of propeller open DltP may be developed from the information in
water efficiency i,, which is needed to find the pars. 7-7 through 7-7.6.4. 0 0
necessary delivered horsepower DIIP. This The transmission efficiency depends on the
nomograph is based on the assumption that the type of transmission, the arrangement of the
propeller efficiency is 80 percent of the ideal drive train, and the number of gear reductions if
efficiency 77i predicted by simple momentum the system is mechanical. For existing wheeled
theory (see par. 7-7.4.1). The 80-percent amphibians, the approximate transmission
assumption represents the state-of-the-art in efficiency of the marine drive ranges between 90
marine screw propeller design for carefully and 95 percent. This assumes that any torque S S
designed "optimum" propellers. Thus, the converters in the drive train are mechanically
efficiency found from the nomograph will locked during waterborne operation.
almost always be on the high, i.e., optimistic, Auxiliary system requirements include the
side. It is saggested that the nomograph value power which must be supplied by the engine to
be decreased by 3 or 4 percentage points to run electrical, hydraulic, and cooling systems.
obtain a more realistic value of propeller Under normal waterborne operating conditions, S
efficiency for amphibians. IUIse of the nomograph this load varies between 7 and 15 hp for the
will be illustrated by the following example LARC amphibians, assuming the bilge pumps are
problem using data for a mod(-I LARC V from not operating. In waterborne operation the
Table 7-35. cooling loads are low on the IAR(C amphibian
since they are all fitted with sea water co(;[ers
Example which have no fan load. If an air-•j)oled internal
combustion engine is instalhled, the cooling load 0
Given: may be as high as 10 to 12 percent of the gross
VI) = 9 mph 77, = 0.955 engine brake horsepower.
D = 2.5 ft ElIP= 70 hp
(l-t) = 0.647 R1. = 2901 lb 5-5.4 LAND PERFORMANCE
(1-w) = 0.748
To. develop arrangement sketches and 0 0
7-82: waterborne performance estimates during the
E~q. 7-82 conceptual design phase, in formation on the size
V = V1 (1 - w)1.47 - and arrangement of the running gear and
suspension systems must be developed. These
9(0.748)1.47 9.9 f:/e items are a function of the land performance
and, in particular, the mobility required. A
Eq. 7-83: number of measures o)f mobility now in use are
2901 discussed in par. 7-8 with the values which apply
T R,/(1 - t) 4500 lb to wheeled amphibians. The calculation of these
0.647 mobility measures is too tedious to (carry oul
5-27
*
S 0 0 0 S S S 5 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0
cc
-9 04 co0
It
C4
CN0
-nL -j )k t O a J
-'
a-0
0 0
U.1U
fl LI l I I I
<L o 0 n ~ ~ a0 00 C'o /
</ 00
0
/ z
&2/
AMCP 706-350
during the conceptual design iteration process. example of a conceptual design calculation is
However, all of these measures are functions presented. The input conditions were chosen for
which improve as ground pressures are reduced, the purpose of illustration only and do not
As a result, it is reasonable to use some measure necessarily reflect current requirements or .. ..
of ground pressure during the conceptual design hardware. S
to make a preliminary estimate of required tire
size. The nominal unit ground pressure and Conventional Wheeled Amphibian
ATAC ground pressure for several wheeled 10-mph full load in calm water
amphibians are presented in Table 5-7. 10-ton payload VCG = 40 in. (Wet
The ability to cross obstacles is a function of Deck)
the vehicle geometry and power. Among the Area 265 ft 2 , Ramp for unloading 0 0
most important geometric characteristics for this Endurance = 8 hr at full power
purpose are the approach, break and departure Input Mobility, NUGP 10 - 11 psi target for
angles, and the ground clearance. The values of concept design
these quantities which have been used on several Engine - New class of vehicle gas
wheeled amphibians are also given in Table 5-7. turbine - 1.5 Ib/BHP 30 BHP/ft 2 , and
5-6 EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS 8 BHP/ft 3 e
Fuel Rate = 0.40 lb/BHP-hr
In order to illustrate some of the conceptual

design procedures and the use of some of the 1. Initial Assumptions
data presented in pars. 5-3 through 5-5.4, an a. Conventional aluminum hull structure
TABLE 5-7 WHEELED AMPHIBIAN LAND MOBILITY 0 0
Approach Break Departure Ground Nominal Unit* ATAC**

Vehicle Angle, Angle, Angle, Clearance, in. Ground Pressure Ground Pressure
deg deg deg Hull Prop NUGPpsi ps, psi
DUKW 35 17 28 17 - 13.1 18.8
LARC V 27 15 20.7 24 16 14.1 20.1
LARC XV 30.5 13.5 22.5 29¼/ 161h 15.0 21.4
LARC LX 28 14 29 28 - 36.0 51.5
LVW 25 13.5 25 28 - 20.6 29.4
LVH X2 50 15 28 30 - 18.3 26.1
* NUGP = rb
a W
0.7 rb
where
W = average load per tire, lb

r = undeflected tire radius, in.
b = tire width, in. (see par. 7-8.4.4)
5-29
AMCP 706-350
b. Unsprung suspension, 4 X 4 arrangement 7. Single Propeller in Kort Nozzle

of running gear Propeller Diameter 3.0 ft
c. Propulsion-propeller in tunnel 1-t = 1.08;
d. Mechanical transmission and drive train 1-w = 1.16;
2. Initial Dimensions- 1r = 0.93(from Table 7-35) 0
LOA = 40 ft R, =6,550 =
BOA = 12 ft (overall) T= 1 - 6,060 lb
T 1.08
Estimate Payload/GVW = 0.35
Estimate GVW = 57,000 lb = A = 50 percent (from Fig. 5-16)
LCB Loaded 18 ft fwd transom i7 for amphibian 46 percent
3. Preliminary Tire Size- EHP (1 - w)

Loaded per wheel = 14,250 lb DHP =
Tire 27 X 33 in., NUGP = 10.9 psi o (1 - t)
Tire Diameter = 87.5 in., width = 30 in. 175(1.16) 440 hp
(0.46)0.90(1.08)
4. Assume LWL - 36 ft (at WL), 0 0
B = 11.5 ft (at WL), 8. Assume 17T = 0.95 and Auxiliary Loads
C, = 0.70 = 10 BHP
Mean draft H GVW DHP 440
(LWL)B CBpg .'.BHPý- +HPA,= 44 +10=475hp
-
57,000 0 0
36(11.5)0.70(64.4) = 3.05 ft 9. Hull Depth
Speed-length ratio, D 'midship = Freeboard + Draft

VK _ 10 15,280\ Freeboard = 0.40 X H 0.4(3.05)
/ý \ 1.45 (Table 5-4)
L V36,080/ 145= 1.2 ft
Note: VK is speed in knots. D 'midship = 1.2 + 3.05 = 4.25 ft

Freeboard Fore and Aft = 3.0
CDH = 0. 4 7 , CD" = 0.40 (midship freeboard)
(from Figs. 7-55 and 7-56) = 3.0(1.2) (Table 5-4)
5. Hull Area = Beam X Draft = 3.6 ft

- 11.5 X 3.05 = 35 ft 2 = All Depth Fore and Aft = 6.65 ft 0
6. Appendage Area = Radius X Width 10. Length of Cargo Deck

43 X 30 Area 265
-g - -= 22 ft
--144 (4) = 35.8;ft 2 =Aw Beam 12
V = 10 mph = 14.7 ft/sec 11. A simple sketch of the vehicle profile 0 0

should now be made for use in making
RT = 2p V2 (CD AH + CD A) LCG and KG estimates for the weight
groups.
= 0.99 (14.7)2 [(0.47 (35)
+ 0.40 (35.8)] 12. Weight Estimate
a. Group A-Hull
= 6,550 lb LOA = 40 ft, BOA=12 ft , Da, = 5.3 ft
EHP = RV/550= 6,550 X 14.7 175 hp LOA(BOA +D,,g) 40(12 + 5.3) _ 6.9
EH =RV/50= 550 "15p100 = 100 =.
5-30
- 0
AMCP 706-350 - 0
WA = 12,000 lb (from Fig. 5-9) " WF = 30,200 (0.075) = 2,260 lb

KG = 3.40ft KG = 4.0 ft
LCG = 18.8 ft fwd transom (from LCG = 22.0 ft (Fig. 5-15)
Fig. 5-14) g. Group M-Margins
b. Group B-Machinery For this design use a margin of 3
Specific Weight = 2.25 lb/BHP percent of the empty weight
WB = 2.25(475) = 1,070 lb WM = 30,200 -(27,000 + 2,260)
KG = 3.5 ft = 940 lb
LCG = 31 ft fwd transom KG = 0.25 ft (added to computed KG)
c. Group C-Drive Train Margin
Wc = 2,300 lb (from Fig. 5-11) h. Group L-Loads
KG = 2.0 ft (1) Payload = 20,000 lb
LCG = 18.0 ft KG = 7.6 ft (40 in. above cargo
d. Group D-Marine Propulsor deck)
Specific Weight = 1.75 lb/hp LCG = 18 ft
WD = 1.75(475) = 830 lb (2) Crew = 500 lb
KG = 1.0 ft KG = 7.0 ft
LCG= 5.5 ft LCG = 35 ft
e. Group E-Running Gear and Suspension (3) Fuel
To obtain a lower NUGP than on Rate = 0.4(475) = 190 lb/hr
existing amphibians, this design has Endur. = 8 hr
proportionately larger tires. As a result, T. Pipe = 0.97 (for fuel in tar.nk
the weight of Group E will be Factor below suction inlet)
proportionately larger. For the LARC V Weight = 190(8)/0.97 = 1,570 lb S S
and LARC XV the tires amount to about KG = 2.5 ft
6 percent of the gross vehicle weight. A LCG = 14 ft
weight estimate for the preliminary tires
for this design indicates a weight of Referring to the Weight and Center Summary
about 9 percent of the current estimate following, the calculated weight is about 4000 lb
of gross vehicle weight. Therefore, to less than the current estimate of 57,000 lb. At - . S
account for the larger tires and rims the this point the iteration should be repeated
weight of Group E indicated in Fig. 5-12 starting with a new estimate of waterline length,
should be increased by 4 percent of the beam, and calculated draft using an estimated
gross vehicle weight. gross vehicle weight of between 51,000 and
52,000 lb
WE = 8,500 + 0.04(57,000) = 10,00 lb For the purposes of this example it is assumed
KG = 0.0 ft that the iteration has converged with the 0 0
LCG = 18.0 ft following characteristics:
f. Group F-Miscellaneous Systems LOA = 40 ft
Fig. 5-13 indicates the weight of BOA = 12 ft
Group F will be about 7.5 percent of the LWL= 38 ft
empty weight. B = 11.5 ft
BHP = 450 hp 0 S
Empty weight - WA + WB + WC + WD + WE Hm = 2.56 ft
1.0- (0.0075 + 0.03)* A = 51,000 lb
12,000 + 1070 + 2300 + 830 + 10,800 27,000 LCG = 18.4 ft
0.895 0.895 KG = 3.9 ft
S30,200 lb At this point a check of the waterborne stability
and trim should be made. S S
Stability Estimate
*Note: the denominator accounts for W, KB = 0.50/-/,
and WM in the empty weight. KB = 0.50(2.56) - 1.28 ft
5-31
S S
AMCP 706-350 0 -
WEIGHT AND CENTER SUMMARY
Weight, KG, Vertical Mom., LCG, Horizontal Mom.,

Group lb ft ft-lb ft ft-lb 0 0
A 12,000 3.4 40,800 18.8 225,600

B 1,070 3.5 3,750 31.0 33,170
C 2,300 2.0 4,600 18.0 41,400
D 830 1.0 830 5.5 4,560
E 10,800 0.0 0 18.0 194,400 0 0
F 2,260 4.0 9,040 22.0 49,700
Subtotal 29,260 2.02* 59,020 18.7* 548,830
M 940 0.25 - 0.0 -
Empty Vehicle 30,200 2.27 68,500* 18.7 565,000*

Payload 20,000 7.6 152,000 18.0 360.000
Crew 500 7.0 3,500 35.0 17,500
Fuel 1,570 2.5 3,920 14.0 22,000
Gross Vehicle 52,270 4.35* 227,920 18.4* 964,500

* Computed from relation between weights and moments, e.g., 59,020/29,260 = 2.02 (see
Eq. 6-1).
V = A/(pg) = 51,000/64.4 = 790 ft 3 AGMQ ( 2

3 12LWL
I = CI B (LWL)
CT = 0.060 (Table 5-3) = 51,000(66)
12(38)
I = 0.060(11.5)338.0 = 7,380 ft-lb
4 = 3 -
= ;,460 ft
BM =I _ 3,460 = 4.38 ft Trim = A (LCB - LCG)/MT1 (Eq. 5-9)
V 790
GM = KB+BM-KG (Eq. 5-5) 51,000(18.8 - 18.4)
= 1.28 + 4.38- 3.9 7,380
= 1.76 ft
Based on the data in par. 7-1 .P2 this is about = 2.8 it. by stern
the minimum acceptable value of GM.
Trim Estimate This is a reasonable trim for a wheeled
amphibian.
LCB-- 0.495LWL (Table 5-5) At this point a three view sketch of the
LCB = 18.8 ft wheeled amphibian should be prepared and used
11.5(38)-' to check the feasibility of the assumed
GMQ BM- 12(790) (Eq. 7-28) arrangement. A sketch of the type is shown in
Fig. 5-17. The iteration loop can now be
66 ft repeated as required.
5-32
* 0
AMCP706-350 - - - 0
L~Li
I •__L_ _I •-•1 L -J I ---" •
0 5 10
SCALE - FT -
* 0
EXHAUST P & S
- FUELP & S TRANSFERCASE

TRANSMISSION
T C . ..- I -M
'~ 'F 1 i -LOAD WATERLINE

.. ,•
I-'• gl-•::- I'\' L• Lh1,
- -~ 00 360ENGINE
4202
Figure 5-17. Concept Design Sketch 0
REFERENCES
1. P. Mandel and R. Leopold, Optimization of California Press, Berkeley, Calif., 1960.

Methods Applied to Ship Design, 4. Pra3ctical Reliability, Vol. IV, Prediction, - •
Transactions of the Society of Naval NASA CR-1129, Prepared by Research
Architects and Marine Engineers, New Triangle Institute for National Aeronautics
York, N. Y., 1966. and Space Administration, August 1968.
2. Human EngineeringData and Factors,U.S. 5. AMCP 702-3, Quality Assurance
Army Tank-Automotive Command, Handbook, Reliability.
Warren, Michigan. 6. High Speed Wheeled Amphibians, Report _ *
3. Wesley E. Woodson, Human Engineering 726-1, Davidson Laboratory, Hoboken, N.
Guide for Equipment Designers, University J. (In Preparation).
* 0
5-33
t • .O.....
• • ... ._ __ .. • • •
AMCP 706-350 - -
CHAPTER 6 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6-1 OBJECTIVE sufficiently well defined so that the final design

and plans can be developed with routine design
6-1.1 BASIC PURPOSE procedures.
The basic purpose of the preliminary design 6-2 PROCEDURE

phase in the development of a wheeled
amphibian is to confirm the characteristics The preliminary design of a wheeled . 0
developed in the conceptual design and define amphibian is an iterative process. Assumptions
the major components. This must be carried out and estimates made early in the design phase are
to the extent that enough inforitiation is made later checked and, if found in error, revised until
available to complete the final design and the cycle converges. In this respect the
working plans. preliminary design phase is similar to the
In addition to leading directly to a final conceptual design phase. However, the
design, the preliminary design may have several assumptions and estimates made during the early
other purposes-similar to those presented in part of the preliminary design are based on the
par. 5-1.1 for the conceptual design-including conceptual design and as a result should be
trade-off or optimization studies, large scale much better than their counterparts made
system analysis or effectiveness studies, "what during the conceptual design. This should reduce
if" studies, and the development of the number of times the iteration cycle must be
specifications for procurement. The preliminary repeated. S
design phase is used for these purposes only
when the conceptual design phase cannot be
expected to yield information in sufficient detail 6-2.1 TYPICAL INPUTS AND OUTPUTS
or with a high enough confidence level. This will
generally occur when the design specifications or The inputs to the preliminary design phase. . .
requirements call for a radical increase in consist of the results of the conceptual design
performance or a radical change from past phase (i.e., parametric studies, trade-off studies,
practice. and estimated vehicle characteristics), the final
requirements or specifications (e.g., a QMR or
6-1.2 RELATION TO THE DESIGN CYCLE SDR), and any other goals or constraints on the
design. It is expected that, by this stage in the
The preliminary design phase serves as a design development, interactions between the
transition between the conceptual and final conceptual design and the preliminary
design phases. In the preliminary design the requirements will have eliminated impractical
major components are designed or selected and and conflicting final requirements.
arranged. This procedure confirms that the The outputs of a formal preliminary design
characteristics and performance developed in the phase include a design summary, preliminary
conceptual design can be achieved with practical plans, the design calculations, and a design
hardware. The preliminary design phase, history. The design summary should include a - 0
therefore, must demonstrate the final technical tabulation of the design characteristics and a
feasibility of the design and identify technical description of any special features included in
problem areas as well as requirements for the the design. Typical plans or drawings that should
development of special components. If, during be developed during preliminary design are listed
the preliminary design phases, the feasibility is in Table 6-1. The design calculations and design
shown to be marginal or many technical history present the background data, design
problems appear; the design cannot continue to methods, and decisions made during the
the final phase without considerable risk of preliminary design. This information will be of
failure. At the completion of the preliminary great value during the detailed design and in the
design phase, the amphibian should be development of future designs.
6-1
_ 0 0 0
.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 - "
TABLE 6-1 TYPICAL PRELIMINARY DESIGN PLANS
Plan Comments
General Arrangement Plans, Profiles, and These drawings will show the location and
Sections arrangements of all major components in
the amphibian
Hull Lines See par. 6-4.6
Structural Arrangements These drawings should show the arrangement 0 0
and scantlings typical of basic structure.
Schematic System Layouts These drawings should show the layout of
the control (including steering), hydraulic,
electrical, cooling, and any other systems which
have primary importance to the amphibian.
Arrangements or Layouts of Specially These drawings should show the preliminary
Designed Components arrangement or layout of any components that
must be specially designed.
6-2.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN ITERATION CYCLE cover the topics indicated on the flow chart in
Fig. 6-1 as they apply to the preliminary design
The iteration cycles for preliminary and phase. In some cases the discussions present the
conceptual design processes are similar (par. general ideas as they apply to preliminary design
5-2.2) in that both involve the systematic with the technical details left to referenced
variation of characteristics until the paragraphs in Chapter 7. When all of the
requirements are satisfied, requirements, goals, and assumptions are
The steps in the preliminary design iteration satisfied, the design summary and history are ..........
cycle are given in Fig. 6-1 in the form of a flow prepared. 0 0
chart. This flow chart is somewhat of an
idealization in that it indicates that the various 6-3 PROPULSION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
steps directly follow one another. In general, the
press of time and efficient use of manpower will For the purpose of preliminary design, the
require that several of the steps be conducted items considered in the propulsion system
concurrently. This implies that effective include engines, drive train, running gear, and 0 0
communications must exist among the members the marine propulsor. For practical purposes,
of the design team so that all of the parts "fit" both the technical and economic feasibility of
at the end of the cycle, an amphibian design depend on the availability
At the end of the cycle a check will be made of these components or the ability to design and
against the requirements, goals, and the produce them. As a result, during the
assumptions on which the preliminary design preliminary design, suitable candidate
was based. If these are not satisfied, the iteration components must be selected or a preliminary
cycle must be repeated. Use is made of the data design for them prepared. The decision to use an
generated in previous cycles to make the process existing component or to design a special one
converge. Due to time considerations, it will depends on considerations of performance,
probably not be possible to conduct more than economics, reliability, and maintainability.
one set of model tests in spite of the need for
several passes through the iteration cycle. 6-3.1 CANDIDATE ENGINES _ 0 0
However, with the correct choice of test
conditions and use of scaling laws, acceptable Within the size and speed range that may be
estimates can still be made (see par. 7-4). expected for future Army wheeled amphibians,
The remaining paragraphs of this chapter there is little chance that the development of a
6-2
0 -0
0 0 _ 0 0 0. 0 _0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
INPUT - CONCEPTUAL
(QMR , DESIGN,
SDR),
,•REQUIREMENTS
V"SPECIFICATIONS, AND GOALS
MACHINERY, DRIVE TRAIN
PROPULSON AND RUNNING •
GEAR COMPONENTS SELECTION
OR DESIGN
LAND PERFORMANCE ESTIMATE
HULL LINES AND ARRANGEMENTS
BASIC STRUCTURAL 0 0
ARRANGEMENT AND SCANTLING]S
SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF MODEL TEST PROGRAM 0 5

AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
WEIGHT, CENTER OF GRAVITY, 0 5

TRIM, AND STABILITY
WATERBORNE PERFORMANCE 0 0
CHECK N
AGAINST ASSUMPTIONS, 0
YES
OUTPUT : DESIGN SUMMARY,

PLANS, CALCULATIONS, AND
HISTORY
Figure 6-1. Preliminary Design Flow Chartfor Wheeled Amphibians

6-3
!
AMCP 706-350 -
special engine could be justified. Accordingly, (aluminum) instead of the cast iron or steel
some available military or modified commercial ordinarily used in commercial practice.
engine must be used. This should not be a A right angle drive marine propulsor will be
serious limitation since there is a reasonable the most complex type that is likely to be used
variety of possible engines available, unless a on a wheeled amphibian. Only a few units are
water speed in excess of 15 mph is required. commercially available at this time (1968) that
The choice of the actual engine will have a would be suitable for a wheeled amphibian.
substantial effect on the characteristics, cost, Even these units would have to be modified to
reliability, and maintainability of the amphibian. provide a satisfactory retraction system for an
It is advisable to consider in detail, during the amphibian. Although a right angle drive system
preliminary design, as many engines as possible is mechanically complex, one can be custom 6 0
that come near to meeting the performance designed if justified by the performance
requirements. This group of candidate engines requirements. This was the case for the Mobile
should be selected on the basis of power output, Floating Assault Bridge-Ferry.
size, and weight. The target values for these
criteria are obtained from the conceptual design, 6-3.3 LAND PROPULSION AND MOBILITY
or previous design cycles through the
preliminary design iteration. The group of In the preliminary design phase the
candidate engines is then narrowed down to a arrangement of the running gear, the tire size,
final selection on the basis of the other and torque and rpm requirements at the wheels
important criteria such as safety, cost, must be fixed. These performance specifications
reliability, and maintenance, will define the requirements for these items, and
the design cycles through conceptual and
6-3.2 WATER PROPULSOR preliminary design will provide guidance on S •
arrangements and component selections. Design
Within the context of the preliminary design information and calculation procedures required
of the propulsion system, the water propulsor to make these selections are presented in pars.
must be defined in terms of type, power and 6-8, 7-4.2 through 7-4.3, and 7-8 through 7-8.4.
torque required, rpm, and size. The data and There is a wide variety of military and
procedures needed to generate this information commercial components available for use in the
are presented in pars. 6-7.1 and 7-7 through running gear. Information on these items is
7-7.6. contained in the commercial catalogs and other
In general, the overall water propulsion literature published by manufacturers. These
system will be custom designed to suit the components are generally not directly suitable
particular amphibian. The components of the for use on a wheeled amphibian because of the
system may be off-the-shelf or custom designed. requirement that the running gear must
The propeller in a tunnel is the simplest water withstand repeated immersion in salt water. .
propulsor in terms of its components. The Some changes in the materials and seals used in
propeller itself may be a stock item or custom standard components may be required. This was
designed, depending on the performance done successfully for the planetary wheel ends
required. The shafts and struts will be arranged used on the LARC series.
to suit the installation.
A waterjet marine propulsor is next in 6-3.4 POWER TRAIN 0 0
complexity to the simple propeller in a tunnel.
A number of complete waterjet units are The power train transmits power from the
available as stock commercial items. In the event engine to the shafting of the marine propulsor to
those available are not suitable, a custom the wheel ends. The gear ratios and torque
waterjet system could be designed which makes capabilities of the drive train depend on the
use of an available commercial pump. In this engine characteristics, and requirements of the
case it would be necessary to design the inlet, marine propulsor and running gear. These items
exhaust nozzle, and controls. Further, the pump must be defined before the preliminary design of
case must be made of lightweight material the power train is undertaken. The same criteria
6-4
0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
and general performance requirements apply to "experimental" items and components than to
the preliminary and final selection or design of doggedly cling to old "standard" items. In this
power train components. These criteria and way, progress in the evolution of improved
requirements are discussed in par. 5-1.3. amphibians is assured. It is important to
In the preliminary design phase the major remember that so-called "standard items" in our 0 6
decision that must be made with regard to the current inventory of amphibians were
power train is whether to select an available "experimental items" only a short time ago.
military or modified commercial transmission or The function of a development cycle is to
to design a special transmission. This decision bring a feasible concept to an optimum or
depends on considerations of performance, size, "standard" production stage. In many cases the
weight, cost, reliability, and maintenance. These maintainability and reliability of a standard - • 0
factors, as they apply to this discussion and the component may be just as undefined as that of
power train in general, are covered in par. 7-6.3. an experimental component because of the
In the past, wheeled amphibians such as the unusual amphibian environment. Thus, the final
LVW have been equipped with custom designed analysis of which is best can only be made after
transmissions, whereas the LVH-X2 and the testing has occurred. In any case, the idea of
Mobile Floating Assault Bridge-Ferry have been using standard military components simply
fitted with modified commercial transmissions, because they have known properties and
predictable reliability is a nonprogressive,
6-3.5 MAINTAINABILITY AND RELIABILITY nonproductive, and often uneconomic approach.
CONSIDERATIONS
6-4 INITIAL HULL LINES AND ARRANGE-
The success of a wheeled amphibian, when MENTS
placed in the hands of its users, largely depends S
on its ability to be operated reliably and be For the initial drawings, the lines and
easily maintained. This should be uppermost in arrangements are considered together since the
the mind of the designer when the preliminary hull form is designed around the machinery,
selection or design of components in the working, and cargo spaces.
propulsion system is undertaken. The
requirements on the operating life, conditions, 6-4.1 ENGINEERING APPROACH - •
and maintenance goals of the amphibian will be
given in the QMR or other performance For low water speed amphibians the general
specification. This information must be used in approach will be to position all of the
evaluating existing components for possible use components and working spaces with minimum
or in establishing design factors and goals for clearances, and then design a minimum volume
custom designed components. It should be hull form around the package. This will result in
noted that maintainability considerations the smallest practical vehicle, which is generally - •
strongly favor the use of components that are one of the objectives. All designs will have
already in the U. S. Army supply system. The compartments or areas that have extra volume
subject of maintainability and reliability as over and above that apparently required. These
applied to the design of Army materiel is spacec, frequently at the ends of the vessel, are
covered in Ref. 1, and the designer should be necessary to meet the buoyancy, stability,
familiar with this AMC Pamphlet before working resistance, or other hull design requirements. As
on the preliminary design phase of the the design is progressively checked, there will
propulsion system. always be conditions which require changes in
A note of caution is in order here concerning the dimensions. A certain amount of adjustment
the use of standard components. The virtues will normally be required to arrive at a compact
ascribed to the use of standard military arrangement.
components in par. 2-9.4 must not lead the
designer to the conclusion that their use is a 6-4.2 DIMENSION LIMITS AND GOALS
panacea for all the problems in amphibian
design. In the preliminary and conceptual design The primary dimension limits and goals
phases, it is more important to consider new should be established during the conceptual
6-5
L..1
AMCP 706-350
design phase as discussed in par. 5-3. The manufacturer and the component user. The
remainder must be determined during the manufacturer is trying to sell his products and
preliminary design. The limits will be firmly presents the best possible information and the
established at the start of the preliminary design user has, in general, the history of operation and
process. Many limits determined earlier during maintenance for each component.
the conceptual design stage will have to be
checked. The sources of some of the limits are 643.2 Typical Sizes
listed in Table 6-2.
Figs. 6-2, 6-3, and 6-4 are typical drawings of
a Diesel engine with the maintenance and
64.3 COMPONENT SIZES AND WEIGHTS removal envelopes drawn. Scale drawings of the
components are normally furnished by the
For each of the potential mechanical or manufacturer. The clearance envelopes must be
structural components considered, a drawing developed by the designer.
should be obtained or produced showing the size
of the unit and the envelopes of spaces around 6-4.4 BLOCK ARRANGEMENT
the unit required for operation, maintenance,
and removal. These envelopes should include the The block arrangement is the initial interior
space required for tools, to withdraw parts, or to arrangement drawing. It uses the envelopes for
make adjustments. each component (from par. 6-4.3.2) including
Accurate weights of the complete units are the structural scantlings to build up a minimum
necessary in order to make satisfactory weight volume interior arrangement. It is normally
estimates. matched with the exterior components which
have been previously arranged in the conceptual
6-4.3.1 Sources of Information stage. Clearances for construction and
maintenance personnel are added where
The two primary sources of information on necessary and the minimum size of the hull with
component sizes and weights are the component respect to the arrangement is complete.
TABLE 6-2 SOURCES OF DIMENSION LIMITS
Dimension Limit Source
Length Transportability pars. 2-4.3.6, 2-5; QMR, SDR

Breadth Transportability and Stability pars. 2-4.3.6, 2-5, 7-1.6.2; QMR,
SDR
Height Transportability par. 2-5
Freeboard Range of Stability and par. 7-1.6.2
Seaworthiness
Wheelbase Mobility and Maneuverability par. 2-4.3; QMR, SDR
Ground Clearance and Mobility par. 2-4.3; QMR, SDR
Clearance Angles
Turning Circle Mobility and Maneuverability par. 2-4.3; QMR, SDR; (wheels
must be removable) S
Machinery Operating Angle Lubrication Manufacturers' Data
Driver's Station Visibility and Protection par. 7-2
6-6
0 0
AMCP 706-350
0 1 2
1,.1i.1.1.1o.1,1,1,1i~ Ii I I I II I II
SCALE - FEET
+ 0
NOTE: SCALE DRAWINGS ARE NORMALLY AVAILABLE FROM THE ENGINE MANUFACTURER.
THE ENGINE OUTLINE MAY BE TRACED FROM A SCALE DRAWING AND USED AS A
TEMPLATE IN LAYING OUT THE ARRANGEMENT. MANY ACCESSORIES CAN BE
MOUNTED EITHER IN OTHER POSITIONS ON THE ENGINE OR ELSEWHERE IN THE
MACHINERY SPACE.
* •
Figure 6-2. Typical Marine Engine Outline
6-7
* 0 00 0
•070
* 0
AMCP 706-350
12
r-- -1]
1 1 2 10 3
* 0
"1.5 4 5
7 11
GHOST LINES SHOW SPACE REQUIRED TO REMOVE: •

0 1 2
1 AIR SILENCER I.,.I.i.I .,.h,., , ,
2 BLOWER (CAN BE REMOVED FROM EITHER SIDE) SCALE - FEET
3 LUBE OIL FILTER (CENTER STUD TYPE)
4 FUEL FILTER
5 REVERSE GEAR 0 0
6 STARTER (ARC OF WRENCH)
7 OIL PAN (DROPPED ONLY, CAN'T BE REMOVED WITHOUT ADDITIONAL CLEARANCE
OR REMOVAL OF LUBRICATION OIL PICKUP TUBE)
8 HEAT EXCHANGER CORE
9 GOVERNOR 0 0
10 CYLINDER HEAD COVER (ONLY ONE SIDE SHOWN)
GHOST LINES FOR SPACE:

11 FOR LUBRICATING OIL DRAIN CATCH PAN
12 FOR HEADROOM FOR WATER LEVEL INSPECTION
13 TO ADD LUBRICATION OIL
14 TO ADD COOLING WATER
15 TO OPEN PETCOCK
Figure 6-3. Typical Envelope of Space Required for Maintenanceand In Situ Repairs
6-8
S•• • • • • • • • • • _ S
AMCP 706-350
INTACT OUTLINE
OF ENGINE
lj
r- ,
SIZE OF ENGINE WITH LISTED 0 0

COMPONENTS REMOVED
0 l. 1
hl. hl.l.l.I. Ip p p I
2
aI I IJ
SCALE - FEET
REMOVED
LIST OF MAJOR COMPONENTS
AIR SILENCER
BLOWER
CYLINDER HEADS AND COVERS
EXHAUST MANIFOLDS
EXPANSION TANK AND PIPING
FUEL FI'LTFR
GENERA1OR
LUBRICATING OIL FILTER AND PICKUP TUBE
OIL LEVEL GAGE
OIL PAN
REVERSE GEAR
NOTE: IF ACCESS IS RESTRICTED THE ENGINE MAY BE PARTIALLY DISMANTLED

PRIOR TO REMOVAL. AN OUTLINE SIMILAR TO THIS MAY BE USED AS A
TEMPLATE BY THE ARRANGEMENT DESIGNER.
- 9 9_
Figure 6-4. Typical Stripped Engine Outline
6-9
S...
•-....O.. ._ ...
... _ . .. o .. .. .O .. O • . .• . . .• . . .• •..
AMCP 706-350 0 0
6-4.5 HULL LINES f. Marine propulsor type and size

g. Hull material and construction procedures
6-4.5.1 Purpose of Hull Lines This information is obtained from the
requirements, the conceptual design phase, and
The hull line, Irawings serve a number of previous preliminary design work. 0
purposes in the overall scheme of amphibious
vehicle design. Fig. 7-1 is an example of an 6-4.5.3 Lines Development
amphibious vehicle lines drawing, and par.
7-1.1.1 includes an explanation of the lines The following steps may be used in the
drawing. development of the preliminary hull lines:
The lines drawing graphically describes the a. Select a drawing scale and lay out a grid.
shape of the outer hull surface. The hull lines For a preliminary design, the drawing need not
provide the boundaries along the hull length to be larger than 18 to 20 in. long.
check space and clearances of various b. Draw the vehicle centerline profile on the
components. From the lines drawing, the builder profile plan. The wheels should also be shown at
obtains information on size and shape of plates this time.
and frames required to construct the hull. The c. Draw the projection of the deck at side in
form calculations relating to vehicle the half breadth plan.
displacement, center of buoyancy, trim, and d. Draw the stations on the body plan. The
stability are calculated using the lines drawing. shapes of the stations are determined by the
There are two stages of lines requirements of the block arrangements plan,
drawings-preliminary and final. The final lines the wheels and marine propulsor, buoyancy, and
drawing is a product of the final stages of the longitudinal center of buoyancy location. The
design cycle, wherein the lines drawing is refined requirements are checked by comparisons and S S
by adding additional stations, waterlines, and calculations. Reference should be made to pars.
buttock lines. The curved surfaces may be made 7-1 through 7-1.6.5 for other criteria and
developable during the final design stages if the calculation procedures.
designer so chooses. The final lines drawing e. Draw the waterlines and buttock lines in
requiremerts and procedures are given in par. the half breadth and profile plans.
7-1.1.2. f. Fair the lines in all three views and make
certain that all the intersection points are
6-4.5.2 Preliminary Lines Drawing consistent. This process is described in par.
7-1.1.1.
Preliminary lines draw.ving is an output of the In the event that the required buoyancy or
preliminary design cycle. The design cycle, longitudinal center of buoyancy (LCB) cannot
as explained in par. 6-2, is an iterative be obtained with reasonable station shapes
process with various vehicle dimensions and within the assumed dimensions, the dimensions 0
characteristics changing with each iteration. In must be changed. It is best to make small
the preliminary stages, the lines drawing may changes in buoyancy by changing the draft.
undergo many successive modifications. Small changes in the LCB can be made by
Before the preliminary lines drawing can be changing the trim. There are practical limits to
developed, there are a number of preliminary such changes and major changes in the buoyancy
characteristics which must be known or or LCB will require that all of the principal 0
estimated. These include: dimensions be adjusted.
a. Displacement
b. Longitudinal Center of Buoyancy (LCB) 6-5 DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC STRUC-
location TURAL DESIGN
c. Principal dimensions (length overall,
waterline length, beam, draft, hull depth The basic structure, as defined herein,
forward, aft, and 'midships, and the approach, includes the general structural configuration, 0 S
beam, and departure angles) materials selection, and the major scantlings. It
d. Block arrangements excludes local bracing, doublers, special fittings,
e. Running gear size and characteristics small foundations, final joint design, and details.
6-10
AMCP 706-350 0
6-5.1 FORCES the indirect framing. For most conventional

type wheeled amphibians it may be expected
The determination of the forces which the that the local loads will determine the scantlings
vehicle must sustain are discussed in par. 7-3.1. of the skin, direct framing, and indirect framing.
For this phase it is necessary to determine 0
critical forces for the selection of the shell and 6-5.4 DESIGN OF BASIC HULL STRUCTURE
framing scantlings for all materials under
consideration. Smaller amphibians, in almost all The design objective is normally to define a
cases, will be designed from local loading minimum cost structure to meet a given weight
considerations. allowance and mission requirements. Pars. 7-3.3
through 7-3.4 present details of structural design
6-5.2 MATERIALS procedures. In the preliminary design phase it is
possible to use structural data from past
There are currently only three practical successful designs for first estimates of structural
materials for the construction of amphibians, arrangements (i.e., frame spacing, proportions,
viz., steel, Fiberglas, and aluminum. It is and scantlings). Data of this type are presented
anticipated that the high performance required in Tables 6-3 through 6-5 and Figs. 6-5 through
of wheeled amphibians will usually result in the 6-7. These data may also serve as a useful check
selection of aluminum for the hulls of future on the final structural design to confirm that it
vehicles. Aluminum is discussed in detail in par. is reasonable.
7-3.2. Since rivets tend to leak after aluminum
has been heavily stressed, only all-welded 6-6 WEIGHT AND CENTER OF GRAVITY
construction is recommended for the hull. Hot
forming of high strength aluminum without In the conceptual design phase, weights and 0 0
losing material strength is difficult. Therefore, it centers of gravity are generally estimated using
is preferable to use developable surfaces unless a previous design experience tempered with
sufficient number of units will be made so that engineering judgment and a minimum of
the cost of special dies is not prohibitive, calculations. The required horsepower and
running gear are dependent on the weight of the
6-5.3 STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION vehicle. These two items are a significant part of
the weight of the vehicle so that errors in weight
The structural configuration of a wheeled estimates tend to lead to large errors in the
amphibian must be compatible with: overall design. It is necessary, therefore, in the
a. Vehicle design objective and goals preliminary design phase to carefully estimate
b. Hull material the weight by groups.
c. Vehicle configuration
d. Machinery arrangement 6-6.1 SYSTEMATIC WEIGHT ESTIMATE 0
e. Anticipated production methods and
quantity In order to use past designs to the best
Par. 7-3 discusses these and other items in more advantage, it is necessary to use a standardized
detail. weight breakdown. If the weight classification is
In general, the hull of a wheeled amphibian logical and used by the industry, the
takes all of the loads applied to the vehicle information developed by different 0
without the aid of a separate frame such as used organizations can be used by all designers. Since
in a truck. In order to make the most efficient this type of breakdown is not available, Table
use of the hull material, the structural 6-6 presents a recommended system. This list
configuration should be of the stressed skin was developed from the U. S. Navy's weight
type. In this configuration the shell plating or classification system for boats (Ref. 4).
skin takes the overall bending and torsional Figs. 5-9 to 5-13 present weights of previous 0
loads. The stability of the skin under these loads amphibians in the recommended weight
is maintained by tht direct framing. The local classification system. A further advantage of a
loads are distributed by the skin to the direct systematic weight classification system is that it
framing which further distributes the loads to serves as a reminder of all of the components
6-11
AMCP 706-350 .. •
TABLE 6-3 TYPICAL ALUMINUM BOAT SCANTLINGS (Ref. 2)
Note: The 'rable is arranged for longitudinally Iraimed vessels. '"l'ransterse"and"Longitudinal"

can be interchanged for a transversally framed vessel.
Length Range, ft
Frame Spacing 24-30 30-40 45-55 60-70
Bott om transverse 30 36 48 30.48

Side transverse 30 36 48 30-48
Dleck transverse 12 12 12 1Z
Bottom longitudinal 12 10-12 12-18 9-12
Side longitudinal 12 10-12 12-18 9-12
Bulkhead vertical 12 12 12 12
Transom vertical 12 12 12 12
Transom horizontal 24 24 30 30
Fenders 1/2 pipe*** 2 3 4 5 0
Plating 24-30 30-40 45-55 60-70
Bottom forward 0.8 0.140 -0.160 0.190 1/4 5/16

Bottom aft 0.2 0.140 -0.160 0.190 5/16 3/8
Side 0.130 -0.160 0.160 3/16 1/4
Deck 0.125 0.125 3116 3/16
Transom 0.130 - 0.160 0.160 1/4 5/16
Cabin* 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125
Keel 1/2 X 3 3/8 X 5 3/8 X 6 1/3 X 7
Stem 1/2 X 3 3/8 X 5 3/8 X 6 1/2 X 7
Chine** 1/2 dia bar 5/8 dia bar 3/4 dia bar 1 dia bar
Bulkhead 0.125 3/16 3/16 - 1/4 3/16 - 1/4 .
Framing 24-30 30-40 45-55 60-70
All sections are flat bars unless noted.
Transverse side 3 X 1/4 3 X 5/16 4 X 3/8 6 X 2 X 1/4 fig
Transverse bottom 5 X 1/4 5 X 5/16 6 X 3/8 6 X 2 X 1/4 fig
Transverse deck 1-1/2 X 1/4 2 X 1/4 3 X 11'4 3 X 1/4 0 0
Transverse floors 1/4 plate 1/4 plate 1/4 X 2 fig 114 X 2 fig
Longitudinal side 2 X 1/4 3 X 1/4 4 X 1!4 3 XIX 1/4 fig
Longitudinal bottom 2 X 1/4 3 X 1/4 4 X 1/4 3 X I X 1/4 fig
Engine fdn vertical 1/4 plate 1/4 plate 1/4 plate 3/8 plate
Engine fdn horizontal 1/4 plate 1/4 plate 3/8 plate 5/8 plate
Bulkhead stiffeners 2 X 3/16 3 X 3/16 3 X 1/4 3 X 1 X 14 fig
Transom vertical 2 X 1/4 3 X 1/4 4 X 1/4 3 X 1 X 1/4 fig
Transom horizontal 5 X 1/4 5 X 5/16 6 X 3/8 6 X 3 X 1/4 fig
Note: All dimensions are in inches.

• Interlockingextrusions can be substituted here.
•* Special extrusions would be recommended if production warranted.
• Extrusions or formed plate may be more desirable.
fig = flange
fdn = foundation
6-12
* 00 0 0 40 0 0 0
4 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 6-4 SCANTLINGS FOR RECENT ARMY AMPHIBIANS
Configuration - Longitudinal bulkheads connecting to the inboardsides of the wheel wells Plate
and "T" stiffeners used throughout.
Item LARC V LARC XV 0

Bottom
Plate-thickness, in. 3/16 0.190
Alloy 5086-H132 5086MH32
Stiffen.r-spacing, in. 30 ,max) 30 jmax)
-scantlings, in. 3 X 3 X 1/4 Tee 5 X 4 X 3/8 Tee
-alloy 5083.11112 5083-11112
Indirect framing Longitudinal Bulkheads Longitudinal Bulkheads
-spacing, in. 67 104
Remarks- Approx. 30 in. Transverse frame spacing
transverse frames selected to suit arrange-
ment
Deck Forward
and
Aft Cargo
Plate-thickness, in. 3/16 0.250 0.250
Type Diamond
Alloy
pattern B Diamond pattern B S 4
6061-T6 6061-T6
Stiffener-spacing, in. 30(max) 30(max) 30 imaxi A
4 X 3 X 5/16 Angle
-alloy 5083-H112 5083-H112
Indirect framing Longitudinal Bulkheads Longitudinal Bulkheads
Spacing, in. 67 104
Spacing to braces, in. 84
Extra longitudinals used
to support tires of gun
t . carriage and vehicles:
They are also
3X3X5/16 Tee
Sides
Alloy 5086-H32 5086-H32
Stiffeners-spacing, in. 30 (max) 30 ( max I
-scantlings, in. 3 X 3 X 1/4 Tee 3 X 3 X5116 Tee .
-alloy 5q%3-11112 5083--1112 0 S
Indirect framing Deck and bottom Deck and bottom
Spacing, in. 36 45
Longitudinal Bulkheads I nonwatertight) 33-1/2 in off centerline 52 in.off centerline
Alloy 5086-132 5086-H32
Stiffener-spacing, in. 30 1max) 30 (max)
-alloy 5083-1-1112 5083-14112
Indirect framing
Spacing, in.
Deck and bottom Deck and bottom - 0 0
36 (max) 45 (max)
Transverse bulkheads and floors
(nonwatertight)
Plate, thickness, in. 3/16 1/4
3/8 in way of wheels
Alloy 5086-H32 5086-1-132
Stiffener-spacing, in. 12-3/4 No stiffeners
-scantling, in. 1-3/4 X 2 X 3/16
channel welded toes to •
plate
Alloy 5083-H112
Indirect framing Deck and bottom Deck and bottom
Spacing, in. 36 45
Stem, in, 3/4 X 5-112 flat bar
Welding Continuous and inter- Continuous and inter-
mittent mittent
Torsional rigidity Partial bulkheads and Partial bulkheads,
floors floors and braces between - •
longitudinal bulkhead
frames and transverse
deck frames
6-13
E2.
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 6-5 STEEL BEAM PROPORTIONS (Ref. 3)

These beam proportionsare recommended for steel merchant ships.
Minimum depth of beam, Minimum thickness of web,

Component in./ft of beam length in.
Panting frames (reduce shell 0.6

plating deflections from
heavy seas)
Deck girders 0.7 0.01/in. of beam depth

+ 0.16
Deck girder in water or fuel 1.0 0.01/in. of beam depth

tanks (to allow for dynamic + 0.12
effects)
Watertight bulkhead girders 1.0 plus 1/4 depth of 0.01/in. of beam depth
or web frames slots for stiffeners + 0.12
Web frames 1.5 0.01/in. of beam depth

+ 0.14
Hold stringers 1.5
Deep tanks, girders, and webs 1.75

(to allow for dynamic
effects)
whose weight must be included so that none are determined by the judgment of the designer and
inadvertently omitted. his confidence in the weight estimating data. . •
Experience has shown that weight estimates The trends indicated by the data in Fig. 6-8
based on the sum of estimated component indicate that a preliminary design construction
weights will tend to be low. Ref. 5 reports on margin on the order of 5 to 10 percent of the
the weight growths of some recent off-road estimated empty weight would be suitable for a
vehicles. Fig. 6-8 is from that reference with data wheeled amphibian.
on the LARC V and LARC XV added. It shows 0 0
conclusively that weight growth will occur and, 6-6.2 CENTER OF GRAVITY ESTIMATE
as a result, a margin should be added in the
preliminary design weight estimate to account The center of gravity of n components is
for this. There are two basic types of margins of easily calculated using the following formula
interest-the construction margin and the n
growth margin. The construction margin is
intended to account for the difference between xi wi
the estimated weight and the actual weight of i=1I
the amphibian. The growth margin is intended X= (6-1)
to account for increases in weight due to new n
equipment added to the vehicle later in its life SwiW'
cycle. Of these two, the construction margin is
of more importance to an amphibian design. ,_ 0
Both types of margins take the form of a where
percentage of the estimated empty weight of the X = distance from base plane to the center
amphibian. The size of the margin must be of gravity, ft
6-14
E .....
.. _O._ _o.o •_ ....
.... • • . .. • .. . • _ .O• ••. 0 0o
AMCP 706-350
x' = distance from base plane to the center design rotative speed, blade-area ratio, number
of gravity of the i th component, ft of blades, and pitch can be selected from design
wi = weight of the ith component, lb charts (par. 7-7.5.2) using a preliminary estimate
This formula is used in the longitudinal, of design speed, resistance, wake fraction, and
transverse, and vertical directions to completely thrust deduction. In the process, the propeller
determine the position of the center of gravity, efficiency and, hence, required horsepower will
Recommended base planes are at the stern for be calculated. The rotative speed and required
the longitudinal direction, at the hull bottom for horsepower are used in the selection of a
vertical direction, and at the hull center plane suitable power plant and any necessary marine
for the transverse direction with forward, up, drive reduction units.
and starboard being the positive directions, The problem may, of course, be worked
respectively. The transverse center is needed inversely, i.e., the candidate power plant(s) 0
only if part of the arrangement is characteristics may be used to select the
unsymmetrical. In the arrangement, some optimum propeller and, thus, arrive at a realistic
allowance is desirable for shifting heavy design speed.

components fore and aft in the final design in The effect of any alternative propulsion
order to adjust the trim. The longitudinal center systems or design featdres (e.g., controllable
is used for trim estimates, and the vertical center pitch) on the speed and power and on the
is the stability
used for center calculations. Typical overall design concept should also be evaluated.
longitudinal of gravity (LCG) and vertical If a Kort nozzle propulsor is to be used, the
center of gravity (VCG) values from previous geometry of the shroud must be delineated. The
designs are listed in Table 5-5 and Figs. 5-14 and off-design and/or static thrust of each candidate
5-15. propulsor should be estimated if such
Margins for the center of gravity are normally performance is deemed important in the
applied only in the vertical direction. For a selection of a suitable design. 0 0
design, it is usually a fixed distance which is
added to the VCG. If an error in trim in one 6-7.2 STATICAL STABILITY AND TRIM
direction would be serious to the design, a
margin on the LCG should be added. Normally, The stability and trim of the amphibian are of
errors in either the fore or aft direction are primary importance and must be checked at
equally bad and a margin is not used. For boats, every stage of the design. The weights and 0 0
the U. S. Coast Guard sometimes uses a 6-in. arrangements are constantly changing in the
forward margin so that if the estimates are evolutionary design process. Generally, the gross
accurate, the boats trim down by the stern, vehicle weight and vertical center of gravity will
tend to rise throughout the design stages.
6-7 WATERBORNE PERFORMANCE Consequently, subsequent increases in the length
and/or beam may be required to insure adequate
6-7.1 SPEED AND POWER displacement and stability. Similarly, changes in
the arrangements may be necessitated by
It is possible that no specific type of undesirable trends in the static trim as the design
propulsor would be selected in the conceptual evolves
design stages. In this case, the preliminary design Other changes in the design-such as tire size
procedures should be expanded to include and alterations in the propeller tunnel-will, of
candidate propulsor types so that a rational course, also affect the displacement, stability, 0
selection may be made among them in this stage and trim of the amphibian and must be taken
of the design. The discussion which follows into account.
applies to a conventional screw propulsor.
However, the design process is essentially similar 6-7.3 SEAKEEPING AND MANEUVERABILITY
for any other suitable propulsor, e.g., waterjet.
The principal variables concerning the The surf zone always presents the greatest test
propulsor design must be selected or at least to an amphibian with respect to seakeeping
narrowed down within reasonable limits in the ability. Thus, the main requirement concerning
preliminary design stage. Propeller diameter, seakeeping that an amphibian design must
6-15
• •• • .• • • • • • S•
AMCP 706-350 __ _____
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AMCP 706-350 - - . .
S S
TABLE 6-6 RECOMMENDED WEIGHT CLASSIFICATION FOR WHEELED LOGISTIC AMPHIBIANS
Major Groups Description of Included Items
A Hull Structure 0
B Machinery
C Main Drive Train
D Marine Drive Train
E Running Gear and Suspension System
F Miscellaneous Systems
Margin
Loads 70-
The total of the major groups is equal to the gross vehicle weight (GVW). The total without the cargo
and crew is the curb weight.
Hull Structures
A-01 Shell plating-includes:

Sides
Bottom
Transom
Headlogs
Rub rail (if integral)
A-02 Framing-includes:
Keel and keelsons Chines
Gunwale Stringers
- -Stiffeners Breast hooks
Web frames Girders
Gussets Brackets
A-03 Flats--includes:
Framing
Plating . _ 0
A-04 Main Deck-includes:
Deck beams
Toe rail
Gussots
Plating
A-05 Cab-includes:
Framing - .
Beams
Plating
Brackets
Hatch framirg
Door framing
Windshields
A-06 Fcundations for Main Propelling Machinery-includes: •0
Foundations for shaft logs
Propeller struts
Foundations for main engines
Foundations for inboard/outboard drives
Foundations for machinery auxiliaries
A-07 Foundations for Other Equipment-includes:
Foundations for winches - .' -----
Doublers for cleats, chocks, and other deck fittings
6-19
• ---
_ _ __. . ._ O _.. .__ .. __ . . .. __ . _ _ .O __O_ __O_ O_ .0_..
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 6-6 (Continued)
Hull Structures (Cont'd)

A-08 Bulkheads-includes: - e
Stiffeners
Plating
A-09 Ballast and Buoyancy--includes:
Solid ballast
Locked-in-place liquid ballast
Permanent flotation material (not including buoyancy tanks)
A-10 Doors, Hatches, Manholes, and Scuttles-includes:
Doors, hatches, manholes, and scuttles
Ramps
Companionways
Operating gears for above
A-11 Masts and Spars--includes:
Booms
Masts
Staffs
Sockets and foundations
A-12 Fastenings-includes:
Mechanical fasteners
Welding
Adhesives
Machinery
B-01 Machinery-includes:
Main engines (complete with all attached accessories except
transmission)
B-02 Main Engine Exhaust System--includes:
Piping
Smokepipe (outer and inner casing)
Lagging (insulation)
Mufflers
Insulation (sound)
Fluids in system
B-03 Main Engine Coolant System (When not Attached to Main Engines)
--includes: . .
Piping
Hoses
Clamps
Heat exchangers
Keel coolers
Coolant wells and gratings
Expansion tanks
Fluids in system
Fans
Fan drives
Radiators
Main Drive Train
C-01 Main Drive Train-includes:

Transmissions
Differentials
6-20
K:> "* i. * * * _
S S.
AMCP 706-350
Main Drive Train (Cont 'd)
C-01 Torque converters 0

Shafting
Couplings
Fasteners
Fluids in system
Universals
Clutches
I lydraulic retarders O
Transfer cases
Keys
Marine Drive Train
1)-01 Marine Drive Train-includes:

Shafting
Couplings
Fasteners
Bearings
Stuffing boxes
Shaft logs
Fairwaters
Propellers or other propulsors
Kort nozzles
Struts
On-board-water (waterjets)
Running Gear and Suspension System

E-01 Running Gear and Suspension System-includes:
Tires . O
Tubes
Wheels
Wheel ends
Wheel covers
Springs
Shock absorbers
Fasteners 0
Hydraulic steering cylinders
Mechanical steering linkages
Service brakes
Fluids in system
Bearings (for axles if separate)
Axle boots
Clamps _ O
Torsion bars
Keys
Trailing and leading arms
King pin assemblies
Seals (in system)
Parking brakes
Wheel retraction system (complete) .
Control arms
Ball knuckles
6-21
0~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 -
AMCP 706-350 - -
In general, Group E includes all components of the land gear and suspension system that are 0 0
connected outboard of the universal joint (if any) at the end of the fixed shafting or differential. Items
such as hydraulic steering pumps, or variable tire inflation systems, are, in general, secured to the hull
structure and are included in Group F-Miscellaneous.
Miscellaneous
F-01 Control System--includes: 0 0

Control panels
Remote controls
F-02 Fuel Oil System-includes:
Piping
Valves
Pumps (if not part of engine)
Strainers 6 0
Manifolds
Tanks (except built-in tanks)
Filters
Filling connections
F-03 Spare Parts-includes:
Spare propellers
pSpare shafts, keys, nuts 0 0
Spare bearings
Spare engine parts
On board tools
Spare parts for electronics
F-04 Auxiliaries--Equipment powered by, but not attached to, main pro-
pulsion engine and not properly grouped with another distinct
group-includes- • 0
Hydraulic pump
Generators
Vacuum pumps
Air compressors
Central tire inflation systems
F-05 Electric Power Generation and Cable--includes:
Generators (independently driven) (including normal operating - 0 0
liquids)
Piping
Exhaust
Foundation fastenings
Batteries
Battery cable and clamps
Battery box S 0
Voltage regulators
Resistors
Panels
Cable
Wireways
Supports and drip pans
Switchboards - -
Muffler
6-22
0 00 _0 0 0 S 0
L•9
•.....•__.O.....O
•• o ...• _ .....o O_ • OA
AMCP 706-350 0 0
Miscellaneous (Cont 'd) 0 0

I.'-06 Lighting System -Distribution and Fixtures-includes:
Switch gear
Cable
Supports
Wireways
Fastenings . 0
Lighting fixtures
F-07 Navigational Systems and Equipment includes:
Compasses
Repeaters
Binnacles
Running, signal, and anchor lights
Searchlights
•
Blinkers
Flags
Megaphones
Horns
F-08 Interior Communication System-includes:
Telephones
F-09 Countermeasure and Protective Systems (except electronics)--includes
degaussing system and equipment
F-10 Electronic Systems--includes:
Radios
Radar
Cable
Wireways
Supports
Motor-generator sets
Antennas
Switch gear
F-I1 Ventilation and Heating-includes:
Ducting
Heaters
Cowls and
Blowers andlouvers
fans
Brackets
F-12 Piping Systems-includes:
Fresh water system
Plumbing fixtures
Tanks (when not built-in)
Hangers
Chemical fire system (not portable)
Bilge drainage system
Pumps
Pipe insulating materials
F-13 Steering Gear System--includes:
Rudders
Stuffing tubes
Rudder carrier
Steering gear
6-23
0 0 * 0 0 _ 0 0 0. • _ •
AMCP 706-350
F-13 (cont'd)
Distant controls
Sheaves
Wire rope or rod
Steering wheel
Sprocket and chains
Brackets
F-14 Winches, Capstans, and Anchor: and Cargo Handling Systems--
includes:
Winches
Windlasses
Capstans
Anchors
Chain or rope, and Grapnel and lines
All cargo handling S _
Does not include fixed items for use with these systems such as bitts, chocks, davits.
F-15 [full Fittings-includes warping and towing fittings, and hand rails:
Tow posts
Tow bridles
Davits
Chocks (closed or open)
Cleats
Bitts
Fairleads
Blocking and brackets
Grab rails
Hand rails
Life rails (wire rope or pipe)
Guard rails (wire rope or pipe)
Stanchions and sockets
F-16 Boats, Boat Handling. and Stowage-includes:
Boats complete (dinghies, etc.)
Boat chocks
Boat lashings
Boats, rubber life (complete)
Stowage for life rafts (wood or metal)
Boat falls (lines and blocks)
Lifting pads (for hoisting)
Boat davits
Lifting slings for the vphicle are not included as part of the light condition unless they are normally e
carried on board the vehicle. These are treated as a load when determining the hoisting condition.
F-17 Rigging and Canvas includes:

Standing rigging
Running rigging (for winches)
Wire rope and fittings (for mast)
Manila rope
Mooring lines
[leaving lines
Lashings
6-24
S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 . 0
F-17 (cont'd) .. .. . .
Blocks
Deck tackle
Awnings
Weather cloths
Canvas covers
Cushions
F-18 Ladders and Gratings--includes:
Ladder rungs
Steps
Portable ladders
All gratings
F-19 Joiner Work--includes:
Bulkheads, minor and (divisional
Partitions
Wire mesh
Doors in the above, -is
Tanks and supports when separate from hull structure and not part
part of the system
F-20 Painting-includes:
Paint
Preservatives
Cement
Other coatings
F-21 Insulation-includes:
Insulating materials
Sound proofing
Sheathing
Does not include pipe lagging which is included with the pipe in piping systems.
F-22 Stowages and Lockers-Lockers and Fittings-includes:

Hardware
Shelving
Bins
Stanchions (portable)
Gratings
Battens
Work benches (in machinery spaces)
Stowage racks (in machinery spaces)
Stowage bins (in machinery spaces)
Life jackets
Lockers not properly grouped elsewhere *
F-23 Furniture-includes all furniture, built-in or otherwise, such as:
Chart table
Desks
Seats
Chairs and stools
Litter supports
Plotting boards
6-25
S.. . .. ... . .... 0

AMCP 706-350
TABLE 6-6 (Concluded)
F-24 Equipment -includes:

Signal searchlights (portable)
Hand lanterns
Medical chests
First aid boxes
Fire extinguishers (portable)
Rope or other fenders (portable)
Litters _"___.__-___
Ring buoys
Cleaning gear
Fire and bilge pump (portable)
Hoses
Damage control gear
Books
Boat hooks
Deck gear
Buckets
Life jackets
Mess gear
Stoves
Hot plates
Other on equipment materiel
F-25 Armament-includes:
Guns
Small arms and fire control equipment
Ready service boxes
Small arms locker
Pyrotechnics locker
Margins Margins-includes:
Growth
Construction
Conceptual design
Preliminary design
Detailed design
Loads Ammunition-includes:
Small arms cartridges
Pyrotechnics
Complement-includes:
Men and effects (Passengers are included with cargo)
Stores- -includes:
Dry provisions
General stores
Medical stores
Machinery stores and lubricating oil
Potable Water-includes:
Drinking water
Cargo-includes:
All cargo (dry, bulk, or liquids)
Passengers and effects
Litter patients
Fuel-includes:
Diesel oil
Gasoline
6-26
• ... S_ .. _Se .5 ... S_

_o ._ 0 ..._ S S S 5 0
AMCP 706-350
45 - %
'PRODUCTION LARC XV
40 INCREASED BEAM AND CHANGED

FROM GASOLINE TO DIESEL ENGINE
*356 0
30
30 -XM551 -SHERIDAN
2% *
S25
20E XM2E
LU
PROOTYE FOMGASOLINE TO DIESEL ENGINE
1556 1-1/T6565T88
STUYRP CNTRCT 0E 40OD60T80N100
MONTHS/AFT E CONTRAC
STD _F ~0
0 COTRC 2 40 60~ 8 0100 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 S
satisfy is the ability to safely pass through surf DUKW, which is considered as the safe limit for
whose severity is usually specified in terms of this amphibian. A SUPERDUCK was broached
breaker height from crest to trough. and turned over in plunging surf reported to be
Unfortunately, there are no formulas available about 12 ft high at Monterey, California. A
with which the designer can predict, LARC V safely negotiated the same surf .
quantitatively, surfing ability. Model testing (hl/3 /V 1/3 - 1.5).
does not offer much help in this respect, Another factor which should be considered
although qualitative comparisons of different for surfing ability is reliability. If the propulsion
designs might be made on the basis of model system or steering system should fail for any
tests in waves. In the past, the only reliable reason while the amphibian is in the surf zone, it -
information on surfing ability has come from is likely that the amphibian will broach, swamp, 0 0
full scale testing and operational experience. founder, and capsize. Similar consequences
Thus, the designer must rely heavily on past might follow a bilge pump breakdown.
practice and experience with existing Self-bailing cargo wells are desirable for this
amphibians. reason.
There are many characteristics which are The requirement for maneuverability is
directly related to the performance of an usually expressed in terms of a minimum tactical
amphibian in surf. The range of stability diameter, although minimum acceptable
indicates to what degree the amphibian can roll performance in some other maneuver may also
and yet return to an upright position. The static be specified. The factors which determine
stability as determined by the metacentric maneuverability are discussed in par. 7-9.1.
height GM is a measure of the resistance of the Simple model tests can be performed during the
amphibian to roll and is often given as a design preliminary design stages in order to determine,
requirement (unlike surfing ability, static qualitatively, the degree of directional stability
stability is readily calculated; see par. 7-1.5.2). of any candidate amphibian design. Scale effects
Maneuverability, especially in terms of quick may preclude accurate prediction of tactical
and positive response to the helm, is related to diameter. The relative merits of different
the ability of this amphibian to operate in surf steering system configurations can be deduced
without broaching. Reserve buoyancy and from model tests, however. As with surfing
provisions for automatic bailing of bilges and ability, there are no convenient theoretical _ S
cargo wells are factors which affect the methods available to predict the maneuverability
resistance of the amphibian to swamping. The of proposed amphibian designs. The designer
speed of an amphibian may affect its ability in must rely on past practice, experience, or model
surf with respect to the ability to outrun waves tests. A simple scaling principle, however, can be
(see par. 7-4.3J). applied to tactical diameter, i.e., the ratio of
A simple scaling law can be used as a general tactical diameter to length is roughly constant 0
rule-of-thumb concerning surfing ability in the for similar amphibians. Of course, one must be
preliminary design stages. The maximum safe careful in assessing similarity. For example, two
wave heights for similar amphibians are roughly amphibians of the same design could have
proportional to their relative size. Length could grossly different turning ability, where one was
be used as a measure of size, but for this directionally unstable and the other was made
purpose, the cube root of displaced volume, stable by virtue of an additional skeg or keelson,
V113, is a better parameter. On this basis, an etc. A reasonable value of the ratio of tactical -
amphibian with twice the gross weight of diameter to length (LOA) for amphibians with
another should be able to negotiate surf that is satisfactory maneuverability is 3.0. The subject
statistically 26 percent higher. As a rough of waterborne maneuverability is covered in
estimate, the ratio of significant wave height h 1 /3 more detail in pars. 7-9 through 7-9.4.
(average of the 1/3 highest waves) in plunging
surf to the cube root of volume can be taken as 6-8 LAND PERFORMANCE
h 113 The land performance of wheeled vehicles is
v .2. discussed at length in Refs. 6, 7 and pars. 7-8

ta 13 wthrough
Tid 7-8.5.2. The paragraphs which follow
This corresponds to a wave height of 8 ft for the are included for general background.
6-28
S _ •
...... 0 . .. .0...0.0.0.0...... 0
AMCP 706-350 - -
6-8.1 SPEED AND TRACTIVE EFFORT
The maximum speed of an amphibian on land HEIGHT

is a function of available power, rolling
CG
resistance, wind resistance, grade resistance, the
suspension system, roughness of the terrain, and
the type of soil. The gross tractive effort is the LESLOPE
maximum propelling force that can be
developed by the tires on a given type of SLOPE
EARTH
surface. The limiting factor(s) determining the M4t r-
maximum speed is different for various 0 0
environments. For example, over rough terrain (A)
and obstacles the speed is reduced for operator
comfort and to avoid damage due to shock
loads. On paved roads, power, especially on
grades, may be the limiting factor. The natural
frequency of the rigid suspension system is the -
limiting factor for the LARC V. In weak soils
and sand, the gross tractive effort is limited by
the strength of the soil and, at the same time,
the rolling resistance of the tires is increased due D N
to sinkage.
Rolling resistance is a function of the AXIAL DEFLECTION
amphibian weight, tire design, speed, and the (B)
soil or other surface. Grade resistance is directly Figure 6.9. Side Slope Stability Definition
proportional to the weight and the slope of the Sietch
grade. Wind resistance is a function of the
frontal area and shape of the amphibian and its passes over this point, the amphibian will, of
velocity, but is a small part of the total course, capsize laterally.
resistance at speeds below 35 mph. Where gross The limiting condition on side slopes is not -
tractive effort is the limiting factor, the total necessarily the stability of the amphibian. For
resistance is just equal to the gross tractive effort instance, the downhill tires on the LARC V
at the maximum speed. This subject is covered would lose air and go flat on side slopes while
in greater detail in par. 7-4.2. the vehicle remained stable. This was caused by
the axial deflection of the tire which pulled the
6-8.2 SIDE SLOPE STABILITY sidewall away from rim, breaking the seal.
The side slope requirement is normally - 0
The side slope stability is a function of the specified in the QMR.
vertical center of gravity and the suspension
system design. With a rigid suspension system, 6-8.3 APPROXIMATE MOBILITY INDEX
the important parameters are the track width
and the tire deflections. Fig. 6-9 illustrates the Mobility indexes provide a convenient
condition. The axial and radial tire deflections quantitative measure of vehicle mobility. Some
are caused by the increased loading on the simple formulas for calculating the approximate
downhill wheels. The radial deflection causes the mobility indexes, suitable for use in preliminary
amphibian to lean away from the slope so that design, are given in Table 7-44. These indexes
the amphibian angle is greater than the slope apply to soft soil and sand mobility.
angle. The axial deflection decreases the
effective track width. Both effects are 6-9 MODEL TESTING
detrimental to the side slope stability. As the 6-9.1 NECESSITY FOR MODEL TESTING
side slope increases the center of gravity moves
toward a position over the center of pressure of Model tests may be required at several stages
the downhill tire. Once the center of gravity of the design process in order to confirm
6-29
AMCP 706-350 - 0
engineering estimates of diverse design variables rotative speed and power absorbed by the
or to obtain more accurate values of these propulsor at each velocity are measured with
variables when the estimates are rough or based suitable instrumentation. The test measurements
on incomplete data. Model tests are needed are used, in conjunction with resistance and
especially for new and unconventional designs propulsor tests, to define the interaction 0
for which there is no previous experience or between the hull and propulsor in terms of wake
quantitative data which can be used to make fraction and thrust deduction.
estimates. While there are a number of successful
operational amphibians in existence, they are 6-9.2.3 Maneuverability
certainly not considered to be optimum
configurations with respect to waterborne Free running and captive model tests may be
performance. In any case, there does not exist a conducted to determine different aspects of
store of amphibian design experience or maneuverability.
systematic series test data comparable to that
which is available to the merchant ship designer. 6-9.2.3.1 Free Running
Model tests are conducted in a controlled
environment so that the effect of a single design The simplest test that can be made with a free
variable can be found independently and the test running model is rarely used because it only
results can be confirmed by simply repeating the indicates whether the amphibian is directionally
test. Unknown variables such as wind and tide stable or not. A self-propelled model with
do not obscure the results. As long as there are rudder fixed amidships is set on a straight course
no predominant scale factors involved, and then a momentary side force is applied at
confidence in properly conducted model tests the bow. If the model establishes some new
should be at a high level, straight line path it is directionally stable, by 0 0
In summary, the gains which can be obtained definition. If it is directionally unstable, it will
by model tests are associated with the data go into a steady turn after the force is applied to
which can be used to make design decisions with the bow.
a high confidence level. These data can be Steady turning diameters can be obtained
obtained at relatively low cost and in a short with the free running model by setting the
time. rudder at fixed angle increments. However, more
information can be obtained if the rudder is
6-9.2 TYPES OF MODEL TESTS remotely controlled. Definitive maneuvers can
be simulated with a remotely controlled free
The various types of model tests are described running model. The turning maneuver is
br"iefly in the paragraphs which follow. Greater described in par. 7-9.1.1 and Fig. 7-98. The
detail concerning test procedures and modeling Dieudonne spiral maneuver is described in par.
laws are found in pars. 7-4.1 to 7-4.1.3 and 7-7.6 7-9.1.2 and Fig. 7-99. The spiral maneuver serves
to 7-7.6.4. mainly to determine qualitative stability
characteristics. One other maneuver, the Kempf
6-9.2.1 Resistance overshoot (or zig-zag), serves to determine
control characteristics. This maneuver is
The model is towed in a model basin over a described in Ref. 7.
straight path at various constant speeds. The Free running model tests must be run in large
drag, as a function of speed and displacement, is turning or maneuvering basins. The model
measured by a simple force gage or trajectory is recorded so that quantities such as
dynamometer. The drag component of yaw rate, turning radius, and speed may be
appendages is deduced by running tests with and determined. Model trim and heel in turns may
without appendages mounted on the model. also be observed.
6-9.2.2 Self-propulsion 6-9.2.3.2 Captive Model 6
The model is propelled by a model propulsor The model is restrained by the towing carriage
in a model basin at the desired speeds. The through a dynamometer in captive model tests
6-30
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AMCP 706-350
to obtain numerical values for the torque, and efficiency) over a wide range of
hydrodynamic coefficients in the equations of operating conditions in open water. Tests may
motion. With these coefficients, mathematical be performed either in a towing tank or a
models, in conjunction with high-speed circulating water tunnel or channel. If cavitation .............
computers, are used to simulate the vehicle effects are important, a water tunnel or channel S S
motions. This approach has the potential for with provisions for modeling cavitation number
obtaining more basic information on must be used. Thrust, torque, rotative speed,
maneuverability than free running tests which and advance speed are all measured. The data are
only predict the motions but do not give insight usually reduced to the coefficient form as
into the controlling factors. propeller characteristic curves. These tests are
Three types of captive model tests are covered in detail in pars. 7-6 through 7-6.4.
commonly performed: (1) steady state yaw, (2)
planar motion mechanism, and (3) rotating arm. 6-9.3 SCHEDULE OF TESTS
The first two are conducted in conventional
towing tanks. The third must be run in a turning Several factors should be considered when
or maneuvering basin. The forces and moments fixing a schedule for model tests:
on both the model and control surfaces are a. Relation of model test to design process
measured in these tests. A complete description b. Interrelation of tests S 0
of these tests, including how the results are used c. Lead time
in the motion equations, is given in Ref. 8. d. Testing agency and facility
The model tests are arranged to provide data
6-9.2.4 Seakeeping for decisions and estimates in the evolutionary
design process. The test schedule should take
Seakeeping tests are conducted in towing into account the natural sequence of events in
tanks equipped with wavemaking mechanisms. the design evolution. For example, the hull lines
The model is generally towed into the waves and gross vehicle weight must be known before a .
(head seas) which may be either regular model test can be made to determine the
(constant length and height) or irregular, with resistance. This resistance, in turn, should be
long crests (waves coming from one direction known before the propulsor characteristics are
only). If tests in quartering and/or short crested selected and propulsion tests are performed.
(waves coming from several directions) seas are Thus, the relation between tests such as
desired, they must be performed in special resistance, propulsion, and self-propulsion tests
seakeeping basins. The model may be free of must be considered.
pitch and heave or may be constrained in all six The lead time for model tests includes time
degrees of freedom. As with maneuvering tests, for model construction, facility availability,
the free model tests are used to simulate the testing, and data reduction. These factors may
motions in waves and the captive model tests are depend greatly on the schedules and capabilities 0
used to measure forces and moments in order to of the prospective test agencies and facilities, i.e,
derive the motion coefficients. These their work-load. The test schedule should be
coefficients are used in the equations of motions carefully considered when selecting a test
from which the motions in arbitrary sea facility because delays in obtaining test results
conditions can be calculated. These calculations will lead, indirectly, to increased costs in the
require the use of a high-speed computer. This design process.
approach has the advantage that the motions in Another very important factor which must be
a wide range of sea conditions can be studied considered in selecting a suitable test facility is
without the need to simulate each in a testing its size. Larger tank cross sections allow
tank. proportionally larger models to be tested
without any increase in tank wall effects. The
6-9.2.5 Propulsion use of larger models is advantageous with respect
to scale effects as explained in par. 7-4.1.1.3. In 9 0
Propulsion tests are conducted to determine effect, the larger the model the more accurate
the propulsor performance coefficients (thrust, the prediction of full scale performance will be.
6-31
S. .. S
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AMCP 706-350
6-9.4 POSSIBLE LOCATIONS FOR

MODEL TESTS institutional, and private facilities
are included.
Table 6-7 is presented to give a comprehensive A brief description of the facility
list of test facilities which might special capability is included for and any
be considered convenience.
More complete information including
foreign
for amphibian model tests. Governmental, facilities is tabulated in Ref. 9.
* 0
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REFERENCES
1. AMCP 706-134, Engineering Design Hand- Wilson, Nuttall, Raymond Engineers, Inc.,
book, Maintainability Guide for Design. Chestertown, Maryland, May 1967.
2. C. H. Holtyn, "Status of Aluminum Small 6. AMCP 706-355, Engineering Design Hand-
Boat Standards and Recommended book, Automotive Series, The Automotive
Practices", Small Craft Symposium, Assembly.
Southeast Section of the Society of Naval 7. AMCP 706-356, Engineering Design Hand-
Architects and Marine Engineers, September book, Automotive Series, Automotive Sus-
1967. pensions.
3. Rules for Building and ClassingSteel Vessels, 8. P. Mandel, Principlesof Navel Architecture, , 0
American Bureau of Shipping, New York, The Society of Naval Architects and Marine
1968. Engineers, New York, 1967, pp. 463-517.
4. Weight ClassificationforBoatsofthe United 9. A. Goodman and V. E, Johnson, Jr.,
States Navy, Department of the Navy, Requirements Study for a Hydrodynamic
Washington, D. C., May 1965. Test Facility for the U. S. Naval Oceano-
5. C. J. Nuttall, Jr., Ground Crawling: 1966 graphic Office, Technical Report No. 0 0
The State of the Art of Designing Off-Road 380-1, Hydronautics, Incorporated, Laurel,
Vehicles, Contract Report No. 3-162, Maryland, 1964.
* 0i
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6-36
* . .
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AMCP 706-350
CHAPTER 7 DETAILED DESIGN

0 0
SECTION I HULL DESIGN
7-1 HULL LINES plating. These dimensions are gihen at each
station for the distance of the intersection of
A fundamental part of the hull design process each buttock plane with the shell above the base .. .
is the development of the hull shape or lines, line and the distance of the intersection of each 0 0
This part deals with the drawing of the hull waterline plane with the shell from the
lines, some of the considerations involved in centerline. The dimensions in the table of offsets
selecting the shape, and the calculations required in Fig. 7-1 are given in inches and tenths of
for support of the drawing process. inches. It is customary in naval architectare to
give the offsets in feet, inches, and eighths of an
7-1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND EXPLANA- inch and to give offsets to the inside of shell
TION plating. This type of offset table may be
encountered in the lines drawing of some
The hull shape of an amphibious vehicle is wheeled amphibians.
rather complex so that a systematic method of It is customary in a lines drawing of a wheeled
describing it must be employed. To accurately amphibian to label the section, buttock, and
delineate the hull shape, three sets of planes are waterline planes with a dimension which is the
used to slice the craft along three orthogonal distance from an appropriate reference plane... 0
axes. The three sets of planes are the buttock, The reference plane for the section planes may
section, and waterline planes. be established at the extreme forward point (or
The buttock planes cut the hull along its aft point) of the hull. The reference plane for
length and are parallel to a vertical plane. the buttock planes is the centerline plane. The
The section planes cut the hull into transverse reference plane for the waterline planes is an
vertical slices. The section planes are rotated 90 arbitrary baseline plane. In general the baseline
deg from the buttock planes. plane is established on the hull bottom or keel.
The last of the orthogonal set of planes are
the waterline planes which cut the craft into 7-1.1.1 Lines Fairing Procedure
horizontal slices, parallel with the baseline plane.
The intersection of the hull surface with each The basic steps in drawing a set of lines are
section plane is described by an outline on the given in par. 6-4.5.3. These steps apply to the
cutting plane. final lines as well as the preliminary lines and - -
The composite drawing of the outlines from need not be repeated. The major difference is
each successive cut of the section planes is called that the final lines are done to a larger scale and
the body plan. Similarly, the half-breadth and contain more section, buttock, and waterline
profile plans are composite drawings of the planes for improved accuracy.
outlines obtained by intersection of the hull and For the reasons given in pars. 7-1.2 through
waterline planes and buttock planes, 7-1.2.4. the waterborne performance of a
respectively, wheeled amphibian will be improved if the hull
The three drawings-body, half-breadth, and lines are fair. A fair line is one which is smooth
profile plans-are collectively called the lines and continuous, i.e., without rapid changes in
drawing or often just the "lines", Fig. 7-1 is a the radius of curvature. A line which is fair in
lines drawing of the LARC V, showing the three three different orthogonal projections will be
plans. fair in all projections. This is one of the reasons
In addition to the body, profile (or sheer), the that three orthogonal sets of planes are used to
half-breadth plan, it is customary for the lines describe the hull shape.
drawing to contain a table of offsets. The offsets In developing a fair set of lines, the key is to
are the dimensions to the outside of the shell produce lines that are geometrically correct as
7-1
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well as fair. Geometrically correct means that all 7-1.1.2.2 Amphibian Hull Developable Surfaces
three views (the body, profile, and half-breadth
planes) m ust plans) ustrepeset
represent th sam
the saee hull
hll surface.
urfce.
an
There are, essentially, only three surfaces on
mp i an h l w ic de rt f o t e
This requires that all intersection points among an amphibian hull which depart from the
the three sets of orthogonal planes be consistent box-shape-sthe spoon-shaped bow which is the 0 •
in all three views on the lines plan. For example, largest curved hull surface, the propulsor tunnel,
the distances from the centerline plane to the The corners at the intersection of two flat
waterlines in the half-breadth plan measured at
each section plane must be the same as the plates can be simple circular arcs. The tunnel can
distances from the centerline plane to the be shaped as a combination of cylindrical and
sections in the body plan as meas. ed at each conical surfaces.
waterline plane. Similar relationships must exist The bow of a wheeled amphibian can be made s.
between the distances of the buttocks above the up of a combination of developable surfaces.
baseline plane in the profile plan and body plan, The bow of the LARC V, illustrated in the
and between the distances of the intersections of profile and half-breadth plans of Fig. 7-1, is an
"waterlines andexample
in the half-breadth and profile planse consists of of
this. four
The bow shape of the
different LARC V
developable
in musthe
half-breadh am roled plathns. asurfaces-two cones, a flat, and a cylinder. The
Itanged berememberedthree whewon te lineis cones are located between the dotted lines (one
changed in any of the three views on the lines is labeled EXTREME ELEMENT) and the
plan it must be corrected in the other views so is keel .The flat ENTrface te
that the geometric accuracy is maintained. Thus centerline keel. The flat surface is located
the development of a set of lines that is fair and between the dotted lines, and buttock 39 in the
geometrically accurate is an iterative procedure profile plan. The cylindrical surface starts in the
which requires many cycles. An easy way of vicinity of buttock 39 and extends up to the
rapidly checking the geometric accuracy sheeline (r e at side). t
between views is to mark a strip of paper with a In developing the bow surface, the designer is
tick mark at an intersection and at a reference advised to begin with arbitrary elements similar
plane in one view and then compare the marked to those in Fig. 7-1. Each of the surfaces-the
distance on the paper strip with the distance two conical and one cylindrical--are developed
from the reference plane to the intersection in independently. For example, when the two 0 0
another view. This takes less time and is more elements and other boundary for the fiat are
accurate than measuring the distances with a chosen, the three surfaces can be developed
scale, independently. Once the surfaces have been
developed, body plans for the bow are obtained
7-1.1.2 Developable Surfaces and compared with the body plan from the
preliminary lines process. If the body plans do
7-1.1.2.1 Advantage of Developable Surfaces not agree, new elements and a new flat surface
are chosen, the three surfaces developed again,
If the hull is to be of metal, it is desirable that and the resulting body plans compared. This is,
the final lines be developable. A developable quite obviously, a trial and error process.
surface is one which can be represented by the
surface of a cone with a movable or fixed apex. 7-1.1.2.3 Surface Development Procedures*
A cylindrical surface is also developable. Plating The first step is to draw the profile and
for developable surfaces can be formed by half-breadth view of the bow and part of the 0
relatively simple rolling techniques or cold parallel section through the cargo space. The
bending in place over frames or jigs. waterline scale, which is the vertical scale in the
Accordingly, developable surfaces are used in profile plan, should be greater than the station
metal hulls for simplicity of construction with and buttock scales. The purpose of this
resulting lower cost. Special shaping techniques deliberate distortion of the profile plan serves to
necessary for more complex shapes are very increase the curvature of the keel (and sheer line,
costly, time-consuming, and require special in the case of vehicles with a boat-like sheer
equipment. Further, vehicles with developable
surfaces can be repaired in shops which have * The major portion of this paragraph is
minimal equipment. reproduced from a paper by Kilgore, Ref. 1.
7-4
AMCP 706-350 -
line), thus making tangents easier to obtain. A

similar distortion in the half-breadth plan may 2
also be necessary.
A simple surface development scheme is 678'
described and three methods are outlined. The - 0

designer will find the first and third methods
most often used for the amphibian bow
development. The lines of a small boat are
developed as an illustrative example. DWL
The important properties of a developable
surface are:
1. A developable surface may be depicted
graphically by drawing the family of planes that --
are tangential to it. , 2 3
2. Any tangential plane to the surface is also
tangential to any curve lying in the surface and Figure 7-2. PreliminaryBody Plan
intersecting the line of tangency, or ruling, foreshortened longitudinally, in half-breadth and
3. Any plane found to be tangential to the profile. This is done because the main method of
surface at any point is unique. constructional drawing consists of locating
These properties, as far as drawing is various points by drawing tangents to curves at
concerned, suggest the following constructional these points.
approaches: The side surface of the boat above the chine is
1. Planes tangential to the surface should be obviously contained by two required curves, the
found. sheer and chine lines, but some doubt exists at 0 6
2. These planes are best found by using given present whether a developable surface can be
curves already known to lie in the desired fitted to the straight stem line. As the sheer and
surface, such as chine, sheer, and profile chine lines are not simple curves, we cannot
centerline outline, develop the surface by the simpler method that
3. If any plane can be found to be tangential will be utilized on the bottom. The approach .
at a particular point, it is the unique plane used is to draw a tangent to one curve and the
tangential at that point and may be used with plane generated is then swung until it comes into
confidence. tangency with the other known curve. This is
The best means of illustration is a practical not difficult, as is shown by the following
example. The example which follows gives the procedure:
general procedure for the development of planes 1. Take a point P at the bow on the chine
applicable to a lines drawing of a vessel with the and, in both the half-breadth and profile, draw
following particulars: the tangents to the chine line passing through P.
Length (waterline)LWL 39.5 ft 2. From this tangent draw any line AB
Displacement A = 15.57 tons intersecting the sheer line .in B at a reasonable
Longitudinal center of buoyancy intersection angle in profile and half-breadth
LCB = 0.53 LWL abaft Station 0 view.
A preliminary hull design drawing, meeting 3. At suitable short intervils from this line,
these requirements with straight line sections, is i.e., at C and E, draw the same lines parallel to 0 0
shown in Fig. 7-2. Sheet materials can hardly AB in the profile and the half-breadth.
ever be applied to a hull of straight line sections, 4. At the intersection of the lines through C
hence these sections must become suitably and E, and the sheer line in the half-breadth plan
curved. The designer, with practice, will learn are the points D and F
how to make allowances for this curvature in the 5. Transfer these points to the profile giving
preliminary design stage, so as to finally yield curve BDF
the required hull parameters. 6. Define the point Q where the curve BDF
The sides of the boat above the chine are not cuts the sheer line.
as easy to develop as the bottom below it. In 7. Take the point P' at the midpoint of BQ.
Fig. 7-3 the hull drawing has been laid out, 8. Join P and P' giving the line of tangency
7-5
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h rsi half-breadth ai n s rpsilofie fa , ther
plae PARt the cyinde ascutdmut theoinesadaet thelie arthi draw
ie initiall frmCanden lie partallel ato
p oe rints B o D, ind Fh i ae cn d th e eo i et, as alrp oea d A Ru ewc i stho u k no win whe fre D ae gnd o cctur o n
F in
sheer line inth half-breadth.t
nthe b the tm.dge hnen
l o
t ain
o n o;fro D, ano n the le,
profint
sttd
view must be located by projecting them ......- •

Therefore, the curve BDF in profile shows the "
intersection of the cylinder with plane PAR and upwards from the lines in the half-breadth view.
coincides with the sheer line at B and the second The curve BDF is the intersection of a
point Q. cylindrical surface (of which the chine in this
2
7-6
AMCP 706-350
case is the edge view in half-breadth view. The from B locates C and is tangent to the stem
curve BDF is the intersection of a cylindrical profile. Hence the tangential plane is complete
surface (of which the chine in this case is the in PBC because it is a plane tangential to two
edge view in half-breadth) with plane PAB. This curves lying in a developable surface. Line PC is
curve intersects the chine at B and F, and the unique line of tangency of PBC with the
therefore a slight rotation of PAB will bring it surface. Hence PC is ruling number 2. Rulings
into tangency about midway between B and F, numbered 1, 3, and 4 are determined by the
at P' The line PP'is a line of tangency of a plane same method.
with the surface of the boat, shown as ruling Beyond Station 4, a tangent to the chine will
number 9, Fig. 7-3. ru.a off the drawing-board before it intersects
The rest of the rulings on the side surface, the centerline, so that from this point a third
shown in heavy lines and numbered 1 through method of development must be employed. The 0 0
13, were obtained by the same procedure. The method used follows (Fig. 7-5):
procedure will require approximately two hours. 1. Draw a line parallel with the centerline
It should be noted that development of the tangential to the chine line giving the point P in
planes was commenced in the half-breadth view. the half-breadth.
It could have been started in the profile view, 2. Transfer this point to the profile and draw
letting the sheer or chine in that view represent the tangent to the chine line through P. 0
the edge view of the cylinder, but then the 3. Still in profile, draw a line parallel to this
cylinder would have intersected the plane almost tangent line to the chine, but tangential to the
perpendicularly, and the curve of intersection centerline outline giving the point A.
when projected on half-breadth would not be so 4. Join PA which is the ruling of the surface
well defined. With experience, the draftsman number 5.
will initially select the view where the plane will This procedure is based on the theorem of
be intersected at the most acute angle. parallel tangents already stated. Therefore, by
Occasionally the two points of intersection of the theorem, the tangent to the chine at a ruling
the plane with the given line will be too far of the surface through P, in the profile view, will
apart, in which case it will be necessary to refine be parallel to the centerline outline curve at the
the accuracy by drawing a new plane closer to intersection of that ruling with the centerline
the point of tangency. outline.
Development of the bottom is much simpler Now referring to Fig. 7-2, note that bottom 0 S
because the centerline curve lies entirely within sections 8, 9, and 10 are parallel in the body
a plane. Because of the foreshortening of the plan. They are also parallel in all other views,
drawing, the resultant curvature of the lines and, therefore they define a cylindrical surface.
makes points of tangency easier to find. The Hence we do not have to develop the bottom
development of the surface near the bow is abaft Station 8; this is already done.
shown in Fig. 7-4. Ruling 2 is used as the To obtain the rulings 6 to 9, the following
example. The graphical construction follows: procedure is adopted:
1. In half-breadth draw tangent to chine line 1. Transfer the buttock lines 1, 2, and 3 to
at P and project it forward to intersect with the profile by using the height intersection from the
centerline plane at A. body sections for sections 8, 9, and 10. Transfer
2. Transfer the point P to the profile and the intersections of the buttocks and rulings 1,
draw the tangent to the profile chine line 2, 3, 4, and 5 in the half-breadth to the profile.
through P. Fit a spline to these points precisely, and draw - 0
3. Transfer point A from half-breadth to the buttock lines in profile.
extended tangent line through P in profile giving 2. Draw parallel tangents to the buttocks and
the point B. centerline profile line in profile; the points of
4. Through B draw tangent line to bow tangency give the rulings.
profile obtaining point C, giving the plane PBC. 3. Check that all points lie on straight lines in
The explanation of the above procedure both views. This gives the points B', etc., and _ 0
follows: The intersection of the tangent with the the rulings 6, 7, and 8.
centerline at A in the half-breadth must be in This again is dependent on the parallel
the same plane as the point B in profile. The line tangent theorem as buttocks and centerline
7-7
46 0
0 0~ @ S 0 0 0 0 0 0i
AMCP 706-350 -
- *
* 0
5 4 3 2 1
C
S A
Figure 7-4. Development of Bottom by Intersecting Tangents
profile represent parallel planes. The gap or otherwise, will have sufficient plasticity to
between Station 8 and ruling number 5 is accommodate slight deformation. The
considerable, but the spline is held on at least development of the bulwarks is not shown. In
three points at each side of the gap. It will fairly this case the top of the rail is drawn at a
accurately describe the only fair line that can be constant distance from the deck, and the
drawn between these points. The balance of the bulwarks could be rapidly and accurately -
bottom, abaft Station 8, of course, has already developed by the method of parallel tangents
been found to consist of straight, parallel because over short distances the sheer and
frames, bulwark lines in profile can be considered
Developing the bottom should require a half straight lines.
hour. If it had been necessary, the same method The displacement, and the position of the
could have been used on the bottom as on the longitudinal center of buoyancy have been
sides, but faster and more accurate methods altered, although not a great deal. If the exact
were available. The final lines are shown in the specified particulars are desired, the designer
body plan, Fig. 7-6. This was obtained by should make provision in the preliminary plan
transferring the new buttock lines on the for these predictable changes. The lines of chine,
stations from the profile and half-breadth shown sheer, and outline are exactly the same as
in Fig. 7-5. The sections in the sides of the originally proposed. *
forward part of the boat are so nearly straight 7-1.2 WATERBORNE SPEED AND RESISTANCE
that the very slight curvature in them cannot be CONSIDERATIONS
shown with the small scale on which these
drawings were done. Almost any material, metal At the point in the design process that the
7-8
__* A.~. 0~ _.... 0 *_* * *e*

AMCP 706-350 .
* 0
*""
6.5 sE'- .D
B *
10 9 5 4
IIr _ CO ___ A
\1D8\ 6 5 ! -%'
E' D' C' 8' A •
Figure 7-5. Use of ParallelTangents
hull lines are drawn, the basic hull form at the bow. A review of Fig. 7-1, the figures in
requirements--such as dimensions, displacement, Chapter 3 showing conventional amphibian
center of buoyancy, and general shape-will have hulls, and the figures in Chapter 9 showing
been established. Within these constraints the high-speed amphibian hulls indicates the - _• -
details of the hull shape must be developed. The variations possible. These can be divided into
actual details of the shape depend on both two basic types, i.e., the scow bow, as
hydrodynamic and hydrostatic considerations, exemplified by the DUKW, and the faired or
The remainder of this paragraph on hull lines boat-type bow as exemplified by the LARC V.
deals with the relationships between Par. 7-4.1.2.2 and Fig. 7-61 indicate the effect
hydrodynamic and hydrostatic considerations of bow form on the calm water resistance. It has *
and the details of the hull shape. It must be been concluded from calm water model test data
realized that many of these considerations that the effect on calm water resistance is not
conflict with one another so that compromises large. It is expected that the bow shape will have
must be made on the basis of the designer's a larger effect on rough water resistance and
judgment and in light of the overall design seakindliness. In these areas the faired bow
objectives, should be superior to the scow shaped bow.
However, there are no quantitative data available - _ O
to evaluate the effects or suggest details of the
The basic area of the hull in which the shape. Experience with small boats indicates
designer has a range of shapes to choose from is that for seakindliness, the bow should be given
7-9
* *~ ~ ~ ~ 00 0 06 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
FINAL
PRELIMINARY S--- 0
45
"*._
Figure 7-6. Final Body Plan
the maximum possible freeboard and flair and across the chine may cause local eddymaking
the minimum possible entrance angle. It is the and increased resistance. Therefore, if possible,
opinion of one of the LARC V designers that chines should be aligned parallel to the direction
the prototype LARC V, which had more flair of the local flow. In many cases this will not be 0 0
and a smaller entrance angle than the production possible. In this event a sharp chine should be
LARC V, shipped less water in head seas and replaced with as large a radius as possible. The
was, generally, more seakindly. intersection of the hull side and bottom
The concept of a fair surface is presented in amidships in the LARC V lines shown in Fig. 7-1
par. 7-1.1. By the absence of rapid changes in is an example of such a condition. An exception
radius of curvature, the fair surface reduces the to the idea of rounded chines occurs in the case L * •*
change of local flow separation or turbulence of high-speed amphibians where a sharp chine
which results in the formation of eddies and will cause the flow to break away which reduces
increases the eddymaking component of the wetted surface.
residuary resistance (see par. 7-4). Thus, it is A spray strip is often fitted to high-speed
desirable for the designer to provide a fair shape amphibians to "peel" the spray off the hull
where possible. surface, reducing frictional drag. The spray strip
can have a triangular or square cross section with * S
7-1.2.2 Chines and Spray Strips sharp edges. A typical spray strip cross section
and location are illustrated in Fig. 9-9. In
The requirements for internal volume and, in practice the location of the spray strips is often
most cases, developable hull surfaces require determined by trial and error in model tests.
that an amphibian hull be designed with chines.
A chine can be defined as an intersection 7-1.2.3 Wheels and Wheel Wells .
between two fair surfaces. Fig. 7-3 illustrates a
typical chine on a small boat. Across a chine the As indicated in par. 7-4, the exposed wheels
hull is, of course, unfair and, as a result, flow of a conventional amphibian are a major source
7-10
-40 S S
• : .9. e .. . _0o_
. . . . _o
.. . • . . . • . .• ...o S• S 0 5 S 0
AMCP 706-350 -
of drag. This drag is basically a function of efficiency is required, hence care is required in
exposed frontal area so that little can be done to designing the tunnel.
reduce it by altering hull shape. However, if From the standpoint of propulsion, the inlet
possible, exposed projections on wheel rims and section of the tunnel (i.e., from the forward end
wheel ends should be faired or recessed into the to the propeller) is most critical. For highest 0 6
hull. From considerations of resistance and propulsive efficiency and minimum vibrations, it
stability, the wheel wells should be kept as small is desirable that the inflow to the propeller have
as possible. The minimum width is determined a uniform velocity. It is important, therefore,
by clearance requirements for steering. Model that flow separation does not occur in the
tests of the LARC V hull arranged for 2- or tunnel inlet section. In this respect the tunnel
4-wheel steering with the same turning radius design problem is similar to that of diffuser,
showed little difference in resistance. Radial condenser scoop, water jet inlet, or air scoop
clearance between the tire and wheel well is design. Refs. 2 through 9 provide design
required to keep loose objects from being information on this subject.
wedged between them. Experience with the It is of value to consider experience with the
LARC V indicates that it has been provided with LARC series tunnel designs since the propeller
about the minimum acceptable radial clearance, tunnel is not exactly analogous to the items
covered in the references. Data on the LARC S S
7-1.2.4 Appendages series tunnels are presented in Fig. 7-7. The most
The major appendages on a wheeled critical part of the tunnel inlet geometry is the
amphibian are associated with the propulsion inlet angle. If this angle is too large, flow
steering, and suspension systems. The design on separation will occur. The values of this angle in
sterin,
sspesio ad sytem. Te dsig of the LARC series ranged between 10.5 and 13.5
the appendages for the propulsion and steering deg. •
systems are covered in pars. 7-7 and 7-9. The deg.
sysemsdares volvered winhparsuspns.7 nd7sthem Ref. 10 indicates that for flush waterjet inlets
appendages involved with the suspension system thmaiu anlsoldotecd15eg
can have a significant effect on the details of the the maximum angle should not exceed 15 deg.
hull shape. These appendages include items such Every effort should be made in the tunnel design
as axles, wheel ends, and differential housings. to keep the inlet angles below this value. If there
In an amphibian with a rigid suspension, the is some compelling reason to increase the inlet
only exposed item of this type will be the wheel angle, the design should be model tested to
ends and associated gear box. These should be determine if separation exists and the form
endsandassoiatd
ger bx. Teseshoud ~ modified if necessary.
recessed into the hull as far as possible or The LR LXc was t i h e
when exposed. In the case
appropriately faired with The LARC LX was the first of the series
of an amphibian a spring suspension designed and was found to have significant
system; exposed axles, differentials, or other propeller vibration. To solve this problem on the
appendages should be housed in hull recessesr later LARC V and LARC XV designs, the sides
appendages shouldbe
o thoed iand ullr . of the inlet were opened transversely. This had 0
This was done on the DUKW and found to teefc ficesn h unlvlm n
significantly reduce the total resistance. the effect of increasing the tunnel volume and
altering the tunnel inlet sectional area curve, as
7-1.3 WATERBORNE PROPULSION CONSIDER- shown in Fig. 7-7. It is reported that the
ATIONS propeller induced vibrations of the LARC V and
LARC XV are less than those of the LARC LX.
It is probable that any wheeled amphibian Further information on tunnel design and the 0 0
design propelled with a screw propeller will effects of propulsion requirements on hull shape
require a propeller tunnel. The function of the is presented in par. 7-7.
propeller tunnel is to provide inflow to a
propeller that has been recessed into the hull for 7-1.4 WATERBORNE MANEUVERABILITY CON-
protection and to increase clearance on land. In SIDERATIONS
conventional amphibians of the LARC series the
propeller operates in the tunnel at all times; The requirements for adequate 0 5
whereas in high-speed amphibians the propeller maneuverability will have important effects on
only operates in a tunnel during surf operations. the hull shape in the area of the maneuvering
In either case the highest possible propulsion device. The basic concepts and types of
7-11
S... O,• • O
... ....• ...• • • • • 0
0_ S ~@~
~@ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
ILTAGLE
CL PROPELLER SIDE ANGLE
1.5
VEHICLE INLET ANGLE SIDE ANGLE
LARCV 13.50 50
10.50 7.50
LARC XV
LARC LX 12.5 L0
LU.
0a.
LU.
z
z
D 0.5
10 Z
__ __ _ LACL
- __ _ __ __ _ LARC_O_V
__ -
1.0 0.5 0
CL PROPELLER
TUNNEL INLET SECTION AREA CURVE
Figure 7-7. Wheeled Amphibian Tunnel Data
maneuvering devices are covered in detail in par. which rotate the propulsion thrust vector must
7-9. In order to operate effectively; rudders, be provided inflow according to the
right angle propeller drives, and vertical axis considerations covered in pars. 7-1.3 and 7-7.
propellers must have unrestricted inflow and Fig. 7-8 shows the interaction between rudder
outflow. In the case of a passive maneuvering and tunnel. Outflow from the maneuvering _
device such as a rudder, adequate inflow is device must be provided over the range of angles
provided even at low speeds by placement in the through which the slipstream is deflected. Any
propeller slipstream. Active maneuvering devices projection in the deflected slipstream may be
7-12
... ...... • ..... 0 0 _ . _ A. -
--
AMCP 706-350 - -
expected to produce drag forces which will act

against the turnhig forces. For this reason the FORCE ON TUNNEL
sides of the propeller tunnel, aft of the WALL OPPOSING
propeller, are flared outward in all amphibian TURNING FORCE
designs. The angle of the tunnel side with 0 0
respect to the centerline ranges from 12 deg on
the older LARC LX to 14 deg and 16 deg on the STREAM LINES
newer LARC V and LARC XV, respectively.
The depth of the tunnel is rapidly reduced aft of RUDDER
the propeller on the LARC series by the
cutaway of the hull required to produce an
acceptable approach or departure angle.
The importance of opening up the propeller
tunnel aft of the propeller is illustrated by the
model tests of the LARC V reported in Ref. 11.
A configuration was tested in which the tunnel TURNING FORCE
sides were extended straight aft from the Figure 7-8. InteractionBetween Rudder and
propeller by means of flaps. This had the effect Tunnel Walls
of reducing the side force for maneuvers to 20
to 40 percent of that developed with diverging
tunnel sides. vertical line which passes through the center of
gravity of the vehicle. For a given vehicle weight
7-1.5 SEAKEEPING AND SURFING CONSIDERA- and center of gravity, the volume of the hull and
TIONS all appendages must be such that these 41
conditions are satisfied. This is accomplished by
To operate successfully in waves and surf, a appropriately adjusting the hull shape.
wheeled amphibian must have adequate power,
control or maneuverability, stability, and
watertight integrity. These areas and their effect 7-1.6.1.1 Calculation Procedures
on hull shape are covered in pars. 7-1.4, 7-1.6,
7-4.1.2.4, 7-4.3.1, and 7-9. In all studies of buoyancy and stability the 0
S
basic requirement is the determination, by
calculation, of the displaced volume and the
7-1.6 BUOYANCYAND WATERBORNE STABILITY center of this volume. The basic calculation
procedure is one of integration. Linear
Pars. 7-1.2 through 7-1.5 deal with the dimensions from the lines drawing are integrated
hydrodynamic considerations involved in the analytically, numerically, or mechanically to
selection of the details of the hull shape. Of obtain areas which are integrated by the same
equal or greater importance in the development procedures to obtain voiume. In the event that
of the hull shape are the hydrostatic the hull surface can be defined in terms of
considerations of buoyancy and stability which simple analytical expressions, the areas may be
are covered in the paragraphs which follow, obtained by substituting the proper numerical
limits into the expressions resulting from
7-1.6.1 Buoyancy integrating the original analytical expressions. 0 0
This is almost never possible because of the
Under conditions of equilibrium in calm complex nature of the hull shape. As a result, it
water, the sum of the forces and moments acting is necessary to use numerical or mechanical
on an amphibian are equal to zero. If no integration procedures.
external forces are acting, this condition requires Standard reference books on naval
that the weight of the displaced fluid architecture such as Refs. 12, 13, and 14 present •*
(buoyancy) be equal to the weight of the vehicle several numerical integration procedures. The
and that the center of buoyancy (the center of one most commonly used is due to Simpson and
gravity of the displaced fluid) be located on a is known as Simpson's rule. First the area under
7-13
____- -....
J..
AMCP 706-350
a curve of y, a function of x, is approximated by The first moment of an area about the y = 0

axis is approximated by
't ydx • A
-- (yo + 4y, + Y2) (7-1) f 2 y2 h .... ........
3 (dX y 1 -4(-
(YOy +4y+y) (7-4)
where
F area under the curve of y between x =
= The "vertical"center of the area is given by
0, and x = 2h
h 1/2 the distance between the limits of dx
integration 2 (in units of y) (7-5)
Yo,1, 2 = value of the function y at x = 0, h, -Y = ( t )
and 2h ydx
Note: The units of 'D depend on the units of

y and x. If x and y are both given in ft, then These quantities are illustrated in Fig. 7-9.
(' is ft 2 . If y is in ft2 and x in ft, then 'D is ftW. Where the moment of an area is obtained
Simpson's First Rule will give exactly the using Simpson's Rule, caution must be observed 0 0
correct area if y may be expressed as a with respect to the degree of approximation
polynomial of x up to the third order (i.e., y = obtained with a third degree polynomial.
ao + a, x + a 2 x 2 + a 3 x 3 ). It may be used to In most problems using Simpson's numerical
approximate the area under any curve if the integrations, more than three ordinates are used
interval h is made small enough so that a third (i.e., y 0 , y and y 2 ) to break the curve into
degree polynomial can be made to closely smaller intervals n order to achieve greater 40
approximate y over the interval 0 to 2h. This is accuracy in the approximation. The technique
of special importance to buoyancy and stability to get the total area simply involves adding
calculations of an amphibian where successive integrations of the type given in Eq.
discontinuities such as wheel wells may make 7-1, thus:
the approximation of the local hull shape by a
third degree polynomial poor. In these cases it is nh
better to use a mechanical integrator or to pass a 4' ydx -- Cyo + 4y, + 2y2 + 4y3 + 2y4 .. 0
fair extension of the lines over the discontinuity f (7-6)
and obtain the area under the faired curve. The +. 2y, 2 +4y. + y)
area of the discontinuity can then be determined
and subtracted from the area under the fair
curve. An example of this procedure is given in
Table 7-2. v 0
The first moment of an area about the x = 0 Y2
axis is approximated by
M yxdx- O)yO + (1)4y +(2)y (7-2)
The "longitudinal" center of the area is given

by
2
f h M
x -2h -- b (in units of x) (7-3) Figure 7-9. Definition Sketch for Area and -
ydx Center of Area Using Simpson'sa

Integration
7-14
- 0
•q) 0 0 0 0 0. . . 0e•_
. .. 0 . 0e._ 0 .. . 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706.350
where calculated using Eqs. 7-3 and 7-7 in the same

area under the curve of y between
= manner as for volume.
x = 0 and x = nh If it is desired to find the vertical center of
n = number of equal intervals buoyancy VCB first, the vertical center of area -.
h = length of the interval at each station must be found using Eqs. 7-5 and •
yi = value of y at x = (i)h 7-8. Then Eq. 7-8 is used again except that the
Note: There must be an odd number of terms y 2 /2 are replaced by yi,5 where yi is the
ordinates so that n must be an even number. cross-sectional area at station i and T, is the
corresponding vertical center of area. The
Similarly, resulting volume moment is divided by the
volume to find the vertical center of buoyancy. - -
An alternative procedure, also widely used, is

2
f h r quite similar. First the waterplane areas for
M. yxdx -L2 [(O)y0 + (1)4yI + (2)2y 2 + (3)4y3 several equally spaced waterline depths are
+(4)2Y4 +. (n-2)2y,_ 2 +(n-1)4y,_, (7-7) found, and then these are integrated in the
vertical direction to find the volume. LCB and
+ (n)y.J VCB are found using analogous methods.
Finally, corrections are made to the displaced 9 S
volume and center of buoyancy to account for
and wheel wells, wheels, and any appendages
including shafts, struts, keels, skegs, rudders,
propellers, and shrouds.
2
y=f ()dx•(yo +4y6 +2 34y• (7-8) 7-1.6.1.2 Curves of Form
0 2
+2y 4 +...2yL_, +4y,ý, +yý2)
The development of a hull shape that has the
necesbry buoyancy and center of buoyancy
x and y are still given by Eqs. 7-3 and 7-5, location is a trial and error process. A set of lines
respectively. is drawn and then the buoyancy, center of
The area under a curve on a plane surface may buoyancy, and stability are calculated to -
be obtained mechanically using a polar detcrmine if the equilibrium conditions are 0 0
planimeter. This is a simple instrument which satisfied. If the resulting free')oard, draft, trim,
measures an area on a plane surface by means of or stability are unsatisfactory; the lines are
a mechanical polar integration. The theory, modified and the calculations repeated.
operation, and accuracy of polar planimeters are To aid in this process, several sets of curves
described in Ref. 15. The major advantage of can be developed. The most useful of these are
using a planimeter instead of numerical methods the Bonjean curves which are a graphical - 0 0
for integration is in the possible time saving, representation of the area of 'a hull station as a
The procedure used to find the buoyancy and function of draft. As an example, Fig. 7-10
center of buoyancy of a hull's underwater presents a set of Bonjean curves for a LARC V.
volume with Simpson's integrations follows. These curves may be used to determine the
First, the sectional area up to the desired buoyancy and longitudinal center of buoyancy
waterline is determined at each station, using location for a waterline at any trim angle.
Eq. 7-6. These areas are then used as the As an example, in Fig. 7-10 the approximate -
ordinates y, in Eq. 7-6 with the station spacing = full load waterline is indicated on the Bonjean
h, to find the displaced volume (P = V. The curves. The resulting area below this waterline at
buoyancy (force) is found by multiplying the each station is plotted in Fig. 7-11 as a sectional
volume by pg where p is the mass density of area curve. The area under this curve is the
the displaced fluid and g the gravitational displaced volume of the hull. This volume, when
acceleration. Values of pg commonly used are multiplied by the density of water, is the hull _ S S
64.0 lb/ft3 for sea water (sw) and 62.2 lb/ft 3 for buoyancy. The discontinuities in the sectional
fresh water (fw), with volume in cubic feet. area curve are due to the wheel wells. It is
The longitudinal center of buoyancy LCB is important to note that to obtain the total
7-15
l 9 . • .o9 _... .. o_ 0_ 6 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
STATION
WI3
I/DISTANCE P831PORTIONAIL 0
WL 2 TO SECTION AREAUP TO
GIVEN WATERLINE
54 1 1W
I1/2 SECTIONAREA, = ]. OFT' KEY
42
36
30
416 400 360 320 280 240 200 160 120 80 40 0
STATIONS ,INCHES FROM BOW • i
Figure 7-10. Bonjean Curves for LARC V
buoyancy of the amphibian, the displacement of position. The transverse stability of an

the appendages and wheels must be added to amphibian is generally associated with its
that of the hull. For a LARC V, the wheels response to roll, or heel, displacements. In the
account for about 10 percent of the buoyancy. discussion which follows, stability is taken to S S
In the design of a ship or a boat it is common mean transverse stability.1
to prepare other curves of form from the final An amphibian can have more than one
lines. These curves include--as a function of position of stable equilibrium, including one'
draft--the displacement, wetted surface, vertical where the vehicle is capsized with the bottom up
and longitudinal center of buoyancy, tons per (if it will remain afloat in this condition). The
inch immersion, moment to change trim, and normal position of stable equilibrium is uprightO ]
transverse and longitudinal metacentric height. or near upright. In the upright position, the - 0
Many of these curves are not used directly in the centerline plane of the amphibian isI
design of an amphibian, hence, in general, a full perpendicular to the still water surface and the S ]
set of curves of form is not prepared. Details of DO0 is defined asINHE
STATIONS
heel angle zero. ItFRO
is possible that
Lhe method of calculation of these quantities are an amphibian has unstable equilibrium in the
given in Refs. 12, 13, and 17. upright position due to the condition of cargo
41 40 360 30 28 24 20 loading.
60 In 12 this case,
8 0 0
the40amphibian would list0 0 -
0
•
_ • _.•
7-1.6.2 Transverse Stability
~~~~~~Fgr
• O...
7-10....•
Boj• Cuve fo LAR V
through a small angle until a position of stable
equilibrium is reached.
A free body at rest and floating in still water
is in equilibrium when the sum of all the forces 7-1.6.2.1 Positive Stability
and moments acting on the body are equal to
zero. If the body is displaced slightly in any An amphibian has positive stability if the •
way, this state of equilibrium is (1) stable if the buoyant forces coupled with the weight forces --
body returns to its original state; (2) neutral if it act to return the amphibian to the upright
remains in the displaced position, and (3) position from a heeled position. The righting
unstable if it moves away from the original moment of a stable amphibian at some heel
7-16
AMCP 706-350
32
24
0
500 400 300 200 100 0
STERN STATION,. INCHES AFT OF BOW BOW
Figure 7-11. LARC V Hull Section Area Curve to Design Waterline
angle is shown in Fig. 7-12 and is equal to the o

displacement A times the righting arm GZ. The A
righting arm is a function of the heel angle 0 E0 ý-73 GZdO, ft-lb (7-9)
and the shape of the hull. Fig. 7-13, a statical J
stability curve, shows a typical curve of righting0
arm GZ as a function of heel angle 0. GZ is
normally zero at the upright position, increases
to a maximum value with increasing heel, and AC ~.----
then decreases through zero with further increase
in heel.
7-1.6.2.2 Range of Stability0
The range of stability is defined as the range Z

of heel angles to one side (port or starboard)/0 0
over which the righting moment is positive, i.e., .
acts to return the amphibian to an upright/
position. This is indicated in *Fig. 7-13 as the
range over which GZ is positive. Experience A - HzELANGLE
indicates that an acceptable range of stability for W-L - HEELED
WATERLINE W
a fully loaded amphibian with wheels lowered WL ORIGINAL WATERLINE

8'- HEELEDCENTEROF BUOYANCY
for landing on a beach is from 50 deg to 60 deg. IB ORIGINAL CENTER
OF BUOYANCY
The range of stability is important with respect . - CENTEBOF GRAVITY
to the amphibian's ability to operate in surf and K -BASELINE
heay sas.CL -CENTERLINE

hea~sea. WT TOTALWEIGHT,
LEE-
L DISPLACEMENT,
LBE W
7-1.6.2.3 Dynamic Stability GZ -RIGHTING ARM
,J. GZ -RIGHTING MOMENT A T* GZ0 0

Dynamic stability at any heel angle is defined M METACENTER
as the work done to heel the amphibian to that GM -METACENTRICHEIGHT
angle. The dynamic stability can be calculated THISFIGUREAPPLIESTOTHECASE0SESMALLHEELANGLES
by integrating to find the area under the statical

stability curve (see Fig. 7-13): Figure 7-12. Amphibian With Positive Stability
7-17 -
AMCP 706-350 6 6
0.6
RANGE OF STABILITY 6
0.5
I I
MAXIMUM GZ
S0.4
N
z 0.3
0.2
0.1
00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
HEEL ANGLE 8 ,DEG
Figure 7-13. Statical Stability Curve
where buoyancy of the underwater volume at several

E0 = the work to heel to 0, ft-lb waterlines for a constant heel angle. The righting
!A = displacement, lb arm is given by trigonometry:
GZ = righting arm, ft (a function of 0)
0 = heel angle, deg
Dynamic stability is rarely calculated for GZ = CB sin 0 - (KG - KB') sin 0, ft (7-10)
amphibian design, but may be used in
investigations of motions in waves. A typical use where
of dynamic stability would be to calculate the Gz = rihtn a
heel that a ship
enerywould
recil o undergo
frm to absorb
athlrge un.CB the transverse distance
B = rgshvting darft from centerline to
energy from the recoil of a large gun. center of buoyance B' (BB' in Fig.
7-12 for small heel angles), ft
7-1.6.2.4 Cross Curves of Stability7-2frsalheane),t
KB' = perpendicular distance from B' to keel
The cross curves of stability are determined or baseline K (KB in Fig. 7-12 for
by calculating the buoyancy and center of small heel angles), ft
7-18
.IPA
_J __q .. _9.. _o 6 ..._ 00

_o ... 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
KG = vertical distance to center of gravity simple mechanical methods such as Blom's

from keel or baseline, ft Method or integrating planimeters. These
0 = heel angle, deg methods are discussed in Refs. 12, 13, and 14.
The righting arm is plotted versus displacement 7-1.6.2.5 Initial Stability

for constant values of heel angles as in Fig. 7-14.
The cross curves of stability are useful for Initial stability is measured by the metacentric
determining the statical stability curve at any height GM, as in Fig. 7-12, for an
desired displacement. Simpson's integration may infinitesimal heel angle dO . It may be defined
be used to find the buoyancy and center of as the slope of the statical stability curve at zero
buoyancy. However, time may be saved by using heel angle (Fig. 7-13): S S
0.7
0.6
400 HEEL ANGLE
0.5 30P-"
U-
0 4
0.3
10"
0.3
0.2 • _• 5
* -
0.1 0 0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -
DISPLACEMENT , LBx 10-3
Figure 7-14. Cross Curves of Stability

7-19
_ * 00 5 _ 00 _ 0 *0 0 0 _0_0 S__
AMCP 706-350
GM = d(GZ) f,t (7-11) 7-1.6.2.6 Calculation of Initial Stability

dO 0-÷0 The initial stability GM is found from simple
geometry (Fig. 7-12):- -•....O -
g
where 0 is in radians.
M is the metacenter in Fig. 7-12. The GM, = BMt + KB - KG, ft (7-12)
metacentric height is positive when the
metacenter lies above the center of gravity. Fig. where
7-15 shows the righting arm curve for a vehicle there are no free surface effects and the -
with negative initial stability, i.e., the subscript t indicates the transverse metacenter
metacenter at zero heel angle lies below the BM, = vertical height of the transverse 0 0
center of gravity. This particular vehicle would metacenter from the center of
be in stable equilibrium at a heel angle of 11 buoyancy, ft
deg. KB vertical center of buoyancy from keel
A criterion for initial stability, based on or baseline, ft
experience, is that the metacentric height is at KG = vertical center of gravity from keel or
least 0.18 times the beam. baseline, ft
0.5
0.4
0.3
< 0.2
z_
0
0.1
STABLE ANGLE
-0.1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0
HEEL ANGLE 6 , DEG
Figure 7-15. Statical Stability Curve, Initially Unstable Vehicle

7-20
4 _.* _0
0 0 @ 0 0 _ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
M = point M in Fig. 7-12 where
The only unknown at this time is BM,. •"(-iP° C, = sum of reductions in metacentric
Consider the transverse movement of the \V,/ height due to free surface effects .. .. .
center of buoyancy from B to B'in Fig. 7-12 discussed in par. 7-1.6.3, ft 0
due to an incremental change AO in heel angle.
The total underwater volume remains constant. The importance of waterplane arma inertia I, and
However, a wedge of volume L'PL extending vertical center of gravity KG to transverse
from the bow to the stem has been immersed stability is apparent from this equation.
and a corresponding wedge WPW' has emerged. An example calculation of transverse stability
The area of wedge at any cross section is given is presented. Volume V , vertical center of 0 0
by buoyancy KB, and waterplane inertia I, are
found by using Simpson's integrations. The data
1/ y(y tan AO), ft2 (7-13) presented are for the LARC V.
Full load displacement and vertical center of
where buoyancy calculation: Eqs. 7-3, 7-6, and 7-7 are
y = the half-breadth of the amphibian at used where:
the waterline, ft x = waterline height from baseline, ft 0 S
y = 1/2 area of waterplane at x, ft 2
The distance between the centers of area of h = 0.25 ft
the immersed and emerged wedges is just 4/3 y, n = 10
ft.
Integrating over the length of the amphibian, Summation of the data is presented in Table 7-1.
the moment of volume about the plane of • •
symmetry is given by Since 1/2 areas are used, Eq. 7-6 is doubled to
find the total volume:
2/3 (tan AO)f y 3 dx, ft 4 (7-14) V = 2- E - (0.25) 2581.1 (read Z1
0 3from Table
7-1)
Hence, the lateral shift in center of buoyancy
CB is: = 430 ft 3
CB =2/tan3AO f Ty dx -ta--AO, ft (7-15) or

CB 2/3 ''V)h)f A = 430 X 64.0 = 27,600 lb (sw*)
* salt water .
where
V = total underwater volume, ft 3 Eq. 7-7 must also be doubled to find the volume
= (transverse) moment of inertia of the moment about the baseline:
waterline plane about its longitudinal
centerline, ft 4 = h_ 2 - (0.25)2 13381 (read 12
But, from Table 0 0
7-1)
CB ft (7-16) = 557 ft 4
BMt = tan AO V
Eq. 7-3 yields

Finally, M x 55 _. ..
KB V.
=- 430= 1.29 ft
GM,IA+ KB - KG Crft (717)

V z \-ViP 8) A correction for buoyancy of tires is now made:
7-21
_ .
__. 0 0 0 0 0. •
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
TABLE 7-1 SIMPSON'S INTEGRATION FOR FULL LOAD DISPLACEMENT AND KB
1 2 3 2X3 4 2X3X4
Waterplane, 1/2 Area, *uten

ft
2 S.M. Product Step Moment
in.
0
(Baseline) 0 1 0 0 0
3 69.8 4 279.2 1 279.2 -_ _ -
6 79.4 2 158.8 2 317.6

9 85.4 4 341.6 3 1024.8
12 92.6 2 185.2 4 740.8
15 97.4 4 389.6 5 1948.0 .
18 103.7 2 207.4 6 1244.4 . :
21 121.0 4 484.0 7 3188.0
24 106.8 2 213.6 8 1708.8
27 71.9 4 287.6 9 2588.4
30 34.1 1 34.1 10 341.0 . 0 0
S1= 2581.1 7 2= 13381.0
*S. M. = Simpson multiplier
Tire size = 18 X 25 The waterplane inertia I, must be calculated

Approximate as torus r,. = 19 in., rmin = 7 in. in steps due to the complex shape of the LARC - 0
(from tire manufacturer) V huJl. A Simpson's integration is used for
Volume per tire 27r2 r2 smoothly faired approximation of the
r rmin rma waterplane area. Wheel well cutouts and the
contribution of the tires are treated as
S272 (72) 19 corrections.
A form of integration similar to Eq. 7-8 is - •
=18,350 in.3 used for -
_l.ft3 it = 3 dx" - -. :
=10.6ft 3 f~d
KB, fwd 4 in. 310.where y is the half-breadth at the full load

aft = 2 in. A dB,
Added 4r 1o.n 0.) waterline, ft. The station spacing h = 20/12 ft.
Summation of the data is presented in Table 7-2.
The transverse moment of inertia I1 is given

3
Total volume V = (4)10.6 + 430 = 472ft by
A = 30,200 lb (sw) It =3 12') 5571 (read 2-3 from

9Table 7-2)
Total MX = 557 + 10.6 = 568ft4 =2060 ft 4
568 Wheel well cutouts:
Final KB = = 1.20 ft Forward, 32 in. wide X 52 in. long with
center 41 in. from centerline
7-22
~1
9 S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 o
TABLE 7-2 SIMPSON'S INTEGRATION FOR I, AT FULL LOAD DISPLACEMENT
I 2 2a33 3 X 23
Station Half-breadth, ft (HB)3 S. M. * Product 0
0 0.0 0.0 1 0.0

20 0.75 0.42 4 1.68
40 2.25 11.40 2 22.8
60 3.58 45.85 4 183.4
80 4.25 76.75 2 153.5
100 4.50 91.125 4 364.5
120 4.83 112.68 2 225.36
140 4.83 112.68 4 450.72 0 S
160 4.83 112.68 2 225.36
180 4.83 112.68 4 450.72
200 4.83 112.68 2 225.36
220 4.83 112.68 4 450.72
240 4.83 112.68 2 225.36
260 4.83 112.68 4 450.72
280 4.83 112.68 2 225.36
300 4.83 112.68 4 450.72 --
320 4.83 112.68 2 225.36

340 4.83 112.68 4 450.72
360 4.83 112.68 2 225.36
380 4.83 112.68 4 450.72
400 4.83 112.68 1 112.68 . O.
S3= 5571.12
*S. M. = Simpson multiplier
Aft, 24 in. wide X 38 in. long with center 46 = - 284 - 190.6 + 112.8
in. from centerline 4 0
Tires: = - 361.8 ft
Assume waterplane geometry to be 10 in. wide
X 20 in. long rectangles 54 in. from centerline It fina = I + lcorrection
[_ (jý(L 2,060 - 362
-~ •12~3~s2
• _ 2) 12 1'1 (2), front wheel wells
4
,correction. _[1 (243138 (24(38!(462] (2), aft whel wells - 1,698 ft
+[_ (12)(12) (2 LO (4), tiret BM, = It /V = 1,698/472 = 3.60 ft
7-23
* ~0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 - 0
The weight and center of gravity of the LARC heeling moment is given by Eq. 7-18 where a is
V are found using the weight summaries of the the transverse distance between the cargo center
amphibian. The center of gravity and the weight of gravity and the amphibian's centerline.
of the cargo may be estimated. The rudder or any other steering device
By taking moments of the two about the produces turning moments from force
baseline, the KG of the loaded amphibian may components in the transverse direction. At the
be calculated: same time a heeling moment is produced:
Heeling Moment = IFta, ft-lb (7-19)

Item Weight, lb Arm, ft Moment
43,200 where 40
Light weight 20,200 2.14
h2ZF = sum of the transverse components of
Cargo 10,000 4.62* 46,200 the hydrodynamic forces, lb
a -vertical arm between the center of
!:W=30,200 2M=89,400 forces and the vehicle CG, ft
In a steady turn, the centrifugal force at the
Note cargo center assumed 20 in. above deck. vehicle CG is equal to the centripetal force at 40
the center of lateral hydrodynamic pressure.
~2M = 89,400 The heeling moment is equal to the centrifugal

KG = z == 2.96 ft force times the vertical arm between the CG and
• W 30,200 the lateral center of pressure of the underwater
body:
Finally the initial stability, neglecting free (_V2\a"
surface corrections, may be calculated: Heeling Moment __a, ft-lb (7-20)
G4 = BM, + KB- KG where
m = vehicle mass= A/g, slug

=3.60+1.20-2.96
V = linear speed in turn, ft/sec
= .84
ftR
GM, = radius of turn, ft
[IG =1.84ft a = vertical arm, ft .1
7-1.6.2.7 Heeling Forces The center of pressure may be assumed as the

center of the projected area of the profile below
There are a number of forces which tend to the waterline at rest.
heel an amphibian including those due to wind, A heeling moment is applied to the amphibian
waves, movement of personnel, shifting of cargo, by the propeller. This moment is just equal to 0
propeller torque, and maneuvering. The torque transmitted by the propeller shaft and
discussion which follows will apply only to acts in the direction opposite to the propeller
those forces which may be treated statically to rotation.
predict equilibrium conditions. The heel angle resulting from any of these
The heeling moment caused by lateral moments is determined from statical stability
movement of cargo, personnel or other items is curves. In many cases, the heeling moment is a
given by: function of heel angle. For instance, the center I
of pressure on the underwater portion of the
Heeling Moment = Wa cos 0, ft-lb (7-18) hull in a turn depends on the hydrodynamic
flow over the hull, hence, on the radius of turn
where and on heel angle. The heeling moment may be
W = weight of shifted item, lb resolved into a heeling arm by dividing by the
a = transverse movement of item's center amphibian's displacement. This heeling arm may • 0.
of gravity, ft then be plotted with the statical stability curve.
0 = heel angle, deg The point at which the two curves cross is the
equilibrium position, i.e., the heeling arm is
In case the cargo is loaded or removed, the equal to the righting arm as in Fig. 7-16.
7-24
& __ ft -
• • S S S S .@ 0 5 0 0 0 5 0 5 0 0
AMCP 706-350 *
7-1.6.2.8 Stability Criteria adequate stability in this condition are (Fig.

7-16):
a. The steady heel angle does not exceed 15
No suitable theory for predicting the forces deg
acting on an amphibian in surf is available at this b. The righting arm at the steady heel angle 40
time. In the past, criteria for adequate stability does not exceed 60% of the maximum value of
of amphibians have been limited to simple righting arm.
requirements on range of stability and initial c. The reserve dynamic stability represented
stability based on experience. Some additional by the shaded area in the figure is not less than
stability criteria, taken from Ref. 16, are 40% of the total area under the righting arm . ...
presented here. The criteria were established as curve. S S
guidelines for U.S. Navy ships and may prove The reserve stability indicated by these
useful for future amphibian designs. These criteria is required to provide a margin against
criteria may be used to assure that adequate capsizing due to the possible concurrence of
reserve stability is provided when the amphibian more than one of the conditions that have been
is heeled over due to any of the types of forces discussed, including the effects of wind and
presented in par. 7-1.6.2. See also Ref. 17. wave actions. It should be noted that the
The worst probable heeling condition should amphibian is subject to capsize if the heeling 0 S
be calculated whether this be caused by poor arm should exceed the maximum righting arm or
location of the cargo, high-speed turns, or any if th'e heel angle should exceed the range of
other likely situation. The suggested criteria for stability.
0.5
MAXIMUM RIGHTING ARM . 0
S 0.4
0
RIGHTING ARM
Z
0.3 RIGHTING ARM /
"rHEELING
ARM RESERVE STABILITY
z
0 /
<
0 0.2
z
-A
0.1 0.1 ~ANGLE

STEADY HEEL _ •
HEELING ARM
00
10 20 30 40 50 60
HEEL ANGLE , DEG
Figure 7-16. Stability Criteria
7-25
_ 0 _ 0 0~ ~ g 0-_0_ 0_ _0
AMCP 706-350 0 -
7-1.6.2.9 Grounded Stability virtual center of gravity lies below the

metacenter M; i.e., a positive righting moment
Coming ashore through surf and waves, an exists.
amphibian may drive onto a shoal, reef, or ledge, A criterion which is suggested here for
thereby grounding. Grounding results in a virtual adequate stability in the grounded condition is
rise in the center of gravity and may seriously that a positive righting moment be maintained
degrade its transverse stability. The virtual or for any waterline when the amphibian is
effective center of gravity is given by: grounded on a side slope slightly less than the
land.
K~v ft
A -+ FQK(F) ,ft
= KG(A) (7-21)
(-) requirement for side slope stability on
KGU
w-F 7-1.6.2.10 Damaged Stability 0 0
where
KG = height of center of gravity above The stability of an amphibian which has
baseline, ft incurred hull damage below the waterline is
A = amphibian displacement, lb degraded due largely to the free surface effects.
F = grounding force, lb The subsequent flooding results in a virtual
Q = intersection of the grounding force decrease of waterplane area and lowers the
vector with the amphibian centerline metacentric height. Recent amphibians do not
plane have watertight compartmentation because of
QK = height along centerline from Q to the the added weight that would result from this
baseline, ft safety feature. As a result, the entire hull is
subject to flooding from damage at any point
Subscript v denotes virtual or effective unless the bilge pumps are capable of pumping
value. water at a rate equal to or higher than it enters 0 0
The virtual displacement of the grounded
amphibian is
ZS= A -F, lb (7-22)
For a free floating amphibian at sma!! heel angle

(Fig. 7-11)
Righting Arm GZ = GM sin 0, ft (7-23) W. -`'
and
Righting Moment = GZ (A), ft-lb (7-24) 0
Similarly, for a grounded amphibian (Fig. 7-16) L
Righting Arm GvZU = GUM' sin 0, ft (7-25) 1

and WL - HEELED,UNGROUNDEDWATERLINE 0
WVL'- HEELED,GROUNDEDWATERLINE
R - CENTEROf BUOYANCY, GROUNDED
Righting Moment = G-ZU(A), ft-lb (7-26) G- CENTER
OFGRAVITY
G - VIRTUALCENTEROF GRAVITY
where M' is the metacenter of the grounded K -ASELINE
O CRFT=
WT WEIGHT
waterline as shown in Fig. 7-17.
In Fig. 7-17 the pointQ is at the baseline so F -GROUNDING FORCE
A,- VIRTUALDISPLACEMENT
TOWV
that QK = 0, as shown. In a more general case, Q H - HEELANGLE
will lie below the baseline and is a function of M. - FOR WL' AND q
METACENTER
the heel angle 0. The amphibian is stable at
some angle 0 and the waterline W'L' if the Figure 7-17. Grounded Amphibian Stability
7-26
AMCP 706-350
the hull. Thus, it is only a matter of time before Diesel oil: Pt = 1.675 slug/ft 3
the damaged craft will sink. The question of salt water: p. = 1.99 slug/ft 3
damaged stability is, in this case, only of interest coefficient: C, = 1.0 3
from a standpoint of how long the craft will volume: v = 472 ft
remain upright for the crew to abandon ship. In free surface area inprtia, (each tank) 41
any event, means of escape from a capsized
amphibian must also be provided because of the i=kbb3 / 12
possibility that an amphibian may turn over 2 3
4 ft
abruptly in heavy seas or surf. Treatment of = 2.5(2.25)3/z2= 2.59 ft
damaged stability is fully discussed in Ref. 14.
free surface zeduction /2.59\/1.675\ " 0

7-1.6.3 Free Surface Effects
in BAIt for both tanks= 212.9-N.-••-. = 0.01 ft
A liquid with a free, unrestrained surface such The reduction in metacentric height from
as fuel in the fuel tanks or water in the bilges of
the amphibian will shift when the craft heels so these fuel tanks is rather small. Larger effects
that the center of gravity of the liquid moves, may arise from water in the bilges, cargo well, or
thus creating a heeling moment which opposes on a cargo deck. In these cases, the displaced
the righting moment due to waterplane inertia volume and the amphibian's center of gravity
I. In effect, the waterplane inertia is decreased must be corrected for the weight and center of
by the inertia of the free surface area in question the water acting as if it were added, solid cargo.
corrected for the specific gravity of the liquid. The free surface effect is calculated as for the
creT edufor the
reduction fin cgravity otheiliqui fuel tanks.
Thus, the reduction in metacentric bMheight Free surface effects in tanks can be reduced
due to a liquid free surface is given by by fitting liquid-tight longitudinal structures to 0•
reduce the effective breadth of the free surface

Reduction in BM Cf,, ft (7-27) area and, thus, the inertia i. . -
VP8
where 7-1.6.4 Longitudinal Stability and Trim - -
i = moment of inertia of the free surface s b" is n usually-a "

area about a longitudinal axis through Longitudinal stability is not usually a
the center of area of that surface, ft4 problem. Longitudinal metacentric height GM-
V = displaced volume of the amphibian, may be calculated in the same manner as
ft 3 transverse GMt ; the only differences being in the
3
Pt = mass density of the liquid, slug/ft moment of inertia of the water plane and in the
P, = mass density of water displaced by the free surface corrections. Both IR and iV are
hull, slug/ft 3 taken about transverse axes.
C&, = free surface coefficient, nd The waterplane moment of inertia should be - -
The free surface coefficient Cf is applied to taken about the transverse axis through the
longitudinal center of area of the waterplane.
the moment of inertia when the liquid level is The axes of individual free surfaces, for
either very low or very high in a tank to take Thraes of ddual fee aces, or
account of the reduction in breadth of the free corrections, should each be taken at its center of
area.
surface when the tank is heeled slightly. Fig.
7-18 gives values of Cf, for rectangular tanks., K,]+ [GM .ft •7-2"
Generally, the worst case is calculated for the GM = KB+ BM-KG-_-- [ -•IC, ,ft (7-28)
free surface reduction in metacentric height. In
this case, the tank is half-full of liquid and Cf. =
ct.
1.0. It is evident that KB and KG are the same in
For example, consider two fuel tanks, the longitudinal direction as in the transverse
half-full of Diesel oil in the LARC V amphibian direction. - •
of the problem in par. 7-1.6.2.6. Continuing our example for the LARC V, the
Tank dimensions: (2) length Q = 2.5 ft longitudinal moment of inertia IJ can be
breadth b = 2.25 ft approximated by taking the area inertia about
7-27
A 0 .... • 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0
1.00
1.2 FT- -
0.92 - 1.1 FT1-

I1 1.0FT
I ~0.9 FT
0.84 ---- --- 0.8FT-
0.7 FT0 0
0.76 0.6 FT
0. 68 0.5 FT ___
Uj
U. 0.4 FT
S0.60
LU-
LA- 0.3FT0
LA.
0 0.52
z
LU
0.360.1F
0.28
0
CURVES INDICATE THE DISTANCE

0.20 THAT LIQUID SURFACE IS BELOW____
TOP OF TANK OR ABOVE BOTTOM
OF TANK IF PARTIALLY FILLED
0.04 - -
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0
BREADTH OF TANK ,FT
Figure 7-18. Coefficients of Free Surface for Rectangular Tanks When Inclined to 50 Heel
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
the midpoint of a rectangle which approximates Therefore, the moment required to change
the hull shape. the trim of the LARC V by 1 in. is (where L =
23.3 ft)
L = 31 ft 30,200(50.7)
B = 10 ft MT1 = 12(23.3)
L 3 B (31 )310
Ik 1-2
12 12 = 5,500 ft-lb
= 24,800 ft 4 A 175-lb man moving from the bow to the

1 = 472 ft 3 stern will change the trim less than 1 in.
At large angles of heel, trim may result from a
BM =2 470 change in longitudinal center of buoyancy. This
problem can be avoided by designing the vehicle
= 52.5 ft with sufficient freeboard at both bow and stern
KB = 1.20 ft I from par. 7-1.6.2.6 to provide surplus buoyancy at each end at large
KG 2.96 ft heel angles. Thus, the center of buoyancy when
heeled does not tend to move longitudinally.
The free surface of the fuel tanks will have 0
very little effect and can be assumed neglected. 7-1.6.5 Freeboard
Longitudinal Metacentric Height by Eq. 7-28
is Freeboard is the distance measured vertically
GMk = 1.20 + 52.5 - 2.96 from the waterline to the deckline. Generally
GM2 = 50.7 ft speaking, increased freeboard results in greater
reserve buoyancy, greater range of stability, and . 0
Thus, the longitudinal metacentric height is less likelihood of waves breaking over the deck.
considerably greater than the transverse Ease of cargo handling may be of prime
metacentric height. consideration to the amphibian designer. The
Trim is defined as the difference between the highest reach of a fork-lift truck or the lack of
drafts measured forward and aft. If the draft aft good unloading facilities may dictate a low cargo
is the greater, the craft is trimmed by the stern; deck. As a result, the freeboard amidships may
if the draft forward is the greater, the craft is be low. Raising the freeboard forward and aft
trimmed by the bow. will provide the necessary reserve buoyancy and
For an amphibian, it is desirable that the rear range of stability without increasing the
wheels touch bottom first wbile approaching the difficulty of unloading cargo. As long as the hull
shore. With the rear wheels on land, the craft is watertight and any water on the cargo deck
will be less likely to be swung around by will drain freely, low freeboard amidships will
incoming waves. Trim by the stern should be cause no particular problem.
designed into an amphibian, with due regard Removable sidewalls in way of the cargo deck
given to keeping the cargo deck above water. may be used to raise the freeboard. As they are
The moment required to alter the trim by 1 not particularly strong, their effectiveness in
in. is: increasing reserve buoyancy and range of
stability is not very great. However, the
AGM2 - protection afforded the cargo may make such
MT1 = 12L ft-lb (7-29) sidewalls desirable.
where 7-1.7 LAND OPERATION CONSIDERATIONS

A = displacement, lb
GM 2 = longitudinal metacentric height, ft The requirements for operation on land have
L = length between points where trim is some effects on the design of an amphibian's
measured, ft hull shape. These effects are basically limitations
on principal dimensions, ground clearance, and
The subscript 2 indicates longitudinal the approach, break, and departure angles. These
direction. limitations are almost always identified during
7-29
0~~~ 0...0.. 000 0__

AMCP 706-350 0 O
the preliminary design phase and, as a result, are the accessories, in general, are not considered in
covered in par. 6-4.2. The size and location of any detail. The detailed machinery arrangement
the wheels and wheel wells also affect the hull should include all components, their location,
shape. The size and location of the wheels are and method of attachment. The following detail
determined by the limitations on dimensions, considerations are of importance:
critical angles, and mobility considerations a. Kits for special operating conditions
covered in par. 7-8. The size and shape of the b. Maintenance procedures
wheel wells are determined by the tire size and c. Access
clearances for steering. The equations relating d. Air supply system
turning radius to vehicle geometry and wheel e. Exhaust system
angles are presented in par. 7-9.4. f. Expansion 0 0
g. Spare parts
7-2 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT h. Fasteners
i. Vibration
The detailed arrangement plans serve as a final j. Noise
check prior to manufacturing that the k. Starting
components will fit as planned and that there is 1. Control
sufficient clearance for installation and m. Fail-safe features
maintenance. The arrangement drawings should n. Cooling/hea~ing
provide sufficient detail and instructions so that o. Clearances
all components and systems will be properly p. Securing procedures
installed. q. Ventilation
7-2.1 CARGO The quality of machinery maintenance is 0 0

controlled to a large extent by the ease with
The primary mission of a logistic amphibian is which the work can be accomplished. A high
to carry cargo. Each phase of the cargo-carrying degree of maintainability requires good access
operation must be considered for each and sufficient clearance for each preventive
anticipated mix of cargo. This includes: maintenance action and repair which must be
a. Methods of loading and unloading each accomplished.
item Gas turbines require special design
b. Interference of loading method from cargo consideration for both the intake and exhaust.
previously loaded Both require extra space because of the large air
c. Securing cargo in all types of weather volume required, the removal of salt particles in
d. Trim and stability at all times during the intake, and the necessary noise controls.
loading
e. Protection of crew and parts of the vehicle 7-2.3 AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
from swinging cargo
f. Jettisoning cargo Many of the auxiliary systems are neglected in
g. Fire in cargo the earlier phases and must be studied during
h. Crew access to machinery with cargo final arrangement planning. Some of these
aboard systems will be fitted after the major
i. Efficiency of loading cargo, including components are installed and must be located
practical clearances accordingly. The design of each system is
j. Water drainage with cargo aboard described in par. 7-10 and there are arrangement
k. Protection of cargo from the environment requirements associated with each system that
I. Crew escape routes if cargo shifts are part of the design. Spec;il arrangement
m. Tie down considerations (no projections precautions that are associated with many of
which can be damaged or cause damage) these systems are:
a. Maintainability 0 0
7-2.2 MACHINERY b. Operation in environmental extremes
c. Fire fighting
In the preliminary design phase the machinery d. Flooding
and the associated components are arranged but e. Emergency operation
7-30
0 o
AMCP 706-350 0 0
7-2.4 STRUCTURE hydrogen is generated as the battery is charged.

Each construction material has certain
The direct and indirect framing causes many deficiencies which must be specially handled.
problems in the arrangement. The depth of this The arrangement designer should determine
structure can be reduced only at the expense of from the structural designer what these are for
added structural weight. For shapes such as each design. In welded aluminum, for example,
angles, tees, or channels, holes may be cut in the the heat affected zone (HAZ) in way of the weld
webs with only a minimal loss in strength. The may have a much lower strength than the parent
U. S. Navy practice for access and lightening metal so that brackets and clips should not be
holes in framing of steel ships abstracted from indiscriminately specified in high stress areas.
Ref. 18 is: Likewise, holes for mechanical fasteners must tie S S
in areas of low stress.
Openings in strength members shall be well
separated and not aligned in a transverse plane. 7-2.5 BUOYANCY, TRIM, AND STABILITY
Where zpt[hy,, of necessity, are close together,
they shall be combined to form a single opening. In In order to achieve satisfactory performance
general, holes in structure shall be circular. Where a in a seaway and survival in bad weather, it is
circular opening is not practical, corners of necessary to have a proper relationship between 0 0
openings in areas of stress (including shear stress) the amount and distribution of weight and of
shall be rounded to radii of at least one-eighth buoyancy. In particular this includes:
(preferably one-fourth) of the clear dimension a. Excess buoyancy of ends
normal to the direction of the principal stress. If b. Trim in all conditions of loading
th size or location of an opening impairs the c. Freeboard
strength of an important structural member, it shall d. List in all conditions of loading
be reinforced. e. Change of trim as fuel is burned
In general, framing which is six inches or more in Initialpositions
andf. wheel all conditions of loading
forretractable)
stability (if
where this would g.d Ra gee of stabiitysfoialleondit onseo
lightened except
depth, shall be impar s frmin ovr ag. Range of stability for all conditions of
teschsrengh
impair the strength such as framing over a loading and wheel positions (if retractable)
stanchion or where the principal stress is parallel to One problem in this regard peculiar to ...
the frame or where the frame is part of a watertight wheeled amphibians is the wheel wells when 0
compartment. they are fitted with side covers. If the wells are
Except for special situations, lightening or access not vented, they may catch air and be buoyant
holes should be centered at the neutral axis of the or fill with water and add weight when rolling.
combined cross section of the structural members The trim, buoyancy, and stability calculations
and associated plating. The depth of the hole must be considered in the worst condition from
should not exceed 40 percent of the depth of the the standpoint of safety. There are two ways to 0 0
web and the length of the hole should be parallel to prevent this-(1) pump air into each wheel well
the member and not more than twice as long as it is so it is always air-filled, or (2) design wheel wells
deep. Holes shall be spaced so that the distances so they are inherently self-venting. Small vent
between edges of adjacent holes will not be less pipes are not sufficient because they will fill
than 5/4 times the length of the holes, with dirt and/or ice.
Drain holes and water courses should be provided 7-2.6 SAFETY 0 0
to permit the free flow of liquids in the bilge and in
other pockets to the bilge pumps. In compartments The safety of each system is the responsibility
fitted with bilge pumps, the total area of drain of the system designer. The design of the
holes through any frame or longitudinal shall be at arrangement must consider the interrelationship
least twice the area of the suction pipe. of each system with the others and ensure that
the total design will be safe to operate.
Air holes in the framing should be provided to
prevent the formation of gas pockets. For 7-2.7 HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING
amphibians this is generally not a problem
except in the case of the battery where The hunian factors engineering for an
7-31
AMCP 706-350 0
amphibian must take into consideration that the cargo deck, and the latter might be the deck
these vehicles are used to the limit of the ability being hit by an armor-piercing round. These
of the man-machine system to function. They types of forces can be neglected but the effects
will be used in a war-time environment for of all others that may be critical must be
missions for which they are not designed, by considered. 0
people who may have not been properly trained; The forces are divided into the following
and in an environment exceeding the original types:
specification. From this point of view it is a. Longitudinal. Vertical forces acting on the
obviously necessary to design the vehicles so hull such that the hull acts as a beam.
that standard operations can be accomplished b. Torsional. Forces acting perpendicular to
with only average human ability, the centerline of the hull which tend to twist it S S
Ref. 19 is a Human Engineering Laboratories around a longitudinal axis.
Standard for use by the subordinate commands c. Local. Forces acting on a section of the
of the Army Materiel Command (AMC) in the hull which do not produce a significant stress
area of human factors engineering, in accordance throughout a major portion of the hull.
with Supp! 1 to AR 602-1. It gives engineering For each of these types of forces the load can be
design principles and detailed criteria for anthro- applied at different rates which cause the
pometrics and the environment. Refs. 20-22 structures to react differently. The different
provide additional data on human response to strain rates have been categorized as
vehicle vibration.
8 -
a. Creep 107 10-, (in.)!(in.-sec)
7-3 HULL STRUCTURE b. Static 20--10-G
c. Rapid loading 1-1 -101
Amphibians are subjected to a complex d. Impact 10-- 1040
assortment of loads including both those e. Hypervelocity impact 104 -107
associated with wheeled vehicles and with boats.
Consequently the structural design cannot be Some materials will elongate if subjected for a
based on past practice for either type of vehicle long period of time to a stress below their elastic
but must consider all of the forces which will be limit, particularly at high temperatures. This is
imposed in conjunction with the limited amount known as creep and is not important for
of previous experience available, amphibians. Some aluminum alloys creep at
This paragraph includes information on: moderate temperatures but not the alloys that
are to be used in the marine industry.
a. Imposed forces Static loads are easiest to handle as no
b. Materials dynamic motion is involved. Many "quick"
c. Structural configuration engineering solutions involve approximations
d. Detail design which reduce the answer to the static load
e. Hull weights condition.
Rapid loading requires only relatively simple
The primary emphasis is on delineating the factors to account for the dynamics of the
problems and methods used for the structural loading, but fatigue must be carefully handled
design. for a properly engineered structure.
At the speed of impact loadings (10-1 to 10-4 0 0
7-3.1 FORCES sec) materials react differently. The stress-strain
curves, in particular, are altered and this change
The first step in the hull structural design is to must be considered. The stress-strain
estimate, with a satisfactory degree of accuracy, relationship above the elastic limit may be
all of the forces which the hull must resist. increased as much as 50 percent for steel, and 0
There are instances where either the forces are to 1 percent for aluminum. Data for impact
so small that they can be neglected or they are loadings are not yet available for all materials.
so large that no attempt is made to produce a Ref. 23 is a basic reference on this subject.
structure which will not be damaged. For Hypervelocity impact loading can alter the
example, the former might be a man walking on material response severely and in ways that are
7-32
0 0
" ''''"0 0- 0 0 0 " - '_0

AMCP 706-350 0 0
not yet predictable. The amphibian structure is If desired, the shear and the deflection from this
not involved with these phenomena. loading can also be determined. Since a high
degree of accuracy is not required, the
7-3.1.1 Longitudinal Forces calculation can be simplified by dividing the hull -
into a number of equal lengths and assuming the

7-3.1.1.1 Waterbome buoyancy and weight are constant for the length
A
The scantlings of longitudinal structural of each section.
members for ship hulls are normally sized to Figs. 7-19 and 7-20 show the curves
resist the bending moment imposed on the hull developed from such a calculation for the LARC
in waves either in a hogging condition when the V. The maximum bending moment is 34,350 - .....
wave crest is amidships or for the sagging lb-ft, 203 in. aft of the bow for the sagging S 0
condition when the wave crests are at the ends condition using a wave 2.1 ft high. To estimate
of the ship. For ships less than about 100 ft in the bending moment for similar vessels of other
length, the local loads usually are the sizes it can be assumed that (Ref. 14):
determining factors for the selection of.,--3
longitudinal scantlings and not the bending MB ° B(LWL) 2 HmC 8 (7-30)
moment. The bending moment stress must be where 0 ]
considered, however, as it is at times
superimposed on other stresses in the hull and it MB = bending moment, ft-lb
can be very significant for hulls that are shallow B = maximum molded breadth at the
amidships. waterline, ft
The determination of the bending moment is LWL= length at the waterline, ft
particularly critical for large ships and there has Hm = mean draft, ft
been a substantial amount of research effort CB = block coefficient, nd - 0
expended to improve the accuracy of the
prediction techniques. For use on amphibian 7-3.1.1.2 Landborne
design, however, the treatment in Ref. 14 is
sufficient. Another longitudinal force that must be
To determine the static bending moment, the considered is the land mode. The static
hull is considered at the various loading and trim bending moment can be calculated in the same 0 0
conditions in still water. For the dynamic manner as for the afloat condition except that
bending moment it is considered in a stationary the forces supporting the vehicle are simply the
wave with a length equal to the waterline length loads from the wheels. The dynamic bending
of the hull. For a "sagging" condition where the moment applied to the hull can be
deck is in compression the wave trough is approximated by assuming:
amidships, and for the "hogging" condition a. A maximum acceleration of the center of
where the deck is in tension the wave crest is gravity,
amidships. A trochoidal wave profile is normally b. that this acceleration is the result of ver-
used with the wave height selected from past tical motion of the wheels farthest away from
experience. For amphibians a wave height of 1.1 the center of gravity, and
times the square root of the waterline length can c. that a vehicle pivots around the remaining
be used as a satisfactory approximation. set of wheels.
The bending moment calculation consists of: The assumptions are shown in Fig. 7-21. Let - _
a. Balancing the hull in the water, either
smooth water or in the stationary wave. Bonjean AW = weight of the vehicle, lb
curves are used to determine the buoyancy at FF = applied vertical force at the forward
selected stations along the hull (see par. 7-1). wheels (up is positive), lb
b. Calculating the buoyancy along the length FA = applied vertical force at the aft wheels
of the hull (up is positive), lb
c. Estimating the weight along the length of a = distance from aft wheels to the
the hull longitudinal center of gravity, ft
d. Calculating the bending moment along the b = distance from the forward wheels to
length of the hull the longitudinal center of gravity, ft
7-33
0 • •O 0 0 • • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •
AMCP 706-350 - 0
40D
000 00
30DOii ,
> 2000 BUOYANCY 20,00 - WEIGHT
> 102000
0+
5000 - B0.0 0 5u .0,or

BONDING
MOMENT 4000000
V 3=gi- V (Ho Ngg MOMENT
2000~~~ 00 BNDN 300,000
-0D - 20 O 0 200D --- W
100 --- 0.000 lo -04 0 aD
o00 3a 0 0 ,63o o , 0 20o0
0 • • •o ~ ,o ,• o 4 o 0f - - -
ISHEAR 1~000 SNEAR

2000-- 1 - 2000C--
400 ---- - ------ .
5000000
"4040D 360 320 290 240 200 160 120 80 40 0 440 400 360 320 280 240 200 160 120 80 40 0 -
IN. FROMROW IN. FROMBOW
Figure 7-19. Bending Moment Curves for LARC Figure 7-20. Bending Moment Curves for LARC
V (Sagging) V (Hogging)
R = length of wheelbase, ft assumed to pivot about the set of wheels nearest
w. = weight of the vehicle in the x section, to the center of gravity, and the design
lb maximum vertical acceleration at the center of
x. = distance to center of x section gravity is used. The acceleration curve is a
measured from bow, ft straight line since the amphibian is assumed to
y = vertical acceleration at the center of be a rigid body. Fig. 7-22 shows a plot for the
gravity, in number of g's, i.e., ft/sec 2 LARC V.
divided by 32.2 ft/sec 2 3. Find FF from 0 0
k = radius of gyration about transverse
horizontal axis through the center of IAn _ +
gravity, ft F Y[( a I I
To calculate the bending moment: 4. Determine the bending moment curve for
1. Determine the weight curve using a the desired section of the vehicle. This is 0
number of sections. The weight is to be generally taken at the 'midship section for half -
considered evenly distributed in each section. of the length. It should include the length of any
Fig. 7-22 shows a curve for the LARC V. midship well. The bending moment at section x
2. Plot the acceleration curve. The vehicle is is calculated using Eq. 7-32:
7-34
. .O 0 0
_* 0 _0 00 0 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
•)CG
0 00-@.... -
FAt a-t----- FF
Figure 7-21. Forcesfor Maximum Bending Moment (Landborne)
7-3.1.2 Torsional Forces

MBx b -
FFbX ft-lb (7-32) 7-3.1.2.1 Waterborne
Major torsional loads occur in the waterborne

where mode when running oblique to the waves where
the bow on one side is supported on a wave crest
MB bending moment at sectionx, ft-lb and the stern of the other side is on the next
b = arm between forward wheels and x, ft crest. For ships, the torque is estimated by the S O
wi= weight of vehicle at Pih section, lb following formula from Ref. 24 for full bodied
Yi acceleration at ?h section, g's vessels:
2. = arm between it" section and x, ft
Torque = 0.22 LWL B 3 , ft-lb (7-33)
A typical bending moment curve for the LWL = waterline length, ft
LARC V is shown in Fig. 7-22. B = beam, ft .
The bending moment applied to the hull
when it is hoisted may be calculated in the same 7-3.1.2.2 Landborne
manner as for the land mode. Normally the
accelerations are relatively small and the vehicles For the land mode the maximum torque is
are handled without cargo aboard so that the imposed on the hull when wheels on opposite
forces are not critical. The proof test corners are lifted and the other two wheels are
requirement for the lifting pads can be checked unloaded. This occurs simultaneously with an
if there is any doubt about whether this may be acceleration which increases the torque.
a critical condition.
Another special loading condition that is Torque A- ( ft-lb (7-34
sometimes critical for ships occurs during the 4 2
launch when the bow is on the launching ways
and the stern is afloat. There is a parallel for this T = transverse distance from center of _ 0 0
in the amphibian cases when it is traversing the gravity to wheel, ft
beach. Again, the forces should be no higher = design acceleration at the center of
than when the vehicle is in the land mode. gravity, g's
7-35
,~ 00 _* ~ S _0 0 0 0 0_ 0l 0
__,____.._._o...__..__... . .•
__o _ ._ o • •• " •-
AMCP 706-350 0 0
A = total weight of vehicle and payload, lb critical ones for most of the structure. In some
b = longitudinal distance from wheel to cases, however, the stresses from the local loads
center of gravity, ft must be combined with other stresses to
= wheelbase, ft determine those that are critical.
The torque forces from the land mode are These loads can be applied by the water, 0 0
substantially greater than those from the water suspension system, vibration, motion of the
mode unless the beam is extreme. The design vehicle, collision with extraneous objects, and
torque then would be the higher torque value by a variety of special modes of operation such
using the above equation assuming the design as towing.
value of the acceleration. -3.1.3.1 Water Forces
7-3.1.3 Local Forces The shell and its supporting structure will be
Local forces are considered to be those that loaded hydrostatically when afloat. For general
are applied in a sufficiently small area that they use, the pressure is:
do not produce a significant stress in the hull as P, = pgh, lb/ftl (7-35)
a unit. For amphibians these loads are the
where
- -- P. = pressure normal to the shell at the

given depth h, lb/ft2 3
pg = 64 for salt water, lb/ft
3
- -
pg = 62.2 for fresh water, lb/ft
J 6000- J - * LONGI
ON LON ONAL
AL
GITUDI1N ,h2 = head of water, ft
•'
0 --
-
GROUNE-
4--
_CENTROF GRAVITY
-+•-{
--
1,o
,0,oo The head of water will vary with the location of
the hull, mission, and other characteristics.
3000 6 000 Normally for the smaller vehicles the smallest

i~ -- • head should be to a point 4 ft above the shear
20 WEIGHT 4M Z
20DOIJ Iline, as per Refs. 24 and 25. This minimum
requirement is selected from experience on
0 P ; 0 other vessels to provide loads for the normal
,2 conditions. There are other hydrodynamic loads
considered, including
z" To z
that must be specifically surfaces, slamming on
wave slap on the vertical
--- the bottom, and breaking waves on the bow and
S~~stern. •
2 - 7-3.1.3.2 Other Impact or Shock Forces

20,000 1 1 1 I Most of the critical forces are generated from
0o0,5o0 i-NACMOMENT- dynamic conditions. The previous paragraph
discusses the local water loads when the vehicle
80,00o Iis considered to be motionless. This paragraph
oooo STI covers the forces occurring when the amphibian
T 0 -collides with stationary objects and the local
40,00O forces imposed from the suspension system in
STATICMOMENT . \ - the land mode.
,-oII - When alongside a ship or other essentially
440400 360 320 280 240 200 16o 120 Ro 40 0 motionless object the amphibian will, at times, - •
X- IN. FROM ROW
be pushed against the ship by the wave action.
Figure 7-22. Bending Moment Curves for LARC When the two are side by side, there is only a
V (Landborne) small impact because the water between them
7-36
4 .. o__. 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 •0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7
AMCP 706-350
acts as a cushion. However, there is a problem 8 /

when the two are not parallel, as during the
approach and departure of the amphibian from 7
alongside a ship. The corners of the bow and
particularly the quarters or corners of the 6 ---- 0 0
transom are frequently damaged on both
amphibians and landing craft. A solution to the 5
bow damage problem is, where feasible, to
round off the corners. The ideal shape is similar • ____ -
to that used for tugboats. If this is not feasible, .-

then the structure in these areas must be >
3
designed to absorb the load.
3'
The curve in Fig. 7-23 shows the relationship

!
between the water surface velocity and the wave 2 _
height for solitary waves of minimum stable

le n g th . I I _ _ _
By use of the curve from Fig. 7-23 the

maximum energy may be estimated from 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
V- A MAXIMUM WAVE SPEED, FT/SEC

E = 2 ftl (73 (VERTICAL HORIZONTAL)
Figure 7-23. Wave Height and Maximum Speed

where for Solitary Deep Water Waves
E = approximate energy in the system due usually cannot see over the side and he lowers 0
to wave action, ft-lb on signal from the gangway man. Therefore, it is
V = speed of vehicle, ft/sec anticipated that on occasion the cargo will land
A = displacement of vehicle, lb with a relative motion of 25 ft/sec, plus the
g = 32.2 ft/sec 2 vertical speed from Fig. 7-23. In some instances
the cargo may be dropped due to errors in
The preceding calculation neglects two judgment. Since a CONEX container may be
phenomena. One is the virtual mass or assumed loaded to a gross weight of 10,000 lb, it would,
entrained water that acts with the vehicle to in general, be impractical to size the structure to
increase the energy level. The other is that the withstand such a load.
actual velocity for a floating object propelled by Another typical type of force that cannot be
a wave is a function of the characteristics of the countered in all cases is collision when operating
wave, hull form, and relative orientation of the on land. Since there is a great variety of sizes
body. For a heavily loaded boat shape such as an and shapes of objects that can be hit, it is
amphibian, the actual velocity will be less than generally not practical to calculate the possible
the maximum surface water speed and this will loads unless there is a special hazard that will be
reduce the maximum energy in the system. encountered frequently for a particular design.
Another local load that has led to extensive Another consideration of importance is the
damage in the past has been loading cargo. This impact load to which the vehicle will be
is particularly a problem in the higher sea states subjected through the suspension. Loads of this • 0
when receiving cargo from a ship. During that type come from shocks imparted to the wheels
operation the amphibian is moving vertically when they encounter obstacles, and shocks
with the waves, the ship is rolling, and the cargo occurring when the vehicle is being transported.
is lowered using manual control. If the ship is Inputs with typical off-road obstacles are of
rolling more than the operator can compensate, such short duration that the nost practical
it can be assumed that the loading operation will means of calculating them is using momentum
be stopped. In general, cargo is lowered at a equations. The momentum equations described
normal speed of about 25 ft/sec until it is near the impact by relating linear impulse (force X A
the amphibian and then it will be lowered slowly time) to changes of momentum- (mass X
until it is down. The winchman, however, velocity),where"Atime"isthetimedurationover
7-37
AMCP 706-350 0 0
which the force acts. These equations and the and eliminating T 2 from the Eq. 7-38
calculations used to determine the forces are 355 2 (GM)
described in Ref. 26. _- 3 B 2 (GM
•M
7-3.1.3.3 Semi-static Forces •

This equation may be used for
O < 150. At
There are a number of local loads that can be greater roll angles, the equation gives values that
considered essentially as static loads, are too high. In general, it will be found that the
The lifting pads are subjected to loads as static loads at the maximum roll angles are
shown on Fig. 8-2. If the specifications do not higher than the acceleration loads. These loads
indicate these loads, the pads should be designed are not additive since they are out of phase. The
for a dynamic load factor of 3. If the pads are wheel loads from wheeled cargo such as 0
not centered about the center of gravity of the howitzers can also be significant for the design
vehicle, they will not be equally loaded, of the cargo deck. These loads can be
Normally amphibians are hoisted .without cargo determined using Ref. 27 (which lists the load
but they may be hoisted in a sinking condition per axle) and the design maximum vertical
with a large amount of entrained water, acceleration Y:
There are two philosophies with regard to the 6 +
cargo lashings. One is that the cargo will be Max wheel load = Number of wheels on the axle (7-40)
secured so that it will not come loose, and the
other is that the cargo will break loose and fall
overboard when the roll exceeds some value (less Ref. 26 shows the assumed area and pressure
than the range of stability). In either case it is distribution for typical tires.
likely that the lashing pads on the amphibian Pad eyes, or equivalent, are normally fitted
will be built to retain the cargo in any for towing fixtures which will permit the 0
eventuality. Forces on the lashings are amphibian to be towed both on land and in the
determined from vector analysis for maximum water. The fixtures for use while waterborne
roll angle without acceleration and maximum must be above the waterline and, preferably, on
horizontal acceleration from rolling at zero roll the deck. The loads to be transmitted are:
angle. The procedure which follows may be used a. For towing cleats (waterborne) the
to determine the acceleration. strength of the strongest line that will fit. Nylon . .
The natural period of roll is estimated from lines are normally used for mooring purposes.
b. For towing pads (land) the strength of the
0.44B standard towline.
T sec (7-37) Both should have a factor of safety of 3 on the
ultimate strength of the
material (Ref. 28).
where The suspension system is subject to impact
T = natural roll period, sec loads which are the controlling factor in its
B = beam, ft design.
GM = metacentric height, ft Some method of changing tires is required.
Hard points for jacking near each wheel should
If we assume sinusoidal motions, the maximum be available and clearly marked for that purpose.
roll acceleration is Each of these points should be designed to
support half the vehicle weight.
T2 (7-38) 7-3.1.3.4 Vibration
where Vibration of structural members in an

Q = vertical arm from CG to point of amphibian can originate from the engine,
interest, ft propulsor, drive train, suspension system, or the 0 _
0M = maximum roll angle to one side, deg action of waves in a seaway. Since the power is
3 = maximum horizontal acceleration usually high relative to a conventional truck, it is
from rolling, ft/sec 2 possible to generate significant vibrations which
7-38
_. .. .. . ,_). .... . ql..q .... . o. 9 . _$ _ o . .. ••' _ •
S. . ... . . .. ~ kmm,•m mmM 0 mdMd•a=A•a u9 0Q 0b 0•kw 0.Z.

AMCP 706-350
can add to the stress in some of the members, for any case require preparation of complete
There are certain frequencies, sudh as the optimized designs in each material.
engine operating rpm or the blade rate of the The base cost of the materials is shown in
propeller, that will occur throughout the life of Table 7-4. A variety of special charges or
the vehicle. It is possible to calculate with a discounts are applied to these costs but the 9 0
good degree of accuracy most of the natural relative final costs will be close to those shown.
frequencies of the structure. The calculations are Table 7-5 shows approximate relative costs of
tedious and time-consuming so that usually they fabricated aluminum materials for commercial
are neglected and the prototype vehicle is structures similar to the LARC V or LARC XV
closely checked for vibrations. Undesirable in quantities of 20 or more. These are only an
vibrations are eliminated where possible or indication of the trends with respect to .. - •
reduced by the addition of extra stiffeners. aluminum because reliable information is not
Where the suspension system of wheeled cargo is available from manufacturers equally
in synchronization, it can be eliminated with experienced in using all materials.
proper tie-downs. The strength-weight ratio, i.e., tensile
strength/density, is a gross indication of the
7-3.2 MATERIALS relative weight of a structural material. Table 7-6
lists the comparisons of interest. a 0
The selection of materials for the Ductility is important as an indication of
construction of the hull is a very important resistance to cracking at stress concentrations.
phase of the structural design, and can play an Table 7-7 lists elongation values, a measure of
important part in the life-cycle cost, reliability, ductility.
and maintainability of the vehicle. The ability to absorb impact with water (as in
Important considerations for the selection of slamming) or solid objects may be judged by the
materials include: area under the stress-strain curve, which is an
a. Availability of the necessary shapes in the indication of the energy that can be absorbed.
time frame required The distance along the strain axis depends on
b. Cost of the basic material and cost to the design criteria. Table 7-8 lists the areas of
fabricate interest.
c. Weight of the completed hull These values do not consider weight, but are
d. Repairability in the field based on an equal volume. Table 7-9 lists the 0 0
e. Maintenance required, particularly in the approximate values on an equal weight basis.
sea water environment Deflection is another criterion for design in
f. Strength and size of framing (large frames some instances.Table 7-10 lists the approximate
reduce the mobility of maintenance personnel) relative deflections.
g. Familiarity of the constructing facility Perhaps the most important consideration for
with the material the material selection is the fatigue strength.
This list is not all-inclusive and there are many This varies for each material, and for each
interrelationships among the items listed; they material it varies primarily with the stress
are, however, major items that must be history. Time, environment, and other factors
considered prior to selection of a material, have a major effect in some instances, but not
The materials available at this time that could normally for use in amphibians.
be considered are aluminum, steel, and The stress history is the order and magnitude
Fiberglas. The specifications for these materials of each stress which the structure sustains. From
as used by the Navy are listed in Table 7-3. the available data, it appears that the order of
the application of stresses is of secondary
7-3.2.1 Comparison Parameters importance compared with the number and
magnitude in the applied stress spectrum. It is at
There are a number of parameters that can be this particular point in the analysis that
used to compare materials without specific engineering estimates must start since data on _ 9
reference to a design. These are useful to fatigue strength for various applied stress spectra
eliminate potential construction materials prior are not available. There is, however, a sufficient
to designing the structure. AbsolutV 10kparistniui ,udiutity of data for the unique case where the
7-39
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.. 0
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-3 MILITARY SPECIFICATION NUMBERS FOR HULL MATERIALS (Ref. 28)
Bars and shapes

Steel, medium MIL-S-20166, Grade M 0
Steel, high tensile MIL-S-20166, Grade HT
Steel, high yield strength (extruded) MIL-S-22664
Steel, high yield strength (rolled) MIL-S-22958
Steel, high yield strength (bars) MIL-S-21952
Plates
Steel, medium MIL-S-22698
Steel, high tensile (surface ships) MIL-S-16113, Grade HT
Steel, high tensile (surface ships or submarines) MIL-S-24094
Steel, high yield strength MIL-S-16216
Steel, special treatment MIL-S-20154
Tubing
Tubing, steel MIL-T-16343, Type 1
Reinforcements such as doublers, reinforcing rings, and flat bar reinforcement of stiffeners, for
members designated to be high tensile steel or high yield strength steel, shall be of the same
material. Where approved the following may be used:
Iron castings, extra tough, MIL-I-22243.
Iron castings, gray, Fed. Spec. QQ-I-652 or ASTM Standards A48 to A278.
Malleable iron castings, Fed. Spec. QQ-I-666, or ASTM Standard A47 for minor installations.
Ductile iron, MIL-I-17166, for minor installations.
Marine boiler plate, Fed. Spec. QQ-S-691, Class B, for parts that require a large amount of
working under repeated heatings, such as for flanging.
Steel castings, high yield strength, MIL-S-23008. - - -
Steel forgings, high yield strength, MIL-S-23009.
Aluminum Alloy Condition Grade

Use Spec. Alloy or Class Remarks
Castings QQ-A-601 356 3M Note 1

Plates QQ-A-250/7 5086 H32 Note 4
Plates QQ-A-250/1l 6061 T6 Note 7
Shapes
Extruded or rolled QQ-A-200/5 5086 Hlll Note 4
Extruded QQ-A-200/7 5456 Hlll Note 5
Extruded or rolled QQ-A-200/6 5454 Hlll Note 6
Rolled or drawn QQ-A-225/8 6061 T6 Note 7 - 6
Extruded QQ-A-200/8 or 6061 T6 Note 7
ASTM B221
(cont'd)
7-40
~0 *~e
AMCP 706-350 0 0
Aluminum Alloy Condition Grade

Use Spec Alloy or Class Remarks
Tubing
*Drawn or extruded WW-T-700/5 5086 H32 Note 4
**Welded QQ-A-250/7 5086 H32 Note 4
All sizes WW-T-700/6 6061 T6 Note 7
*Drawn preferred. Consideration must be given to wider dimensional tolerances when extruded
is used.
**Tubing manufactured from plate and having a longitudinal welded seam may be used for
tubing sizes that are not available in drawn tubing.
Note 1 - For use with complex castings where castability, pressure tightness, strength, and
resistance to corrosion are required. Will respond to heat treatment to improve
strength. For applications requiring high casting quality and excellent fluidity.
Note 2- High tensile, with less corrosion resistance than Class 1, 3, 5, 7, and 8. Heat " S
treatment is required. For uses such as ammunition stowages, frames and sills for
joiner doors, and ladder treads.
Note 3 - For use wherever good tensile strength and relatively high resistance to corrosion
are required. Heat treatment is not required. For applications similar to Class 4 but
requiring resistance to corrosion at a sacrifice of tensile properties. - -.
Note 4 - Shall be used for applications where higher strength is not required.
Note 5 - Shall be used for applications where high strength is required and where higher cost
is warranted.
Note 6 - For a structure subject to elevated temperatures over 1501F such as the upper
portion of smokestacks. -
Note 7 - This alloy shall be used for nonwelded structure only.

Fiberglas MIL-P-17549
Polyester Resin MIL-R-7575B
Polyester Resin MIL-R-21607
Woven Roving MIL-C-19663A
Mat MIL-M-15617A " 0
TABLE 7-4 BASE COST OF HULL MATERIALS
114 in. Plate 2 in. X 3 in. X ¼14

in. Angle
Material $/lb $/ft 2 $/lb $/ft 2
Mild Steel 0.09 0.92 0.10 0.41

High Tensile Steel 0.24 2.45 0.25 1.03
Aluminum (5456-H32) 0.46 1.59 0.74 1.06
Fiberglas Cloth 0.37 0.64* 0.37 0.26*
Polyester Resin 0.49 0.49 -
*Assuming 50% glass and 50% resin by weight (sp. gr. 1.15) "
7-41
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-5 RELATIVE FABRICATION COSTS PER TABLE 7-9 RELATIVE ENERGY ABSORBED FOR
POUND (WITH RESPECT TO ALUMINUM) EQUAL WEIGHTS
Material Relative Cost, % Energy to Energy to

Material Yield Ultimate
Mild Steel 30 Stress Stress
High Tensile Steel 45 Steel 1 1
Fiberglas 49 Fiberglas (no yield) 1.8
Aluminum 13 3.2
(5083 welded)
TABLE 7-6 STRENGTH-WEIGHT RATIOS
applied stress is constant. Fig. 7-24 shows the

Yield Ultimate standard type of fatigue S-N curves for steel,
Material Strength, Strength, aluminum, and Fiberglas. It is obvious from
lb/in. 3 lb/in. 3 these curves that great care must be exercised in S S
the estimate of the number of cycles selected for
Steel 115 230 design.
The bottom structure is stressed primarily at
each wave, and the cargo well deck will also be
Aluminum 406 530 highly stressed at each wave when cargo is
(5456-H24) aboard. The sides may only be severely stressed
when coming alongside. Consequently, the
fatigue strength will vary depending on the
location of the structure. Assuming 10 yr of
TABLE 7-7 TYPICAL MINIMUM ELO)NGATION active service with an average use underway of
20 hr per week and a stress cycle averaging 1
Elongation in 2 in., cps, then the number of cycles is 3.7 X 107
Material cycles. 5 0
By use of Fig. 7-24, Table 7-11 was developed
Steel 24 to show the influence of fatigue stress at 3.7 X
107 cycles.
Fiberglas 2.5 Table 7-12 lists the mechanical properties for
Aluminum 9 various materials. The data are from the listed
(5456-H24) sources. 0 S
7-3.2.2 Steel
TABLE 7-8 RELATIVE AREAS UNDER TYPICAL Steel is the basic construction material for
STRESS-STRAIN CURVES practically all automotive vehicles and ships. Its
use is limited in aerospace due to weight and in
small boats because of excessive corrosion
Area to problems. The reasons for its extensive use
Area to Ultimate include low material cost, low fabrication cost,
Material Yield Stress Stress high mechanical characteristics, excellent
availability, and practically universal familiarity
Steel 1 2½2 with construction and repair procedures.
Fiberglas (no yield) 1 Two basic types of steel for construction have 0 S
Aluminum 4 3 been developed to include a consistently high
(5083 welded) grade of material to withstand the dynamic
loading that is prevalent. The primary one is a
7-42
l[ t• " - II - . - = .. . S
AMCP 706-350 - 0 0
TABLE 7-10 RELATIVE DEFLECTIONS
Equal Weight
Tensile Modulus Equal
Material of Elasticity Volume Beam in Beam in 0
Tension Bending
Steel 29 X 106 psi 1 9 9

Fiberglas 1.4 X 106 psi 21 41/2 2
Aluminum 10.3 X 106 psi 3 1 1 S S
100
90____ REF.29 DRY - 1181 CLOTUH, UNNOTCHED, PARALLEL

0 REF.30 AVERAGE CURVE FOR STEEL AND 5456-H321 ALUMINUM
z 80
LU
.z 70
,-
U ALUMINUM
D
20
70
50
10z0 0 TESCCE 0 0 0
Fiue72.FtgeSrnt a ucino tesCce
_ _ _ _ _
304
_ _... .• • • 0
tot
AMCP 706-350 0 0
TABLE 7-11 RELATIVE FATIGUE STRESS/DENSITY
3.7 X 107 Cycle Relative Values of Fatigue

Material Fatigue Stress, Stress/Density
psi
Steel 37,000 1.3

Fiberglas 7,000 1.0
Aluminum 21,000 1.9
(5456-H34)
low carbon killed or semi-killed steel called "Fiberglas" in this country, is a very
manufactured with rigid controls. The Navy successful material for boats. In the smaller boat
classifies this as medium steel, and it conforms sizes it dominates the industry. This material is
to MIL-S-22698 for plates and MIL-S-20166, relatively new and its technology is still moving
Grade M for bars and shapes. forward at a fast pace. The design information of 0 0
The second type is a low-alloy, high tensile today (1969) may well be out of date in a few
strength steel generally labeled HTS. These meet years.
the following specifications: ASTM A-242, Fiberglas is a combination of high tensile
MIL-S-20166, Grade HT for bars and shapes, strength glass filaments in a plastic structure.
and MIL-S-16113, Grade HT or MIL-S-24094 The glass fibers carry the load and the plastic
for plates. holds the fibers in position and distributes the
As a construction material for amphibians, forces in much the same way as steel reinforced
steel has many advantages, including: concrete functions. The glass fibers are available
a. Excellent availability in a wide range of sizes and configurations which
b. Low cost, even for HTS vary from woven material to glass mat which is a
c. Properties are well known layer of short fibers in a random pattern. There
d. Strength is high except at very low is also a variety of plastic resins available, -. . .
temperatures primarily the polyesters and epoxies. The 0
e. Fireproof possible combinations of different
The disadvantages axe: configurations of glass fibers and resins are very
a. Corrosion in a marine environment useful in optimizing the use of the material for
b. Heavy weight the particular structure needed. The cost of
Since, in general, only thin plates (10 and 12 fabrication is low if there is a sufficient number
gage for the LARC LX) are required for the shell of hulls made to reduce the cost of the molds
to obtain adequate strength, corrosion must be per hull.
minimized. There are coatings available that can Other important characteristics are (1)
practically eliminate the problem. These repairability is good if the working temperature
coatings have a long life and are expensive, is above about 500 F, and maintenance is
The problem of weight is not so easily solved, relatively low since it is an inert material that
In fact, a steel hull will weigh about twice as does not oxidize readily; (2) the weight of
much as a comparable aluminum hull. This one material required is higher than aluminum and
disadvantage essentially eliminates steel from lower than steel; (3) if the structure is designed
serious consideration as a construction material to a deflection criterion, then a sandwich-type
except when the design penalty for added configuration can be used which will be light;
weight is low, such as in a swimming type and (4) many shops now specialize in Fiberglas
vehicle, i.e., low water performance. construction, and there are personnel available
that are well trained in using the material. In 0 6
7-3.2.3 Fiberglas general, however, these special facilities are not
in the companies that are likely to build
Fibrous glass reinforced plastics, commonly amphibians.
7-44
_ _. __O .... •
AMCP 706-350 ..
TABLE 7-12 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Steel Fiberglas Aluminum

4
Material Mild Hi Tensile see note (I) 5 56-H32i (2) Tempered Plate
Parent HAZ (3 Glass
ksl (7)
Tensile Strength,
Ultimate
Minimum 70 9.8 ', 42 25
Typical 67 33 51 30
Yield 0 6
50 33 26
Minimum
Typical 33 37
Elongatlon 18(6)2_(5) I2(5)

Minimum p()15
Typical 2 ()r'
Compression Strength,
4
kal
4.2 3P 25 25
Y Minimum
Typical 67 I".8 3C 30
Shear Strength, kSI

Ultimate
Minimum 27
Typical 50 11
j
•
Yield
Minimum 19 15 0
Bearing Strength# ksl

Ultimate 814
Minimum
YieldMinimum 86
0.283 0.28! (1.059 0.096 0.091

Weight, Ib/In3
7.84 7.8 1.64 2r6( 2.53

Specific Gravity
Modulus of Elasticity,
Tension/Compresslon 30,000 30,000 2060/1900 10,300 10,000

Shear 3,850
Poisson's ratio 0.26 0.26 i../.6,5ll . (.33.23
C',)
)
Coefficient ofps - o.65 n.6oý x 10-5 1.33 x I0-" 0.49 x 10-5
Expansion, *F x 10-5
50 29 31 51
Refs. 28
Notes:
0
1 25-27 oz woven roving wIth polyester resin I/:- In. thick, 51 percent glass by
.eight, immersed in water at room temperature for '(l days.
2 1/.. In. thick sheet
3 HAZ - Heat affectei zone
4 00 to weave/h5O to weave/ and 91)° to we:,ve -4
) Percent In 2 In.
6 Percent In 8 In. •
7 ksi - 1,000 lb/in? "
7-45
0 0 0 0
00 --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
AMCP 706-350 S S
From Table 7-12 it can be seen that the strength ranges from 63,000 psi to 31,000 psi
strength of Fiberglas is high and the varying with the alloy and the temper. The
configuration can be varied throughout the temper designation system is used for all forms
structure to take full advantage of this strength. of wrought and cast aluminum alloys except
There are, however, four areas that must be ingot and is based on the sequences of basic •
carefully considered in Fiberglas design: treatments used to produce the various tempers.
1. The peel strength of Fiberglas is low. This The temper designation follows the alloy
is particularly important where bulkheads or designation with the basic identifier consisting
other structures are added perpendicular to the of one letter, and variations are indicated by a
hull with bonding angles. series of digits. Table 7-13 lists the basic temper
2. The laminate bearing strength is also low designations.
and results in local crushing from mechanical Two special designations of interest are:
fasteners unless the bearing surface is enlarged a. H311-Alloys with over 4 percent
over that available with normal size washers. magnesium which are strain hardened less than
Consequently, in an amphibian the problems of the amount required for a controlled H31
attaching the components of the machinery and temper.
drive trains must be specially considered for b. H321-Alloys with over 4 percent
Fiberglas to be a successful construction magnesium which are strain-hardened less than
material, the amount required for a controlled H32
3. Besides these problems of attachment, the temper.
impact strength is low, as shown in Table 7-9. Other properties of the 5000 series are:
4. The flexibility is high which can cause a. Excellent corrosion resistance in the
alignment problems. marine environment
b. Easily weldable and initial mechanical
7-3.2.4 Aluminum properties are not greatly affected by welding
c. Good formability
Of the three potential construction materials d. Good availability
available, aluminum construction will result in The mechanical properties of the two higher
th' lightest hulls. Aluminum has been strength most common alloys in the 5000 series
successfully used for the LARC V and LARC are listed in Table 7-12.
XV vehicles. Although there are problems, it is Standard and maximum plate sizes for the
probable that future amphibians of 5- to 15-ton more popular 5000 series alloys and for
size will be constructed of aluminum. For this 6061-T6, the heat treatable alloy most
reason the characteristics of aluminum are commonly used in the marine structures, are
presented here in more detail. listed in Table 7-14. Standard structural shapes
Two types of wrought aluminum alloys are are stocked at local warehouses throughout the
available for structural purposes-heat treatable country mainly in 25-ft lengths. Other sizes are 0 •
and nonheat-treatable. The hliat treatable alloys frequently available locally, to suit the special
gain a major portion of their strength by a post requirements of the area. Mill orders of
fabrication heat treatment. If the structure is extrusions can be supplied in any alloy with the
too large to fit in an oven, either the lower length limited only by the available
strength must be accepted in the way of welding transportation. Aluminum is generally formed
and the other areas where heat is applied during cold using the same equipment and techniques
manufacturing or mechanical fasteners and cold used for steel. Many members which would
forming may be used. The nonheat-treatable require hot forming in steel can be formed cold
alloys use a combination of alloying elements in aluminum.
and cold work to achieve high strength. Various aspects of cold forming aluminum
The wrought alloys are designated using a can be found in Ref. 32. In addition, Table 7-15
four-digit system. The first digit indicates the and Figs. 7-25 to 7-32 are presented for use in
alloy group, and these are defined in Ref. 31 and designing bends in developable surfaces. The 0 0
in other references. The "marine" alloys are in major difference between cold forming
the 5000 series which has magnesium as the aluminum and steel is the greater spring-back of
main alloying element. The ultimate tensile the aluminum. Where necessary, hot forming can
7-46
. 0 i
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-13 BASIC TEMPER DESIGNATIONS
Designation Description
F As fabricated
0 Annealed
H Strain hardened (nonheat-treatable alloys)
W Solution heat treated

T Thermally treated (heat treatable alloys)
The first digit of the subdivisions are:
1 Strain hardened only

2 Strain hardened and partially annealed 0 0
3 Strain hardened and stabilized. A first digit of 3 is used only for the alloys
with significant amounts of magnesium because they will gradually age-soften
at room temperature unless they are stabilized.
The second digit indicates the degree of strain-hardening remaining after stabilization. Where
0 Annealed
1
2
3 Ultimate strength approximately equal to the annealed ultimate plus the 0 0
4 number/8 of the difference between the ultimate strength of the annealed
5 and of the 75 percent cold reduction condition
6
7
8 75 percent cold reduction 0
be used with aluminum where the temperatures Leaks almost always develop at riveted
are limited to about 4000 F for a short period of connections after the structure has been
time. This temperature must be carefully stressed; accordingly, riveting is impractical for
considered for each alloy. Unlike steel, there is fastening the shell. Rivets or other mechanical
little or no visual change in the appearance of fasteners can be used where there are no
aluminum at reasonable forming temperatures so requirements for a watertight joint.
that great care must be exercised. Cutting of Welding is now the primary means of
aluminum in shipyards is normally done by fastening the structural sections together. Two
sawing or shearing. Normal wood working main types of welding guns are in use. TIG,
portable tools with special blades are very called "tig", for tungsten-arc, inert-gas shield;
useful. High-speed arc cutting is feasible and and MIG, called "mig", for metal-arc, inert-gas
routers are often used for intricate shapes or shield. The TIG system has a tungsten electrode
where a number of identical pieces can be cut which forms the arc, and a hand-held welding
from one pattern, rod. A jet of inert gas, usually a mixture of
7-47
*
AMCP 706-350 S
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0 0
cc
0 0 0D 0
n~ 00 CC) .-ý -t
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V)I x x x x x x 0C)0000 44
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Ci -4 rI P4 r 4 4- 4- .4-)iCJ I O M tz
2- 4ý 4 4 4 4 '.0 Cj r4rI-4- -
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4 cc Cc OCc cc cc I'D Cd
- - -t -4- -. --I _-J m0
u -4 '0
1. ,4Cd
4- 4--I'Cjz cr C3i OXo 4Y (YD (L--\O.Dr
-'.4 -4
a 4Y (Ct '. 0 c.-) Q) Cicfly) y)nCCC- '-4 Cij m
LC
4 ~ -4- '-4 -
to '.4o '. .
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7-48 S 0 .
AMCP 706-350 0 0
TABLE 7-15 APPROXIMATE RADII FOR 900 COLD BEND SHEET AND PLATE
Al. Alloy an! All RaJil Ir In. (i)

Temper 1/0 3/1 1/ 3/8 / •
C, 3/1 -9/
H3 123/ !/8-3/ /o-9/ /
50 •H3- 3//1-/I V16-/1; 1/-/. 3/ 1 V - 1- 1 i-,0- -<
:/-3/9 / / i/-
S D-- -H - /! -•/1 3 /-91 / -/- 15'16 - -• 1-2/'7
I. . - • !I /-/1 i /6- , /•- 1 . 1.,5-

S.-.: /--/! 3/ - /! L / -/ J -i /.l 1-1.2 _-/--: /
"
•Y~Zie0'-- ':O'-i'r' 'rerrt'o½V jD of ftcrmi.o q:mn,9• =',
Ytcs Mi'u
rr[•n~-n "-rk r0i . fr •.,.r~ 0ie
Y.•r
or e.-t £lo == enor an •'= e.r~'ei-
ant r iu
helium and argon, is fed by the welding gun aluminum was chemically cleaned, a maximum
around the electrode. TIG, with respect to MIG, allowable time of 24 hr was established.
requires more skill and generally is slower and Only two electrodes, alloys 5556 and 5356,
produces more distortion. It is no longer used are widely used in marine applications. Many ... 0- ..... 0
extensively for marine structures except for others are available for special purposes. Alloy
repair work. 5556 provides the highest weld strength. It is the
The MIG system employs a gun with the only material recommended for use with 5456
welding wire used as the electrode, driven at and provides the highest fillet strengths with
various constant speeds. It also includes use of a 5086 and 5052. Alloy 5356 provides high weld
jet of inert gas for shielding. These guns may be strength and is used with 5086: or 5052 parent •
either air- or water-cooled. Outlines of typical metal. These two electrodes are also used when
MIG guns are shown in Fig. 7-33. attaching 6061 structural shapes to a 5000 series
In general the weld quality required will plate.
govern the cleanliness required for welding. It is Welding procedures are essentially the same as
essential to degrease the prepared edges if those used for steel except that a higher order of
0 0
lubricants are0_ used in 0:the t0CZ 0 of the
preparation 0_''-i, cleanliness
0 0 is required,
0'0 which should
0 include0 the 0 0 0z0
edges. Also the oxide film must be removed with work area in the vicinity. The work must be 0 0
a stainless steel wire brush if a high quality weld shielded from the wind so that the gas shield is
is required. These brushes should be used only not blown away from the weld puddle.
for this purpose. A new film forms immediately Intermittent welding can be used with
after the original oxide film is removed and continuous welds at the ends. The Navy requires
grows in thickness until stability is reached. The double continuous welds in most cases to reduce
growth rate and eventual thickness of film cracks from shock loads. Welding in any position •
depend on the environment. For each project it is practical although a better weld will generally
is necessary to determine the maximum be made in the down-hand position. Particular
allowable time between cleaning the weld area care must be used to allow room for the large
and welding. For one amphibian where the snout on the gun, as shown on Fig. 7-33.
7-2
AMCP 706-350 0
0 - C0
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7-50
AMCP 706-350 6 0
1/4 1 of cold work. For those situations where high

ALUMINUM ALLOY NO.5457- H36 SHEET stresses occur in material that has been
3/16-- I-I- i extensively cold worked, the selection of the
- 180
BENDS temper of the material used should be specially
1/8- - - - - - considered. The total cold-working that must be
z ] considered includes the original strain hardening
3/32------------- - done by the aluminum manufacturer and
D specified in the temper designation, and that
"1/16
S 1/16 done in cold-forming the plate or shape to fit by
0.040 IN. GAGE the vehicle manufacturer. The minimum bend
z radii for 90-deg cold bends given in Table 7-13 0 0
3/64 P- - - are, to a certain extent, limited by this
---- consideration. Smaller radii should be hot
Z 1/32-- formed. Service temperature should not exceed
---- about 1501F without special consideration of
1/64 the stress-corrosion problem. Where higher
temperatures are unavoidable, such as in a stack
SHARP -enclosure, the 5454 alloy should be used.
90 45 180 Galvanic corrosion resulting from the use of
BEND ORIENTATION TO ROLLING DIRECTION , DEG electrically connected dissimilar metals in an
electrolyte such as salt water can be excessive in
Figure 7-26. Effect of Bend Orientation on an aluminum hull. Table 7-16 lists the galvanic
Bend Characteristics series where the more anodic metal is corroded.
There are three general techniques for
eliminating or reducing galvanic corrosion:
1. Alter the materials so they are the same or
very close on the galvanic series. This may be
PUNCH RADIUS done by placing a sacrificial anode in the
" PART AS BENT UNDER LOAD vicinity. Magnesium alloys are frequently used .. ...
for this purpose on aluminum hulls. S S
2. Eliminate the electrical path between the
AFTER RELEASE
OF LOAD two electrodes, using any of a variety of
caulking materials. The three most popular types
are polysulfide, neoprene, or butyl-base
REF. 33 materials which are available in either liquid or
tape form. All electrical paths, including
mechanical fasteners, must be eliminated and
SPRINGBACK (DEG) ANGLE B -ANGLE A not allowed to reform during the life of the
vehicle.
Figure 7-27. Springback Test Tooling 3. Isolate one or both materials from the
electrolyte with a paint or other coating.
One of the advantages of aluminum with Crevice corrosion is a phenomenon that
respect to steel is the high resistance to occurs in locations where the oxygen dissolved
salt-water corrosion. This characteristic has been in sea water is depleted due to chemical action,
carefully investigated and proven by tests and in and not replaced. Then if the passive film is
general practice. The marine alloys exhibit a broken in one spot a local galvanic cell is started
self-limiting type of corrosion because the oxide and, since there is no oxygen, the passive film is
formed is hard and tends to protect the metal not re-established. These conditions are
underneath it. Stress corrosion is possible with prevalent where materials are joined by
the 5000 series. However, stress corrosion can be mechanical fasteners and the crevices are so
eliminated with proper combinations of alloying small that there is no water flow. Crevice
elements (magnesium limited to not more than corrosion is generally not a problem for
10 percent), temper, stress level, and the degree aluminum or copper alloys but it is for most of
7-51
AICIP 706-350
900 BENDS 1800 BENDS

18 -18 /0
16-- 16
14 -- 14
4-1-
PUNCH RADII ,IN. PUNCH RADII, IN.
12 f 12 1-
10 - /" 0.025 IN. GAGE 10 18
8 8
6 1/8"1 6 1/16#"
4~ -- 1/16" 4 [/3g0 0
2 - ~1/32"1 21
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18 - . -18 - -
16 -- 16 - PUNCH RADII, IN.

< 14 -14 - -
Z 12 PUNCH RAD11, IN., 12 - -
w - Ic I 0.040 IN. GAGE 10-

Uj 8 8 18
6 11/81- 6
4 4 .- 1/16"
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0 2"
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12 -- - 12--
10----------------0.064 IN. GAGE 10 PUNCH RADII, IN.
8 PUNCH RADII, IN. 8--j-
- -6
1/4"1
6 1/4"
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2 '116"1 2 *~~/
00 1320 1/2
-0 -1-32 -H-34 -1-36 -H38 -0 -H-32 -H-34 -H-36 -H-38
TEMPER TEMPER
ALL SPRINGBACK PLUS; OTHER RADII IN RELATIVE ORDER -~ -

SPRINGBACK FOR BENDS AT 900, 450, AND 1800 TO ROLLING DIRECTION SIMILAR
Figure 7-28. Springback of Alloy 5457 Sheet at Various Radii

7-52
AMCP 706-350 - .
FOR CALCULATIONS OF BEND ALLOWANCE WITH RADII

GREATER THAN I IN. USE THE FOLLOWING FORMULA:
0.017453rA = BEND ALLOWANCE - 0
r = BEND RADIUS + 0.44 MATERIAL THICKNESS

A = NUMBER OF DEGREES IN BEND
::=:• •"O44T
CHANGE FRACTIONS OF DEGREES TO DECIMAL EQUIVALENT R

BEFORE SUBSTITUTING IN THE FORMULA
RAD!US. IN.
1/2 7/16 3/8 5/16 1/4 3/16 1/8 1/16
J AMOUNT TO BE DEDUCTED FROM SUM 0 0

OF FLANGE DIMENSIONS
=R DEVELOPED WIDTH = a + b - J
BEVEL 0 >0Coo C 0000 00000
60 0 M
0• 30 BO
60
o-J
20
. 10 .
30 030
co•. 40 0.16 __-___
uz 30 0u.1f4•
50
0.0_____ _ _/
60 0.04 0.03 0.02 J 0.01
0.12 8 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0
THICKNESS , IN.
Figure 7-29. Developed Length Chart

7.53
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AMCP 706-350
__________________ organic type of antifouling paint, such as

tri-butyl-tin-oxide (TBTO), is frequently used
6-1,516" with success and without corrosion. Aluminum
amphibians are normally not left in the water
for significant periods of time and therefore do
.j OFILE not require
practice antifouling protection. Present
is to leave the entire vehicle unpainted
MAXIMUM WIDTH OF GUN = 1-3/8' both inside and out. After a period of exposure
NET WEIGHT = 58LB to the weather the aluminum oxide film forms
MODEL 1 AIRCOMATICHAND-HELD MiG WELDING GUN on the exterior and leaves a dull gray finish
which is quite satisfactory and requires no
maintenance.
0,-1/16. Table 7-12 lists the mechanical properties of
the two aluminum alloys which are most
1-3/8' frequently used for marine structures.
3-3_/4. Aluminum loses its strength without warning as
3•3/16" it is heated. Tests show that 5052-H32 heated to
7000 F for a long time will lose 90 percent of its 0 6
PROFILE I yield strength and 47 percent at 4000 F. It is
important to consider in the arrangement the
possible complications that could develop in a
7/8, DIA 1-3/16"DIA fire. For instance, the engine mounts might be
safer if made from 5454 which retains its
strength to a higher temperature.
";/-,*-oA -7-9/6 Ref. 30 presents a wide variety of fatigue
information which illustrates the characteristics
"4-3
/ON of aluminum as a basic material and also some of
the distinctive features which may appear in
particular products such as extrusions, castings,
WEIGHT (LESS
CABLES) = 2.75S1 and weldments. It does not, however, furnish . .......
MODEL AH20-B AND AH20-C M.G GUNS the designers with all of the information needed 0
for marine alloys. Fatigue tests are normally run
Figure 7-33. Typical MIG Hand-held Welding using either axial or bending loads and with
Guns either smooth or notched specimens. The results
the stainless steel and nickel alloys. These alloys of each variation of these tests are different so
may be used for shafting, fasteners, or in the that the designer must interpret the tests for
landborne running components. each design. The strength of a structure in a
Another type of reaction sometimes found on cyclic loading condition is primarily dependent
aluminum boats is exfoliation where the on the stress level and the number of cycles. It is
magnesium in the grain boundaries is attacked. very important to properly estimate the number
This occurs primarily in the bilges when there is of cycles since the maximum strength in some
dirty bilge water present. Exfoliation can be cases will be reduced by 10,000 psi between 104
controlled by special handling in the thermal and 105 cycles. Fig. 7-34 is a modified
part of the tempering process. This problem Goodman diagram (maximum stress, minimum 0
should be considered with the aluminum stress, and number of cycles) for axial stress
manufacturer's engineers since at this time applied to alloy 5456-0. This figure is from Ref.
(1969) they are still investigating this 34 which also contains a considerable amount of
phenomenon. useful information on the fatigue of 5000 series
Coatings for aluminum are applied using the aluminum. Some generalizations from Ref. 34
same techniques used for steel. However, the for 5000 series aluminum are: 0 0
paints used are frequently different. In a. Fatigue strength of sheet products is about
particular, copper bearing antifouling paint can 85 percent of that obtained from the rotating
cause corrosion if improperly applied. An beam tests.
7-57
t• • • •• • • • • • • • • • S
AMCP 706-350 • •
TABLE 7-16 GALVANIC SERIES
Cathodic end of series
Monel
Nickel
Silicon bronze
Copper and copper paint
Aluminum bronze
Phosphor bronze
Steel Construction Manganese bronze

Normal practical range Tin
of material Lead 0 S
Stainless steel Aluminum Construction
Cast iron Normal practical range
Mild steel of material
Aluminum S S
Cadmium
Galvanized iron
Zinc
Magnesium
Anodic end of series
b. Fatigue strength for axial-stress (complete from the pressures of the waves in the surf and
reversal of stress) is about 80 percent of that others have cracked from unequal expansion
obtained from the rotating beam tests, caused by the defroster. The 3/4 in. thick 0 0
c. For low numbers of cycles the fatigue laminated safety glass, approximately 23 in. -
strengths are generally proportional to the static wide and 13 in. high, used on the LARC V has
strength. been satisfactory. During one series of tests the
d. For lives greater than 106 cycles, the glass was broken while traversing a 12 ft surf.
differences in fatigue strength between cycles Fully tempered glass should be used
and tempers become less; all fall within a laminated to provide non shattering
reasonably narrow band. characteristics. The glazing can be neoprene with 0 0
e. Most of the alloys with 4 percent or more a rabbet depth at least one-half of the glass
of magnesium in the annealed temper have thickness. The mechanical properties of
fatigue strengths about equal to those of tempered plate glass are listed in Table 7-12.
cold-worked material. Electrically heated glass such as
f. In general, the highest fatigue properties "Electropane" by Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass
are developed by alloy 5456. Company has been successfully used for de-icing • 0
and de-fogging. Applications have included jet
7-3.2.5 Glass transport planes, Coast Guard Cutters, and land
vehicles. It is available in sizes up to 48 in. by 60
In the past some windshields have broken in.
7-58
1% S0
0S S S
0 0 S
0 0 S-
0 0
0 0
AMCP 706-350
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AMCP 706-350 - 0
7-3.3 STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION improve it throughout the detail structural

design.
The primary requirements for the structure of The third step is to take each load and
an amphibian are twofold- calculate the stresses or other failure criteria in
1. Support the cargo, and all of the the critical structure, starting with the most 0 0
components of engine and power transmission severe loads and working down. It is important
systems. to consider the manner in which the forces will
2. Provide a buoyant platform. be transmitted through each joint. The forces
These two equally important requirements must should be followed through the structure until
be satisfied with respect to the total mission of they have spread out sufficiently to become
the vehicle. Other considerations include: negligible. At some point in this analysis the 0 0
a. Cost effect of combined stresses from two or more
b. Weight simultaneous loads should be considered. In
c. Maintainability ,cncral, the maximum loads from a number of

d poutrces will not oe~cur simultaneously so that it
d. Repairability is inmport;unt to apply a practical series of forces
e. Waterborne resistance whet: considering simultaneous loads so as not
f. Safety to unduly pcnalize the design. 0 0
g. Availability The last step in the detail structural design is
h. Reliability to recheck the final design of those joints or
The starting point of the structural intersections that are highly loaded. Those joints
configuration is in preliminary design where all that have structure intersecting from 3 or more
of the variables are considered and the best directions are particularly important because of
overall system selected. This is described in par. the residual welding stresses and the 0 0
6-5.3 in detail. It is important in the detail 3-dimensional stresses involved.
design to keep in mind the compromises and For many designs, extra weight of structure is
goals established during the preliminary design considered to be compatible with the design if it
so that they are not degraded. Likewise, it is is used so as to reduce engineering costs and the
important to keep) informed of the progress of damage from local abuse loads. This philosophy
the design with respect to the items that is effectively used for work boats, trucks, and -
influence the structure and to inform the other other types of "low" performance structures.
members of the design tcam of any structural For this type of design there is a low cost point
goals that cannot be met. between the high cost of excess material and the
The most important design step is to insure high labor cost of complex structures. Much of
compatibility of the structural configuration the design work outlined above can be
with the design as a whole. An expensive abbreviated or neglected if the structure is
lightweight machinery plant with an purposely made extra heavy. 0 0
inexpensive, heavy structure is not well
engineered. An arrangement where the structure 7-3.3.1 Shell Plating
is very complex and the various parts of the hull
cannot be easily joined together is also not In a stressed skin configuration that uses the
coml)atible. Thus, compatibility is the first step skin to carry the major part of the stress, the
that should be made at the start of detail design. shell is the most important part of the structure. 41
If it is not made first, it is difficult and In the LARC V it is over one-third of the total
expensive to retrace the step later on. structural weight. With the partial exception of
The second step is a review of the access, kayaks and other flexible skin craft, all boats
particularly for machinery maintenance, which and ships use the stressed skin principle because
is a part of the maintainability problem. Access it is the lightest configuration that will provide
is frequently neglected in the rush to complete a both the buoyancy and the structural strength
design. As the design develops, access tends to required. 0 0
get worse, rarely better. Hence if the access to The forces imposed on the shell plating are:
any area is poor, either the arrangement must be a. Tension, compression, or shear in the plane
altered or special emphasis must be applied to of the shell from the hull bending
7-60
1
AMCP 706-350 - 0
b. Shear from torsion of the hull more widely used as a basis for design. For the
c. Pressure perpendicular to the shell from condition where the stress is uniaxial the
the water or from liquids in tanks in the hull Constant Energy of Distortion Theory reduces
d. Vibration to the Maximum Stress Theory. For the design
e. Impact loads from waves and from solid of the shell the stresses are rarely uniaxial and, 0
objects therefore, the familiar Maximum Stress Theory
f. Local loads is not adequate.
g. Forces applied from the framing Table 7-17 lists the approximate relative
When it is considered that all of these can act allowable load for a condition where the
simultaneously, the list appears somewhat principal stresses are all tensile and are in the
complex. In general, however, the maximum ratio of 1, 2/3, and 1/3. For this particular 0 0
forces from each of these is applied to different condition, using the Maximum Stress Theory
parts of the shell. The particular combinations would introduce a 70 percent overload with
that are normally critical are: respect to the more accurate Constant Energy of
a. Items a and b for shear at the mid-depth of Distortion Theory. Fiberglas is an anisotropic
the sides of the hull material and must be specially considered.
b. Items a and c for tension or compression Under critical loads, if the supporting
in the hull bottom or deck in the mid-length of structure does not fail, the shell will fail from
the hull either combined tension or compression
c. Items a, c, and g for tension or (includes both column and bending loads),
compression in the hull bottom or deck in the shear, or instability in compression. Shear loads
mid-length where the shell is used as one flange are rarely critical in a stressed skin design
of the frame although the torsion loads can cause trouble at
d. Items e and f which cover such a large the corners of large deck cut-outs such as 0 0
variety of conditions that they must be hatches.
individually considered. In general, however, Consider the stresses from the hydrostatic
their influence covers only a small area. They pressure or other loads acting perpendicular to
may be the critical load for the area and may the plane of the plating. The normal boundaries
control the design. of the plate form a panel which may be very
Refs. 35 and 36 describe the six accepted small if the stiffeners are closely spaced or may
theories of failure. The four theories which cover the whole bottom of a vehicle if the
apply to ductile materials state that elastic framing is formed by the sides. The manner in
failure occurs when: which these panel boundaries hold the plating is
1. Maximum Stress Theory; a > ay a very important parameter. They may be
2. Maximum Strain Theory;e >_ ay IE flexible either in the plane of the panel, or
3. Maximum Shear Theory; T > oy/2 perpendicular to the panel; they may be initially
4. Constant Energy of Distortion Theory; curved or straight; and they may hold the panel
(a 2)2 +(0 - 0)2 + (0_a )2 >,2 2 rigid at the edge or not restrict the rotation of
( - 2the edge. Other major variables are the
where dimensions of the panel including the length L,
o = tensile or compressive stress, psi width W, and thickness t; the type of loading
oy = tensile or compressive yield stress, psi including uniform, uniformly varying, or local;
e = strain, in./in. the characteristics of the material; and the 0 •
E = modulus of elasticity, psi allowable deflection. From this list it can be
= shear stress, psi seen that there is a large number of possible
a ,20 = principal tensile or compressive combinations. For some, the stresses can be
stresses, psi calculated from simple formulas; for others
there are either experimental results or theory
Of these four theories the Constant Energy of available; and for some there are no available
Distortion Theory agrees best with experimental solutions and the closest approximations to the
evidence but the Maximum Shear Theory leads conditions are used.
to results which are nearly the same. The latter If the deflection is less than about one-half
theory is simpler in application and is much the plate thickness, the tension forces-from the
7-61
I
AMCP 706-350 0
TABLE 7-17 RELATIVE ALLOWABLE LOAD AT For compression, however, there is a problem of
ELASTIC FAILURE FOR FOUR instability. For this condition the plate and
THEORIES OF FAILURE stiffener combination must be considered as a
unit. With transverse framing, the panels are very
long and the plating can buckle between frames.
HTS 5456-H321 The major variables for the stress in a panel in
Theory of Failure Steel Aluminum edgewise compression are:
a. Thickness/span ratio
Maximum Stress 1.7 1.7 b. Span/width ratio
Maximum Strain 1.0 0.7 c. Hydrostatic loading
d. Material characteristics 0
Maximum Shear 2.0 1.8
e. Plate curvature (including manufacturing
Constant Energy distortion)
of Distortion j 1.0 1.0 f. Edge conditions
The solution for this problem considering all of
the variables is not yet available except for a few
deforming piL:tt pulling in the edges--are special cases. For the amphibian the normal . 0
negligible and only the stresses from bending are bending stresses are low if the hull depth is
important. For very large deflections where the reasonable in tih mid-length. DDS-1100-3 and
stresses exceed the yield stress, plastic flow 1100-4 of Ref. 28 describe the Navy's solutions.
occurs and there is a permanent set in the plate
after the load is removed. In general, if a small 7-3.3.2 Stiffeners
amount of permanent set is allowed, the loads
can be much higher than otherwise. For instance Stressed skin construction normally implies -
Ref. 37 indicates that WW 1I aircraft were direct and indirect framing. The direct framing is
designed to allow a permanent set of 0.005 the stiffeners which support the shell, and the
times the shorter panel side length. This is only indirect framing is that used primarily to
about one-third the plate thickness for an support the direct framing. A secondary
average span-thickness ratio, and it may be less function of the stiffeners is to support and
than the welding distortion. spread the load of machinery components that S 0 0
Table 7-18 lists the major combinations of are inside of the hull. If these components are
variables and references which show their small, the stresses they introduce can be
solution. Figs. 7-35 and 7-36 show how plating neglected. It should be noted that this
reacts to pressure against the plate. Solutions for nomenclature is not universal and the structural
three dimensional plates, i.e., curved plates, are components are classified differently by each
scarce. The side on which the pressure acts is industry.
very important. If the pressure is on the concave The forces imposed on the stiffeners include .
side, the reactions are similar to those of a all of those imposed on, and shared with, the
pressure vessel. If on the convex side, and there shell. The types of shell-stiffener configurations
is some rigidity of the panel edges in the plane are:
of the panel, the initial resistance to deflection is a. Monocoque (including sandwich)
high but there is a critical pressure where the b. Corrugated
panel is unstable and buckling occurs. This c. Plate and stiffener (including flat bar, 0
condition can lead to "oil-canning" when the angle, tee, eye, channel, and inverted channel
panel pops back and forth through the unstable stiffeners).
position. From these solutions the stress at
various locations in the panel that may be 7-3.3.2.1 Monocoque
critical can be determined. (Fig. 7-37 is
referenced in Table 7-18.) Monocoque construction is a plate p
Next consider the stresses in the panel from configuration without stiffeners. In isotropic
tension or compression of the hull acting as a material it is heavy except for shapes with
beam. In tension, the stress is spread equally significant curvature, light loads, or of small size.
throughout the plate and longitudinal stiffeners. A lightweight monocoque configuration is
7-62
_ ~~~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 _ 0
S.... _ -o .9 .. . ......
o , . o""...e .
AMCP 706-350 0 0
TABLE 7-18 FORMULAS FOR FLAT RECTANGULAR PLATES (Reft. 35 and 36)
Notation: W = total applied load, lb; M = bending moment, in.=lb; w - unit

applied load, lb/in2; t = thickness of plate, in.; s = unit stress at surface
of plate, lb/in.; y = vertical deflection of plate from original position,in.;
6 = slope of plate measured from horizontal, rad; E = modulus of elasticity;
m = reciprocal of v, Poisson's ratio. q denotes any given point on the surface
of plate; r denotes the distance of q from the center of a circular plate.
Other dimensions and corresponding symbols are indicated on figures. Positive
sign for s indicates tension at upper surface and equal compression at lower
surface; negative sign indicates reverse condition. Positive sign for V indi-
cates upward deflection, negative sign downward deflection. Subscripts r, t,
a, b, f, and g used with s denote radial direction, tangential direction, di-
rection of dimensions a, b, f, and g, respectively. All dimensions are in
inches. Long side of rectangle is length (a) and the short side is length (b); 0 0
aspect ratio a = b/a.
Cane No Mnner of Loading Fortulas for Stress and Deflection lor

salDfeto,(a Form]uo , f-o u-. with
NO. I Deflections (eax rO 'rofI.nts
.t//,) 1 st-l 't
thle .-nd (v 0
1 All edges supported. b'0.2O. 0.. e - . a w' a t

Uniform load over (At center)a 5 - w Max
entire surface. t2
st2(l +0.7Th -b'

1.61a•') Max a Ma x V - FH t ,O,tr
Max y - 0.1422 wb
Et'(l +-
(Based on coeffIcIentB givýn by Tlmoshenko,

v - 0.3)
2 All edges supported. F 2. ( l

Uniform load over (At center) qb - - tn m( I' Mnx 3w I j
small concentric 2.mta L r 0 J S-
circular area of 0 0
radl..s r, * where k 0.914 0.61a
"I I,, '"tX
a-- ,,. ,, ,
Max y =- om.
Maxt3Wh(m - 1,•,ol)F v XY
M23Ptl(i 4 '" )
(Approximate forrmilas tba,•el

on -'fi'fI ,lit"
given by Timoshenko).
3 All edges supported. Max a !Vhl Max y a 3 , wherP i4 11

a
Distributed load t' Ft
varying linearly may I- round Fros frlwm
along length. tahlo by intorplpii!,.n:
7-63
• 9!
.. .
@ •_ • . . 0 .... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S
AMCP 706-350 0
Case Formulas for Stress aon Defleztion for Formujl:, fori wth
Small Deflectons (ex ' t/P) c-i'fi.ients II.'t, 1t
the r•-r (I = '
All edges supported. OW

Distributed load Max s - a-2 Max y -
-b a
where p :,ri a
varying linearly t Ft
3
0 0
along breadth. may be found from following
table by Interpolat'on:
a/b 1 1.5 0.0 2. r 3.0 3.5 jO
s 0.16 O.2h 0.32 0.39 0.37 0.38 0.38

a O.022 0.042 O.o06 •.063 0c67 0.Q69 (.07,
v-0.3
5 All edges fixed. (At centers of long e~ges) Max s = a

Unifo~rm load overMas=sb= ,t
entifrm lurfadcer 0m
.5W - Max s (At centers of
t2(l + 0.6230 ) short edges) a = 0.?5wb2 center of long edges.
to
(At center) Maxy= w4 t chrr

Ft3
8 -0. -. 2
2
b t (3 + 4Q t
Max - 0.0284wb
Et 3 (l +
1.056a5)
(Formula for a v - c.3. Other formulas lue to __

Westergaarde, bv - 0).
2
6 All edges fixed. r ) Max edge stress
. PW/t ,
Uniform load over (At center) a= - -W m+l)tn b + 9(l-a at center of long elgec.
small
circular concentric
area Of Mt I r 2
2 2
ciclrarao (m - I)jWb Max y = yWh'/Et3' at
radius r." Max sy - m'_.t
3
center.
where 0 has values as follows:

(Approximate stress formula by linear Interpolstion
between stress In square plste and in InflnItely
long strip.
2
Long edges fixed, (At centers of long edges)A, b Max s - , = t-t
short edges sup- 2t'(1+C',. 4)
ported. Uniform centfr pf fIxeA edgrc.
load over entire - Max S
surface. (At center) St - wb' Max y - , at ,wenter
",t2(l+Oc. ) Ft
3wbz (i+o. 302)

2
a 4t
(v o)
7-4 000
7.64
_ o ... _O _ 0 ... 0 e .... 0 _o S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 _o

AMCP 706-350 0 S
Formulas for use wtth
Case Manner of Loading Formulas for Stress and Deflection for coefficients
ot listed
NO. Small Deflections (Max < t/2) the end (v - 0.3)
8 Short edges fixed, (At centers of short edges) Max a = a - . at

long edges sup- a t2
ported. Uniform O'75wb - Max 8 center of fixed elges.
load over entire a t +(l O+o.8c,4
surface.
(At center)
sb
O'.5wb2 2
at(1 + 0.8o2 + 6a 4 ) a O'sO.
0 t (lwb +2 (1
a4)+ 3ay) Max y Et-3 st center
2
9 One long edge (At center of fixed edge) a - 3wb. -Max a
2
fixed. other free, b t (l + 3.2a 3
short edges sup-
ported. Uniform 0.75we2
load over entire (At center of free edge) a a
surface. ta1+0
- 1.37wb
Max
-t3(+ + lc3)
(v - 0.3)
10 One long edge wb2 b4

clamped. Other Maxs - - Max y - a - where A and a may be found from the following
2
three edges sup- t Et3 table by interpolation:
ported. Uniform
load over entire a/b 1 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
surface.
A 0.50 0.66 0.73 0.74 0.7O4 0.75 0.75
a 0.030 0.046 0.054 0.056 0.057 0.058 0.058
(v - 0.3)
5
wb b
11 One short edge Max s- 0 52 , Max y - a wb- , where A and a may be found from the
clamped. Other t Et3 following table by interpolation:
three edges sup- S _
ported. Uniform
load over entire a/b 1 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
surface. A 0.50 0.67 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.75 0.75
a 0.030 0.071 0.101 0.122 0.132 0.137 0.139
(v - 0.3)
wbe sab•
12 One short edge Max a -s-,
5
Maxy
Y- a ,"here A and a may be found from the 5
free. Other three t Et following table by interpolation:
edges supported.
Uniform load over a/b 1 1.5 2.0 4.0
entire surface
A 0.67 0.77 0.79 0.80

o 0.140 0.160 0.165 0.167
(v - 0.3)
7-65
_ 0
AMCP 706-350 -
0 .0
Case V Pormulas for Stress and Deflection for

NO. Manner of Load Small Deflections (Max < t/2)
13 One short edge

2
free. Other three wb4
edges supported. Max a - 0 - Max y - a - where 0 and a may be found from the
blaj, lbuted load tE Et3 following table by Interpolation:
varying linearly
alon• length. a/b 1 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
A 0.2 0.28 0.32 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.37

SM 0.040 0.0"50 0.058 0.064 0.067 o.069 0.070
(v - 0.3)
14 One long edge 4

free. Other three Max a - !a-. Max y - , where A and a may be found from the
edges supported. ta Et3 following table by Interpolation:
Uniform load over
entire surface. a/b 1 1.5 2.0
A 0.67 0.45 0.36

a 0.140 0.106 0.080
(v - 0.3)
15 One long edge free. a

Other three edges Max a - 0 --- Max y - o w , where P and a may be found from
3
supported. Distrib- ta Et the following table by interpolation:
uted load, varying
linearly along a/b 1 1.5 2.0
breadth
w 0 0.2 0.16 0.11
a 0.040 0.033 0.026
"b (v * 0.3)
Coefficlents p and 7 for rectalgular plates with small deflections - equations above.
Case
_ _ _ _ ____a/b _ _ _ 0 0
Case Coef. 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 I.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 -
No.
1 A 0.2874 0.3318 0.3756 0.4158 0.4518 0.4872 0.5172 0.5448 0.5688 0.5910 0.6102 0.7500
7 0.0443 0.0530 0.0616 0.0697 0.0770 0.0843 0.0906 0.0964 0.1017 0.1064 0.1106 0.1422
2 A 0.564 0.440 0.349 0.275 0.211 0.165 0.124 0.0950 0.072 0.o560 0.041 0.000
S0.1265 0.1381 0.1478 0.1560 0.1621 0.1671 0.1714 0.1746 0.1769 0.1787 0.1803 0.1849
5 A 0.3078 0.3486 0.3834 0.4122 0.4356 0.4542 0.4680 0.4794 0.4872 0.4932 0.4974
Y 0.0138 0.0164 0.0188 0.0209 0.0226 0.0240 0.0251 0.0260 0.0267 0.0272 0.0277
6 A 0.7542 0.8310 0.8940 0.9380 0.9624 0.9810 0.9906 0.9960 1.000 1.000 1.004
0.0611 0.0666 0.0706 0.0735 0.0755 0.0768 0.0777 0.0782 0.0786 0.0787 0.0788
o
7 0 0.420 0.444 0.462 0.474 0.486 0.498 0.500 0.501 0.502 0.503 0.504 0.498
S0.0209 0.0228 0.0243 0.0255 0.0262 0.0270 0.0273 0.0276 0.0279 0.0282 0.0284 0.0284
8 A 0.420 0.474 0.522 0.564 0.600 0.630 0.654 0.6720 0.690 0.702 0.714 0.750
7 0.0209 0.0274 0.0340 0.0424 0.0502 u.0582 0.0658 0.0730 0.0799 o.0863 0.0987 0.1422
7-66
9 _ _0 ]
_ 0 ~ 0~0. _ 0 *@ . 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0
Case Manner of Loading Formulas for Stress and Deflection for 0 0

Ma. Small Deflections (Max < t/2)
16 Simply supported H Is the ratio of the stiffness of the plate to the stiffness of the
by 2 opposite edges beams.
rigid and the other Fb
2 on elastic beams. H - (1-v') E I
(See Fig. 7-37) plate plate
Uniform load over
entire surface.
Values of C Used In Determining Bending Moment In the (r) 1irection at the

Center from Equation
Mf - C . Poisson's Ratio v -0
Values of C
Values of
K/f H- 0 H-o.05 H- 0.lO H- 0.20 H- 0.50 H- 1.0 H -2.0 H- 4.0 H --
0.33 1.015 0.751 0.625 0.,52 0.250 0.145 0.081 0.045 0.006 S
0.5 1.o08 0.834 0.713 0,555 0.342 0.222 0.136 0.088 0.035
0.6 I.OO 0.856 0.748 0.603 0.394 0.267 0.180 0.129 0.071
0.8 0.997 0.886 0.802 0.681 0.496 0.373 0.286 0.232 0.171
1.0 0.992 0.908 0.843 0.745 0.588 0.481 0.402 0.353 0.295
1.2 0.990 0.925 0.874 0.796 0.669 0.579 0.512 0.470 0.418
1.4 0.990 0.939 0.899 0.838 0.739 0.664 0.609 0.574 0.532
1.6 0.991 0.951 0.920 0.873 0.793 0.735 0.691 0.662 0.628
1.8 0.991 O0.961 O0.936 0.900 0.837 0.791 0.757 0.735 O0.707
Values of C Used In Determining Bending Moment in the (g) direction at the 0 0
Center from Equation
Mg - C -- ; Poisson's Ratiov - 0O
0.33 -0.125 -0.052 -0.038 0.001 0.039 0.100 0.085 0.091 0.101
0.5 -0.098 -O.O15 -0.009 0.037 0.101 0.138 0.167 0.177 0.197
0.6 -0.092 -0.032 +0.005 0.054 0.126 0.169 0.198 0.217 0.236
0.8 -0.055 -0.009 +0.026 O.OT6 0.152 0.203 0.239 0.262 0.287 S
1.0 -0.035 -0.060 +0.037 0.082 0.155 0.207 0.243 0.268 0.295
1.2 -0.021 +0.012 +0.039 0.080 0.145 0.192 0.227 0.250 0.275
1.4 -0.012 +0.016 +0.038 0.073 0.129 0.170 0,199 0.219 0.242
1.6 -0.007 +0.016 +0.035 0.063 0.110 0.144 0.170 0.186 0.206
1.8 -0.003 +0.016 +0.031 0.053 0.091 0,120 0.140 0.151 0.1l7l
The values of the bending moment for any value of v may be found by using Bending Moment
with Poisson's Ratio Effect equal to the bending moment without Poisson's Ratio plus
the product of the bending moment at the same location In a perpendicular plane times• 5
Poisson's ratio.
7-67
_,._. . • ....
.o ..... • .. o • • • • • • • 0
•. -_ -- *.-* -. *
q%
AMCP 706-3500 0
V, Iloe of C0 : I In fl-tormIn! w De' I P !tInn -.

t '7- t,',rof' P1I t--ft r m Fqoo'ot I S,
3
___________ t
H H Ff I-- H C
f Io .
01 . 1' Q71"1 r0
0ý '1J I 01I 0070 1. '10
0.1
o 1'71) W 1 3'll
e "087 r. o.n 0 17
0.3 o10, 17 "7- 19 ,-.
f"07 C 10. Cý 00417
1.01710 it .11 7,, L; 11 1 49

n.
3
Ill: 1'. I:. 'r.

ro', *or~ o -'
Ioo, I ~ 3
n.3. I .03 10`7 ýI10. 1i-"' 3 0.1'17 C. 0. 13.
f`0 00<3
!: 0
D13t.'0 W, 0. m"17
'I' H,, i o ,n InFIe :0mrir, 0 S
0 0. IN 00007
n. IV, ir'i. 00I37n
rI
on. 3 0. "103 07 013 00 01 1-1 1r '3 0

nO
010. 01 n ',__ _
n. C,. 11 c,_ 4, So
0,or
)Im
q'd7 ox 3C(1
' 13' P1 o 3f/t
x.
I~~~ o, ~ ~ ~ 0./'.r. 6
0
g
Ir o 7'1z
Vaa,-o I 1,r
-' In1eemnn almmDelcino'Feil -
n/I I~IH o'IH
?1 n. 1,-r 0. 101 0
001 '" 0'300 0. ""1.ý n. 011 n. 0or.1 P.r 9
.17' 138 1 1. 11"' 0ý
n.033, oll ) )0 ).o1 .'b 7
17 ' ' 1 ''0 0004ý7 o* "7 0.0310 n. "'30 000-
1'. h 1.-19(- (0. 1037 0.06 n '0

1. 0.17- 1 .,,131,1 n. 1 non n. 36 00
1. .7'. 013' 03r.. 0. 1:n 0. 73, 00 0 0"' 003 0"
.0.17' .1638:- 0 11 )0 0. o 7,7
C.0 ý 0) '014
1'017'.' 1',13 '0. 1391 "'11< "1 1 '13 "7 o"I-'3 0. 1" 0010
1.3 0.7r 0.139';" 16, 07 3

0 176 "7 .n130)9 0.1 16 1. n7i. '00 0
01.1lag1 03 0.1n10 r). O77,ý 37 "'"7 -.
7-68
AMCP 706-350
Case Manner of Loading Formulas for 9tre2s anI Deflo !tlon f,,r -mall Doflf Ato__s (Max t/.
17 Simply rupportedi by H In the name an for P, .

2 opposite edges rigid
and the other 2 on Polrson's ratlo corrr-tion 1s the r9mer for Case.
elastic beams. ILoa!
P at center uniformly
distributed o.er ')
circle of diameter
do . f/4.
Values of C Used In Determining. Penling Moment in the (f) direction -t the

Center from Equation Mf ý CP; Poisson' R-,tf V =
V lue. of C
Values of H = 4, P H =•
g/f H - O H = O. r5 R •i In H=O2•f=. n., H - = H= I..-
0.33 0,686 0.521 0.121 0.305 n.171 0. 1i .1 ''

0.0'37 n.ol
0.5 0.468 0.396 0.348
1 r
r8. n 1 0.II,
O.100 O.n80
0.6 00398 0.(35, 0.30 8 r0.'( 0. 1(i1 1.133 0.117 0.008
0.8 0.318 0. Z"9 O.
0 007
0.7" r.115
.1'8 0,132
1.0 0.274 0.260 0.240 10) n.2-7
0 0.180 0.17 I
'.168 .lq9
1.2 0.248 0.242 0.: j, n. 2,,5 O. 'C'0 0,198 r.1I0 . 181, 0.177
1.4 0.230 0.230 0.2,5 0. ;n 0.2 , 0.108 0.19P 0.199
1.6 0.220 0.223 0.2,1 0--17 C.'11 0n. 07 0.204 0.O.202 0.20C
1.8 0.220 0). ;18 n. ;17 0. ' - ' 0.211 o,,•8 n.Pr07 (). '05 0.204
2.0 0.217 C.216 0.215 0,214 0. Ii 0.:10 0.200 0.208 0.207
3.0 0.21P 0.212 0.21? O."l2 1."12 2 0.212

0.212 0.21?
Values of C Used in Determining Benming Moment in the (q) direction at the Center from
Equation Mg = CP; Polsson's Ratio v =
Values of C
0.33 -0.0185 0.0276 0.0553 0.08,14 ,.1:;, 0.14,-
. 0.1-A o.160 0.168
0 1; 0.0307 c0.0522 0.0687 r,.087n 0.11' 0.130 0.139 0.144 0.151
0.6 O.05 43 0.0717 0.0820 (.101 0.12,. 0.138 0.147 0.163 0.160
0.8 0.0850 0.0963 0.104 0.117 0.130 0.14'. 0.152 0.158 0.164
1.0 0.1i0 0.111 0.116 n0.123 0.115 0.143 0.14) 0.153 0.159
1.2 0.114 0.118 C.121 0.12'6 0.134 0.140 0.114 0.147 0.150
1.4 0.120 0-.13 0.121, O.128 0.133 0.137 0.140 0.142 0.144
1.6 0.12-3 0.126 0.127 0.1210 0.132 0.135 0.136 0.138 0.139
1.8 n.127 0.127 O.1,9 0.130 r.132 0.134 0.135 n.135 0.136
2.0 0,129 0.130 0.130 n.131 0..132 0.133 o. 132 0.135 0.135
3.0 0.131 0.131 0.131 •1
0.1O .131 0.131 -.131 0.131 0.131
If do is less than f/l, a correction of <.17P (1/ - .10/f)/(1/4 + i/2 do/f) must be added to
both Mf and M9
7-69
_AL_
0 _ 0 0 0. *0_~~ 0•0 0 - 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
, !0'.
. .
7. 7
f ,I
V.lU I"t t',m•q , !.t l ,m (
I
',, F
M.
qnn
i
"i R t 1,
x
v 1i
'. 1 1
0 0
.1~V C 'I.
H 'H I H H H H H
7. 7737
:•. • '" • ' 7. 17 ' 1 a -.73 - m• ,."1
1.7, 17•"
7 7 " 71
7 .
Vn] 2, ,f•1e'' I, t ~ n rtInln2 Mx•.×!mr

T0 I P.,I t', 'O
on I:| Fi,×x ]' Be'm a]l'p~
t'ornm 12
pltIor (•he,
,!iv;"
S 23 -, 1 0 0
'."1•' .. . 7 . 1 ', ...' I. . " 7 K"I,.-;

I. 1 71 .17
. , ..1.J. 7, ' . :1'• 7- • ' 17 I•r- -
07",
7-70
AMCP 706-350
c-'4 C- 0> - <
4>C C C - C C, C. CC C0
4-~~~ -. 4 . C C C C c '
'C~ ~ 4, C 4
C C
-4&
~ 0
,
, 2)
C
C, I C C- 'C C C ' 0 ~ C, 4
C- . CI.-
-4 0 C- C-
.4 c-C>O - C, - c-
c- C, - E-4 -0. C. C - C
-: C0
C. rC C'- C LCO1 C - ' 2 N C 4,
c. c
CC t4 1--,) 70C n4 C,
- 0
co '4 -4 CO ',TD c C C I- - 44 CC . 4
- "I- O C
0 C Cc C, C1 '-0 'C
E 'C C - - CC C, C. ' . C > > C C
41:cýc
CII~~4 - 41'4 4ý - t < 4.
- ' CC
~
- ~ C 0 ~
C C f - C~ 0 . C CC > -
'-'C COC> '- O C C - . C - C 'C C C 741
-7 71
AMCP 706-350
S-1 b-0. 10
b b60.0,15
1presents a few simplified examples of the design
of sandwich panels. This type of construction is
80 "undergoing a high rate of development and the
S0.020 latest references should be consulted for design
7 information.
7-3.3.2.2 Corrugations
-; o
I Corrugations add stiffness and eliminate the

__ need for stiffeners. They also leave a
hydrodynamically rough surface and therefore,
Z P are rarely used for the exterior of boat or ship 0
40 /hulls. They may be used for bulkheads and other
-b interior components and, for amphibians, they
: 30 _ could be considered for use on the sides, deck,
or interior structure. In general, the weight of
corrugated structure is higher than the minimum
20 possible with other configurations. It is also less 0 0
expensive than conventional structural systems.
TO - The simple methods of analysis which follow
__ I(Ref. 38) are sufficient to estimate the scantlings
02 L for a corrugated structure. For areas with high
0 0 20 30 40 50 6o 70 loadings, additional studies should be made to
PLATING PRESSURE.,PSI determine that the structural stability is
Figure 7-35. Plating
.Plating Stress
Stressue as a Function of sufficient for the use
The equations intended.
which follow are for pressed
corrugations. Sheets corrugated in this manner
sandwich construction where the inner and do not undergo any reduction in width.
outer faces carry the tension and compression, Horizontal parts remain as thick as they were in
and the lightweight core carries only the shear the original sheet, but the webs become thinner
load. Sandwich-type construction is used with as they are formed by stretching. Another • S
Fiberglas or metal for the face plates. The method of corrugation reduces the width of the
purpose of this arrangement is to increase the finished sheet but retains a constant thickness
rigidity and strength of a thin plate with a throughout. These are formed by bending or
minimum increase in weight. The problems rolling. The equations hold for these
anticipated for use in an amphibian include: constant-thickness corrugations, except, that as
a. Leaks into the core the corrugations become nearly rectangular, the 0 -0
b. Difficulty of fastening to the faces and inertia of the web is underestimated, hence, the
edges equations are conservative.
c. Ability to absorb shear between the core Height of neutral axis above reference line
and the faces (y = 0)
All of these can be solved and sandwich
construction is used for boats and missiles. Core = Kit (2 - K3 - K 2 K 3 )/2, in. (7-41)
materials used are end-grain balsa-wood, paper 0 0
or metai honeycomb, and a variety of types of Moment of inertia
plastic foam. Many of the larger Fiberglas work
boats, such as trawlers, are now being built with
a sandwich configuration. I = Lt 3 (KI A + 1)112, in. (7-42)
The theoretical analysis of sandwich
construction is a lengthy process and the theory 0 0
is not yet complete. The analysis generally where the symbols are defined in Fig. 7-38.
results in expressions which are very When webs are curved, a straight line
cumbersome and tedious to evaluate. Ref. 29 approximation is used for the webs and flanges.
7-72
* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 61 0
AMCP 706-3500 0
400 I
THESE CURVES REFER TO
PRESSURE t 5456-Hill EXTRUSION
300
a.
F//3A
LU200
100
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030

THICKNESS SPAN RATIO t/b
400*
THESE CKURVE REFER TO

PRESSURE t 5456-1-321 SHEET
300
LU200
LU
100 SE0/4 E 01
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
THICKNESS SPAN RATIO t/b
Figure 7-36. Bottom PlatingDeformation Curves

7-73
0 *
AMCP 706-350
*. .
*-"
S• RIGID SUPPORT
ELASTIC SUPPORT
Figure 7-37. RectangularFlatPlate With Two Edges on Elastic Support
7-3.3.2.3 Plate and Stiffeners some cases where the shell is in sheets or plates,
the thickness of the shell will be standardized
Almost all large stressed skin structures are even though the loads are variable. In the more
built with plate and stiffener construction. In lightly loaded areas, flat bar stiffeners will be . •
general the weight of the structure decreases as used. They are vulnerable to damage from lateral
the spacing between stiffeners decreases so that abuse loads at the upper edge. They can be
monocoque is the heaviest configuration and installed with a bulb on the upper edge to resist
sandwich, which represents a structure with the these loads.
distance between stiffeners reduced to zero, is If mechanical fasteners or spot welding are -
the lightest. The problems inherent with used, the stiffener must have a faying flange j.
sandwich construction have limited the use of against the plate. In addition to this function, "
that configuration but it does have promising the faying flange reduces the effective distance
potential and can be used if the extra between stiffeners so that fewer stiffeners may
construction difficulty is worth the reduction in be required. In general when the stiffeners are
weight. either welded or extruded integral with the
The general solution to designing a plate, the use of a faying flange will result in a
lightweight structure is to reduce the stiffener higher weight. 0 •
spacing and the skin thickness to the minimum The inverted angle is convenient to use since
practical with the stiffener depth as large as is the orientation of the outstanding flange can be
necessary. The minimum distance or thicknesses alternated and the backs can then be fastened
are related to the problems of construction, together with less fitting problems.
repair, local or abuse loads, and cost. As the The tee is widely used because it offers the
scantlings get lighter and the pieces smaller, the lightest total weight with a balanced section. It S
cost of handling each piece goes down but the is the shape most frequently extruded integrally
number of pieces goes up so that the total cost is with the plate. The extrusion procedure is, of
higher. Part of the project management is to course, limited to aluminum and the primary
determine the "value" of reducing the weight. advantage is the reduction of welding and the
There are an unlimited number of potential accompanying distortion. Table 7-20 shows
stiffener shapes that might be used. The ones ALCOA's tentative limits of integrally stiffened 9
that are popular are listed in Table 7-19. extrusions.
The flat bar stiffeners are used where the Flanged plates are frequently used where deep
loading is low and where they are sufficiently stiffeners are required, primarily for indirect
strong in the minimum thickness plate used. In framing. On the assumption that the structural
7-74
. __.9_ _ _.
S..
_ ... o . • ... • .. • .. • 0 * S 0 0 0 0• 0 •
AMCP 706-350
A = PARAMETER DEPENDING ON K AND K

2 3
d = DEPTH OF CORRUGATION , IN.
I = MOMENT OF INERTIA, IN. --
K = RATIO d/t 0 0
SK2 = RATIO w/W
RATIO W/L
L = CORRUGATION PITCH LENGIH, IN. --- . -
PRESSED CORRUGATION t = THICKNESS OF SHEET, IN.

(MODEL USED TO DERIVE EQUATIONS) w = WIDTH OF BOTTOM OF CORRUGATION , IN.
W = WIDTH OF TOP OF CORRUGATION , IN.
' = HEIGHT OF NEUTRAL AXIS, IN.
Y0.25
0.9 0.50
0.8
1.70.
1.
0.7 p X
A =2.50 12
0.6- - 9
00.5
:S ~1.75"
S 0.4 1.2
0. 020.3 046.5 0.-07 0. 09 .
0.25
0.2 -
0.I1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
K 3-- RATIO WAL.O.... I..
Figure 7-38. Nomenclature and Plot of Constant "A "for CorrugatedMaterial
7-75
9_e _A __B..
AMCP 706-350 0 0
TABLE 7-19 STIFFENER SHAPES IN GENERAL USE
Shape CrossSection Remarks
Flat Bar I I I I I Simple but unstable at high loads. 0
Angle _ J J Mechanical fasteners or spot welded construction.
Inverted Angle -- 1JF Simple but unbalanced.
Inverted Tee I T T Most widely used. Balanced

construction.
Tee Mechanical fasteners or spot welded construction-spreads

__
._l_ _L. the load on the plate.
Channel E EF Mechanical fasteners or spot welded construction.Formed

from sheet, extruded or rolled. Slightly unbalanced. S 0
Inverted Channel Used for aluminum offshore race boats. Interior cannot
7 [7 7• be maintained. Reduces effective distance between stif-
feners.
Zee Widely used in aircraft industry. Mechanical f ,
spot welded.
I or H j I Mechanical fasteners or spot welded. Balanc
Flanged Plate F FF Versatile for materials with a short bend radi
arrangement and the plating thickness have been axis with respect to the flanges, in.
selected, the adequacy of the stiffeners can be The Navy (Ref. 28) uses a maximum effective
checked. Some or all of the shell will act as a breadth of plating for the calculation of section
flange for the stiffener. There is a phenomenon modulus of
known as shear-lag which limits the stiffening
effectiveness of plating attached to a stiffener. 2t ,Eioy, in. -
Because of the shear strain, the longitudinal where

tensile or compressive stress in wide beam
flanges diminishes with the distance from the t = plate thickness, in.
web. Ref. 36 presents the results of several E = modulus of elasticity, psi
investigators on the problem of shear lag. It oy = yield strength, psi
depends not only on the method of loading and The maximum effective breadth is given in Table
support, and the ratio of span to flange width, 7-21 for the more common materials. 0 _0
but also on the ratio of modulus of rigidity to The section moduli and cross-sectional areas
the modulus of elasticity and on the ratio: of the stiffener and plating combination can be
calculated using the standard method (Ref. 36).
( 3 1 . + If) For body-bound mechanical fasteners, the net
I. + if section should be used for tension and the gross
section for compression. By use of these
where calculated section characteristics and the loads,
1. = moment of inertia about the neutral the stresses and stability can be calculated. Table
axis with respect to the web, in! 7-21 contains a variety of formulas that can be
= moment of inertia about the neutral used for these calculations.
7-76
.e 0 _
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-20 LIMITS OF WIDE INTEGRALLY STIFFENED EXTRUSIONS
* 0
ALLOYS MAXIMUM W MINIMUM Tps MINIMUM T MAXIMUM H' MINIMUM S
5083, 5086 21.000 0.156 0.125 2.0 2.0

26.000 0.188 0.156 2.0 2.0
32.000 0.250 0.188 2.0 2.0
36.000 0.375 0.250 2.0 2.0
5456 21.000 0.156 0.125 2.0 2.0

26.000 0.188 0.156 2.0 2.0 .
32.000 0.250 0.188 2.0 2.0

36.000 0.500 0.375 2.0 2.0
6061 23.375 0.094 0.078 2.0 2.0

28.675 0.094 0.078 2.0 2.0
0.078 2.0 2.0
34.313 0.094
39.000 0.188 0.125 2.0 2.0
'THIS HEIGHT BASED ON MINIMUM THICKNESS 9.-. _
GREATER HEIGHTS ARE POSSIBLE WITH HEAVIER SECTIONS

ALL DIMENSIONS IN IN.
7-77
_* 0*0 0 0 0 0 0 0
!~
• • .
AMCP 706-350 0 0
TABLE 7-21 COMBINED STIFFENER ON PLATE FORMULAS (REF. 28)
bf - Breadth of outstanding flange of a balanced stiffener
d - Depth of stiffener 19
E - Modulus of elasticity
fb - Compressive stress from bending load
f - Compressive stress from axial load
f - Compressive stress in plating from loads normal to plating
F - Stress at failure from axial loading

c
F - Stress at failure from compressive loading
F - Tensile yield stress
t - Plating thickness, in.

t - Flange thickness
f
t - Web thickness
w
(1) To calculate section modulus use a maximum effective breadth of

plating equal to the stiffener spacing or
2t F_ whichever is less
2t L
Material Y
Mild Steel 60 t
Hi Tensile Steel 51 t
Al 5456-H321 parent 35 t
Al 5456-H321 welded- 40 t
7-78
0 9 -• 0. 0
AMCP 706-350
(2) Combined bending and compression interaction formula
f
C-+ f b--
Fc Fy•
(3) Breadth/thickness ratios for balanced flanges should be

equal or less than
Material Max b/t

Mild Steel 30
Hi Tensile Steel 26 0
Al 5456-H321 parent 18
welded 20
(4) Maximum ratio of span L to flange width bf, should equal

or be less than 0
1.283
0.333 bt - E ",f 0 _
1 +
(5) Ratio of stress at failure to stress under specified conditions

of loading for stiffened panels with compressive and normal
loading is
1
f c + f.d-
7-79
... _ ... _ . _ .. • . _ •_ • • .
____e
* _* * _. *- * * * * *-
AMCP 706-350
7-3.3.3 Indirect Framing the forward end. Also the forward side must be
able to resist the local loads when it is supported
The primary use of the indirect framing is to by a rock or other small hard object.
support the shell and direct framing. It includes
athwartship and longitudinal bulkheads and 7-3.3.5 Miscellaneous
girders. These members also may provide
watertight compartments and machinery There are many miscellaneous fittings that
foundations. Included with this group, although apply a load over a small area. These include:
not necessarily fitting the description, are a. Cleats
stanchions. The indirect framing usually is b. Foundations
required to carry the bending moment between c. Lifting pads 0 0
adjacent side and deck or side and bottom. d. Cargo tie-down fittings
Transverse bulkheads do this with a shear load, e. Appendags
and transverse girders act as a ring frame. The manner in which the stress is dissipated
Frequently brackets are fitted between deck and must be carefully considered because large
side, or bottom and side girders, to carry the forces are involved and the results of a failure
bending moment. can be serious. For instance, consider the results 0
The design of the shell and direct framing of a lifting pad failure while the amphibian is
furnish the loads that must be carried by the being unloaded from a cargo ship and it is 40 ft
indirect framing. The transverse girders should above the bottom of the hold.
be analyzed as ring frames (Ref. 35); the There are standard patterns of cleats available
longitudinal girders, as beams. The bulkheads so that the cleat itself is not a design problem.
can be considered to be short, deep plate girders The base of the cleat, however, must be fastened . .. ..
although the loads are almost entirely shear. such that it can take the impact loads from the
Access is a critical concern when designing strongest rope that will fit on the cleat.
indirect framing because of the depth of the Foundations can add much extra, unplanned
structure involved. Ref. 40 presents formulas weight if they are not carefully designed. The
that can be used for the design. The analysis propeller thrust must be carried by either the
involved for the bulkheads, in particular, is transmission or the engine foundation,
difficult and careful consideration of past depending upon the design. Vibration effects
practice may be helpful. must be considered. Some previous vehicles have
had trouble when the fixed ends of the
7-3.3.4 Ramps hydraulic wheel steering cylinder were fastened
to the wheel well plate without a special
The structural design of ramps must consider foundation plate. All places where a
three problem areas: concentrated load is applied should be specially
1. Deck loads considered.
2. Ground support loads Lifting pads should be designed to meet the
3. Hinges test specifications. Some of the common tests
The deck or roadway is subject to dynamic are shown in Fig. 8-2. The pads must fit the
loads from vehicles and from cargo. The critical standard lifting gear and they must be able to
loads are likely to result from the grousers on take the side loads. It should be noted that the
tracked vehicles or the wheels on loaded fork lift pads are convenient for other tasks besides 0 0
trucks. It is sometimes advantageous to place the lifting.
stiffeners on top of the plate where they can Cargo tie-downs must be designed to take
serve a secondary function as tread bars for standard fittings and at a wide range of pull
wheeled vehicles. angles. There have been problems in the past
In the lowered position, the ramp is with water and dirt collecting in the tie-down
supported at the after end by the hinges and at recesses and freezing which has made them O _
the forward end by the ground. The ramp and difficult to use.
the hinges must be constructed to resist the The appendages including the rudder and the
torsion that occurs when the ground is uneven propeller are damaged occasionally, particularly
and the ramp is supported only on one side at in the land mode. It is important that they fail
7-80
0 . .. - - . . ,* ~
.- . - _ _ __ _
AMCP 706-350 - *
before the connection to the hull so that the allow the member to fulfill its duty as required,
watertight integrity of the hull is not broken in spite of human ignorance or error. Normally
even though some component is not working. Step 2 is, in some way, an idealized situation of
the actual service conditions of the member. In - .. .
7-3.4 DETAIL DESIGN many cases the loads cannot be predicted 0
accurately; the material is not completely
During the preliminary design, the major uniform; the fabrication is not the best quality;
decisions for the structural characteristics are the material will deteriorate in service; the
made. These include, basically, the material, relationship in Step 2 is only an approximation
configuration, hull shape, and smoothness. using simplifying assumptions; or many other
Along with these selections is a series of goals conditions exist which reduce the level at which
which may or may not be promulgated as such. failure will occur. Step 4, then, is used to apply
These include structural weight, position of the a reduction factor, to cover all of the conditions
center of gravity, hull cost, safety level, and and considerations that cannot be expressed
maintenance and repair levels. Additional goals quantitatively in mathematical form, and
which should be known during detail design are applied in Step 2.
potential manufacturers, anticipated The most common reduction factor is the
development programs, hull tests, approximate factor of safety which is the ratio of the load S
vehicle quantity, and production schedule. that would cause failure to the load that is
As mentioned previously, communications imposed in service. It is not a ratio of stresses.
between designers on a project must not For those situations where the load is
deteriorate at this phase due to the rush to finish proportional to the quantity that first causes
the design. The final structural design has a structural damage, the factor of safety is the
major impact on the total design. The same as the ratio of stresses or other quantity of
probability of meeting, surpassing, or missing failure. Table 7-22 lists typical factors of safety
the goals must be made known to the project and the values on which they are based. For
manager. The structural designer must steel structures the effects of corrosion should
appreciate the real mission of the user of the be countered by the addition of a uniform
vehicle. This mission at times demands the increase in the scantling, normally called a
maximum performance from the vehicle, "corrosion allowance".
regardless of the original mission for which the
vehicle was designed. It is the responsibility of 7-3.4.2 Fasteners
the designers to produce a design that is as safe
as practical for this condition and not overlook A chain of structural members is only as
some detail that will cause a catastrophic failure, strong as the weakest member. Fasteners are one
of the links in the chain and they must be
7-3.4.1 Factors of Safety designed with as much care as the members. The . .
three main types of fasteners are:
The rational process of design of each load 1. Mechanical
resisting member may be considered in four 2. Welding
steps which are: 3. Adhesive
1. Determine mode of failure.
2. Determine a relationship between the 7-3.4.2.1 Mechanical - •
loads and the quantity which is most significant
in the failure of the member. Mechanical fasteners can be further
3. By appropriate tests of the material used subdivided into
in the member, determine the maximum value a. Bolts
of the quantity that is considered to cause b. Rivets
structural damage. c. Special purpose (primarily patented types)
4. By use of experimental observations and Although the actual stress patterns in a bolt
analyzing experience, judgment, and the basic or riveted joint are complex, it is customary to
design philosophy for the project; select a value make certain simplifying assumptions and apply
of the quantity for use in Step 2 which will certain factors of safety. The system (Ref. 40)
7-81
- • __s _
_.. S .. o ... _ .... .... o. _.o _ o0 .. 0 ... - .... 0 0 0 0 _o S

AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7.22 TYPICAL FACTORS OF SAFETY
Type of Structure Rof. Factor of Safety Strength Ba•1- Muter:al Remarka 0 0
Main Englne
Foundation LARC V 47 2.0 Ultimate Aluminum Re-.Jesgn after
LVP'h 46
Sheet and Plate 1.:6 YIel Alumlnum Study
Shapes 1.28 YieIA
LWK-Structure 47 1.1 Yield Aluminum Proposal 0
1.5 UltImate
LVH-X2 48 1.l15 Yield Aluminum A carry-over

Structure l.t Ultimate factor of 1.1
used so that
foundations fail
before hull
structure
Bridge-Perry 49 Tension 1.25 Minimum Aluminum Specification

Compresslon 1.43 Yl
Shear 1.5' Fatigue stress, • •
Pina-flexure 1.11 in general use
Bearing 1.43 not more than
1/2 of yield
Planing craft 37 1.1 Ylel1 Aluminum Excludes plating

for which 0.005
permanent set
is suggested
BrIdges 40 2.2 Ultimate Aluminum ASCE Speciflcatlons -

1. 35 Yield Allowances of per-
1.35 Incipient cent static loads
buckling for dynamic loads
Elevator support 100
Buildings 1.95 Ultimate Traveling crane
1.65 Yield supports 25"
I.3C Incipient Light machinery
Buckling supports 20
Reciprocating
machinery
suposrts ., 0o -
Hydrofoil 1.0 Fatigue with Aluminum Shell designed S S
Structure a required for a (0.005 x span)
life permanent set
I .Ultimate
Deck 1.8. Compression Deflection criteria

Yield EI/(apan)s Z 60
Ships 50 1.?? Yield Mild Steel

1.18 Yield HTS
1.45 YIeld HY-80
1.22 Yleld-HAZ 5086-H32
1.15 5086-Hill
1. 08 5086-0
1. 2 5456-11321
1.2', 5456-HIII1
1.18 54,6-H34
1.14 SA5h-Hlll
1.52 Yield-
parent 6061-T6
Boats 29 Fiberglas Deflection limit

- 1/L00 sOan
2 Ultimate Static short term
loads
8 St.tic long term loads
4 Variable or changing
loads
Repeated loads
SFatigue or load
reversal
IC impact loads-repeated
Mineaweeper ?lberglas
hull Ultimate Allowas for unknowns
In estimating under- 0 0
aater explosion
pressures
*Ultimate Panel buckling
deflection limit
- 1/150 span.
7-92
0 0 _ 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
which follows is used in the aerospace industry The shear and bearing failure loads must be
which depends heavily on mechanical fasteners. separately calculated and the lower value used.
The assumptions normally made are: The SAE Standard J429 recognizes the 9
a. The applied load is carried entirely by the grades of bolts shown in Table 7-23. For
fastener. Friction between the connected parts is combined loads of shear and tension the S S
ignored. interaction formula is on Fig. 7-39. Clearances
b. When the center of gravity of the fasteners required to install bolts are shown on Fig. 7-40.
is on the assumed line of action of the load, the Unit bearing strengths are given in Figs. 7-41 and
fasteners are all loaded in proportion to their 7-42. For the features and design procedures for
respective section areas, special fasteners, the manufacturer should be
c. Shear stress is uniformly distributed across consulted.
the fastener section.
d. The bearing stress between plate and 7-3.4.2.2 Welding
fastener is uniformly distributed over an area
equal to the fastener diameter times the plate Welding is the primary method of attachment
thickness. for the present fleets of amphibians. One of the
e. The stress in a tension member is primary reasons for using welding is that
uniformly distributed over the net area. mechanical fasteners in aluminum usually leak 0 0
f. The stress in a compression member is after the joint has been severely stressed a few
uniformly distributed over the gross area. times. Largely all-welded ships have been the
The possibilities of failure due to secondary standard since World War I1, and the proper
causes, such as shearing or tearing out of a plate procedure for welding steel is widely known.
between fastener and edge of plate, or between Butt welds, when properly back chipped to
adjacent fasteners, are minimized by using the remove all oxidized and unfused metal, are as 0 0
following standards: strong as the parent metal. For amphibians, all
a. Edge distance from a fastener to a sheared butt welds should be designed for full
edge shall not be less than 1 3/ diameters, or to penetration and therefore full efficiency. Butt
a rolled edge 1 1/ diameteiG. welds may be laid out to suit fabrication and
b. The minimum fastener spacing is 3 need not be staggered or offset.
diameters. The efficiency of fillet-welded connections
c. The maximum fastener pitch in the can be calculated but it is more convenient to
direction of stress shall be 7 diameters; at ends use safe design loads. Table 7-24 lists the
of a compression member 4 diameters or a allowable design loads for various fillet sizes in
distance equal to 1 ½/ times the width of the mild steel. These loads are based on an allowable
member (for stiffeners). shear value of 13,600 psi on the throat of the
d. For a zig-zag joint the net width of the fillet and are taken from Ref. 41. These are safe
part shall be obtained by deducting from the loads for design, the breaking loads are about 4 - •
gross width the sum of the diameters of all the times the values tabulated. Intermittent fillet
holes, and adding for each gage space S 2/4g, welds are generally sufficient but where a double
where S = longitudinal spacing of any two continuous fillet weld is desired, such as for high
successive holes and g = spacing of the same two impact loads, the fillet should be 0.707 times
holes transverse to the direction of stress, the thickness of the thinner plate. Table 7-25
e. The shear and bearing stresses shall be from Ref. 41 lists the fatigue strengths of
calculated on the basis of the nominal fastener various types of joints for ASTM-A7 structural
diameter; the tensile stresses on the hole steel. Note the poor fatigue characteristics of the
diameter. tee joints in the fillet weld, and the plug and slot
f. Special consideration must be given to long welds. In general any joint that can be seen can
fasteners (grip length/diameter greater than 3). be welded, but additional clearance will reduce
g. For bolts in tension the factor of safety the cost and increase the quality of the weld.
must be at least 1.5. The use of aluminum bolts Welding aluminum successfully requires a 0 0
in tension should be avoided, higher quality of workmanship than for steel.
h. Hole-filling fasteners (rivets) should not be There have been major advances in the
combined with nonhole-filling fasteners (bolts). knowledge, tt:hniques, and equipment for
7-83
. S
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-23 SAE BOLT GRADES
Tensile Harlncs•
Graie Bolt 7lze Proof Loal, Strength,
D'a ,n. p~1 mln,psl Brinell Rokckwell
All :Ize--
1 All tIes -,P2'? 207 max 97 B max
- 1r to 1/2'ncl 5, 0" 09, 00C .i max IO B max 0 0

over 1/2 to 3/V incl 27:.,00a
rI200
Over 3/'- to 1-1/2 in:l 73,00 57,00- 707 max
3 "p to i/' incl 8, - lr 7-7<9 91-10 B

Over I/2- to 1/8 indl 83,00- IOO 'CQ
3/" :nl
Vto 3",'-" 120,000 ,.-3": -3- C • 0
Over 3/" to 1 inal 78,000 lIl,On'0 23<-30-'2 -32 C
Over 1 to 1-1/; inml 7.-,O/ 1 1,00r 2 3-23' 1--31 C
to r/3
7TI- in-I 1<,C,0.0 1.7,000 :'35-'31 3--31 C
Over 5/3 to 3/. !ncl 1Y ,00"0 133,000 2'9-?31 83< C
7 ' Tr to 1-1/2 inc!d M•, 133,000 29-37 3-3. C
8 'Tp to 1-1/' :n0l 12',n l0,000 3,'- 3 3-38 C
aluminum welding in the last few years and e. Equalized welding on both sides of
some manufacturers are apt to be using material
out-dated techniques. Several characteristics of f. Proper welding sequence
aluminum affecting the welding process are: g. Increased scantlings
a. Aluminum melts at about 12000 F and As with all types of fabrication, some residual
does not become "red-hot" or other,-ise change stress will be built into any redundant structure.
color when heated. The oxides of aluminum For welded aluminum this problem is
melt at about 36000 F or some 24000 F higher compounded by the large welding distortion.
than the parent metal. The major method of combating residual stress
b. Aluminum conducts heat 3 times faster is proper weld sequence. 0 0
than steel and the thermal expansion is Ref. 42 is addressed to high quality welding
approximately twice as great. Distortion from for the construction of missiles. There are,
welding must be carefully controlled, however, two items of special interest in this
c. Cleaning the weld surface of oxide, grease, reference:
or other foreign material just prior to welding is a. Very high quality welds are practical when
necessary to produce good welds with low the material is tack welded to hold the
porosity. The lower melting temperature, lower alignment. The general practice has been to
specific gravity, and higher heat conduction are avoid tack welds, but they can be used if
some of the reasons why this problem is much properly cleaned prior to production welding.
worse for aluminum than for steel. b. Fiberglas tape with adhesive backing can
To minimize distortion, it is necessary to use: be used as a backup in lieu of metal backup bars,
a. Minimum amount of weld material without weld contamination.
b. Back up chill bars to absorb heat Ref. 43 is an extensive collection of - •
c. Rigid jigs information on welding aluminum. It covers all
d. A high speed, concentrated heat input types of welding including:
welding process a. Arc (MIG and TIG)
7-84
0 0•-
AMCP 706-350 0 0
INTERACTION FORMULA Fillet welds are loaded in transverse shear if the

WHERE load is applied perpendicular to the axis of the
•' 3 +b 2 = I xy =TENSION
= SHEAR LOAD
LOAD weld. For equal leg length transverse fillet
3 + = SHEAR ALLOWABLE loading, the plane of maximum strength is not at
b = TENSION ALLOWABLE the minimum throat depth but, theoretically, is •
at an angle of 221/2 deg with the fillet leg for the
30 maximum shear stress, and at an angle of 67½/
deg for the maximum tensile stress. The stress
will be the same in both of these planes so the
25 weld will fail in shear since the ultimate shear
2 DIA strength is lower than the ultimate tensile 0 •
strength. Table 7-27 lists filler alloy shear
I _strengths. The stress values produced by the
X 20 longitudinal shear loading are always higher than

the shear stresses from an identical transverse
9/16" loading. It is the practice of some designers in
15 fillet weld design to assume the longitudinal
z
o shear loading regardless of the direction of the
applied load. Fig. 7-43 shows the transverse
10 shear strength of alloy 5356 and 5556. The
3/8' failure is assumed to be in the fillet.
A common application of fillet welds is for
5 5/16" -fully connecting two members at right angles,
using a double fillet weld. If it is desired to make 0 S
this welded connection strong enough so that in
0 severe loading failure would occur in the base
0 5 10 15 20 25 metal of the web, then the three methods of
SHEAR LOAD, LBx 10-3 failure in the weld area are:
1. Failure in a plane through the fillets at or
Figure 7-39. Combined Shear Load and Tension near the minimum throat depth
Load on Steel Bolts (With an Ulti- 2. Failure in an irregular plane that roughly
mate Tensile Strength of 125,000 follows the fusion line of the fillet
psi) 3. Transverse tensile failure in web
Figure 7-44 illustrates these assumptions. The
b. Resistance (seam, spot, flash butt) length of the irregular shear plane q, by
c. Gas measurement is about 1.1 times the length of
d. High frequency the fillet leg. .
e. Pressure The following items govern the fillet size and
f. Ultrasonic the strength of the weld metal:
g. Electron beam a. The fillets must be sufficiently large to
h. Laser provide an adequate length of shear plane q
Strengths of butt joints are listed in Table adjacent to the fillets so that failure does not
7-26. occur as base-metal shear adjacent to the fillets.
The stress in a double fillet weld in It is general practice to assume the heat affected
longitudinal shear is: zone (HAZ) extends one inch into the pai'ent
F metal from either the center of a butt joint or
a, 1.414sL (7-43) the heel of a fillet, regardless of the weld size.
b. After the minimum fillet size is
where determined by the length of shear plane q, a
a, = shear stress in weld, psi corresponding minimum fillet weld shear
F = total longitudinal force, lb strength must be established so that fillet failure
s = fillet size (length of fillet leg), in. does not occur before base metal failure in the
L = length of weld, in. web.
7-85
AMCP 706-360
z ~0 az--- W
a ~~(1 C4V~N
C0C4t ~ C') W C) c'

u 0 ' C) C) A N N - ' C)0 '
zN
N 0 00
00 C'4
C' - 0 A C) '
I.- ' '0 ' '0 '
z Z - N '- ' coC)
n o ." C
oz :z z- Z
C') C4 m
) ' ' C') C0
T -U N0 '
o~ z -- 7 ---- --
10 0
o, n n -
- 0 U "
.0 'O ' N N
zz IZ Ic
'( ~ o.
- N N NCC4
0 0 0)
cAcJ
~ N 'I
N N N N N O
'o oO -l a, NN
z z~
In ~ , ' ~ N
A NZ C') C') - ' C ') C)
7-86 )~ ' - W '
0~~~ AC ~ ' ' 0 0-
A6N
AMCP 706-350 0.
BERN9 TEGH-38I B = web material tensile ultimate strength,

! T 0- S1 = web material shear strength, psi
1 kio 1T00 lb RIVET DIAMETER A
-16 /-- IN. In the Weld Area 0 0
- I I A q = length of shear plane, in.
•V S, = weld material shear strength, psi
/--/,N.
6/--/ -
2 = number of fillets
L
,5" When the welds are loaded in transverse shear,

-the web is in tension. To insure that failure will
/3/16 IN.
4--- - not occur in web shear at the fusion line, the
-'/32 IN. web-shear strength on plane q near the fillets
i / must at least equal the web tensile strength,
-
Z3 - -/ I/I
IN thus:
2-/-- -' - - 3/32 I Wtension W fusion line
lB 2qSz
'61 //6IN. withs•S'= sS
0.. . . . 0.04 0.0

I 0.12
I 0.16 0.20 0 2 1s
B ,B
2StI=- but q =l.s, where s is the fillet size
1-- = minimum fullet size,
(7-47)
T N 0.T 0.N4 0.28 = 2 2.28 when the welds are loaded
SHEET THICKNESS , IN in transverse shear.
Figure 7-41. Unit Bearing Strength of Sheets on When the welds are loaded in longitudinal
Rivets shear, the web is also in shear. In this case let
Wshear Wfusion line
c. If a weld metal weaker than the base metal
is used, the fillet size must be increased tV1 -2qS 2 0
accordingly. is, t t
d. There is little benefit in using an overly q = 2S 2- but q = 1.1s, so 1.1s = (7-48)
strong weld metal with the object of reducing
fillet size. If this is done, the base metal shear S = minimum fillet size when the welds
strength through the irregular plane q at the 2.2 are loaded in longitudinal shear.
fillet fusion line will not have sufficient strength. The foregoing calculations show how the
In applying calculations to fulfill Item a, the shear strength of the web base metal near the
given symbols for a one-inch-long segment of the fillet can determine the minimum fillet size.
structure are:
After the minimum fillet size is determined, the
The unit length web tensile strength minimum strength of the filler metal must be
Wiension = tB, lb (7-44) determined in fulfillment of Item b relative to
fillet size and strength. For a one-inch-long
The unit length shear strength segment of the structure, the fillet weld unit -
Wshear = tS, , lb (7-45) length shear strengths are:
In shear at the weld fusion lines,
the unit length shear strength (7-46) Transverse shear strength=0.7071sT, lb (7-49)
Wffion lines = 2qS 2 , lb Longitudinal shear strength =0.7071sL, lb (7-50)
where
For the Web Material and the fusion line unit length shear strength is:
t = web thickness, in. Wfusion line =1.lsS, lb (7-51)

7-87
_ 0 ~ @~ .
0.@ _0 0 0 0 0 ... 0_
AMCP 706-350
28 BOLT, TABLE 7-24 ALLOWABLE LOAD ON FILLETS

444444 OLT IAMTER(13,600 psi SHEAR ON THROAT)
2A =100,00 PSI
BEARINGSTRENGTH I IN. _______________ _________________
I kIip *1,000, 1b / N Allowable

-- --- 7N Size, in. load per inch 0 0
o
20 - of length, lb
16 5-/8 IN. 3/16 1800

./!IN. 1/4 2400
1/. 5/16 3000
I.3/8 3600
..--3/,N. 7/16 4200
Z 5/161N 1/2 4800
14- 65/8 6000
4 3/I11N. 3/4 7200
-21N. 7/8 8400
I]AIN.
3 ,IN.
3/ 1 9600
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28
SHEET
THICKNESSIN. If the minimum fillet size is used, the filler
Figure 7-42. Unit Bearing Strength of Sheets on metal must have at least 1.555 times the base
Bolts metal shear strength to avoid shear failure in the
weld. Thus
where T L 0
In the Fillets j or - = 1.555.
0.7071s = weld failure path, in.

T = transverse shear strength, psi If this ratio is not met, the minimum fillet size
L = longitudinal shear strength, psi must be increased by a ratio of
In Fusion Line Shear 1.555
Sor 1.555
•
q 1.1s = fusion line failure path, in. TIS LIS
S = shear strength of base metal, psi
By equating the fillet weld shear strength to which fulfills Item c of the precepts governing
the fusion line shear strength, the minimum calculations for fillet size.
filler metal shear strength can be found, for the In accordance with Item d, a filler metal shear 0 S
minimum size lillet. strength which meets the requirement of 1.555
times the base metal shear strength is adequate.
Transverse There is no advantage in using stronger filler
0.7071T---1.1sS metal because the minimum fillet size is
established by the base metal shear strength.
T 1.1S (7-52) Joint accessibility is an important factor to
0.7071 consider, it is very easy to design a part which
T - 1.555S cannot be welded because part of the joint is not
accessible to the welding tip. Typical MIG guns
Longitudinal with dimensions are shown on Fig. 7-33. A full
0.7071sL = 1.1sS size template of the gun to be used is useful.
1.1S 7-3.4.2.3 Adhesives

0.7071
Ref. 44 discusses adhesive aluminum bonding,
L = 1.555S including:
7-88
=.lm lJ~lill
= * •-,
•i i=
-ll •hllqll•1•l•
=Mi "iiiJ
d, I m l '. . . . =-.- " -.
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-25 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF STEEL WELDS, psi x 10-3
ASTM-A7 Structural Steel 0

0 to Tenion Reversed
Cycles Cycles Cycles Cycles
Type of Joint i100,000 2,000,000 100,000 2,000,000
Fatigue strengths of flat-plate specimens with and without butt welds, as-welded and with reinforcement
removed flush, psi x 10"
Plain plate (A-7 steel) 47.8 31.7 26.8 17.5
Transverse butt-welded joint (single V) as welded 34.9 23.2 22.4 14.9
Transverse butt-welded joint (a) single-V;
8
(b) single-U - reinformesent off 37.5(a) 2 .7(a) 27.4(b) 16.0(b)
Longitudinal butt-welded joint (single-V) -
as welded 39.6 26.0
Longitudinal butt-welded joint (a) single-V;
(b) double V - reinforcement off I 17.1(a) 30.5(a) 21.0(b) 15.6(b) 0 5
Fatigue strengths of fillet welds of various arrangements In speclmenz designed for failure in the welds)
Fillet-welded lap joints - 5/16 In. transverse welds. 30.3 18.5+ 16.2 11.3
Failure in welds
Fillet-welded lap joints - 5/16 In. longitudinal
welds. Failure in welds 27.2 19.7 15.2 10.7
Fillet-welded lap joints - 5/16 In. transverse and
longitudinal welds. Failure la welds. 28.3 20.5 13.1 8.9
Tee joints - 5/16 in. fillet welds. Failure in welds. 19.1 9.6 13.3 6.2
Moment connectors - 5/16 in. vertical fillet welds.
Failure in welds 46.8 26.5 26.6 17.3
Fatigue strengths of rolled beams with lateral connection plates attached to the tension flanges
w
Beams with welded attachments. Longitudinal welds 24.4 13.6 -- .------
Beams with welded attachments. Transverse welds 19.2 12.2

Fatigue Strengths of Welded Beams and Girders
Rolled beams, 12-in., 31.8 lb I, with continuously
welded, partial length cover plates, 4 x 9/16 in.
and 3/8 in. transverse fillet welds across sQuare
ends of cover plates 22.8 12.0
Rolled beams, 12-in., 31.8 lb I, with continuously
welded, full-length cover plates 4 x 9/16-in.
top plate and 6 x 3/8 in. bottom plate,
3/16-in. fillet welds 41.1 22.8
Built-up girders with continuous web-to-flange

fillet welds and with middle stiffeners welded
only to compression flange and upper half of web 46.7 17.6 - -
Fatigue Strengths of Plug- and Slot-Welded Joints (Stresses given are those In welds) •
Plug welds - weld failure 23.1 12.6 11.3 6.5
Slot welds - transverse (balanced design for weld
and plate failure) 20.0 10.2 10.0 5.3
Slot welds - longitudinal (balanced desJgn for
weld and plate failure) 27.9 11.1 16.1 6.1
Fatigue Strength of Plug-Welded Lap Joint Designed to Fall In Plate Material (Stresses given are those
In Plate Material)
Plug-welded lap joint - plate failure 26.3 10.1 14.2

14.1 5.3
6.6
24.1 11.7
7-89
* S00 *..O . 0 0 0 0 0_ __ ... 0

AMCP 706-350 - - O
TABLE 7-26 TENSILE STRENGTH OF MIG AND TIG BUTT JOINTS
Alloy 5086 5456 6061-T6

Filler Alloy 5356 5556 5356 0 0
Average Ult Tensile, psi 39,000 46,000 30,000
Min Annealed Ult Tensile, psi 35,000 42,000 24,000
Average Yield, psi 19,000 23,000 17,000
Min Yield, psi 17,000 20,000 18,000
Free Bend Elongation, % 38 28 25 0 0
Tensile Elongation in 2 in.,% 17 14 10
TABLE 7-27 SHEAR STRENGTH OF WELDED ALUMINUM ALLOY

0 6
Alloy 5356 5556
Typical Longitudinal Shear, psi 21,000 26,000

Min Longitudinal Shear, psi 17,000 19,500
Typical Transverse Shear, psi 34,000 41,000 -
26,000 30,000 0 0
Min Transverse Shear, psi (double fillet)
a. Applications calculations and specifications:

b. Surface preparation a. Areas most frequently damaged include:
c. Adhesive classifications (1) Quarters where the sides and transom S
d. Design of an adhesive-bonded joint intersect
e. Adhesive selection (2) Cargo deck area, including all adjacent
f. Safety precautions vertical surfaces
(3) Cab accessories and the tires when the
This method of fastening aluminum is advancing vehicle rolls when moored alongside a ship. The
rapidly with new products and techniques being tires can be used effectively as fenders if they O
introduced frequently. Adhesive bonding is are adequately supported. - .
being used for the foils on hydrofoil craft, b. Adequate hand and foot holds must be
helicopter rotor blades, and other high provided. These may be used to secure gear if a
performance components. Table 7-28 compares line can be tied to them.
the properties of epoxy adhesives. It is c. Drain plugs should be easily accessible so
recommended that the manufacturers of they can be replaced (with water in the bilge).
adhesives be consulted for the latest information Plugs with a "T" handle and a guide will prevent _ 0
before designing adhesive-bonded aluminum their loss -nd assist in securing in an emergency.
structures. The material used for the plug must be
compatible with the hull material. An aluminum
7-3.4.3 Miscellaneous Details plug in an aluminum hull will seize.
d. Vibration will be present in any prototype.
Addition of some extra panel stiffeners or braces
The following list includes many items should be anticipated to reduce the amplitude
previously covered. They are listed here to for any new design.
prevent their neglect in the vast amount of e. Piping penetrating the hull should have a
7-90
0 0
0..0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0
_J
AMCCP 706-350
LCTOOFWEB
NO.3 IS THEPREFERRED
SPCME AII.U REIN HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLE 3
22,000 /5556 '"

_,2
20,000 - 5183--
18, 000 -- - - - - 5356- Figure 7-44. Three Possible Areas of Failure in

• 16,000 •a Double Fillet Weld
3, 0 5154- f. Good drainage is necessary for minimum
14000 maintenance. 0
Z
- zu
2,0 404 g. Hatches for the removal of all machinery
I0,000 4Acomponents should be provided. It is
recommended that the cargo deck be solid. Hard
8000 points to attach lifting gear should be provided
z lZO
-0 1 in the design stage. Foundation extensions 0 0
< 6000 FILLER which will allow sliding heavy pieces of
-J 4000 -4 machinery to a hatch may be useful.

ALLOY-
2000 h. Access inside the hull for maintenance or
inspection is usually poor in some locations.
0i LGood maintenance will not be maintained with
0 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8. 1 poor access. Likewise maintenance that must be
FILLET SIZE , IN. conducted underneath the hull, while it is still
dripping, is likely to be frequently overlooked.
Figure 7-43. Typical Transverse Shear Strengths i. Ventilation is usually deficient for
of Aluminum Fillet Weld3 maintenance work in the hull in hot weather.
Refs. 45 to 49 may be studied to determine
flexible section so that it will not vibrate with past practice with regard to amphibian structural -
respect to the hull. design. -
SECTION II PROPULSION SYSTEM DESIGN
7-4 HORSEPOWER REQUIREMENTS unusual in that it has performance requirements

on or in three media, viz., water, land, and the
In the design of a propulsion system for a interfaces
in all of between water and
these media mustland.
be Performance
checked to
wheeled amphibian, the first step should be a in which wia dete be checked t
determination of the required horsepower. In determine which will determine the required
generminaltin pofher requiremed h s p er.I power. The paragraphs of this section, which
general the power requirements will be follow, present design theories and data for use
determined by the mission requirements or in defining the power requirements. 0 0
military characteristics defined in a QMR or
SDR. It is the task of the amphibian designer to 7-4.1 WATERBORNE POWER REQUIREMENTS
establish the minimum power required to satisfy
the performance requirements given in the In the LARC series of amphibians and the
QMR. In some cases the amphibian designer may existing high speed amphibian prototypes, the
be faced with the converse problem in which the power required is determined by the demands
power plant is specified and the performance for waterborne performance. In future wheeled - 0
must be estimated. In either case the same basic amphibians, with the currert trend toward
data and design procedures apply. improved waterborne performance, this will
Among military vehicles the amphibian is almost certainly be the case. The waterborne
7-91
S S
0... 0..
O 0 6 0 ... S 5 0 0 S 0 0 0 S 0
AMCP 706-350 •
TABLE 7-28 COMPARISON OF PROPERTIES FOR EPOXY ADHESIVES(')
Tensile T-Peel(3)
Type Shear Strength(2) Strength,
psi lb/in.
1. One-component (Heat cured)

a. High-strength Flexible 4,000-7,000 12-160
b. High-strength Semirigid 4,500-5,500 2-6
2. Two component (Room-temperature-cured) 1,000-4,000 2-30 0 0
(1) All test specimens were chemically cleaned-chromic acid-sulfuric acid solution.
(2) Tensile-shear strength-Alclad 2024-TZ 1/2 in. lap.
(3) Pull in lb/in, at a right angle to a base plate necessary to peel 0.009 in. thick 5052-H18 ...
alloy from a rigid plate.
performance requirement is generally expressed resistance term of Eq. 7-54. For information on
in terms of a speed. In the case of current power requirements as determined by bollard
displacement hull amphibians (the LARC's), the pull, reversing, and maneuvering; reference
required performance is expressed in terms of a should be made to pars. 7-7 and 7-9. Chapter 9
top speed in calm, deep water. In the case of presents data on the resistance of high-speed
high speed amphibians, the required amphibians.
performance is expressed in terms of a sustained
speed in a given sea state. Other waterborne 7-4.1.1 Elements of Amphibian Waterborne Resistance
performance criteria which may affect the
power required include navigation in rough The waterborne resistance of an amphibian or
water, surfing ability, bollard pull, reversing, and marine vehicle can be considered as being made -
maneuvering. The applicable performance up of the following four main components:

requirement will be defined in the QMR. 1. The frictional resistance due to the motion
The basic relationship between the power of the hull through a viscous fluid
delivered to the propulsor and the amphibian's 2. The eddymaking resistance due to the
speed, resistance or drag, and propulsor energy carried away in eddies shed from the
efficiency is given by hull, wheels, and appendages
=HP RTV 3. The wavemaking resistance due to energy • I
DHP = (7-54) which must be supplied by the craft to the wave
np 550 i7p system created on the water surface
where 4. The aerodynamic resistance due to the
DHP = power delivered to the propulsors, hp passage of the above-water part of the craft
EHP = effective horsepower, hp through the air
RT = total resistance, lb Of these resistance components, Components 2 0
V = vehicle speed, ft/sec and 3 are of greatest importance to an
77p = propulsive efficiency, nd (par. amphibian and 4 is of little importance. It is
7-7.4.3.4) common to consider Components 2 and 3 of the
To determine the delivered power it is necessary resistance together under the term "residuary
to obtain both the total resistance and the resistance".
propulsive efficiency. Par. 7-7 deals with the In general the flow conditions on the surface - .
selection and design of the propulsor and the around an amphibian or other marine vehicle are
calculation of the propulsive efficiency. The much too complex to allow a theoretical
remainder of this section deals with the total calculation of resistance which is useful in design
7-92
' _ I.t I.. -
0 0 _._ • O_ S S. . . . 0 O 0 O O0 0 _ @ 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
work. As a result, experimental data must be the form of the relationship between resistance
used. In order to make the greatest possible use and the nondimensional parameters VL/1 ,
of these data, the principles of dimensional V2 /(gL) and p/(pWV).
analysis are employed. Dimensional analysis is William Froude in England in 1868 first
based on the principle that every equation which proposed the form of the relationship between 0 0
expresses a physical relationship must be the resistance and the above parameters. His
dimensionally homogeneous. The three basic basic concept is still in use. He assumed that the
dimensions in mechanics are mass, length, and total resistance can be divided into two
time (M, L, and T) from which the dimensions components, i.e., frictional resistance and
of other quantities-such as acceleration, force, residuary resistance. The frictional resistance is
and pressure-can be derived. To apply assumed to be a function of the parameter 0 •
dimensional analysis to a problem, it is only VL/v only and the residuary resistance as a
necessary to know the variables which govern function only of 12/(gL). The parameter
the results. Dimensional solutions do not p/(p V2 ) is a form of the Cavitation Number
provide numerical answers themselves but discussed in par. 7-7.4.4.1 and is assumed not to
provide the form of the answers. As a result, affect the resistance components except at very
experimental data may be interpreted in a form high speeds on specialized craft.
most useful in obtaining an empirical solution. 0 0
Refs. 4 and 53 present the theory and 7-4.1.1.1 Frictional Resistance
procedures of dimensional analysis in detail.
In applying dimensional analysis to the The frictional resistance due to the passage of
resistance of a waterborne vehicle, the following the hull and appendages through a viscous fluid
variables are assumed to govern the relationship typically amounts to 50 to 80 percent of the
between two geometrically similar bodies total resistance for a conventional ship or boat • 0
(geosims) of different size. form and considerably less for amphibians.
a. Speed V, ft/sec Following the concepts presented in par.
b. Size of body, as represented by the linear 7-4.1.1, a frictional resistance coefficient can be
dimension L, ft defined as
c. Mass density of the fluid p , slug/ft 3 RF
d. Viscosity of fluid p, slug/ft-sec CF = /2PV S) (?-57)
e. Acceleration due to gravity g, ft/sec
2
where 0 0
f. Pressurt per unit area in the fluid p. lb/ft 2 CF = frictional resistance coefficient, nd
Dimensional analysis then indicates that the RF = frictional resistance, lb
2
form of the relationship between the resistance S = surface area, ft
R and the above variables is given by and other terms are as previously defined.
For geosims, CF is only a function of the ..
" "
R _
2
(pV L2 )f pVL gLv (7-55) parameter VL/v. This follows from the work of
2 VOsborne Reynolds, published in 1893, for which
reason this parameter is known as the Reynolds
where f is a symbol indicating "some function number R&. For convenience in calculations of
of". The kinematic viscosity v (the ratio y/p ) CF and Reynolds number, Tables 7-29 and 7-30
and the wetted surface S or other area which is from Ref. 14 which give the mass density and
proportional to L2 are commonly used in Eq. kinematic viscosity of fresh and salt water are 0 0
7-55. This equation is then written in the form inc~uded here.
R FVL V12 p1 For the purpose of making ship resistance

/(p V, S) [f -I (7-56) estimates, considerable effort has been devoted
to determining the relationship between the
The ½/2is introduced into the left hand side of frictional resistance coefficient C, and the
Eq. 7-56 to make the pressure (p V2) Reynolds number Re. The development of O 0
numerically identical with the dynamic pressure several proposed relationships for smooth flat
in a fluid as defined by Bernoulli's equation. plates is covered in Ref. 14. Three of these
Experimental data must be used to determine relationships are given in Fig. 7-45. These
7-93
_5 0
* 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-29 VALUES OF MASS DENSITY p FOR FRESH AND SALT WATER
Values as adopted by the ITTC meeting in London, 1963.

Salinity of salt water 3.5 percent.
Density Density Density Density

of fresh of salt of fresh of salt
water p, Temp, water p, water p, Temp, waterp,
slug/ft 3
OF slug/ft 3 slug/ft 3 0F slug/ft 3
1.9399 32 1.9947 1.9384 59 1.9905

1.9399 33 1.9946 1.9383 60 1.9903
1.9400 34 1.9946 1.9381 61 1.9901
1.9401 35 1.9945 1.9379 62 1.9898
1.9401 36 1.9944 1.9377 63 1.9895
1.9401 37 1.9943 1.9375 64 1.9893
1.9401 38 1.9942 1.9373 65 1.9890
1.9401 39 1.9941 1.9371 66 1.9888 S S
1.9401 40 1.9940 1.9369 67 1.9885
1.9401 41 1.9939 1.9367 68 1.9882
1.9401 42 1.9937 1.9365 69 1.9879
1.9401 43 1.9936 1.9362 70 1.9876
1.9400 44 1.9934 1.9360 71 1.9873
1.9400 45 1.9933 1.9358 72 1.9870
1.9399 46 1.9931 1.9355 73 1.9867
1.9398 47 1.9930 1.9352 74 1.9864
1.9398 48 1.9928 1.9350 75 1.9861
1.9397 49 1.9926 1.9347 76 1.9858
1.9396 50 1.9924 1.9344 77 1.9854
1.9395 51 1.9923 1.9342 78 1.9851
1.9394 52 1.9921 1.9339 79 1.9848 0
1.9393 53 1.9919 1.9336 80 1.9844
1.9392 54 1.9917 1.9333 81 1.9841
1.9390 55 1.9914 1.9330 82 1.9837
1.9389 56 1.9912 1.9327 83 1.9834
1.9387 57 1.9910 1.9324 84 1.9830
1.9386 58 1.9908 1.9321 85 1.9827
1.9317 86 1.9823
Note: For other salinities, interpolate linearly.
friction lines are based on turbulent flow. resistance estimate for an amphibian form in
In practice, the hull of a marine vehicle is which the effect of Reynolds number on CF is
neither flat nor smooth. As a result, in important (see par. 7-4.1.1.3) it would be
estimating the frictional resistance some increase reasonable to use a roughness allowance of
is made in the values of C, given in Fig. 7-45. 0.0004.
For standard ship resistance estimates, it is
customary to increase the value of CF by 7-4.1.1.2 Residuary Resistance 0 e
0.0004. The ATTC line +0.0004 roughness, or
correlation allowance AC,, , is also shown in Fig. Those components of the total resistance due
7-45. In the event that it is necessary to make a to eddymaking and wavemaking are commonly
7-94
7. S S
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-30 VALUES OF KINEMATIC VISCOSITY v FOR FRESH AND SALT WATER
Values adopted by the ITTC meeting in London, 1963.

Salinity of salt water, 3.5 percent.
Kinematic Kinematic Kinematic Kinematic

viscosity of viscosity of viscosity of viscosity of
fresh water salt water fresh water salt water
2 2
ftP2,o Temp,
F P, ft2- P, ft - Temp,
OF P, ft
- . . . . . . .
sec sec sec sec
1.9231 X 10-' 32 1.9681 X 10"' 1.2260 X 10"' 59 1.2791 X 10"'

1.8871 33 1.9323 1.2083 60 1.2615
1.8520 34 1.8974 1.1910 61 1.2443
1.8180 35 1.8637 1.1741 62 1.2275
1.7849 36 1.8309 1.1576 63 1.2111
1.7527 37 1.7991 1.1415 64 1.1951
1.7215 38 1.7682 1.1257 65 1.1794
1.6911 39 1.7382 1.1103 66 1.1640
1.6616 40 1.7091 1.0952 67 1.1489
1.6329 41 1.6807 1.0804 68 1.1342
1.6049 42 1.6532 1.0660 69 1.1198
1.5777 43 1.6263 1.0519 70 1.1057 0 0
1.5512 44 1.6002 1.0381 71 1.0918
1.5254 45 1.5748 1.0245 72 1.0783
1.5003 46 1.5501 1.0113 73 1.0650
1.4759 47 1.5259 0.9984 74 1.0520
1.4520 48 1.5024 0.9857 75 1.0392
1.4288 49 1.4796 0.9733 76 1.0267
1.4062 50 1.4572 0.9611 77 1.0145
1.3841 51 1.4354 0.9452 78 1.0025
1.3626 52 1.4142 0.9375 79 0.9907
1.3416 53 1.3935 0.9261 80 0.9791
1.3212 54 1.3732 0.9149 81 0.9678
1.3012 55 1.3535 0.9039 82 0.9567
1.2817 56 1.3343 0.8931 83 0.9457 -
1.2627 57 1.3154 0.8826 84 0.9350
1.2441 58 1.2970 0.8722 85 0.9245
Note: For other salinities, interpolate linearly.
known jointly as the residuary resistance. A It has been shown that for the purpose of
residuary resistance coefficient can be defined as engineering estimates CR can be considered to
2 that
RR
CR be a function of the parameter V /(gL) so 2
C ½(pV2 S) (7-58) geosims operating at the same value of V I(gL)
have the same value of CR . Since Froude first
where suggested this, the parameter V2 I(gL) is known 0 0
S = surface area, ft 2 as the Froude number FN. The Froude number
CR = residuary resistance coefficient, nd often is given in references in the form V/IJfii
RR = residuary resistance, lb which is also nondimensional. A common
7-95
*.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
._. .O_ A6•O O • O__O •
AMCP 706-350
0D
_____ __C-4
-- I
_ _ _ _
_ _ _~~
a) all II 0
0 0
w A~ =0
0 0 0 10
o - 0 _41[_'-
U.) N
uu I
_ _~ _ _I n
I-C 4
"I' Cl4
U-I'
. . . . . . . . .
AMCP 706-350
dimensional form of the Froude number is the where A = displacement, lb.

speed-length ratio VK/1ji. When V.K is given in Thus, the ratio of residuary resistance to
knots, L in ft, and g in ft/sec2 ; the relationship displacement is constant between the full scale
between the two is craft and the model. The relationship among the
V VK linear scale ratio X, the speeds, and resistance
= N=.28ratio of the full size craft and the model are
=FN =0298 VT given by
or (7-59A) L.
VK -- 3. 3 55 FN A
(7-62)
It is important to note that geosims operating
.
at the same Froude number or speed-length ratio
will have the same ratio of residuary resistance RR.
=
to displacement, regardless of size. In fact, if the RRm
effects of Reynolds number on CF are

neglected, geosims at the same Froude number
will have the same ratio of total resistance to In a typical model test p. does not equal Pm As 0 0
displacement, regardless of size. The proof of a result, the model is tested at the displacement
this is given in par. 7-4.1.1.3. that gives the correct scale waterline rather than
at a displacement determined by the scale ration
7-4.1.1.3 Scaling Laws and Model Tests X3 .
The relationship given in Eqs. 7-57 and 7-62
In the design of an amphibian the prediction would hold true for the case of frictional 0 0
of resistance must depend on data from model resistance if the values of CF, and CFfl were the
tests. The expansion of the measured resistance same for a test with the speeds scaled by Eq.
of a model to the resistance of the full scale 7-60. However, the values of CF are equal only
craft is based on the relationship between the if the Reynolds numbers are equal. For equal
components of the resistance, and the Reynolds Reynolds numbers the relationship between full
number and Froude number presented above, size and model speed is
The residuary resistance coefficient C, will be
the same for a model and full size craft if they V. L.
are operating at the same Froude number. Then VM L, (7-63)
the ratio of full size resistance to model
resistance is given by Clearly this relationship cannot be satisfied in
the same model test that satisfies the
R,. relationship given in Eq. 7-60.
RRm Sm CRm (7-59B) The practical means for dealing with this
R/2Pm/Vrn difficulty is by considering the total resistance
where the subscripts s and m refer to full size RT to be equal to the sums of the. frictional
and model, respectively. At the same Froude resistance and residuary resistance. Thus
number CR, equals Cm and the ratio of V, to
Vm7is given by (p V 2 S) = CT = CF + CR (7-64)
V. L. (7-60)
The expansion of the model data involves taking
7-59
an I~the CT obtained at a given
ie Froude
ruenme number
If Eq. 7-60 is substituted into Eq. 7-59B and p. is teC banda
IfsEqm7-6eisaubsttute inthEq.(speed-length ratio) and subtracting from it the
assumed equal to Pm,,then value of CF at the resulting Reynolds number. • 0
R . . .3The remainder is the value of CR at the given

- = =- (7-61) Froude number. The Reynolds number of the
RRm Lm Sm 4• Am full size craft is calculated at the given Froude
7-97
0 00 0 * 0 0 0 0 ... O 0
AMCP 706-350
number and the value of C,. for the full size depend on the hull form and appendage
craft obtained. This is then added to the C, geom.try involved.
from the model, with a AC, (incremental AC.)
for roughness to give the C, , and thus total 7-4.1.2 Amphibian Resistance Data
resistance, of the full size craft. The values of C, 0 0
as a function of Reynolds number are obtained From past model tests on wheeled amphibian
from the friction lines illustrated in Fig. 7-45. designs, there are data available on vehicle
The expansion procedure described above is resistance. These data can serve two purposes in
illustrated graphically in Fig. 7-46. the design of a wheeled amphibian. In the early
For typical wheeled amphibians such as the stages of a design, or in the event a model test is
LARC series, the DRAKE and DUKW, the not possible, these data can be used to estimate
residuary resistance is very large compared to the waterborne resistance. In this case the
the frictional resistance due to the effects of procedure is to select the design nearest in
wheels and other appendages. Also, the scale characteristics to the new design and use the
ratio is smaller than is usual for a typical ship earlier resistance data in making an estimate. Of
model test. As a result, the effect of Reynolds course, corrections must be made . for
number on the C,.. difference between model displacement, different hull shape, and
and full size is small, and the resulting change in appendages. The influence of these items on 0
C,, is a very small part of CT. Thus it is common resistance is covered in pars. 7-4.1.2.2 and
practice to expand the model resistance to full 7-4.1.2.3.
scale by the ratio of the displacements, The other use of available resistance data is
neglecting the effects of Reynolds number, for making comparisons between new and older
Whether this simplification should be used in designs. If a new design has unexpectedly greater
model tests of new amphibian designs will resistance than those of the past, it is probable S S
.0 MODEL RANGE
SPEED-LENGTH RATIO = 1.1
4.5 ! ! io,
tL0
4.0 0.3 0.4 0.9 SHIP RANGE
SPEED-LENGTH RATIO = 1 .1
3.5 -
'-'~~~.
0ii 0.
.4 .. • .. ._
1.5 _______
S1.5
Z
0.5 ..
0 0
2 4 6 8 107 2 4 6 8 108 2 4 6 8 109

* 0
REYNOLD, NUMBER Re = VL
Figure 7-46. Comparisonof Resistance Coefficients for Model and Full-scale Vessel
7-98
0 __O S
* 5 0 0 S S •@ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
,,'..,
AMCP 706-350 0 •
that a redesign effort and further tests would be This is probably the result of the effects of the
justified. Refs. 11 and 54 through 60 present propeller tunnels and sloped transoms which
model test data on the resistance of past prevent the development of dynamic lift as in
wheeled amphibians. the case of the landing craft. These features are
present in amphibians because of the need for 0
7-4.1.2.1 Data Plots adequate ground clearance and departure angles.
Since it is known that a large part of the total
The model test data from the references are resistance of an amphibian is due to
plotted in a consistent form in Figs. 7-47 eddymaking, it is useful to compare the total
through 7-53. These plots ire in the form of the drag coefficients of various amphibian hull _
total drag-to-displacement ratio as a function of forms. The total drag coefficient is similar to the 0 0
speed-length ratio. Speed is in knots and the C. or CR developed in par. 7-4.1.1 except that
length, on the at-rest waterline, in feet. Data are it is based on the total drag anu the projected
presented for the DUKW, GULL, DRAKE, frontal area instead of the wetted surface, i.e.,
2
LARC V, LARC XV, LVW, and LVH-X2. In the C1 = R7 /(/1 2 p V A). When eddymaking drag
case of the LVW and LVH-X2 high-speed and frictional drag are the dominant part of the
amphibians, the data are for operation in the total drag, the total drag coefficient will tend to
displacement modes. be constant with speed-length ratio. When
wavemaking drag is a large part of the total, the
7-4.1.2.2 Influence of Basic Hull Form on Resistance total drag coefficient will increase with
speed-length ratio.
In the selection of the basic hull form or in The total drag coefficients as a function of
developing a resistance estimate, it is necessary speed-length ratio for several amphibians are
to consider the influence of hull shape. The hull presented in Fig. 7-55. As expected the "faired" 0 0
forms used on conventional amphibians are hull forms of the DRAKE, LARC V, and LARC
quite different from boat hulls of similar XV have drag coefficients which increase rapidly
displacement. Amphibians are generally shorter with speed-length ratio. The LARC's with their
for a given displacement, which results in full ship-like bows have lower drag coefficients than
hulls with chines at the turn of the bilge and the DRAKE with the scow-type bow. However,
transom. In some vehicles--such as the DUKW, it should be noted that for the same projected 0
SUPERDUCK, and DRAKE--a scow-type bow frontal area the DRAKE has a higher
has been adopted. The high displacement-length displacement than the LARC's. so that its
ratio results in high wavemaking drag and the resistance-displacement ratio is about the same.
chines cause high eddymaking drag. Thus the choice between the sccw form or the
The only type of marine craft with ship form bow must not be made on the basis of
displacement-length ratios as large as those of calm water resistance. Considerations of
amphibians are landing craft. Fig. 7-54 presents resistance in waves and seakeeping will also
a comparison between the drag-displacement affect the choice between the two.
ratio of various landing craft and "Zaired" hull
forms of the DRAKE, LARC V, and LARC XV, 7-4.1.2.3 Influence of Appendages on Amphibian
as a function of displacement-length ratio and Resistance
speed-length ratios. Models of the DRAKE,
LARC V, and LARC XV were tested with the On conventional amphibians, the exposed 0 0
wheels removed and the wheel pockets filled in wheels are the most important appendages. Figs.
to produce a faired hull, thus permitting realistic 7-49 through 7-53 indicate the large increase in
comparison of the resistance of the basic hull resistance between the "faired" hul! form and
forms without the influence of the wheels. At the actual hull with wheels. Depending on the
speed-length ratios around 1.0 the displacement, the presence of wheels and wheel
drag-displacement ratios of the "faired" wells increases the resistance 50 to 100 percent.
amphibian hull forms are about the same as The effect of appendages on the total drag
those of the landing craft. At coefficient is presented in Fig. 7-55. As
higher-speed-length ratios the drag-displacement expected, the effect of the wheels reduces the
ratios of the amphibian hull forms are higher. change in drag coefficient with speed-length
7-99
_ 0
• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
0.35
* S
2
1 /
0.30 TEST CONDITIONS"I___.
1 15,000 LB
2 20,000 LB / 0 0
0.25 -/
/
0.15
,//
0.10 //
0.05 1
21/
00.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
VELOCITY KNOT
-'L-EN G TH WL " FT 1/
Figure 7-47, Resistance of DUKW

7-100
AMCP 706-350 0 S
0.35
* 0
0.30 TEST CONDITIONS

1 WHEELS, SHIELDS AND CHAINCASES 24,703 LB
2 WHEELS, SHIELDS AND CHAINCASES 44,703 LB 0 0
0.25
* 0
0.20 1
z/
° / " 0
0.15 /
/•
0.10
/
/_ - 2 5
0.05
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
VELOCITY KNOT
.. LENGTHwL FT
Figure 7-48. Resistance of GULL

7-101
.* 0 .~** 0 0 0 ... 0 0
•. •..• ...
.... •• .. .o
. • o• o __o ....! _._ • •1
i . * . . I . . . ! • I . . .! I , !
AMCIP 706-360 * e
0.35
0 0

1 WHEELS DOWN 25,600 LB
2 WHEELS DOWN 41,000 LB . 0
3 WHEELS DOWN 50,000 LB
4 WHEELS AND SKIRTS 43,800 LB
0.25
5 WHEEL POCKETS 43,800 LB
PLUGGED
6 WHEEL AND PROPELLER 43,800 LB

POCKETS PLUGGED
0.20
I-
z
LU
0.15
5
2 6
/3,4 0
0.10 -7
0.05
12
00.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
VELOCITY ,KNOTi
..'LENGTHw FT
Figure 7-49. Resistance of DRAKE

_ 1. 0 0.1. 000 2. 2. 0.
7-102
3 A
AMCP 706-350 S
0.35
TEST CONDITIONS
0.30 1 2 WHEEL STEER 15,300 LB

2 2 WHEEL STEER 25,250 LB 3
3 4WHEEL STEER 15,000 LB I 0 0
4 4WHEEL STEER 25,000 LB /
5 4 WHEEL STEER 27,500 LB (DTMB)
0.25 6 NO APPENDAGES, WHEEL 25,000 LB
POCKETS PLUGGED
ALL TESTS CONDUCTED AT STEVENS 1,2

EXCEPT AS NOTED
0.20
U,
0.15 / I
/-x
/ 6
5
//
0.10
0.05 ___ 1
2 5
00 0.5 10 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

0.5 ~~1.01.2.2.30
VELOCITY KNOT
-'LENGTHwL " FT
WL
Figure 7-50. Resistance of LARC V
7-103
"- . ... 0 0' " l S- - . Sp 0 -

AMCP 706-350
0.35
TEST CONDITIONS
1 4-WHEEL STEER 40,000 LB
0.30 2 4.WHEEL STEER 70,000 LB -

3 NO WHEELS OR AXLES 58,000 LB
4 NO APPENDAGES, WHEEL 70,300 LB 0 •
POCKETS PLUGGED
0.25
0.20
,z,
ad
0.15 _______
I/,,/_____/ 4 _____ _____
0.10 -
0.05
0 4
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
VELOCITY KNOT
ULENGTHWL FT
Figure 7-51. Resistance of LARC XV

7-104
* S 0
_ 0 5 0 0 0_0 0S S 5 0
AMCP 706-350 S -
0.35
TEST CONDITIONS
0.30 1 WHEELS DOWN, FLAPS UP 38,000 LB NAKED & INCLUSIVE
2 WHEELS UP, FLAPS DOWN 38,000 LB NAKED
3 WHEELS UP, FLAPS DOWN 38,000 LB INCLUSIVE / /
0.25 1-/-/
S/ 5 5
/
0.207
z
Uj
-
-I "'</ S S
0.15 /
0.10 .-
0.05 I__ -
0 2,3 I ___
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

VELOCITY KNOT
,LE N -GTHWL FT 1/
Figure 7-52. Resistance of L VW
7-105
. •e - _
_ .o .... 5
. .O5. .. .. o _. . .
_. *@ ,S S. . . .oS 5 5 5 5 5
AMCP 706-350 - 0
0.35

I DISPLACEMENT MODE 37,500 LB
2 SURF MODE 36,500 LB 0 0
0.25
2
I 0 0
/
0.20 -/
/// 0 0
0.15 / ,
/
/
0.10
/
/
/ "0 S
0.05 //
/
1/
0 0.5 '1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

VELOCITY KNOT
2
,tLEN GTHwL FT1/
Figure 7-53. Resistance of L VH-X2

7-106
0 0
0_
. _ *_o. . .......
. .o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
0.16
U-
0-j
0 0
C, >
0.14 Uj Zn k • ,.
< U > >
VELOCITY V
K U- ~j
AVEN`GTHWL
01-U -0
0 010KNOT
1.0 I0596 I " 0 0
-
0.12 Z 1.2 Fi I
0 1.4 0654
7 1.6 0RI
0 1.8
0.10 0 REPEAT O _L _ •_•
0 0
7596
S0.08
. u
OLCM, 654 0
0.06 0RV<
RBII ?F 0
<596 0 0
0>LCM
0.04 A _ RB, 654 -<-
,51 A%
ARBI
AI 0 LCM, 654 A
0.02 1 11
0, 5,96, 6s4 __ 1,6__
-,-PLCM
0__ 6
0.20 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25

7I/3
RATIO
DISPLACEMENT LENGTH
(7 = DISPLACED VOLUME)
Figure 7-54. Comparison of Amphibian and Landing Craft Resistance

7-107
0 0 , 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350..
1.2
o DRAKE (FAIRED HULL) 43,000 LB
V LVTU-X2 310,000 LB
* LARCV 25,000 LB
1.0 PROJECTED FRONTAL AREA o LARCV (FAIRED HULL) 25,000 LB .
A LARCXV 70,o00 LB 0 0
> LARC XV (FAIRED HULL) 70,000 LB
0.8 0) DUKW 20,000 LB

I• ] ~~0 DRAKE 41, 000 LB
S0:6 ____
0 0 0.
0.2 0 0
0_o
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
VELOCITY KNOT
2
!LENGTHWL FT 0
Figure 7-55. Amphibious Vehicle Drag Coefficients
ratio. Since the exposed frontal area of all of the 7-4.1.2.4 Influence of Rough Water on Amphibian
wheels is included in the area term of the drag Resistance
coefficient, the numerical value of the
coefficient does not increase. Data on the drag Depending on the performance requirements
coefficient of the LVTU-X2 have been included for a given design, it may be necessary to
in Fig. 7-55 to indicate the expected upper estimate the resistance in waves. As in the case
limits of the drag coefficient of an amphibian of smooth water resistance, model tests of the
with appendages. The LVTU-X2 was a tracked design or data from model tests of similar -
amphibian with an unfaired box type hull form designs must be used in making the estimate. 0 0
of very high displacement-length ratio. Ideally, a test series should be conducted in a
The apparent drag coefficient of the wheels model tank in which the required irregular waves
and wheel wells were obtained for the DRAKE, could be generated. Such test facilities do exist
LARC V, and LARC XV by calculating the (see par. 6-9), but no wheeled amphibian has
difference between the drag of the hull with been tested in these conditions. Model tests of
wheels and the faicred hulls. The area used in the the LARC V and LARC XV were conducted in
drag coefficient is the exposed frontal area of all regular waves (waves of constant height and - 0
of the wheels, viz., 4 in the case of the LARC's length) and the results reported in Refs. 11 and
and 8 for the DRAKE. The resulting drag 57. In order to make such estimates for an
coefficients are presented in Fig. 7-56. In amphibian for which no test data are available,
general, there is a trend of decreasitig wheel drag the added resistance from the model tests of the
coefficient with speed-length ratio. At LARC V in head waves has been deduced. These
speed-length ratios above 1.1 the wheel drag data are presented in Fig. 7-57 as cross plots 0 •
coefficient has a value of 0.42, with all data with respect to speed-length ratio and the
within = 10 percent of the mean. number of wave lengths per water line length.
7-108
0 "0 0 0 0 0 . 0 .0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
0.65
CD= BASED ON EXPOSED FRONTAL AREA OF ALL WHEELS
RT = TOTAL DRAG OF HULL WITH WHEELS AND WHEEL WELLS

0.60 w
R = TOTAL DRAG OF FAIRED HULL
T40
A =EXPOSED FRONTAL AREA OF ALL WHEELS
w
0.55
S: LARC V
> 0 LARC XV
0 DRAKE
zS S
u!j
U.
0
U
0.4
0.3
0.301
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 5
VELOCITY KNOT
V'L-EN GTH WL FT 1/ý2
Figure 7-56. Drag Coefficient of Wheels and Wheel Wells

7-109
411
AMCP 706-350 - •
Theory and experiments with conventional Given:It is required to estimate the average
ship forms have shown that the resistance added resistance of the LARC V
increase of a ship in waves is mainly due to the proceeding in head Sea State 3 at an
heaving and pitching motions, and the phases of average speed of 8 mph VK/vLWL'-= I ..............
these motions with respect to the waves. The 1.22 knot/ft/2, where LWL is 0 S
resistance increase is not a function of the water line length.
smooth water resistance. As a result, the data in
Fig. 7-57 should not be sensitive to minor 1. It is first necessary to have an analytical
changes in appendages and hull shape. description of a Sea State 3. This description
A procedure for estimating the added must be in the form of a 1h amplitude wave
resistance in irregular head seas from regular spegtrum. This spectrum is a description of the 0
wave data is given in Ref. 61. For theoretically distribution of wave energy as a function of
correct estimates, the added resistance must wave fre(-ýueny. The concept of the wave
increase as the square of the wave height. spectrum covered in detail in Ref. 62. The
c•
Experimental findings on ship forms differ wave spectrum in most general use at this time is
somewhat with theory. However, no other that due to Pierson and Moskowitz, which is
estimating procedure is available at this time. given by:
The expression for the average wave-induced
added resistance of an amphibian, when 8.10 X 10- ge
proceeding at an average speed in long crested
irregular seas from directly ahead, is given by
= ((
where
4 (W) = wave spectral density ordinate, ft 2 -sec
2
2AI 4)•+(w• (w)d. (7-65) g = acceleration due to gravity, ft/sec
AW t (7w = wave frequency, rad/sec
o U = wind speed, ft/sec
wR,WIt is assumed that a Sea State 3 is described by a
Z4 2 Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum for a wind speed of
15 knots.
where 2. The integration in Eq. 7-65 can best be
averge added resistance, lb carried out numerically using Simpson's rule .. .
A = displacement, lb since the analytical expression for NR as a
D = wave spectral density ordinate, ft 2 -sec function of w is not available. Fig. 7-57
Rw = added resistance in regular wave of indicates that the numerical integration need be
amplitude A and frequency w, lb carried out only for a range of o that covers the
A = regular wave amplitude, ft range of X/LWL from 1.0 to 4.0. Outside of this
S= wave frequency, rad/sec range NR equals zero. The details of the
The NR term of Eq. 7-65 is given as a function calculation are given in Table 7-31.
of wave length/water line length ratio in Fig.
7-57. The relationship between wave length and 7-4.1.3 Design Waterbome Power Estimate
frequency for deep water waves is given by
From the previous paragraphs it is possible to
64.4_r define some general considerations that apply to
=
2 the determination of required waterborne power.
-64.4i (7-66) If the amphibian design is to be a success, the
power required must be determined on the basis
= of the most demanding quantitative
performance requirement in the QMR or other
where specification. This consideration is of the
X = wave length, ft greatest importance. If at all possible the 0 0
W = wave frequency, rad/sec waterborne power required should be determined
The following example illustrates the calculation from a model test that, as closely as possible,
procedure, based on Eq. 7-65: duplicates the conditions given in the QMR or
7-110
S. . 9 -
_._ .... e . .. ,@...

• _ e .e...... 0 0 S 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0
0.051
0.04 2. 0..O
IL-
U. 0.03
0.02- __ -
0.01 - .
0 4.0
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1'.6 1.,8 2.0

VELOCITY VK
I/L-ENGTH WI
0.05r I
R = ADDED DRAG ,LB
0.04 VK
IA = DISPLACEMENT , LB 0
A- AEAPLTDF
- =1.375 FA =WV MLTDF
V/ V = SPEED , KNOTS
A = WAVE LENGTH , FT
~t
00
.0
K =
-LWL =WATER LINE LENGTH ,FT
S
-T 1.22 VK NOTE- WAVE AMPLITUDE =
~ri 1 .0 7 ' 1/2 WAVE HEIGHT
0.02 'UV
0.01 -_ 0 0
VK -0.918
0 1 1 1_______________
0 1 2 3 4 5 67
Ak-.
Jo -0
LENGTH WL
Figure 7-5 7. LARC V Added Resistance in Regular Head Waves

7-111
_ 0 0. 00
AMCP 706-350 -
TABLE 7-31 ESTIMATE OF ADDED RESISTANCE OF LARC V IN SEA STATE 3
Average Speed = 8 mph; 1.22 knot/ft1/2½
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
X Product
X LWL 4ýt(G+() NR (w) S.M.t (4)(5)(6)
1.2 140 4.35 1.39 0.0 1 0.0

1.3 119 3.7 1.18 0.0155 4 0.0731
1.4 103 3.2 0.97 0.0215 2 0.0513
1.5 90 2.8 0.77 0.0310 4 0.0955
1.6 79 2.45 0.61 0.0337 2 0.0410 S S
1.7 70 2.18 0.47 0.0350 4 0.0658.
1.8 62.4 1.94 0.38 0.0345 2 0.0262
1.9 56 1.74 0.24 0.0300 4 0.0348
2.0 50.5 1.56 0.23 0.0220 2 0.0101
2.1 45.8 1.42 0.18 0.0155 4 0.0113 0 0
2.2 41.7 1.24 0.15 0.0100 2 0.0030
2.3 38.0 1.18 0.12 0.0050 4 0.0024
2.4 35.0 1.04 0.10 0.0 1 0.0
t Simpson multiplier Y (7) 0 0

R*w = 26 :(7)dw. 0.4145
RAw= 2(27500) (0.4145) (0 .1) = 760 lb

0 S
other specifications. In the event that such a specifications. In the past, the requirements that
model test is not possible, the data and affect the power required have been given in
procedures presented in pars. 7-4.1.2 and 7-7 terms of a required top speed, required grade
should be used. Considering the scatter in these climbing ability, and possibly, the requirement to
data, the resulting estimate of power required tow another vehicle.
should be within ± 10 percent of that As indicated in par. 7-4.1, for almost all 0 0
determined from a model test. In-r'any event, the amphibians the waterborne performance will
waterborne power requirements of a new design require more power than the land performance.
should be compared to those of similar past The usual design procedure is to choose an
designs. This will reveal any unexpected trends engine based on the waterborne power
and the need for a design review, requirements and then determine that the land
performance will be satisfactory. The factors
7-4.2 LAND OPERATION POWER REQUIREMENTS involved in the choice of the engine are covered
in par. 7-5. Preliminary to the final check of the
The required performance of an amphibian on land performance, information must be available
land is given in the QMR or other vehicle on the tire selected and the arrangement of the
7-112
0 0
_* _ ~. * j. *-
AMCP 706-350
drive train. The selection of tire size will depend In general, the land speed of an amphibian
on mobility requirements and is covered in par. will be low enough that the aerodynamic drag
7-8. The arrangement of the drive train is will be small. However, if an estimate of
influenced by the engine chosen as well as the aerodynamic drag is required, it can be obtained
required tractive effort. The design of the drive from 0 0
train is covered in par. 7-6. The check on land Roero =CDA /P V 2 A (7-68)
performance is made by determining the
required tractive effort as a function of speed where
and comparing it with the available tractive Rro= aerodynamic drag, lb
effort. p = mass density of air -0.00238, slug/ft 3
V = relative speed, ft/sec 2
7-4.2.1 Required Tractive Effort A = projected frontal area, ft
CDA = aerodynamif- drag coefficient, nd
The required tractive effort is simply the
thrust that must be developed by the tires in For typical trucks the value of CD is between
order to meet the land performance 0.8 and 2.0. No wind tunnel tests have been
requirements. This thrust must overcome the conducted to determine the aerodynamic drag
resistance of the amphibian to forward motion coefficient of typical amphibian forms.
and provide the force needed to overcome The resistance to climbing a grade is given by
obstacles and grades. The resistance to forward
motion is due to the rolling resistance of the RY = WT sin • (7-69)
tires and the aerodynamic resistance of the where
amphibian. The rolling resistance of the tire is Ry = grade resistance, lb
the work done in compacting the underlying W, gradereigt, lb
soil, deflecting the tire carcass, and bulldozing WT = vehicle weight, lb deg
soil in front of the tire. Thus, the rolling p = angle of grade with the horizontal, deg
resistance must be a function of the tire selected Grades are often given in terms of a
and the soild characteristics. Refs. 26 and 63, percentage, i.e., a 60 percent grade. This
which are readily available to an amphibian notation represents the ratio of vertical distance
designer, contain a detailed discussion of the to horizontal distance, expressed as a . . .
rolling resistance and equations for its percentage. -
calculations. The rolling resistance used in the In the event the amphibian is required to tow
design of the LARC V and LARC XV are given equipment, the required tractive effort can be
in Table 7-32. determined from the rolling resistance and
During the engineering tests of the prototype weight of the particular item.
LARC V, tests were conducted to determine the
actual rolling resistance and the results of the 7-4.2.2 Available Tractive Effort 0 0
tests are presented in Figs. 7-58 and 7-59. These
data indicate that the rolling resistance varies The available tractive effort is the maximum
with soil conditions, tire pressure, and speeds. thrust that the wheels could develop at a given
TABLE 7-32 DESIGN ROLLING RESISTANCE OF LARC V AND LARC XV
LARC V 4 18.00 X 25 in. tires 12-ply rating S

LARC XV 4 24.00 X 29 in. tires 16-ply rating
Conditions LARC V LARC XV
Hard Surface 70-80 lb/ton 70 lb/ton 41

Cross Country (average) 130 lb/ton 130 lb/ton
Dry Sand at 10 mph 180 lb/ton
Dry Sand at 25 mph 200 lb/ton
7-113
0 5O _..O_._ .... ... _ 0 ... O 0 0 0 0 S 0 0
S* • "'"•'---• m:ll"••--•
•I~'lIII'
• • '; -::-"
•I - | . .. .II •
AMCP 706-350
40 2201
20 TIREPRESSURES 2 TIREPRESSURES -- --- -

3
0 0 pi LARCV FRONT REAR LARCV
V
a 25 psi LEVELASPHALTSURFACE 0 25 pi 25 ps SOFTSAND OPERATION
o320 P'ý GROSS WEIGHT = 28,000 LB 6 20 p.; 20 pi GROSSWEIGHT 28,000 LB
IS p iI - - 0 IS p s IS p i --
10 0 -
' lopP; 5 P0
Z
"" 80 Z 16
Z 140
Z
z J I•
80
02 10000 "1_ __ 10 12_
20
5 to IS 20 25 30
SPEED MPH SPEED MPH
Figure 7-58. Rolling Resistance us Speed on Figure 7-59. Rolling Resistance vs Speed on
Level Asphalt Surface Soft Sand Surface
speed if the maximum available torque could be must be able to operate in the water-land
absorbed. This is an ideal case since the soil interface. This ability was shown to be of great
conditions may not allow the maximum importance in World War II and since then in
available torque to be used. Southeast Asia. The QMR or other specifications
The calculations of available tractive effort for a wheeled amphibian may establish
are illustrated in Table 7-33 in a sample performance requirements on two distinct
calculation for the LARC XV. The engine water-land interfaces, which include surf and
converter performance curves on which this river banks. The requirements for each are
calculation is based are presented in Fig. 7-60. different and are considered here separately.
The resulting tractive effort curves are presented
in Fig. 7-61. The required tractive efforts for 7-4.3.1 Surf Operations
level ground and for grades are also presented in
Fig. 7-61. These curves are based on a rolling The ability of an amphibian to operate
resistance of 130 lb/ton which is the assumed through surf is determined by a number of 0 0
cross country average. Under these idealized factors in addition to the installed power. These
conditions the LARC XV would have a top include stability, water-tight integrity,
speed of 30 mph and a speed of 1.5 mph on a 60 arrangement, and maneuverability and are
percent grade covered in pars. 7-1, 7-2, and 7-4.
In an operation over a beach the amphibian
7-4.3 SPECIAL PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS, must pass through the surf coming into and
WATER-LAND INTERFACE exiting from the beach. In exiting from a beach • •
the amphibian will be headed into the surf and
In order to serve its function as an take breaking waves over the bow. The forces
amphibious vehicle, the wheeled amphibian developed by a large breaking wave are sufficient
7-114
q 0
. 0 __ _0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
== === = - ,J
AMCP 706-350 •
to momentarily stop an amphibian, no matter the SUPERDUCK prototype during surfing

how much power is installed. This is not trials. Amphibians of the LARC family have
important since forward progress will resume as been tested in and survived the breaking of 10 to
soon as the breaker passes, allowing the 12 ft high plunging surf. In actual operations it
amphibian to eventually clear the breaker line. may not be practical to operate amphibians in as
In crossing surf to reach the beach, there is high a surf as they can safely survive because of
the danger that the amphibian will be overtaken probable damage to the cargo. An amphibian
by a wave as the wave breaks. If the surf is may be designed to have sufficient speed to
plunging this will result in large quantities of outrun the breakers, thus avoiding the
water on the decks as well as the danger of possibility of being caught in breaking seas. The
bri aching and capsizing. In a plunging surf the speed required to do this is, to a first 0
crest of the wave breaks in such a way that it approximation, a function of the breaker height.
falls on the face of the wave in front of the It is known that a wave slows down as it enters
breaking point. In the event that the amphibian shallow water. The relationship between wave
does not have a self-bailing cargo deck, the speed, wave length, wave period, and water
incoming water could sink it. This happened to depth is shown in Fig. 7-62. It is also known
TABLE 7-33 CALCULATION OF AVAILABLE TRACTIVE EFFORT FOR LARC XV
r
Wheel rpm = 303-- - - X mph = 5.05 X mph
mi 60 min
Converter output rpm = Wheel rpm X overall gear ratio

Converter output torque from engine converter match curves
Wheel torque = Converter output torque X overall ratio X efficiency*
Tractive effort = Wheel torque/tire rolling radius
Converter Unlocked
Cony. Conv. Wheel Tractive . .

Wheel rpm Torque-out, Torque, Effort,
mph rpm out lb-ft lb-ft lb
Hi Gear Ratio= 20.302:1
0 0.0 0 3376 59,000 21,450 0 0

2 10.1 205 3000 53,000 19,100
4 20.2 410 2620 46,250 16,700
6 30.3 615 2260 39,900 14,250
8 40.4 820 1960 34,600 12,500
10 50.5 1025 1700 30,000 10,800
12 60.6 1230 1510 26,650 9,620
14 70.7 1434 1350 23,800 8,580
16 80.8 1640 1220 21,550 7,770
18 90.9 1840 1110 19,600 7,070
20 101.0 2050 1000 17,650 6,370
22 111.0 2255 930 16,420 5,920
24 121.0 2460 900 15,900 5,730
26.35** 133.0 2700 840 14,840 5,250 0 6
* Power train efficiency from converter to wheels is estimated to be 87 percent.

** Calculated (cont'd)
7-115
p .. ,nm a d "l :iII l/ S 0..l.,,ii

AMCP 706-350 0 0
Lo Gear Ratio = 51.105:1
0 0.0 0 3376 151,700 54,700

2 10.1 515 2450 110,000 36,450
4 20.2 1030 1680 75,400 27,200
6 30.3 1547 1280 57,500 20,650
8 40.4 2065 1010 45,300 16,400
10.46 52.8 2700 840 37,800 13,630 .... --
Converter Locked-Up
Cony. * Cony. * Wheel Tractive

Wheel rpm Torque Out, Torque, Effort,
mph rpm Out lb-ft lb-ft lb
Hi GearRatio 20. 302:1
17.55 88.6 1800 969.0 17,100 6,170

19.50 98.5 2000 986.0 17,400 6,275
21.50 108.4 2200 980.9 17,300 6,240
23.40 118.2 2400 969.0 17,100 6,170 0
25.40 128.0 2600 948.6 16,740 6,030
27.30 138.0 2800 923.1 16,300 5,880
29.30 147.8 3000 892.5 15,740 5,680
Lo Gear Ratio = 51.105:1
6.97 35.2 1800 969.0 43,100 15,520 S 0

7.75 39.2 2000 986.0 43,800 15,800
8.52 43.1 2200 980.9 43,600 15,700
9.30 47.0 2400 969.0 43,100 15,520
10.07 50.9 2600 948.6 42,200 15,200
10.85 54.8 2800 923.1 41,100 14,800
11.62 58.7 3000 892.5 39,600 14,300
• Same as engine speed and torque.
that there is a relationship between surf height water depth, the amphibian may be able to pass
at the point of breaking and the water depth; through it in the time between successive waves.
this relationship is shown in Fig. 7-63. The data The success of such a maneuver will depend on
for Figs. 7-62 and 7-63 were obtained from Ref. the skill and judgment of the operator, and the
64. If a depth-to-height ratio of 0.85 is speed of the amphibian. There is still some
considered typical, the water depth and, thus minimum speed below which the amphibian
speed, can be approximated for a breaker of a could not cross the breaker zone without being
given height. The resulting speed is indicated by caught by the next wave.
the solid line on the extreme right of Fig. 7-64. It is estimated that the breaker zone that • 0
An amphibian with a speed greater than that would be troublesome to an amphibian would
indicated could outrun the breaker thus avoiding extend for a distance of 15 breaker heights.
the danger. This, however, is not the only Based on this assumption it is possible to
possibility. Since the breaking zone is fixed by establish the minimum speed for an amphibian
7-116 .
SS S mm 0mlm _ 0m *@lll 5 S 0 0
AMCP 706-350
0 0
that will not be overtaken in the breaker zone, military or modified commercial engines that are
assuming perfect timing on the part of the available. In the course of the preliminary and
operator. These minimum speeds for several final design, the choice of possible engines must
wave periods are also indicated in Fig. 7-64. be narrowed down to the one that will result in
Between the needed speed to outrun the breaker the minimum cost wheeled amphibian that will
and minimum speed needed with perfect timing, meet the QMR or other requirements. A number
is a marginal speed range in which the skill of of criteria that can be applied during the
the operator becomes increasingly important. preliminary and final design phases to select the
The actual operational surf height and speed most suitable engine are presented in pars. 7-5.1
of the LARC series of amphibians are included through 7-5.2.
in Fig. 7-64, to indicate present practice. The
point for the LARC LX indicates the impor- 7-5.1 GENERAL DISCUSSION 411
tance of factors in addition to speed in deter-
mining surf ability. In this case the large size of The probable requirements of a wheeled
the LARC LX relative to the other LARC's in- amphibian are such that it should be equipped
creases its surfing ability, despite (or regardless with an engine which can meet the operational
of) its lower speed. requirement of a tactical or Type I engine, as
Thus, Fig. 7-64 may be used for guidance in described in par. 7-14.1 of Ref. 63. These 0 •
estimating the speed required of a wheeled requirements deal with the atmospheric
amphibian in surf operations. environment in terms of temperature, altitude or
barometric pressure, and humidity; and establish
74.3.2 Exiting from Rivers longitudinal and lateral slope and waterproofing
requirements.
As a result of recent operations in Southeast To make a rational engine selection, it is
Asia, it has been realized that the ability to necessary to consider the engine and the drive
rapidly exit from rivers is of great importance. train as a unit. Only in this way can the
The transition from water to land as an combination that will meet the end product
amphibian climbs a river bank involves a number requirements at the minimum cost be selected.
of complex phenomena both in It would not be impossible to find two engines
"terramechanics" and hydrodynamics. Because with similar performance capabilities but
of the complexity of the problem, at the time of different output rpm and torque characteristics. 0 0
this writing there are no procedures available to In this case one of the engines is likely to be
the designer to relate river exiting requirements more compatible with a drive train using
to required power or other vehicle standard or available components and,
characteristics. A considerable amount of accordingly, would be the better choice. The
research is being done at this time on the river considerations and criteria that apply to the
exiting problem, hence the designer must design of the drive train are given in pars. 7-6
consult current literature to determine the through 7-6.5.
state-of-the-art. Refs. 65 and 66 contain #'.e
results of some of the early research on the 7-5.2 CRITERIA FOR WHEELED AMPHIBIAN
problem. These studies provide limited ENGINES
qualitative information for the designer. The
most important points seem to be that efficient A number of general criteria which apply
exiting aids are required (e.g., winches, anchors) to engines of all military vehicles, including S •
and that approaching the bank at as high a speed wheeled amphibians, include reliability,
as possible is very helpful. durability, maintainability, availability,
efficiency, weight, and economy. Since these
7-5 FINAL ENGINE SELECTION criteria are common to the engine selection for
all Army vehicles, they are covered in detail in
As indicated in par. 6-3.1, it is very unlikely Ref. 63 and need not be discussed further here. 0 0
that an engine will be specifically developed for There are, however, several criteria that are
a wheeled amphibian design. As a result, it will unique to wheeled amphibians and the
be necessary to select an engine from the circumstances in which the application to a
7-117
- A
0 ..... 0 ,-0•...,
*0m lmm~ 0 0~ml
im 0ul~mmmmmS m 0 0 0 0 -
AMCP 706-350
2500 1 250
CONVERTER: ROCKFORD 14"-3.51:1 STALL RATIO LOCKUP HP, ooI
ENGINEt CUMMINS VINE - 300 300 HP V-8 -30
20030 20
CONVERTER OUPU HOREPWE
I 25000
SPEED RPM
1500 150
00
2000
- 1000 1.
CONVERTER OUTPUT TORQUE LOCKUP TORQUE

500 ••.1,.,." 50
50
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200
OUTPUT SPEED , RPM
Figure 7-60. Engine-converterPerformance
wheeled amphibian is unusual. These cases are rated power of the engine, the designer must
presented in pars. 7-5.2.1 through 7-5.2.3. determine the corrections to the rated power for
the environmental condition expected. This is
7-5.2.1 Engine Rating most important in the case of the temperature
of the inlet air. If the engine takes air from the
During waterborne operation, the engine of a engine compartment, the temperature may be
wheeled amphibian will be required to deliver considerably above that outside the vehicle.
maximum power continuously. This condition is In general, the power rating of an engine and - .
more demanding of an engine than any its reliability, life, and maintenance
automotive application, where the engine need requirements when run at that rating are
not deliver maximum power on level ground and determined by test. During such tests the engine
down hills. As a result an engine selected for a is run through a duty cycle which includes a
wheeled amphibian must be capable of certain percentage of the cycle at rated power
delivering the required power for a high and the remainder of the cycle at different 0
percentage of its life, as discussed in pars. 7-4 fractions of the rated power. This test cycle for
through 7-4.3. U. S. Army qualified Diesel engines is given in
In establishing the required power the MIL-STD-1400, and engines that have passed
designer must remember to include the load for this test are listed in Qualified Products List
the auxiliary systems as well as the main (QPL) 11276. The U. S. Navy also performs an
propulsion system. This includes the power for endurance test to establish the ratings of Diesel
the electrical, hydraulic, and cooling systems engines as given in MIL-E-2357A (Ships). The
which in some cases may be as high as 10 Navy test reflects the service of an engine in a
percent of the total. Navy boat and may be more applicable to
In comparing the required power with the wheeled amphibians than the Army test. In the
7-118
S... •• • • . e.... • • • • • .• 0
AMCP 706-350 -
- 04
0
0
z ad
LU _ 0
-JO C4 LU
Cz0
jil 5< CCK" 0 -
D
z
0 0
- -0 cm c O, c0
_5 I
S4
93 - 0 0 Z
Z- xI W 0j
's - U I.-I
5.C
z N z Z;-
LU LU
Cn- VU C"
L
0 0 !2
:E >- i-e *Ln -
Z -AI uC LU
0- a. 'I IA VL
S
dw U- 1=I
__- C, __-- ___ I 0 L
I -I I-- U-C -I
- 0
0n
-00
LUU
0 ý4
§ 0 0
'0 N -
<7-1L 9
D-C)-
oS M 04S
AMCP 706-350
* 0
8 00 4 00
c' 0 N1
A' HION3l 3AV
C>)
LU -9
LU-
a-
- Q
2o 0 0 0 0 0
:)3S/IA a33dS 3AVM

7-120
AMCIP 706-350- - -
CREST VELOCITY ATý BREAKER POINT

BREAKING C6b
STILL WATER LEVEL BREAKER HEIGHT Hb TROUGH ENVELOPE
CREST ELEVATION Y6 DPHABRKIGd
BEC
SLOPE ATBEKN
H = DEEP WATER WAVE HEIGHT

0
T = DEEP WATER WAVE PERIOD
2.4__ _ - _ _
2.2
BEACH SLOPE
2.0 0 1:50 -- __ _ __
A1:20
1.8 0 1.-1-0_ __ _ _ _
1.6 -
1.4 -n-o- - -0A
I.2 I J-
1.0 __ 0
0 1..
11_________
0.8
0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
2
DEEP WATER WAVE, H0/T
Figure 7-63. Breaker Height us Water Depth

7-121
AMCP 706-350 0 0
22
8 SEC PERIOD
12 SEC PERIOD
20 -_
18 ____
16 -_ x _ _ *
LARC LX
I LARC XV
S12
10 UNSATISFACTORY A V SATISFACTORY
MAR01 NAL
8
4~~ SE ERO
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
AMPHIBIAN WATERBORNE SPEED, MPH
Figure 7-64. Surf Operation Diagram for Wheeled Amphibian . ..

event that these Army and Navy tests do not accordance with the requirements referenced in
provide enough information to the wheeled par. 7-5.2. It should be noted with respect to the
amphibian designer, a candidate engine can be engine's electrical system that salt water is a
tested with any desired duty cycle. The U. S. much better conductor than fresh water.
Army Tank-Automotive Command Propulsion The problem of salt water or salt particles in
Systems Laboratory at Warren, Michigan, has the intake air is much more serious than the . . . .
the facilities for such a test. problem of direct wetting if the engine is
properly waterproofed. This is particularly
7-5.2.2 The Amphibian Environment important for gas turbine engines where
compressor fouling and sulfidation are involved.
The environment in which the wheeled Compressor fouling occurs when salt water
amphibian engine must operate imposes certain droplets in the intake air impinge at high
requirements on the selection of the engine. The velocities on compressor blades and stators. The
first such requirement is the tolerance of the water scatters and is evaporated. The salt
engine to salt water. An engine in an amphibian crystals adhere to the blade surfaces and to each
must be capable of withstanding the effects of other, thus distorting the airfoils and lowering
being wet with salt water and of ingesting salt component efficiency. Additi6nal fuel must be
water or salt particles in the air intake. After an pr3vided to restore power, causing the engine to 0 0
amphibian has been in service for some time, it run hotter and closer to surge condition. The
would not be unusual for the hatches over the engine power may be restored simply by
engines to leak in rough water and surf. This washing the compressor with fresh water and,
requires that the engine be waterproofed in accordingly, a gas turbine in a wheeled
7-122
, _ 0
* 0 0 0 0 0 •* 0 0 0 0 0 0 S 0 0 S
AMCP 706-350
amphibian must be fitted with such a fresh avoid fire and explosion hazards are covered in
water wash system (see par. 7-10.10). par. 7-10.3.
In order to reduce the number of fresh water
washings required and increase the life of the 7-5.2.3 Weight, Volume, and Cost Effectiveness
engine, the amount of salt water and salt I t
particles ingested in the intake air must be In the course of the preliminary and final
minimized. Several types of separators have been design phases, the number of possible engines
developed, including mesh, inertial, and for a given design can be narrowed by use of the
electrostatic types. These can be designed to criteria given in pars. 7-5.2, 7-5.2.1, and 7-5.2.2.
remove particles of 5-micron diameter and larger In many cases this will result in only one engine
with flow velocities between 10 and 75 ft/sec. with suitable characteristics. This was the case
The electrostatic type can be overloaded if the with the selection of the Diesel engines for the
amount of salt in the air exceeds 10 parts per production LARC V and LARC XV. The
million by weight. The U. S. Naval Boiler and designer should note that multiple engine
Turbine Laboratory has been developing installations are more practical for a wheeled
separators for Naval vessels and should be amphibian than for a conventional vehicle. This
contacted by the amphibian designer for the fact affects the number of engines that must be
latest developments, considered in designing an amphibian. In the
Sulfidation is a much more serious problem event that two or more engines are available
with respect to gas turbine engine life. At with suitable performance characteristics, the
temperatures above 1,550'F the sulfur in the final selection should be made on a
fuel combines with salt in the intake air to form cost-effectiveness basis. This is not to imply that
a slag which is very corrosive to nozzle guide the lowest cost engine should be selected.
vanes and turbine blades fabricated from nickel Rather the engine which results in the lowest life
base and cobalt base superalloys. Unprotected cycle cost for the amphibian should be chosen. 0 •
nickel base alloy blades that have been run in This requires the consideration of the engine as
tests in a marine environment at temperatures well as the drive train, fuel capacity, auxiliary
above 1,5500 F have failed in less than 200 hr. systems, and interactions with the hull. In this
Metallic coatings may be used to overcome this way, it is possible to make a rational choice
corrosion problem. However, to date coatings between engines with differing initial costs,
weights, volume, and fuel consumption. This •
have not been developed that will allow a time
between overhaul equal to that of the same procedure may result in an increase in the design
engine in a nonmarine environment, costs, especially if the engines have output
The amphibian designer should be cautious in characteristics different enough to require the
the choice of an automotive or aircraft gas design of different drive trains. However, the
turbine in an amphibian application unless the design costs of a wheeled amphibian are a very
engine has been modified and tested for use in a small percentage of the total life cycle cost.
marine environment. In no case should such an Thus a large increase in the design costs are
engine be the final selection until such justified, even if they result in a small percentage
modifications have been made and the engine reduction in procurement or operational costs.
subsequently tested to the satisfaction of all 7-6 POWER TRAIN DESIGN
criteria.
Safety with respect to fire and explosion An extensive introduction to the subject of
hazards is a major engine selection criterion. The Army automotive power trains is presented in
hull of an amphibian is closed so that any fuel Ref. 63. The limited space available in this
leakage from the engine or fuel system will handbook makes it possible to present
collect in the bilge. If the flash point of the fuel information only on the differences between
is sufficiently low, the hull will fill with vapor in wheeled amphibian power trains and those used
sufficient quantity to form an explosive on conventional Army wheeled vehicles.
mixture. Thus a gasoline engine should not be - • e
selected for a wheeled amphibian unless no 7-6.1 GENERAL DISCUSSION
suitable engine that burns Diesel oil is available.
The design characteristics of a fuel system to The function of the power train on a wheeled
7-123
_ _ 0 _
AMCP 706-350 0 0
amphibian is the transmission of power from the and shocks that the power train of a
engine to the wheels and water propulsor. The conventional wheeled military vehicle must
engine torque and rotational characteristics must withstand (see Ref. 63), the power train of a
also be modified by the power train to suit the wheeled amphibian must withstand loads and
wheels and water propulsor requirements. shocks peculiar to its environment. In particular, 0 0
A major design consideration in both the in crossing the surf zone or approaching a river
preliminary and final design involves the choice bank the wheels must be engaged to provide
of standard military or commercial components, quick acceleration onto the beach or bank. If we
or the development of custom components. In assume a mechanical drive, the wheels will turn
the preliminary design phase this decision at some ratio of the propulsor speed. Contact
involves major components such as transmissions with the beach or bank will result in high shaft 0 0
and transfer cases and, in the final design phase, and transmission torque due to the momentum
minor components such as propeller shafts. In change and the transfer of power to the more
both the preliminary and final design phase the resistive medium. This condition is even more
selection depends on considerations of serious if a free turbine type gas turbine engine
performance, arrangement, Weight, reliability, is used. In this case the energy change due to the
maintainability, and cost. The advantages of sudden deceleration of the power turbine must
standard components with respect to reliability, be dissipated.
maintainability, and cost are discussed in c. Controllability. When a wheeled amphibian
Chapter 2. However, requirements for approaches a beach through surf, the driver will
performance, arrangements, or weight may be under considerable stress. As a result, the
prevent the use of standard components. Pars. control of the power train must be as simple and
7-6.2 through 7-6.5 present the characteristics, foolproof as possible. In particular, there must
criteria, and functions that are unique to be no chance that the wheel drive can be put in 0 0
wheeled amphibian power trains. This reverse. The resulting stop when the wheels
information may be used for the selection of the make contact could cause the vehicle to broach
correct standard components or in the design of or bog down.
custom components.
7-6.2.2 Desirable Power Train Characteristics
7-6.2 CHARACTERISTICS AND CRITERIA
A number of desirable characteristics are
In order for a wheeled amphibian to operate useful in a wheeled amphibian power train to
successfully with maximum effectiveness, the enhance its effectiveness. The extent to which
power train must have certain characteristics, as these desirable characteristics are included in a
discussed in the paragraphs which follow, given power train design should be determined
by a trade-off study which considers the entire
7-6.2.1 Necessary Power Train Characteristics vehicle. Increases in effectiveness must be traded - •
off against any increases in the life cycle cost of
a. Flexibility in Power Distribution. A the vehicle. Desirable characteristics for a
wheeled amphibian must be able to apply power wheeled amphibian power train include the
to either the marine propulsor or wheels following:
separately, or to both simultaneously. The a. High Transmission Efficiency for
ability to selectively power the marine propulsor Waterborne Propulsor. The marine propulsor 0 0
or wheels is needed for efficiency when will probably have a much larger power demand
operating on land or water. This is most than the land propulsor. As a result,
important in water operations since rotating the considerable savings in engine power and fuel
wheels wastes a great deal of power. The marine consumption may be possible if the marine part
propulsor and the wheels must both be powered of the power train has a high efficiency. In
when the amphibian enters or exits from the particular, the efficiency of a drive train with a
water to maintain the necessary speed in order torque converter can be increased from about 85 - 0
to reduce the danger of broaching in the surf or percent to above 95 percent by including a
bogging down on a river bank. mechanical "lock-up" with the converter. The
b. Durability. In addition to the usual loads control of the mechanical lock-up can be either
7-124
. 0
0 O 0 0 000 0, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
manual or automatic, the QMR. Those components that supply power

b. Independent Marine Propulsor and Wheel to the marine propulsor must be able to transmit
Speeds. When approaching a beach or river bank the high power required for a high percentage of
it is useful to be able to adjust the rotational their life. This could be a serious problem if an
speed of the marine propulsor and the wheels automotive transmission were used to provide
independently. This will reduce the landing power to both the marine propulsor and the
shock in the drive train and reduce the chance of wheels. The low gear ratios in such transmissions
bogging down during the water-land transition. may not have sufficient life for the marine
This has been accomplished in the LARC V and propulsor requirements.
LARC XV by arranging the transmission so that
the land drive can be placed in the high or low 7-6.2.3.2 The Amphibian Environment
range without affecting the speed of the marine •
propulsor. It is probable that the power train
c. Simplicity in Automotive Transmission. components will be located low in the
Because of the high power installed in wheeled amphibian hull and, as a result, will be
amphibians, the automotive transmission periodically wetted with bilge water.
requires fewer gear ratios than comparable Accordingly, the components must be
equipment in trucks. Accordingly, a less waterproofed and made of corrosion resisting
complex automotive transmission can be materials. As a minimum, the components
provided for an amphibian making it simpler to should be protected with proper paint or
drive on land. For example, the LARC V and coatings.
XV have only 2 forward speeds whereas a
military truck may have 5 or more. However, if 7-6.2.3.3. Weight, Volume, and Cost Effectiveness
a suitable standard transmission is available it
may be cost effective to accept its complexity The final selection or design of the power S S
instead of developing a simpler new unit. train must depend on obtaining the most
d. Independent Control of Multiple Marine cost-effective vehicle to meet the requirements.
Propulsors. Large wheeled amphibians may be This involves the same considerations as govern
equipped with twin marine propulsors. In this the engine selection and are covered in par.
case a significant gain in waterborne 7-5.2.3.
maneuverability can be obtained if the marine -.
propulsors can produce thrust in opposite 7-6.3 THE MARINE POWER TRAIN
directions. This feature is most useful for
maneuvering alongside a cargo ship and may The function of the marine part of the power
reduce loading time. train is the transmission of power at a suitable
rotational speed to the marine propulsor. The
7-6.2.3 Power Train Criteria typical elements of the marine power train, with
their functions or characteristics, as applied to • 0
In general, the same criteria that apply to the wheeled amphibians, are considered in the
selection or design of power trains for paragraphs which follow.
conventional wheeled military vehicles apply to
wheeled amphibians. These criteria are covered 7-6.3.1 Transfer Case
in Ref. 63. There are, however, several criteria
that are of particular importance to a wheeled In a mechanical drive train, the transfer case
amphibian and are similar to those that apply to receives power from the drive train and delivers
the engine selection, as presented in pars. 7-5.2 it to the marine propulsor shaft. The transfer
through 7-5.2.3. These criteria, as they apply to case may provide any needed change in rotative
wheeled amphibian power trains, are presented speed and displacement of the output shaft
in pars. 7-6.2.3.1 through 7-6.2.3.3. needed to suit arrangements. The transfer case
may include a clutch to disengage the propeller
7-6.2.3.1 Power Ratings for land operation. The transfer case must 0 0
transmit the full power for long periods and
The life of the power train components must must be designed for adequate life. It must also
be compatible with the requirements given in be designed to withstand the maximum torque
7-125
0 0
0 S 0 0 0. 0. . . 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-3W0 0 -
that will result if the marine propulsor is transmission of power from the engine to the
suddenly stopped by floating debris, wheels and the marine transfer case or drive
motor. The automotive drive train modifies the
7-6.3.2 Propulsion Motor rotational speed and torque as required for the
wheels and provides reversing for the wheels 0 0
In a hydrostatic or electric drive train, a and, possibly, for the marine propulsor. The
propulsion motor will supply power directly to types and typical elements of the automotive
the marine propulsor shaft. This motor serves power train, with their functions or
the same purpose as the transfer case in the characteristics that apply especially to wheeled
mechanical system and must satisfy the same amphibians, are considered in the discussion
criteria, which follows. Those functions and
characteristics that apply to conventional
7-6.3.3 Propulsor Shaft wheeled vehicles as well as amphibians are
discussed in Ref. 63.
The propulsor shaft transmits the output
torque from the transfer case or propulsion 7-6.4.1 Power Train Types
motor to the marine propulsor. The propulsor
shaft may include a slip clutch or shear pin to Three basic types of power trains can be used I 0 0
linrit the torque in the drive train if the on a wheeled amphibian--mechanical,
propulsor is fouled by debris. Considerable hydrostatic, and electric. Each type has certain
savings in maintenance time may be realized if advantages and disadvantages for use in a
the propulsor shaft is arranged in a manner to wheeled amphibian. These are presented in pars.
permit rapid removal. This will allow the rapid 7-6.4.1.1 through 7-6.4.1.3. The selection of the
changing of a damaged propeller or other power train type should be made or the basis of S S
associated components. the characteristics and criteria presented in pars.
7-6.2 through 7-6.2.3.3.
7-6.3.4 Bearings and Seals
7-6.4.1.1 Mechanical
The bearings and seals support the propulsor
shaft and provide a seal where the shaft In a mechanical power train there is a direct
penetrates the hull. On small boats the bearings mechanical connection through gears and shafts . .. .
outside the hull are water lubricated. This type between the engine, and the wheels and marine
of bearing is not suitable for a wheeled propulsor. Mechanical power trains have been
amphibian since the marine propulsor may be used on all wheeled amphibians built to date as
run when out of the water. To save wear on all well as on the vast majority of all wheeled
the shaft bearings, a shaft lock can be provided military vehicles. As a result, there exists a wide
to keep the propulsor shaft from free-wheeling variety of standard components familiar to i 0 •
when the marine drive is declutched. Before maintenance and operating personnel. The
doing this, it must be determined that serious advantages that result from the use of standard
wear will not occur on the marine clutch due to components are presented in Chapter 2.
drag against the locked shaft. Further advantages of a mechanical drive
include a high transmission efficiency and light
7-6.3.5 Marine Propufsor weight relative to the other drive train types.
High transmission efficiency is very important
The marine propulsor converts engine power for the parts of the drive train that supply the
into useful thrust to propel the amphibian in marine propulsor since they must transmit high
water. Design of the marine propulsor is covered power for long periods. Improvements in the
in pars. 7-7.1 through 7-7.6.4. efficiency of the marine drive will thus appear
directly as reductions in engine power and fuel
7-6.4 THE AUTOMOTIVE POWER TRAIN consumption. If the amphibian has multiple S S
engines, the power train should be arranged so
The function of the automotive part of a that one engine alone can propel the amphibian
wheeled amphibian drive train is the in emergencies.
7-126
00 0_ • S
AMCP 706-350 .
The disadvantages of a mechanical drive train train should be seriously considered for a
include a lack of flexibility in power distribution wheeled amphibian if the number of vehicles to
between the wheels and marine propulsor, and a be built justified the necessary engineering and
lack of flexibility in arrangements. This latter design work.
factor is of importance in high performance 0
wheeled amphibians which may be fitted with 7-6.4.1.3 Electric
retractable wheels and propulsors.
Electric drive trains have been used in a wide
7-6.4.1.2 Hydrostatic variety of vehicles ranging from electric
automobiles to railroad locomotives and ships.
In a hydrostatic power train, the power is These applications have included experimental ... .-
transferred from the engine to the wheels and military vehicles and very large gas turbine •
marine propulsor by the flow of hydraulic fluid powered earth movers. Research and
under static pressure. The pressure and flow is development work has been carried out on
supplied by a pump driven directly by the electric drive trains by the U. S. Army
engine and converted to useful work by Tank-Automotive Command Propulsion System
hydraulic motors connected directly to the Laboratory at Warren, Michigan, and the U. S.
wheels or marine propulsor. Hydrostatic drive Army Mobility Equipment Research and •
trains have been used on small commercial Development Center at Fort Belvoir, Virginia.
wheeled vehicles and in experimental military The advantages of an electric drive train are
vehicles. Research and development in this area similar to those of a hydrostatic drive train and
have been carried out by the U. S. Army include flexibility in power distribution,
Tank-Automotive Command Propulsion Systems arrangements, and control fcr maximum engine
Laboratory at Warre.i, Michigan. It is of interest efficiency and life. "
to note that a hydrostatic drive train was fitted The disadvantages of an electric drive train are
as an experiment in one of the prototype LARC also similar to those of the hydrostatic drive
XV's in the early 1960's. Unfortunately a fire train and include relatively low efficiency, high
destroyed the vehicle before the test program weight, and a lack of available standard
was completed. The results at the time of the components. If the number of vehicles under
fire indicated that the system was practical. consideration justifies it, the engineering and ..................
The advantages of a hydrostatic drive train in design time required should be devoted to the 0
a wheeled amphibian include great flexibility in sorious study of an electric drive train for a
power distribution and in physical arrangements. wheeled amphibian.
In a hydrostatic drive train, power can be
transmitted to retractable wheels and marine 7-6.4.2 Power Train Components
propulsors without the use of complex shafts,
gear trains, and universal joints. A hydrostatic 7-64.2.1 Torque Converter •
drive train may also allow high engine efficiency
to be obtained in land operation. The engine can A torque converter is required in a mechanical
be automatically controlled to run at its most automotive drive train of a wheeled amphibian
efficient speed under all circumstances. Vehicle powered with a reciprocating internal
speed control is obtained by regulating the combustion engine or single shaft gas turbine to
pump output. This may be a particular provide the necessary speed-torque
advantage in the case of gas turbine engines since characteristics. If the torque converter also 0 -
their efficiency and life are improved if rapid transmits power for the marine propulsor, it
speed changes are avoided, should be equipped with a mechanical lock-up
The disadvantages of a hydrostatic drive train feature to improve the marine power train
include lower transmission efficiency than a efficiency. The lock-up should be controlled so
mechanical drive train, probability of higher that it occurs only in the marine mode. In a
weight, and fewer available standard wheeled amphibian, when power is supplied to 0 0
components. These disadvantages are likely to the wheels or wheels and marine propulsor,
be overcome by the rapidly advancing torque converter lock-up is not required or
state-of-the-art. As a result, a hydrostatic drive desirable.
7-127
S0_
. .. .0 .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
7-6.4.2.2 Transmissions and Transfer Cases the limited slip differentials can only support
about a 3 to 1 torque difference. If the
In a mechanical automotive drive train, the arrangement shown in Fig. 7-65 is used; the
transmission and transfer case provide the differential, shafts, gears, and universal joints
required changes in rotative speed, direction, must be designed to take the high torque that 0 0
and displacement of power output shafts. In the can occur in the suspended condition. These
LARC V and LARC XV, two separate torques are roughly twice the value that would
transmissions are provided-one supplies occur in the drive train of conventional wheeled
forward, neutral, and reverse to the wheels and vehicles of similar weight, power, and running
the marine propulsor; and the other provides gear arrangement. In some arrangements the
speed ratios to the wheels only. In this way the drive shafts may become long enough that 0 0
required flexibility for beaching is obtained with torsional vibrations are a problem. Stiffer shafts
a minimum number of coinponents. There are a or vibration dampers may then be required.
number of transmissions available for
conventional wheeled vehicles that may be 7-6.4.2.4 Pumps, Motors, and Generators
considered for use in a wheeled amphibian. In
general these combine a torque converter, These components are used in hydrostatic and
forward, neutral, and reverse, and a number of electric drive trains to take the place of the 0 0
gear ratios into one unit. If such a transmission mechanical components listed in pars. 7-6.4.2.1
supplies power to the wheels only with a through 7-6.4.2.3. The design, selection, and
separate forward, neutral, and reverse arrangement of these components for a wheeled
transmission for the marine propulsor; no special amphibian drive train are similar to those for a
problem occurs. This was the arrangement used
on the LVH-X2 high-speed wheeled amphibian. 0 •
However, if such a transmission supplies both
the wheels and marine propulsor, it must be
designed for life at the high marine power levels
and peak torques that may occur from a jammed
marine propulsor. If a gas turbine engine is used,
the peak torques that can be developed on a
cold day must also be considered.
(
/
7-6.4.2.3 Differentials, Drive Shafts, and Universal X
These components serve the same functions

on a wheeled amphibian as on a conventioanl
wheeled vehicle. However, if the amphibian has
a rigid suspension system, unusual loads are
applied to these components. The great torsional DIFFERENTIAL
stiffness of an amphibian hull combined with a
rigid suspension results in the certainty that in
rough terrain it will occasionally be suspended -
on diagonally opposite wheels, as illustrated in

Fig. 7-65. The amphibian must be propelled
when suspended in this manner. The simplest
and most direct way to accomplish this is to -
drive the wheels on each side with a common

shaft, shown in Fig. 7-65. A single differential is
provided between the drives on each siae of the I '
amphibian. The conventional truck arrangement I
with limited slip differentials b(tween each pair
of wheels will not provide as good mobility -ince Figure 7-65. LARC-type Land Power Train
7-128
3•0 0
3 0- -0 i0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-. . .. .. - - nun ! II
n I1 n
AMCP 706-350
conventional wheeled vehicle as covered in Ref. F external forces on vehicle, lb (rolling

=
63. It should be remembered that the hull of a resistance--grade effect)
wheeled amphibian is completely enclosed so If the gross weight is 30,000 lb and the rolling
that heat buildup could be a problem. As a resistance is 40 lb/ton the total energy dissipated
result, a cooling system for the drive train may is 715,000 ft-lb or 920 BTU. This energy is •
be necessary. dissipated by the brakes in the time it takes to
7-6.5 BRAKES stop the vehicle which is 1.82 sec. As a result,

the temperature of the brakes rises which causes
a transfer of the energy to the surrounding air.
A discussion of the theory of retardation, The breaking forces and the rate at which the
types of brakes and brake mechanisms, and brakes must dissipate energy must be 0 0
systems as applied to conventional wheeled determined on the basis of the performance
vehicles is presented in Ref. 63. In general, the requirements given in the QMR.
same brake mechanisms and systems can be In addition to brakes, some wheeled vehicles
applied to wheeled amphibians. There are, have been fitted with hydraulic retarders to
however, some special considerations imposed dissipate energy. These retarders dissipate
by the amphibian environment, mechanical energy in hydraulic fluid in the form
The brakes used on the WW II DUKW were of of heat which is, in turn, rejected by the fluid in
the internal-expanding type mounted on the a cooler. Hydraulic retarders are often combined
wheel. When the vehicle was driven into the with the torque converter. A retarder has the
water, the rapid cooling of the brakes that were advantage of reducing wear on the brakes. A
hot from land operation created a partial disadvantage is the need to include additional
vacuum in the brake housing. This combined equipment (i.e., the retarder and oil cooler) in
with the hydrostatic pressure would fill the the vehicle. This is a serious problem in an
brake housings with water despite all attempts • 0
amphibian where space and weight are at a
to seal them. The resulting corrosion and premium.
damage caused by sand carried in with the water
caused failures and a tremendous amount of 7-7 MARINE PROPULSOR DESIGN
maintenance work.
As a result of this experience, all production 7-71 GENERAL DISCUSSION
wheeled amphibians since then have been fitted
with brakes on the drive shafts inside the hull. The resistance of a ship to motion through
These Drakes have been of the disk type. The water is overcome by an equal and opposite
major problem with locating the brakes in the propelling force. The energy for propulsion in an
hull is dissipating the heat generated and amphibian is supplied by an internal combustion
maintaining the brake temperature at an
macceptablen leel. This p empcanbe se by engine, either a Diesel or gas turbine. This
acceptable level. This problem can be solved by energy is transmitted to the amphibian as a •
providing an adequate air flow through the hull propulsive force by the marine propulsor. This
during land operations. chapter discusses: (1) the criteria upon which
As an example of the amounts of energy that the selection of the type of propulsor is made,
must be dissipated, consider the case of stopping (2) the advantages of various types of
an amphibian on a 20 percenit grade from a propulsors, (3) the basic theory of marine
speed of 20 mph with a deceleration of 1/2 g. propellers, (4) the design of screw propellers, S S
The energy dissipated is given by and (5) the governing laws and application of
(7-70) model tests.

E = (Mb - F)V2o
2b 7-7.2 CRITERIA FOR PROPULSION UNITS
where
E = total energy, ft-lb A large number of factors must be considered
M = mass of vehicle, slugs in the selection of the type of marine propulsion
b = deceleration, ft/sec 2 (consider system for an amphibian. Once the type of unit
positive) has been selected, these same factors will enter
14, = initial speed, ft/sec into the details of the particular design. The
7-129
• • • • • • • • • 0
0 . ..... .... .... 0~ mlak i 0m 0.,-m 0 0,,, 0 _ 0

AMCP 706-350 0
relative importance of each factor will depend be suitable for amphibians. The advantages and
on the particular requirements specified in the shortcomings of each type will be discussed.
QMR. Factors to be considered include, but are
not limited to: maintenance, simplicity, 7-7.3.1 Screw Propeller in Tunnel -
durability, vulnerability, reliability, availability,
efficiency, weight, arrangements, effectiveness, The screw propeller is the most common
and economy. These factors are not marine propulsor. It is a relatively efficient
independent. For example, ease-of-maintenance, thrust-producing mechanism when properly
reliability, and economy are all associated with designed and installed on a suitable hull. Open
simplicity. Also, the factors may not always be water efficiencies on the order of 80 percent of
applied to the propulsion unit alone but must ideal efficiency can be realized and propulsive 0 S
consider the amphibian and its propulsor as a coefficients as high as 0.70 are common for
system. These factors are discussed in par. 5-1.3. conventional ships. A great deal of series data
has been collected, and design procedures and
7-7.3 PROPELLER TYPES charts have been developed to aid the designer in
selecting the optimum propeller characteristics
The selection of the marine propulsor type for standard type screws. A design method and
for an amphibian will be affected by special some diagrams are presented in par. 7-7.5. Thus, . .
considerations such as low speed in many cases, a suitable screw may be selected
maneuverability, and general criteria such as cost with a minimum of computation and no
and dependability. No particular type will development costs. In addition, the screw may
exhibit all of the desired qualities. The designer be selected so that it is an off-the-shelf item;
must consider the trade-offs that result from hence actual hardware costs are the smallest . -
conflicting requirements. For example, possible. 9
momentum theory shows that efficiency Most recent amphibian designs have placed
increases with propeller diameter whereas the the screw propeller in a tunnel. Fig. 7-66 shows
shallow draft requirements may favor the a scale model of the LARC V (note that the
selection of a small propeller which can be propeller here is enclosed in a shroud). The
protected from damage while the amphibian is incorporation of a tunnel in the hull is
passing through the surf. Some alternative predicated by the requirement for ground g S
solution may satisfy both objectives (shallow clearance when the vehicle is on land. The
draft and high efficiency), but with penalties in propeller is well protected from damage from
terms of added complexity or cost. Two small grounding or debris. However, there are
propellers may be just as efficient as one large disadvantages which must be accepted in such a
propeller and can have an added premium in design. Valuable buoyancy is lost in way of the
maneuverability. The propellers on the tunnel and must be recovered by a subsequent -
high-speed amphibian LVW are supported by a increase in draft, beam, or length. The inflow to - -
plate which retracts into the hull so that the the propeller is highly disturbed and
propellers are less vulnerable to damage in the nonuniform, and the thrust duduction (see par.
landing configuration. Contra-rotating propellers 7-7.4.4) too may be large. Hence, the propulsive
could be used to achieve relatively high efficiency of this type of propeller-hull
efficiency with small diameter. Kort nozzles (see combination will suffer. Model test results of the
par. 7-7.3.2) have been installed on many LARC V, Ref. 11, indicate that the propulsive 0 0
existing amphibians because they increase the efficiency may be lower than 0.35. In addition,
effective area of a propeller and affort a good the bare hull drag of the hull is increased by
deal of protection. separation in the flow about the tunnel (see par.
The type, size, location, and special features 7-1.4).
of the marine propulsor can all affect the basic Future developmental work in the form of
hull geometry and arrangements of the model tests should reveal areas of improvement
amphibian and should be selected in the early in the design of tunnels and
stages of the design to assure compatibility propeller-hull-interactions so that the drag and
between the hull and propeller. This section efficiency of this type of configuration would be
presents various types of propellers which may less objectionable. It is not clear whether the
7-130
• • 0. • 0• ... 0 0 0 0 0 0 S 0 0
AMCP 706.350
-- .. A close-fitting shroud prevents the normal

contraction in the slipstream behind the
......... propeller so that the velocity here is less than
. - with an open propeller, hence less kinetic energy
is carried off in the propeller race and efficiency
is thereby increased. The suppression of the race
contraction amounts to a virtual increase in the
diameter of the screw. The ideal efficiency of a
shrouded propeller can be found if certain
assumptions are made about the area of the
slipstream far downstream from the propeller . . .
disc. Ref. 67 presents a table of gain in ideal 0
efficiency as a function of the loading
coefficient where the area of the slipstream is
(A) equal to the propeller disc area. These results are
7 7 reproduced in Table 7-34.
"The highest and lowest load coefficients are
typical for towboats when towing a barge train 0 0
or large merchant ships, respectively. An amphib-
ian propeller will normally be moderately
loaded with a coefficient somewhere between
these two extremes.
In practice, the efficiency gains indicated
above will not be attained. First, any added
resistance of the shroud should be charged to
the propulsion system (actually, a properly
designed Kort nozzle will augment the propeller
by producing thrust). Second, the propeller
diameter must be reduced on the amphibian to
(B) fit the shroud and yet maintain the same road
clearance. And third, the close proximity to the - S
Figure 7-66. Two Views of a Model LARC V hull may decrease the shroud's effectiveness.
Nevertheless, a Kort nozzle propulsion system
improvements would justify the necessary costs. should give some improvement in performance
However, this is an area in which significant over open propellers for amphibians.
gains may be realized. Two more desirable qualities of shrouded
propellers should be mentioned. First, the 0
7-7.3.2 Kort Nozzles propeller naturally operates at higher rotative
speeds in a shroud (unless it is designed to
A Kort nozzle propulsor is simply a screw prevent cavitation, in which case the
propeller enclosed in a shroud. Nozzles are nozzle-propeller combination is commonly
found on most of the recent amphibian designs called a pumpjet). This effect, when combined
including the LARC V and LAP C XV. with the higher speeds of the smaller diameter
Advantages of nozzles include increased thrust propeller (dictated by the clearance criteria), 0 0
or efficiency, decreased cavitation and vibration, will result in weight savings in terms of engines,
and protection to the propeller. These transmissions, shafting, and in the propeller
advantages may not all be achieved itself. Second, the bollard pull or towline thrust
simultaneously, however, and the design of a of a shrouded propeller is higher than for open
particular nozzle-propeller combination will be propellers. Model tests of the utility landing
directed to exploit one or more of these craft, LCU class, (Ref. 68) show that the 0 0
features, addition of Kort nozzles increased the bollard
The increase in thrust or efficiency of a pull by about 50 percent. At the same time,
shrouded propeller may be explained as follows: however, reverse thrust may be degraded unless
7-131
0..
• 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
TABLE 7-34 GAIN IN IDEAL EFFICIENCY FOR reversed to give astern thrust without reversing
SHROUDED PROPELLERS the engines or resorting to reversing
transmissions. If twin propellers are installed,
Load Coefficient Efficiency Gain in Percent of steering can be effected by controlling their .
pitch differentially to vary the thrust between 0 0
T n, over unshrouded
CT= propeller the port and starboard screws. The disadvantages
P (V.2 A) of controllable pitch propellers lie in their
increased complexity and accompanying costs.
0.60 1.0 Also, the efficiency at the design point should
1.00 2.0 be slightly lower than for a fixed pitch propeller
2.00 4.5 because a larger hub is required. - O
4.00 7.8 It has been suggested that controllable pitch
6.00 10.0 propellers be considered for application on
10.00 13.7 high-speed amphibians where two critical
operating points exist. The propeller would
Sloadingcoefficient, nd normally be designed for the crafts' high-speed

T = thrust,
lb operation. But in this case such a propeller may
p = mass density, slug/ft 2 not produce enough thrust at low speed to cross
V = advance speed, ft/sec the hump, a characteristic high drag region
A = propeller disc area, ft 2 which planing boats display in transition from
i7,= ideal efficiency defined by momentum the low-speed displacement mode to the
theory in par. 7-7.4.1. high-speed planing mode of operation. The
special attention is given to this aspect in the thrust at the hump speed could be increased by
shroud design. about 15 percent for a typical case using a 0 •
Series data for the design of Kort nozzle controllable pitch propeller (Ref. 72). This
propulsion systems are not so prevalent as for could provide the thrust margin necessary to
open screws. Van Manen has published data cross the hump, which seems to be an attractive
(Ref. 69), some of which is reproduced in par. alternative to either increasing the installed
7-7.5. A number of theoretical methods have horsepower or designing the propeller with the
been developed for shroud design; see Refs. 70 hump speed as the design point. - -
and 71. The design of a Kort nozzle should be Controllable-reversible pitch propellers should
only slightly more difficult than an open screw. be considered for amphibians only if the
More data may be available for future nozzle operating conditions vary widely so that high
designs. efficiency is required at more than one operating
The disadvantages of a shrouded propeller are point, or, if their application will eliminate a
generally the same as for open propellers. It is transmission which would otherwise be needed
therefore reasonable to suggest that Kort nozzles for reverse power. Some series test data for open 0 •
be considered for all future amphibians with water performance of controllable pitch
screw propellers in view of the advantages they propellers are presented in Ref. 73.
offer.
7-7.3.4 Contra-rotating Propellers
7-7.3.3 Controllable-reversible Pitch Propellers
A set of contra-rotating (CR) propellers 0 0
Controllable pitch screws resemble consists of two axially spaced screws on
conventional propellers, but mechanical linkages concentric shafts which rotate in opposite
in the hub allow the pitch of the blades to be directions. They are more efficient than a single
altered without interrupting rotation of the propeller because less energy is lost to rotational
propeller. Thus the pitch can be adjusted to flow in the slipstream (rotational velocities are
improve the performance over a wide range of not considered in the simple momentum theory 0 •
operating conditions such as would be presented in par. 7-7.4.1). Also, for a given disc
encountered by a tug in the towing and free area the loading on each propeller in a CR set is
running conditions. In addition, the blades may half of that for a single propeller. CR propellers
be rotated far enough so that the pitch is are widely used on torpedoes because they are
7-132
0_ 00 0 0 -0 0- 0_ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 6
designed to operate with the torque balanced so hull lines with respect to wake fraction and
that there is no rolling moment on the torpedo. thrust deduction.
CR propellers have also been applied to VTOL It does not seem likely that vertical axis
aircraft in conjunction with annular wings (Kort propellers will be used on amphibians in spite of
nozzles). the advantages they might afford in terms of
The disadvantages of the CR propeller are maneuverability. The large cutouts that would
greater mechanical complexity and more be required for adequate protection would
difficult design procedures. There are seriously compromise buoyancy and problems
interactions between the two propellers-the aft with arrangements might be foreseen. In any
propeller operates in the wake of the forward case, a great deal of model testing would be
propeller whose inflow is, in turn, affected by required to develop a good relationship betwein G 0
the aft propeller. A design method is available, the hull and propulsor.
however, which is based on Lerbs' Propeller
Theory, Ref. 74. 7-7.3.6 Vertical Shaft, Right-angle Drives
The contra-rotating propeller may be an
attractive propulsor for amphibians where the Right angle drive units derive their name from
clearance criteria impose severe limitations on the fact that the propeller can be rotated about 0 0
the propeller diameter, with resulting high the vertical shaft axis which is perpendicular to
propeller loading. the propeller rotation axis. Thus the propeller
thrust may be directed in any direction in the
7-7.3.5 Vertical Axis Propellers horizontal plane. The propeller may be open or
in a Kort nozzle. The propeller may be designed
Unlike the preceding propeller types, vertical to retract by pivoting the vertical shaft about a
axis propellers are completely unrelated to the horizonLal axis. Recent amphibians with vertical
screw propulsor. These propellers consist of a shaft outboard drives are the MOFAB and
number of spade-like blades projecting into the LVW-X3, Refs. 77 and 78. These vehicles are
water from a circular disc set flush with the characterized by the absence of any tunnel in
bottom of the vessel. The disc rotates about a the hull. This results in decreased drag and
vertical or near vertical axis. The blades, which better propulsive efficiency than for comparable
are spaced evenly about the periphery of the amphibians with conventional drives with the 0 •
disc, rotate about their own axes and this propeller in a tunnel.
rotation is controlled to give thrust force in any The main drawback of the vertical shaft,
desired direction in the plane of the disc. The right-angle drive is its extreme complexity and
principles of operation of two vertical axis cost. Also, the propeller, which operates below
propellers, the Kirsten-Boeing and the baseline, is rather vulnerable and must be
Voith-Schneider types, are given in Ref. 67. partially retracted in the surf for protection in
Two vertical axis propellers located either which case the performance is seriously
fore and aft or port and starboard would provide compromised.
complete maneuverability in view of their ability
to provide thrust and/or moment in any 7-7.3.7 Water Jets
direction. If the blades are permitted to extend
below the baseline to get good flow, the vertical Water jet propulsors consist of an inlet, pump,
axis propellers can achieve high propulsion and jet. Thrust is developed by the change in 0 6
efficiencies, about as good as for an open screw, momentum between water entering the inlet and
Openwater efficiencies as high as 1,, = 0.66 have leaving the jet. The inlet may be a scoop type or
been measured, Ref. 75. However, these flush with the hull. The pump can be
propellers would be extremely vulnerable to centrifugal, mixed flow, or axial-flow depending
damage. Large cutouts in the hull are necessary on the specific pump speed. The jet can be
to bring the blades above the baseline which will above or below the waterline and can be
compromise their performance considerably. controllable to provide excellent
Model test results of the research vessel maneuverability. A most desirable feature of
T-AGOR, Ref. 76, show that vertical axis water jets is the fact that all of the machinery is
propellers are very sensitive to changes in the contained within the hull so that shallow water
7-133
AMCP 706-3b0 S S
operations pose no hazard to the propulsor. where

Disadvantages of water jets include relatively F = force, lb
poor efficiency, high cost, and weight and space m = mass, slug
penalities. Some of these disadvantages may not dv/dt = acceleration or time rate of change of
be prohibitive if water jets are compared with the velocity, ft/sec 2
the alternative of a propeller in a tunnel. The For the special case of steady flow through a
low efficiency of a water jet is acceptable if the propeller this equation may be written
hull efficiency and drag of such an amphibian
combine so as to require the same shaft T rh (V, - V), lb (7-72)
horsepower as a hull with a tunnel and its
characteristic high drag and low hull efficiency. where 0 -
A large percentage of the weight associated with T = thrust produced by the propeller, lb
water jets is due to the water entrained in the m = mass rate of flow through the
system. This may be considered as lost propeller disc, slug/sec
buoyancy and may be no worsLe than the loss in V = ultimate change in axial velocity of
a-V,
buoyancy due to a large tunnel cutout in the fluid passing through the propeller,
hull. Similarly, the internal space devoted to the where V is the initial or upstream
water jet may be of the same order as taken by a velocity and V1 the final or
large tunnel. Refs. 2, 5, 10, 79, and 80 give data downstream velocity, ft/sec
for the design of water jets and their inlets. We can say then that the thrust is equal to the
change in momentum per unit time or the rate
7-7.4 Introduction to Theory of Propellers change in momentum of the fluid.
The propeller in the simple momentum
Before any attempt can be made by the theory is assumed to be an actuator disc which is S S
designer to design a propulsor or even select an capable of imparting an axial change in
"off-the-shelf" propeller, he must have an momentum to the fluid. It is assumed that the
understanding of the basic principles which velocity imparted to the fluid is uniformly
govern their performance. The presentation distributed over the disc and that friction is
which follows is only of an introductory nature. negligible (inviscid flow). The flow is shown in
However, it is felt that enough information is Fig. 7-67 where V is the uniform free stream 0 •
contained in this text to allow the designer to flow equal to the speed of advance of the
select a screw propeller from design charts propeller. V1 is the velocity in the stream tube
derived from screw series model tests. If it is far downstream. V1 = V + u so that u is the
decided-in the preliminary design stage-that a change in axial velocity imparted by the
detailed design will be made or if another type propeller. The cross-sectional areas of the tube
of propulsor is chosen, the designer is directed far upstream, at the propeller disc, and far
to the list of references. In cases where a downstream are given by a, A, and a 2
detailed propeller design will be made, the respectively.
design charts can still be used to make From the principle of conservation of mass
preliminary propulsion estimates. we can write, for the mass rate of flow in
through the propeller disc
7-7.4.1 Momentum Theory
m =pV a, = p(V,, + u') A •
Simple momentum theory was developed by a (7-73)
Rankine (1865) and improved by R. E. Froude = p(V4 + u)a 2 , slug/sec
(1883). It is based on the principle that
propellers derive thrust by accelerating the fluid where
in which they operate. The magnitude of the A = disc area, ft 2
force is governed by Newton's first law of P = mass density of the fluid, slug/ft 3
motion which may be expressed (14+u')= flow velocity through the plane of the
propeller, ft/sec
F= ma =m(dt lb (7-71) Eq. 7-72 can be rewritten using the above
7-t relation to get
7-134
AMCP 706-3500
A V + u:V1
Vo+ u,
1 •
PROPELLER DISC
Figure 7-67. Principleof Actuator Disc Propeller
T = p(V. + u')A(V. - V,) = pA(V. + u')u, lb (7-74) where

T
The thrust may also be equated to the change load coefficient CT = 1/2pVA nd
in pressure Alp across the propeller disc times
the disc area slip ratio s'= u/V, nd 0
(7-75)
T =LpA, lb
conversely,
verse(y CTn
The change in pressure is equal to the change
s' = 'C Ti - 1 (7-80)
in velocity head (dynamic pressure) far upstream
and far downstream
/ u= The efficiency of this ideal actuator disc
4P = ½/2p[(V.+ u)2 -VV2] ffipV *.)u, lb/ft2 (7-76) propelller can be calculated by considering the . ..
ratio of the rate of useful work
Po.u to the rate
Thus, of work done on the fluid Pi . The rate of useful
T = pA T=PA(~+-~u~lbwork
+ "u )u, lb (7-77) wr isssml
simply
Pu = TV
Comparing Eqs. 7-74 and 7-77, we note that The power absorbed by the fluid is given by
U u
2 ('7-78) Pin = 4P V + -A
a 2)
This relation shows that one-half of the ultimate Thus, the ideal efficiency 17, may be expressed
velocity increase imparted to the fluid in the • 0
stream tube is imparted ahead of the propeller.
Substituting this relation in Eq. 7-73 shows that P.. TV. ApA V.
the area a2 must be smaller than the disc area A. • P (Va + u/2)Alp (V, + u/2)AAp
Experimental evidence confirms this contraction
in the propeller race predicted by momentum V. 2 2
theory. V. + u/2 2 + s' 1 + / -.r +1 (7-81)
Eq. 7-77 may be rewritten in nondimensional
form
Fig. 7-68 shows a plot of ideal efficiency 1
CT (2 + $')' (7-79) versus load coefficient CT .
7-135
0--- -00
0_ _ .
AMCP 706-350
1.0
0.9 0 0
0.8
U
. 0.6
0.5
0.4
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
T
CT pV A
T
LOAD COEFFICIENT
Figure 7-68. Ideal Efficiency (from Simple Momentum Theory)
Some very important conclusions can be 7-7.4.2 Blade Element and Circulation Theories
drawn from this simple momentum approach to
propeller theory. Kinetic energy is carried away In blade element theory each blade is divided
in the propeller race which resalts in ideal into a number of annular elements. Each
efficiencies less than one. The actuator disc is element is treated as a foil section. The axial and
the most ideal propeller imaginable. Hence, the tangential inflow velocities relative to each blade
ideal efficiency represents the upper limit of element are combined vectorially to find the -
efficiency for real propellers. This upper limit is angle of attack (the induced velocities predicted
a function of the propeller loading. A propeller by the momentum theory should be taken into
working at a high load coefficient is less efficient account here). The lift and drag are calculated
(ideally) than one working at a low load using suitable airfoil data, and then these forces
coefficient. This leads to the important are resolved into a thrust and torque force. The
conclusion that the prcpeller with the largest thrust and torque of the propeller are found by
disc area is generally most efficient, integrating the forces over all of the blade 0 0
Refinements can be made to the momentum elements.
theory to account for viscous effects and losses Blade element theory combined with
due to rotational velocities in the slipstream, momentum theory provides a basic conception
However, the main drawback of any momentum of screw propeller action, but certain factors are
theory is that it yields no information about the neglected such as interaction between biades and
geometry (blade shape, pitch distribution, the decrease in lift at the blade tips. These
camber, etc.) of the propeller. Theories do exist factors are considered in the modern circulation - 1
which take into account the geometrical theory. Development of these theories will not
properties of a screw propeller, and they will be be pursued here. However, Refs. 81 through 85
discussed briefly. may be studied to gain an understanding of
7-136
-0 S
AMCP 706-350
modern developments in propeller theory. nonuniform wake. The wake fraction discussed
previously is an average figure used to define the
7-7.4.3 Factors Which Influence Propeller Performance average effective speed of advance through the
plane of the propeller. However, the wake . . .
7-7.4.3.1 Propeller Advance Speed through the propeller plane is nonuniform and 0 0
varies both radially and circumferentially. The
The performance of a propeller behind a ship relative rotative efficiency 71, is defined in the
differs from that of the same propeller in open "thrust identity" equations
water. The flow of fluid into the propeller is
affected by the wake of the ship and the flow Q = Q77,
about the ship is in turn affected by the . - -
velocities induced by the propeller. The speed of = no (7-84)

advance which the propeller "sees" is generally
less than the forward speed of the ship. The T =, T
propeller works in the wake of the vessel which
is made up of both potential and boundary layer Q = torque, ft-lb
flow. The relation between ship speed and n = toqe ft-lb
propeller advance speed is given in terms of the T = rotative speed, rps
Taylor wake fraction in the equation and the subscript o denotes uniform flow.
V. = V,(1 - w), ft/sec (7-82) Thus, the relative rotative efficiency ??, relates
the efficiency 17B of the propeller in the
where nonuniform wake of the hull to the open water
V. = speed of advance of the propeller, efficiency 17,, of the propeller producing the
ft/sec same thrust at the same rotative speed in
V = ship speed, ft/sec uniform flow
w = wake fraction, nd
7-7.4.3.2 Thrust Deduction - 2(1 -nw) 2_ V. 77-

7-74..221TnQ 7B - =- 21rnoQ.
- '1o'?r (7-85)
The thrust which a propeller must supply is 0 0
is generally greater than the bare hull towline 7-7.4.3.4 Propulsive Efficiency
resistance of a ship. The action of the propeller
changes the flow about the hull in its vicinity. The propulsive efficiency i7, is defined as the
The effect is usually to increase the drag on the ratio of effective horsepower EHP to delivered
hull. The relation between towing resistance and horsepower DHP (also called the propeller
necessary thrust for a given speed is given in horsepower PHP) S 0
terms of the thrust deduction t by
EHP _R V,
RT = T(1 - t), lb (7-83) = DHP =- 21rQn (786
where
RT = resistance of the hull alone at some This useful factor is related to the open water
speed V., lb efficiency 1?o, the wake fraction w, the thrust
T = thrust which must be supplied by the deduction t, and the relative rotative efficiency
propeller to sustain the same speed 17, in the following manner
Vo , lb
t = thrust deduction, nd RV, T(1 - t)V,(1 - w)
- 27rQn - 2rQn(1 - wv)
7-7.4.3.3 Relative Rotative Efficiency
(1-) (1- t) 0
The relative rotative efficiency 7, is used to = (1-W) (- w)
account for the difference in performance
between a propeller operating in a uniform and The term (1 - t)/(1 - w) is called the hull
7-137
S....•. _ ...
. •......•
_0 _O • • • • • • • • S
~0 ~. S0 ~@ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0I
AMCP 706-350
efficiency 1T, so that we may write condition of the liquid (air or solid matter
content, etc.) cavitation may begin at pressures
lip = 17 o,7h 1r (7-88) above or below the vapor pressure. However, for
engineering design purposes it may be assumed
Thus, the propulsive efficiency is the product of that inception of cavitation occurs at the vapor
the open water efficiency, hull efficiency, and pressure p,. Table 7-40 gives the vapor pressure
relative rotative efficiency. Strictly speaking, the of water as a function of temperature.
last two factors are not true efficiencies and The local pressure about a body in an ideal
they may very likely have numerical values fluid is related to the local velocity by
greater than unity. Some designers prefer the Bernoulli's theorem which is stated in the
names hull factor and relative rotative factor for equation
this reason. P=Po p+-•-p(U
+ 2
-u 2
) •
7-7.4.3.5 Hull Efficiency 2 (7-89)

where
The hull efficiency (hull factor) 2
P = local pressure, lb/ft
increased by reducing the thrust deduction t and P = reference pressure, usually taken as
increasing the wake fraction w. However, it can the pressure in the undisturbed fluid, 0 0
be shown that the thrust deduction is related to lb/ft2
2
the wake fraction and, in particular, to the wake lb/ft velocity, ft/sec
u =local
from potential flow so that an increase in wake U = reference velocity, taken in the
fraction is often accompanied by an increase in undisturbed fluid, ft/sec
the thrust deduction. The hull efficiency can be p = mass density of the fluid, slug/ft3
increased by locating the propeller in a region of
high friction wake. The effect in this case is Thus, the pressure p may drop to a very low 0 0
achieved by recovering energy imparted to the value depending on the velocity u. Cavitation
fluid due to the drag of the body, and will occur when the local pressure p is less than
converting it to thrust. or equal to the vapor pressure pg.
The cavitation number a is defined by the
7-7.4.3.6 Propulsion Factor Data equation
P-P P -PP
2
The wake fraction, thrust deduction, and u = -/2(PU ) q
relative rotative efficiency for several (7-90)
amphibians are included in Tables 7-35 through where q = dynamic pressure of the undisturbed
7-39. These tables give data from model tests, fluid, lb/ft 2 .
The reference material from which the data were The cavitation number is nondimensional and
derived is given at the top of each table. All offers a convenient index with which to
numbers are based on thrust identity which is determine the existence of cavitation and its
discussed in detall in par. 7-7.6.3. relative extent. Combining Eqs. 7-89 and 7-90:
7-7.4.4 Propeller Cavitation P - PV ( U2 (7-91)

7-7.4.4.1 Theory of Cavitation q
0 0
Cavitation is a type of fluid flow breakdown Now, we can define the critical cavitation
caused by the formation of cavities in regions of number oc, as the value at which the local
low pressure. Severe cavitation of marine screws pressure p is equal to the vapor pressure p,,.
should be avoided because it is accompanied by Thus,
a loss in performance and erosion or pitting of (u') 2
the blade material. The formation of cavities is oc U 1 (7-92)
usually 'associated with a reduction in local
pressure to the vapor pressure, a function of where u' maximum local velocity of the fluid,
temperature, of the liquid. Depending on the ft/sec.
7-138
6 __ 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 -
TABLE 7-35 LARC V PROPULSION CHARACTERISTICS
Ref. 11
Ship Particulars: 0 0
Length, ft 32.2
Beam, ft 8.7
Trim, ft 0.79 by stern
Appendages Rudder
Draft, ft 1.56 fwd, 2.35 aft
Open Propeller Nozzle Propeller

(Tests 1 - 4) (Test 6)
Propeller Particulars:
DTMBt propeller number 3660 3760
Diameter, ft 2.5 2.5
Pitch, ft 1.93 2.5 •
Number of blades 4 3
Expanded area ratio 0.620 0.540
Blade thickness fraction 0.055 0.036
Hub diameter, ft - 0.38
t David Taylor Model Basin
Ship Speed, mph 7 8 9 7 8 9
EHP, hp 30 50 70 30 50 70
Drag, lb 1600 2340 2910 1600 2340 2910
N, rpm 647 806 911 525 630 705 0 0
Thrust, lb 2270 3660 4500 1470 2150 2690
KT 0.25 0.26 0.25 0.246 0.250 0.250
77o 0.34 0.31 0.33 0.530 0.525 0.525
1- t 0.73 0.64 0.647 1.09* 1.09* 1.08*
1 -w 0.707 0.685 0.748 1.14* 1.175* 1.168*
•h 1.03 0.96 0.865 0.956* 0.93* 0.93*
?71 1.0 0.925 0.955 0.96 0.93 0.93 0 0
EHP/SHPor ip 0.35 0.275 0.272 0.485 0.455 0.452
Note: These include the effects of the nozzle and are not the true propulsion factors;
they may be called the apparent propulsion factors.
At cavitation numbers above the critical value angle of attack. In this figure the ordinates of
there is no cavitation. The degree of cavitation the curves are the differences (-Ap) between the
increases with decreasing cavitation numbers local pressures and the pressure in the
below o0. The term on the right hand side of undisturbed medium normalized by the
Eq. 7-92 may be written as - Ap°/q using stagnation pressure q; the abscissas are fractional
Bernoulli's equation where - ApZ'= P. - p', the distances along the chord of the foil. The
maximum local decrease in pressure about a maximum decrease in pressure on the back of • 6
body. this foil occurs at 10 percent of the chord where
Fig. 7-69 shows the pressure distribution - Ap'/q = 2.0. Thus, the critical cavitation
about a typical foil section at some positive number for the foil is ar = 2.0 and inception of
7-139
• @ 0 •O 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-36 LARC XV PROPULSION CHARACTERISTICS
Ref. 57
Ship Particulars: Propeller Particulars:

Length, ft 41.8 DTMBt Propeller No. 3760
Beam, ft 12.5 Diameter, ft 3.0
Draft, ft 2.47 fwd, 2.90 aft Pitch, ft 3.0
Appendages Rudder and No. of blades 3
Kort nozzle Expanded area ratio 0.54 0 0
Blade thickness fraction 0.036
Hub diameter, ft 0.46
-" David Taylor Model Basin
Ship Speed, mph 8 10 12
*• 0
Thrust, lb 3,600 6,500 10,900
SHP, hp 190 450 765
N,rpm 580 765 980
KT 0.242 0.250 0.256
770 0.540 0.525 0.513
1- w 1.345* 1.370* 1.425*
*Note: This wake fraction includes the effect of the nozzle on the inflow to the screw,
hence, it is not a true wake fraction.
TABLE 7-37 DRAKE PROPULSION CHARACTERISTICS
Ref. 54
Vehicle displacement, lb 45,000
Propeller diameter, in. 31 (Twin screws in tunnels)
Propeller pitch, in 24.5
Ship Speed, mph 7 8 9 _

0
SHP, hp 38 68 111
N, rpm 494 595 706
1 - t 0.84 0.815 0.78
1 - w 0.82 0.860 0.85
77, 1.03 0.950 0.92 0
cavitation would occur on the back of the foil at P. -

the 10 percent chord point. For a numerical a.- /2pU,2r)
example, assume that this foil (ac, = 2.0) is
operating in fresh water at a depth such that the Uc P. - P. = (20 - 0.25)144 = (19.75)144
undisturbed pressure P. = 20 psia and the - pq,) (0.5)1.9L8(2.0) 1.938
temperature is 590 F (at 590 F, from Table 7-40,
p, = 0.025 psia) Uc, = 38.3 ft/sec
7-140
_ * ... ..... .... - 0. 0--0 -0 0 -. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-38 GULL PROPULSION CHARACTERISTICS
Ref. 92
Ship Particulars: Propeller Particulars: 0 0
Length, ft 35 Diameter, ft 3.01

Beam, ft 9.17 Pitch (0.7R), ft 2.93
Displacement, lb 44,703 Number of blades 3
Test - 4M Single Screw in Tunnel
Ship Speed, mph 7 8 9
EHP, hp 42 66 91
1- w 1.04 1.02 1.06
1 - t 1.11 1.03 0.98
17, 1.07 1.01 0.93
TABLE 7-39 LVW (HULL MODE) PROPULSION CHARACTERISTICS
Ref. 39
Hull Particulars: Propeller Particulars:
Length, ft 3.60 Diameter, ft 2.0 (Twin screws)

Beam, ft 11.33 Pitch, ft 2.4
Displacement, lb 38,000 No. of blades 3
Trim, ft 1.5 by stern Expanded area ratio 0.945
Blade thickness 0 S
fraction 0.06
Wheel Flaps Up Wheel Flaps Down
Ship Speed, mph 6.93 11.5 6.93 11.5
1-w 0.92 1.15 1.04 1.10

1- t 0.70 0.80 0.92 0.71
17h 0.77 0.7u 0.89 0.65
71. 0.35 0.40 0.51 0.42
7r 0.80 1.01 0.79 0.89
7__ 0.22 0.28 0.36 0.24
The foil will be free of cavitation below the which each type of cavity will occur-leading
critical speed. At any other angle of attack the edge face, leading edge back, and back bubble.
pressure distribution will be changed and, thus, Another type of cavitation common to
the critical speed will be different, propellers, tip vortex cavitation, is not shown
A schematic diagram of the critical cavitation here. This type of diagram is often referred to as
number for cavitation inception on a foil as a a cavitation bucket.
function of angle of attack is shown in Fig. 7-70. The lift coefficient of the foil shown in Fig.
The shaded side of each curve is the region in 7-69 is proportional to the area enclosed by the
7-141
0 ~ 0
0~@ O 0 0 0 0 0_ 0 0
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 740 VAPOR PRESSURE OF FRESH WATER*
Temperature T Vapor Pressure
OF °C p, psia h , ft of water 0
32 0 0.09 0.20
40 4.4 0.12 0.28
50 10.0 0.18 0.41
59 15.0 0.25 0.57
60 15.6 0.26 0.59
70 21.1 0.36 0.84
80 26.7 0.51 1.17
90 32.2 0.70 1.61
100 37.8 0.95 2.19
120 48.9 1.7 3.9
150 65.6 3.7 8.6
180 82.2 7.5 17.3
212 100.0 14.7 33.9
*Salt water has a vapor pressure about 98 percent of that of fresh

water.
pressure curve. Note that the area about the h, = vapor pressure (Table 7-40), ft
back of th.- foij is greater than the area about V. = advance speed, ft/sec
the face. The largest part of the lift (thrust for a g = acceleration, constant, ft/sec2
propeller) is contributed by the low pressure
region on the back of the foil. The critical 7-7.4.4.2 Cavitation Effects
cavitation number is a function of the peak of
the pressure curve and not the area (lift) The damage to screw propellers caused by 0 6
enclosed by the curve. Heuce, in designing a cavitation is well documented. The erosion of
propeller to avoid cavitation it is desirable to use blade material is associated with the collapse of
sections whose pressure distributions are nearly cavities as they flow from a low pressure region
rectangular and are devoid of sharp peaks. to a region where the local preF3ure is greater
Many alternative forms of the basic cavitation than the cavity vapor pressure. The mechanism
number are used when dealing with propellers. of this damage will not be pursued here.
However, all of these are easily related to the The effect of cavitation on performance can
number in which the reference pressure P. is the be seen in Fig. 7-71 which shows the thrust
static pressure at the axis of the screw and the coefficient K, and torque coefficient KQ as
dynamic pressure q is related to the speed of functions of speed coefficient J with cavitation
advance of the screw. The general cavitation number o,, as a parameter. These coefficients are
number o,, for propellers is given by detined in the figure. The lower the cavitation
number, the greater the loss in thrust and torque 0 0
P. - P. (hA + hH) - k (larger cavities). The loss in torque is generally
S 2 (7-93) proportional to the loss in thrust so that
12('PV -. efficiency is relatively independent of the
2,g cavitation number. The loss in thrust is caused
by a change in the pressure distribution over the
where backs of the blades. The minimum pressure
hA = atmospheric pressure, ft(of propeller which the liquid can sustain is its vapor pressure.
water) %,hilethe curve of officiency is not necessarily
hi = depth of immersion of the scr'ew axis, affected by cavitation, a propeller on a ship will
ft operate at lower than design efficiency if it
7-142
S 0
AMCP 706-3500 0
3.0
2.0
1
! K
S 1.0
U-
LU-
0
D
LI. .
-LO
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
CHORD FRACTION x/c
Figure 7-69. PressureDistributionfor a Typical Foil Section

7-143
p S S
S
0 0 . 0 5m 0 .. .. m .. ..... 0 0 .
AMCP 706-350 0 0
20
LEADING EDGE BACK

15
0 *
4 5 ,L. CAVITATION FREE

0
0
z
- BACK BUBBLE
00 0
-50 0
LEADING EDGE FACE
-10
0 1 2 3
Po- Pv
CAVITATION NUMBER = qq
Figure 7-70. Schematic Diagram of Critical Cavitation Number as a Function of Foil Angle of
A t tack
should cavitate heavily. This is due to the fact 7-7.5 SCREW PROPELLER DESIGN
that it must operate at higher rpm to develop
the design thrust, hence it operates at lower Screws can be selected by the use of design
speed coefficient J where the efficiency q• is charts based on standard series data or designed
lower (see Fig. 7-95). by the application of detailed calculation
Prediction of cavitation for propellers and methods. Chart methods enable standard-type • •
design features to prevent cavitation are screws to be designed with a minimum of
discussed in par. 7-7.5.3. Ref. 87 contains computation. The geometrical features of such
information on the mechanism of cavitation and screws generally lead to simplification of
includes a list of 101 references. manufacture. Detailed calculation methods
7-144
• .O m
S 0 0 0 0 0 0 S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
a- 0.
Ia ,'.'0
o) ------- 0.6
--- I0.9
Z
"" K
o Q
I.-
a 0.
z
0.2 KT
0 I
S~T = thrust, Ib " -,

wu" Q = torque, ft-lb
U p = mass density, slug/ft3
Sn = rotative speed, rps
- D = diameter, ft
Va = speed of advance, ft/sec
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 .0 1.1 1.2
SPEED COEFFICIENT J = a
nD
Figure 7-71. Typical PropellerPerformance Curves as a Function of CavitationNumber Gao
7-145
I-A
AMCP 706-350 0
involve more computation and result in more design, after a particular power plant has been
complex characteristics which can mean that the chosen and model tests have been made, the
screw may operate more efficiently and with a designer will select the optimum screw
greater margin against cavitation than would be characteristics from design charts or from
possible for a standard-type screw. For screws detailed design calculations.
required to operate at only light-duty low-speed The designer will supply data on the screw
conditions in relatively uniform flow, there is particulars-e.g., type of screw, number of
little to be gained in adopting nonstandard type blades, diameter, blade area, pitch, rake, skew,
screws which require detailed calculations. This thickness, blade section offsets and outlines,
is not true regarding the design of heavily loaded etc.-including drawings where necessary. The
and wake-adapted propellers. maximum speed and efficiency should be 6 0
The combination of chart and detailed design estimated along with performance over a range
methods provides a procedure which includes of operating conditions at various vehicle
some of the advantages of both and may be displacements and in rough water.
profitably applied to the design of amphibian
propellers. Much of the preliminary design work 7-7.5.2 Selecting Blade Characteristics
can be based on standard series design charts. In
the early stages of the design many of the Before we describe the use of screw-series
requirements will be provisional and some data diagrams in selecting the optimum propeller
parameters such as hull resistance, wake characteristics, some general discussion on the
fraction, and thrust deduction will be based on influence that various factors have on
engineering estimates. The final design work can performance is in order.
be related to detailed calculation methods once
the requirements have been firmly established 7-7.5.2.1 Design Variables 0
and model tests have been performed to confirm
the choice of hull and determine its a. Number of Blades Z. The number of blades
characteristics, is usually selected to minimize vibrations.
Design charts based on the Troost B-Series of Variations in wake around the propeller plane
propellers are included in this text to provide a induce fluctuations in thrust and torque on each
-.onvenient source for amphibian screw propeller blade. The number of blades determines the
design. A limited number of charts are also phase relationships between blades, and thus
presented for nozzle-propeller combinations whether the oscillating forces tend to augment
based on data from Ref. 69. Numerical examples or cancel one another. Also, the blade frequency
are also included to illustrate the use of these (nZ) must not coincide with the natural and
charts. lower harmonic frequencies of the hull or
Space limitations preclude the development machinery. Propeller efficiency is usually a
of detailed design data and methods in this text. secondary consideration in the choice of the
However, Refs. 81 to 86 should be studied if a number of blades.
detailed propeller design is to be undertaken. b. Expanded Area Ratio EAR. EAR is the
ratio of the expanded area (see par. 7-7.5.9) of
7-7.5.1 Requirements all the blades to disc area. The efficiency of the
screw decreases with increasing blade area due to
The design of a propeller starts with the increasing surface friction. In nearly all cases, 0 •
preliminary propulsion estimate. The designer is however, the minimum allowable blade area is
given the required design speed, estimates of determined by the requirement that the
EHP, thrust deduction, wake fraction, and propeller shall be noncavitating, as far as
design stipulations (if any) such as maximum possible. If there is little risk of cavitation, the
diameter, minimum rpm, type and number of minimum blade area is restricted by
blades, and specified material. With this considerations of backing power and strength to •
information, the designer can use design charts about EAR = 0.35. Below this value the
to estimate the propeller characteristics, necessary short, thick sections will result in
propeller efficiency, propulsive efficiency, and decreased efficiencies.
engine horsepower. In the final stages of the c. DiameterD. The diameter of a propeller
7-146
0 •
AMCP 706-350 0 0
for an amphibian is usually limited by practical shapes are preferable for the inner portions of
considerations, i.e., tip clearance. In general, the the blade but are equal to ogival sections for the
largest allowable propeller will be the most outer portions of the blade from an efficiency
efficient, as shown by momentum theory, par. standpoint. However, ogival sections are
7-7.4.1. If diameter is unrestricted, the optimum preferable for the outer portions of the blade 0 0
diameter can be found from design charts and from the cavitation standpoint. The Troost
will depend on the restrictions placed on rpm. Series B screws employ airfoil inner sections and
d. Rate of Rotation rpm. The propeller rpm ogival outer sections as shown in Fig. 7-72.
is often limited by the engine characteristics and g. Blade Outline. The blade outline for best
reduction ratio of the transmission system. If efficiency is one for which the enclosed area
the optimum rpm for a specified diameter lies distribution approaches that of an ellipse with 0 0
below the allowable range, the pitch must be the major axis along a radial. Blades with
reduced below optimum to increase rpm with broader tips absorb more power and give more
some loss in efficiency. thrust at the same slip but are generally less
e. Pitch Ratio P/D. The pitch ratio is simply efficient, except for shrouded propellers.
the ratio of pitch to diameter. The pitch is the h. Thickness. The thickness of the blade
length that the propeller would move in the sections is determined by strength
axial direction per revolution with zero slip. The considerations. The distribution of thickness
pitch determines the rate at which a propeller between the root and tip may be specified as
must rotate to produce a given loading linear or may be determined by strength
coefficient C,.. The pitch ratio for best calculations at a number of radii in order to save
efficiency is low (PID - 0.6) for heavily loaded weight through the most efficient use of
propellers, and high (PID - 1.4) for lightly material. Increased thickness results in lower
loaded propellers. Many propellers are designed efficiencies and increased cavitation. • 6
with radial variation in pitch. This is usually in i. Rake and Skew. Rake and skew are defined
the form of a pitch reduction at the blade roots by Fig. 7-72. Forward rake is rarely found since
and blade tips. Moderate variations in pitch it serves no useful purpose. Rake aft is
distribution have little, if any, effect on the commonly found and is used to increase the tip
overall efficiency of a screw but can be favorable clearance from the hull. Rake is limited for
from a cavitation standpoint, heavily loaded propellers by the centrifugal
f. Blade Section Shape. The blade section bending stresses which are induced. Skew is used
shapes have important effects on efficiency and to smooth out the fluctuations in thrust caused
the cavitation properties of the screw. by abrupt changes in wake behind sternposts
Comparison of lift-drag indicates that airfoil and struts.
LINE OF MAXIMUM THICKNESS r - SKEW LINE
W R
__ -_'AKE
\\,+h+•T~r 1
OL
P+o I
0C 100oe80 6_0
o _40]20 otoooooo
- W-9-. 2P • •
Figure 7-72. General Arrangement of Troost B-4 Series Screws

7-147
AMCP 706-350 B
7-7.5.2.2 Design Charts Analysis: a. The coefficient KTd is calculated

from the definition
The KT -J diagrams for the Troost B Standard
Screw Series are presented in Figs. 7-73 to 7-81.
Table 7-41 summarizes the main characteristics K RT 2 (7-94)
2
of the B-series. J2 pVD p(1- t)(1- w)1 ,D
The contour, ordinates, and thickness of the
blades are presented in Table 7-42. All have 15
deg rake and some skew. The skew and where units are consistent so that KTd is dimen-
maximum thickness lines for the 2- and 3-bladed sionless.
screws differ from that for the 4- and 5-bladed
screws. The maximum thickness varies linearly With the calculated value of K,. a parabola
from root to tip. The pitch is defined as the from the equation K, = J2 K.d is drawn on the
pitch of the blade face rather than the usual appropriate KT-J diagram for the desired
nose-tail line. The pitch is constant except for number of blades and area ratio. The point
the 4-bladed screws which have a 20 percent where this parabola crosses the curve "Theaxfor
K csati the poin.
sdesig a . .. or
reduction at the root. Fig. 7-72 shows the
expanded outlines of the 4-bladed series.
Ts
Figs. 7-82 to 7-85 are KT-J diagrams for read off directly. ni0 and PID are found by linear
several Troost B-Series propellers in a shroud. interpolation between lines of constant
The nozzle characteristics are defined in Fig. efficiency and pitch ratio.
7-86 and are tabulated on each Kr 4 diagram. b. Rotative speed rps is calculated from the
speed coefficient J:
7-7.5.2.3 Procedures V. (1 - w) (7-95) 0
n - JD , rps
The use of these design charts for three design
problems will be discussed briefly. Numerical
examples are included in par. 7-7.5.8 to c. DHP is found from
illustrate these procedures.
RT (1-w)
W) 0 0
Problem No. 1 DHP= hp (7-96)
Given: Design speed V,, towing resistance R, t)flrtlo 55
diameter D, thrust deduction t, wake fraction w,
and relative rotative efficiency ?,. Problem No. 2
Problem: To find optimum rpm, pitch ratio Given: The same as the previous problem with
PID, and necessary delivered power DHP. the exception that n is given.
TABLE 7-41 CHARACTERISTICS OF TROOST B-SERIES PROPELLERS
Number of Expanded Area Blade Thickness Pitch

Distribution Blades Z Ratio EAR Fraction BTF Distribution
B-2.30 2 0.30 Constant S

B-3.35 3 0.35 0.50 Constant
B-3.40 3 0.50 0.50 Constant
B-3.55 3 0.60 0.50 Constant
B-4.40 4 0.40 0.45 (20%
B-4.55 4 0.55 0.45 , Decrease
B-4.70 4 0.70 0.45 at hub
B-5.45 5 0.45 0.40 Constant
B-5.60 5 0.60 0.40 Constant
7-148
0 0 0
9 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S 0 0
AMCP 706-350 -
-oo. 055
tx rz k x
0 .. . . . . . ..
--.- _____Ti
0 0,0000÷ 00 6
z0g
CL0
o • V
6 6 ;. . . . . . .
-~ F0
= oo
z-. 5
o--= *00,
0. 000 - _ _..........4
0 4
0. .. - = .0
AMCP 706-350
10
_0 0i0
000
z0 0
U.,
U-
000
i1 li/i, iIC-
0A
A
00
o~ o :;
7.150
N 0 *0
* 0 0 0 0 0 0 30
AMCP 706-3500 0
C I
0 CI0
In0
U-,
00
zt
0
;ý 80
00
CO --
to LnInC
X IN)A~3'0 0SH
7-5
AMCP 706-3W0
00
- U- x
CO
z
___ __ ___
100
Inl
0V
CO
0 C40
C> 0 0 C', 0 U,
AI IN31IJbU30:) isnN)HI
7-152
AMCP 706-350
c0
w cc
0 '
00
C; I.-0
UZ
I-1
I lpe
___ __
z '~~e
-- ,0
r0
_ __
; 0C 0
in
N~~ ~~ LN0440
7.153
-~~~ -- ----
AMCP 706-350 0
0'
i~7~ x
a L00 0
-~C E
.0 to
0~S
0 U,
coo
00
u C-"
0 0
-4- C0
S
o U, U, U, U, Ut
0
p 0 0u 0 0
A IN31IA330O) isSfHI
7-154
AMCP 706-350--
00
0* 0,
0'
.0 00 O-
I--
00
Coo
0 cl0
00
0
"*
o ~0 ~
U, ' ~ W)
.)0
C) N N -
0
I )lI N31:IDA30:) isSfiH1
7-155
AMCP 706-350
L0
__ __
0
z
N4 0
c4 z
> 0
Icri 0V~ r%__
oG
I0 Q
I.w Itsx
7-156
AMCP 706-350
z 00
C4 1
>4 0
00
040
;L 0 -0
00
0 ~
00
co
Lu-
LS
S:
9L
(.4
-0-0
t,
0
0 U~ 0 U
if) Cf) n .
C> .
n. . ý 0
o C> 0 0 C0 0 0> 0 0; 0 05
v G ud IN31:IAA30D isSAHI
7-157
AMCP 706-350
00
000
z
II 0
> c
I 00
o U
00
00
_ _ _ _I- 0
_ _ __ _ _ _ dO<
n nn
C* 00C
7-158
AMCP 7W350-
00
0 -i 0
_ _1IA10 8313_~ 31ZO_ iA isa_ * 0
7o15
AMCP 706-3500 0
0 0
0
.011
C5 ~~~ 05C
33113dOS4~~~~~
SS4 VO 30ZN N I MAO
7-160
AMCP 706-350 - 0
0I
z!
CIO 00]
0
zz
2 i
- 0
- --
C 3.
I
° •,0
0
_ _ 0 * __ o 0 • 0_O
0 0 ý C5 c 0 -
V31134084 31ZZON 1AH y~
7.161
AMCP 706-3500 0
00
z0
t-L
l o
r-a-
0 0
0 6 o 6 0 o 6 o co 0 0* 0
43113dON4.31ZZON I~ iN3I*wao~pisAn)4i lioi
7-162
AMCP 706-350
SINSIoE DIATR function of ship speed. The hull factors t, w, and

C NOZZLE CHORD 17
I oCAMBR
THJCKN[ýS
r are also given as functions of speed.
o U ANGLEtO Problem: To find the pitch, efficiency, and
CCos. highest speed obtainable under the given
conditions. 0 0
Analysis: a. K., and J are calculated for
several speeds
V.(1- w) V
J = nD , id (7-99)
nD nfl
R T
(t) p(1 - t)n 2 D 4 pn 2 D4 nd (7-100)
D
b. A point is plotted for each set of K. and J

on the appraimiate design chart, and
corresponding values of efficiency 77, are found
by interpolation. These values are used to
calculate KT for each speed from the relation
Si
DHP 550 ??71
- - KT(2) = V,(I- w)pn nd (7-101)
c. Values of KT are also plotted with 0 0

Figure 7-86. Nozzle Definition Sketch corresponding values of J and curves are drawn
through points of K1.( and KT.( (see Figs.
Problem: To find the optimum diameter of 7-74 through 7-85). The intersection of these
the propeller. two curves determines the design point. The
Analysis: a. The coefficient KT, is calculated pitch ratio and efficiency at the design point are
from the definition found by interpolation. The ship speed is 0 0
calculated from the speed coefficient J at the
Kr Tn R n2 design point.
4 2 t( w (7-97)
j-• p(1-
7-7.5.3 Cavitation Diagram
where units are consistent so that KTr,. is The cavitation diagram, Fig. 7-87, is taken
dimensionless. from Ref. 86. The data are for screws de-
signed according to vortex theory. Hlowever a 25
A fourth order parabola is drawn from Kr - percent safety margin has been applied to the
rK.r,, and the intersection with the , for data so that the chart is conservative and may be
K, constant" curve determines the design point, used for an approximate determination of the
b. The diameter is calculated from the value area ratio EAR (A, /A in the diagram) for screws
of J read off: of the Troost B-Series. The cavitation number in 0 0
(1 this diagram is the section cavitation number
D= ,ft (7-98) (plus 25% allowance) at the 0.8 radius at
Jn minimum immersion using the dynamic pressure
Delivered power is calculated by Eq. 7-96. q at the section, thus
Problem No. 3 0 0
Given: The delivered power DItP at design P0.4 - A' P6. - p. Id (7-102)
rpm are specified for a particular engine.
Diameter is fixed and resistance R is given as a
q., P
[ (2.512]
\aid
7-163
. 0. 0
0 .. 0..• . 0 .0 0 • _O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
where line may be used to estimate the minimum

qo.s V2/2 /+(2.5121 projected area from values of thrust T, advance
q speed
J. V, and estimates of the speed coefficient
The ordinate is the thrust normalized by the The thrust deduction and wake factor of the 0 0
projected blade area Ap and the resultant nozzle must first be calculated in order to use
velocity at the 0.8 radius: the cavitation diagram for shrouded propellers.
T T Figs. 7-88 to 7-91 given the thrust produced by
=2.5 1)2 , nd the nozzle for the propeller-nozzle combinations
A•q 0 8 (PV•2)L+ + \
A°s J Ap (7-103) in Figs.
pitch 7-82P/D,
ratio to 7-85. The speed coefficient J,
and thrust coefficient K1. for 0 6
the nozzle + propeller are taken from the design

The projected area Ap is relited to the expanded point and the thrust coefficient produced by the
area Ab by the approximate relation nozzle is read at corresponding J and P/D. The
nozzle thrust deduction Or, is then calculated:
67
A - 0.229 P/D), ft 2
, 1AF(1.0 (7-104) KT nozzle+propeuer
Eqs. 7-102 and 7-103 are used to plot a point on 1 - Kpropeer (7-105)
Fig. 7-87. If the point falls above the upper limit
(Burrill line for heavily-loaded propellers), the where
area Ap must be increased by an increase in Kr = Kro. -KT"..
+ propeler ole
diameter and/or expanded area ratio EAR. If the propeller ole
point falls below the Burrill line and on the right The value of Iý.propeller is then entered (with
side of the appropriate data, the propeller will the pitch ratio) into the appropriate open water 0 0
be free of cavitation. -characteristic curve (Figs. 7-73 to 7-81) to find
This cavitation diagram should not be Jopen water. With this value, the nozzle wake
considered as a design chart because it does not fraction I'n is calculated:
provide a unique solution for any given problem.
The chart should be used as a check on - Jopen waler (7-106).
cavitation in the design procedure. The Burrill I j
0.30 - .Upp ., 1:;, , -1, ýded piopcl le. ( r;I.) 5J 5 AEA -3 .35
Lower limit merchant prop. aerofoI (urruI}I I I

__ __E
sections
" "
.
I,_ I3I
21 I
Z=3, A E/A=0.35 2
0.20 Z=4, A /A I5
).50 , ' 4 ._.0 U
/4 2 A= 14.
. A E /A .Z,•Z=2, = 5 50.35 Z 4 A
ZEA..0 -
o., 0A- 0
E2-0
... . . . .I < I E
P2
U0 .8
2 r
R
I2.512 21
-1 Z 0u/o
5,' AZE/A 0. 65A A 0.67-.29xP/
0.10 Z 3i A4 /A X_
0 -. ,50- = AA/AORDING p2'/ DAT E
A(.6-.2'PD I /O TH
I .A•/A=".6I 4 P/D = 0 /I.5

0.0, Z=E/AA=0.505
/ P 1)=0.7
3,1' 3A E A=-0.65 3P0=.9 DATA ACCORDING TO THE 0
0.06 - -2 A1A065 4 Pt 1.3)
0.05 Z=2 , E 0• I 5,
0.05 0.07 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
a0.8 08
q .8
0
Figure 7-87. Cavitation Diagram for Screw Designed According to the Circulation Theory for a
Homogeneous Velocity Field
7-164
0 0.. _ • .0 . 0* 0 . 0. 0 •0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0
AMCIP 706-3W00
Now we can enter the cavitation diagram, Fig. where

7-87, with the values of
T and (7-107) =o~ '/(P .) [1 qj")2 12. (7-108)

q 0 .8 Ajp(l On) L0 - /)
0.4
0.2 ~NOZZLE WITH NACA PROFILE "51415"1

0.2 - 0.50
U.,
0. 0. 05 __c
-0. 1.2_ 1_1
0. 0 0
-0.3 - - - - - - -
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
SPEED COEFFICIENT J= ___
nD
Figure 7-88. Axial Force on Nozzle With the B-3.50 Screw Series
0.4 I. 1__
0.3___ __ __ __ _
NOZZLE WITH NACA PROFILE "15415"

0.2 -4-- =-0.5
zi 0.__
-02
-0.3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 0 0
SPEED COEFFICIENT J -V
WD
7-165
AMCIP 706-3500 0
0.4______
NOZZLE WITH NACA PROFILE "5415"

_ _ _
-/tII 1.4_
J*
U.'
-0.1
-0.*2 1
-0.31 1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
SPEED COEFFICIENT J -V 0
nOT
0 0
0.4I
0.3 NOZZLE WITH NACA PROFILE "5415"
0.3= .5
N/ 0. -. 4-- *0 0 0
N
0. 0 .6_ _ _ _
Z 0
-0.2 __
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0~.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
SPEED COEFFICIENT J =V
Figure 7-91. Axial Forceon Nozzle With the B-4. 70 Screw Series
-~~~~~ - - --
AMCP 706-350 0
7-7.5.4 Strength B = (1 + 1.5P

• 0 25 )(Wf- C)
The propeller must have sufficient strength to

stand up under normal service conditions. It is C = 4300Wa (TRB D\3
important that the minimum blade thickness for N k100)K20 )
adequate strength be chosen from a standpoint
of efficiency and weight. It is common practice f,w = material constants from Table 7-43.
to calculate the thickness at a typical section
near the root and use a linear thickness TABLE 743. REPRESENTATIVE PROPELLER MA-
distribution between this section and the blade TERIALS
tip to determine the thickness at any section 0 0
(the thickness of any section is defined as the _f w
thickness at the point of maximum thickness of Type 1 Manganese bronze 68 0.30
that section profile). Some reduction in weight
may be realized by making strength calculations Type 2 Nickel-manganese bronze 73 0.29
at a number of sections to determine the Type3 Nickel-aluminumbronze 85 0.27
minimum allowable thickness at each section. Type 4 Manganese-nickel-aluminum
bronze 85 0.27
The formula which follows is found in the
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) Rules. The Type 5 Cast iron 25 1 0.26
derivation of this formula is given in Ref. 88. It
is used to calculate the minimum acceptable For an example, consider a cast iron Troost
thickness at the 25 percent radius. The B i.55 series propeller with 3.0 ft diameter and
nomenclature used in the ABS Rules is not Bi5 eispoelrwt . tdaee n
consitenlatuewh tis tha Rules
ABS is not 3.0 ft pitch turning 400 rpm at an advance speed 0 0
symbosistent withaebnreaedf
this orl,
fandbo. of 13.7 fps (9.3 mph). The calculations are made
symbols have been retained for this formula.asflo:
as follows:
t 4'
IAH\%
R=N- +
1.72CKj
B (7-109) =-
13.7
400 0.687
-
where PID = 3.0/3.0 = 1.0

t = thickness of blade at one-quarter
radius, in. K,. = 0.19 1 Read off Fig. 7-78
H = SHP at maximum continuous rating,
hp rY, = 0.65
R = rpm at maximum continuous rating KJ (0.19)(0.687) - 0 S
N = number of blades K, =4,, 2, (0.65)2r 0.032
P0 .2, = pitch at one-quarter radius divided by
propeller diameter, nd p = 1.99, slug/ft3 (salt water)
PO., = pitch at seven-tenths radius divided by 3 5
propeller diameter, nd H 2rQn = 2rK n D p
W = width of blade at one-quarter radius, 550 550
in. ( 400V
a = expanded blade area divided by disc 2(0.032) 3.99)52.5 hp
area, nd 550
D = propeller diameter, ft
K = rake of propeller blade, in./ft,
multiplied by D/2 (with forward rake, N = 4
use minus sign in formula; with aft 0 f
rake, use plus sign), in. P0 . 5 0.855 from Fig. 7-72
6.0 + 4.3P0.25 Port = 1.0
+Po. a = 0.55
7-167
• 0
0O O 0 0 • . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
W = 12 (factor for 0.25 radius) a (factor reduced by 4 percent and efficiency by 2

for 4-blades) D percent.
= 12 (0.793) 0.55 (0.547) 3.0 = 8.6, in.
(from Table 7-42) 7-7.5.5 Towing or Overload Conditions
30 -o. 0
K = 12 (tan 152) = 4.83 After a propeller has been chosen for the
6.0 design point of the amphibian, it may be desired

*A = 1.0 + 0 + 4.3(0.855) 10.68 to estimate the speed at which a disabled sister
ship might be towed or the reduction in speed
= 4300 (20 400\2( 3 08 due to fouling of the hull. The engine
400-(0.26)0.55 To)\) =20.082 characteristics and loading must be given, i.e., - -
available horsepower as a function of rpm and
B = [1 + (1.5 X 0.855)] [(8.6)25 - 0.082] = 490 the total drag as a function of ship speed. The
S1 )wake fraction and thrust deduction may be
t1.72(0.082)4.83 affected by fouling and thrust loading,
=490(400)4 J 490 respectively. Estimates of these effects should be
= 1.10 made. With this information, the following
procedures can be executed. An auxiliary plot of 0 0
(t/D)o.2S=- -= 0.031 KTd = K. 1J' versus J can be made from the
open water characteristics of the propeller in
question. It will be convenient to use semi-log
With linear thickness distribution, the paper for this curve. Now, several values of
thickness at any section can be calculated from speed are selected over the range of the expected
the thickness at the blade tip t,. 0 and hub solution and KT, is calculated at each value S S
center t. . d
from Eq. 7-94. The auxiliary plot is entered to
t,, (r/R) + t(, (1 - rIR) (7-110) find J and, hence, rotative speed n for each
speed. The open water efficiency is found for
where each speed from the corresponding value of J
r = section radius entered in the characteristic curves. Propulsive
efficiencies (%p = 7?, 77,) are computed and ,
R = propeller radius then the required delivered hcrsepower DHP:
Assuming the tip thickness t1 .o to be 0.3
percent of the diameter, the blade thickness DHP =f hp (7-111)
fraction BTF = (t/D)o of the propeller is 5507?p
where
t0.2 - r/R t,.,
BTFpspef/c 0.031 - 0.25(0.003) RT = total resistance, lb
D(1 - r/R) 0.75 V, = ship speed, ft/sec
Finally, a plot is made with speed, required
= 0.040 DHP, and available horsepower as functions of
rotative speed n. The desired speed corresponds
This is slightly below the standard thickness to the point n at which the two horsepower
(0.045D) for Troost B-Series four-bladed curves cross. 0 0
propellers. Some minimum static thrust or bollard pull
Any increase in the blade thickness for Troost produced by the propulsor may also be required.
B propellers (over the values given in Table 7-41) The static thrust (thrust at zero advance speed)
should be accompanied by decreases in the pitch of a propulsion system is a function of both the
and efficiency. As a rule of thumb, the pitch engine and propulsor characteristics. Their
ratio PID and efficiency 17should be reduced by torque characteristics, together, determine the
a factor -of 0.1 and 0.5, respectively, times the maximum rpm which can be attained with zero
increase in thickness At/t. Thus, if thickness advance speed and thus the power absorbed in
were increased by 40 percent, pitch should be this condition. The bollard pull is a function of
7-168
-- 0 -
p. .. . 0 0 o_.. . 0 0 0 0•0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
the static thrust, and the interaction of hull and fouling of the bottom, and losses in propeller
propulsor given by the zero speed thrust efficiency due to increased loading and
deduction. A simple test may be included with roughening of the blades. The service allowance
model self-propulsion tests to determine both is like a factor of safety. A good value for the
the propeller thrust and the bollard pull. service allowance for amphibians is around 25 0 0
Otherwise, the propeller open water percent. This value may be modified with
characteristics may be used to estimate the static increased design experience.
thrust as follows. The thrust and torque
coefficients (K.,. and KQ,) are obtained from 7-7.5.,^ Numerical Examples
the characteristics curves at J = 0. Torque is (1) Given:
plotted as a function of rpm from the relation Design Speed V = 9 mph (13.2 ft/sec) 0
Resistance Rr = 2,900 lb
Q, = (pKQDs)n2 , ft-lb (7-112) Diameter D = 2.5 ft
1- t = 0.65; thrust deduction
The engine torque curve is also plotted, and the t = 0.35
intersection of the two lines gives the desired 1-w - 0.75; wake fraction
torque which is used to calculate the static w = 0.25
thrust T , = 0.96
3
p = 1.99 slug/ft
KTQS(1 - t•)
T, KT ,lb (7-113) Find: Optimum rpm, pitch, and required
KQD horsepower for a B-4.55
propellerr(4-bladed with EAR = 0.55)
where tý = estimated zero speed thrust 40
deduction. a. From: Eq. 8-94:
7-7.5.6 Astern Thrust 2900
KTd 1.99(0.65)(0.75)2(13.2)2(2.5)2 = 3.62
Astern thrust is important for maneuvering
and stopping. The reach (stopping distance) of a
vessel is a function of both the propeller K1r = K J1 so a parabola may be con-
characteristics and the engine-transmission structed on Fig. 7-78.
chanicteristics. Propeller characteristics for a
model series operating both ahead and astern are Points for parabola: J K.
reported in Ref. 89. An analytical method for 0.2 0.145
calculating the reach is presented in Ref. 90. It 0.25 0.226
0.3 0.326
should be noted that these calculations are
0.35 0.445
rather complex. Consideration might be given to
including stopping tests with the self-propulsion
studies. At any rate, while a short reach is At the intersection of the parabola and the
desirable, the stopping distance of the curve "trma. for K, constant" read off the
amphibian is not generally given as a design following design information.
requirement.
7-7.5.7 Service Allowance Design Point: 0

K,, = 0.255
The service shaft horsepower is the power J = 0.265
required to maintain an average (design) speed I = 0.33
over a long period of time (life of the vessel). It PID = 0.778 (Pitch = 1.94 ft)
is the power predicted from the model tests
augmented by a percentage known as the service b. Eq. 7-95 yields, 00
allowance. It includes the power necessary to 13.22(0.75)
offset the effects of wind and waves, rolling, n 0.265(2.5) -15.0 rps
random steering about the straightline course, (900 rpm)
7-169
0 0 0 0 0 0- 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 -
c. Eq. 7-96: 0.14 to insure cavitation-free operation. Thus,

2900(0.75)13.2 the expanded area ratio EAR should be
DHP = (0 254 hp increased to about (0.213/0.14) 0.55 -0.85 and
(0.65)0.96(0.33)550 the design cycle repeated. The changes in rpm, - ..
Cavitation check pitch, and power should be small. I 0 0
Assume depth of 1.0 ft at 0.8 radius, '
then (2) Given:
Po. -- Patmosphenc +Phed Design Speed V, = 7.5 mph (11.0 ft/sec)
2 Resistance R, = 4,200 lb
= 2116 + 64 = 2180 lb/ft
144 Diameter D = 2.5 ft
PX = 0.98 (0.25)
= 35 lb/ft 2 (salt water at 59°F, rpm = 900 (15 rps)
Table 7-40) 1- t = 0.75
1- w = 0.80
From Eq. 7-102, 77, = 1.0
q0 .8 /2,p V2 1i +(2.512Find: Optimum diameter, pitch, and required

L \JJ horsepower for a shrouded B-455
propeller (nozzle characteristics the P 0 0
1.99 [13.22(0.75) + . \1
2.51 same as in Fig. 7-84) with EAR = 0.65
= -- [ 5 0-265/J
=8,840 lb/ft2 a. From Eq. 7-97
*Note, V, = V, (1 - w) KT= 4200(15)2

tEq.V102 (1.99(0.75)(0.80)4 (11.0)4 = 105.5
Eq. 7-102: P
4
008 = 2180 - 35 Since K, = KT. r, we can construct a
8,840 4th order parabola on Fig. 7-84.
AE =(4 -)EAR Points for parabola: Ji Kr

0.2 0.169
From Eq. 7-104 0.22 0.248
0.24 0.350
Ap !(2.5)2 0.55
0 [(1.067 - 0.229) At the intersection of this parabola read
A4
(0.778)] off the following information at the
(since EAR 0.55 as gicurve " i max for K.r constant", design
2.7(0.887) 2.39 ft 2 KT'nozzle +propeller = 0.274
2900 2900 7° = 0.40

(1- t) 0.65 J = 0.226
Eq. 7-103: P/D= 0.82 ) 0 0

b.
T 2900 0.213 D V,(1 - w) 11.0(0.80)
qo.sAp (0.65)8,840(2.39) nJ nJ 15.0(0.226)
Plotting this point [u,.8 T/(qo.s Ap )[, i.e., = 2.6, ft

(0.243, 0.213) on Fig. 7-87 shows that this L 9 .0
design lies above this limit for heavily loaded (since V = 1,(1 - w) by Eq. 7-82)
propellers and, therefore, an increase in EAR is
in order. T/q 0 .8 A, should be reduced to about P = (0.82)2.6 = 2.10, ft
7-170
_ 0 90 0 0 _0 0 0 0 0 0 _0 0
AMCP 706-350 - "
c. Eq. 7-96: Eq. 7-108:

_ 4200(0.80)11.0 280hp T
T 4,200
DHP -=.510).050 = 280 hp =_________
0.75(1.0)0.40(550) q0.s(1- OJ)Ap (0.75)9,850(1.53)2.56
0.145
Cavitation check
(since T= R/(1 -t) by Eq. 7-83)
Since the propeller is in a nozzle, the O
performance factorsfrom
first be determined Fig.nozzle
of the 7-90: must On)Ap]], i.e., the
Once again, point0.145)
(0.218, [O ,T/sqog
is slightly
lies (1-t
above the upper limit in Fig. 7-87 indicating
KT = 0.095 that a slight increase in blade area is in order
rnozzle if this type of propeller is used.
Eq. 7-105:
(3) Given: B-4.55 screw (Z= 4, EAR= 0.55)
K =KT -KT
propeller nozzle + propeller nozzle Diameter = 2.5 ft
= 0.274 - 0.095 = 0.179 DHP = 130 at 700 rpm and the
following data (from LARC V,
Eq. 7-105: Table 7-35) 0 0
K-n... C + pr 0.274 Ship Speed, mph 7 8 9
KT propeer 0ft/sec 10.3 11.7 13.2
Resistance, lb 1600 2340 2910
Enter Fig. 7-88 with KT = 0.179 and 1 - t 1.09 1.09 1.08
PID = 0.82 to find: 1 - w 1.14 1.175 1.168
jopen water = 0.50 17r 0.96 0.93 0.93
Eq. 7-106: Find: Optimum pitch and highest possible
speed. From Eqs. 7-99, 7-100, and
2.21 7-101 find corresponding values of:
1 - I, - 10.50
0.226J -
0.402 0.474 0.530 ..
Eq. 7-108: (14 0.139 0.203 0.254
[ 2/51\2] 0.515 0.530 0.535

2[110(0.80)] 2 1+ 0.226)I KT 0.285 0.241 0.218
2 ~ (2)
2
= 9,850 lb/ft Now, plot values of Kr 1) and KT(2) on Fig.
Using the same values for stagnation 7-78 versus j. 7

pressure and vapor pressure as in the
previous example, The intersection gives the design point at J =
0.50 and PID = 0.92.
Eq. 7-102:
JnD _ 700 \2.5.
. 0.50 (OO)
Po-P - P6~ 22,145
P°'s 0.2Maximum
,145---' 0.2)8 speed V" = (1J--• 1.17•
q0.8 9,850 = 12.5 ft/sec = 8.50 mph
Eq. 7-104: where (1 - w ) is found by interpolation

67
Ap ýAE(l.O -0.229P/D) (4) Given: The same engine and propeller as
( .5)2 in example (3) above. Assume engine

4 0.55 [1.067- 0.229(0.82)] torque is constant with respect to rpm. .
2.56 ft2 1 - t = 0.90 (at zero ship speed)
7-171
. S. . .. S
___ 0 0 _0 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
Find: Static thrust and bollard pull.

with PID = 0.92,
KT _ 0 = 0.395 (from Fig. 7-78)
KQ = 0.50 (from Fig. 42 of Ref. 86) - 0 0
DHP 550= 130(60)550 P/4

21rn 2•700 /
=975 ft-lb
Eq. 7-113: r i
(0.395)975(0.90)
T. (0.050)2.5
= 2770 lb (bollard pull) Figure 7-92. Helicoidal Surface With Constant
Eq. 7-112: Pitch
/ 975 -" -
= 1.99(0.050)(. 5) = 10.0 rps

S(600rpm) - /
Note that these estimates do not take B
into account the effect that the hull may -

have on the propeller inflow and hence, -r - " -" ""
on rotative speed, and static thrust. /-4
7-7.5.9 Geometry of the Screw Propeller (Drawings)

looking forward,
Standing behind a ship and
one sees the face (high-pressure surface) of the
. . ....
propeller blade. The other side is the back , • •
(low-pressure surface). These are both complex t
warped surfaces. In the simplest case the face !D' --
lies on a helicoidal surface which is generated by ._D -
a radial line rotating at constant velocity about

an axis and simultaneously moving along this Figure 7-93. Helicoidal Surface With Radially
axis at a constant velocity (Fig. 7-92). The axial Varying Pitch
distance covered in one revolution is the pitch P.
If the pitch is allowed to vary with radius, the Drawings of the propellers are restricted to
surface is no longer a true helicoid. In Fig. 7-93 plane surfaces, so certain conventions are used in
the pitch at the hub is less than at the tip and delineating a propeller on paper. Two important
the pitch distribution is linear. The radial pitch reference lines are the screw axis and the
distribution of a propeller, however, is not generatrix (also called the blade reference line).
restricted to being constant nor linear. The three projections of the blade show the -
Many propellers are designed so that the actual outline of the propeller blade as viewed
nose-tail line of each section lies on the from above, the side, and from behind. The first
reference helicoidal surface. In this case the projection is often omitted from propeller
pitch at each section is the true pitch of the drawings. The projected area of the blade is the
propeller. In the case of the Troost series area enclosed by the projected outline in the
propellers, the face lies on the reference surface second projection (see Fig. 7-94) exclusive of • 0
(the sections are "flat-faced") and the pitch of the hub.
the face at each section is called the nominal The developed and expanded outlines are
pitch. conventions which are imaginary in that they
7-172
.....
o0 0 _ 0_ .. 0 -0.... __ 0 • ... .... O 0o 0 o0 0 _._ 0_ 0
AMCP 706-350 - -
cannot be seen on an actual propeller. The 7-7.6 MODEL TESTS

developed outline is obtained by rotating each
section about the generatrix so that the nose-tail Model propeller testing is an important phase
line (or the nominal face pitch line) lies in the in the design of any ship. Open water tests are
plane of the paper in the second projection. The used to confirm the propulsion characteristics
angle of rotation for each section is the pitch predicted by a detailed desigi study. Design
angle 0 , of that section: charts are based on the test results for a series of
models. Self-propulsion tests are required to find
the hull efficiency 17, of the propeller-hull
Or = Tan-nf) (7-114) combinatiun in cases where past experience does
not provide sufficient data to make a good --
estimate. Cavitation testing may be indicated for 0 0
where designs requiring quiet operation, freedom from
r = radius of the section, ft cavitation damage, or where heavy loadings may
Pr = pitch at that particular section, ft result in thrust breakdown.
The expanded outline is of greater importance There are many factors which favor model
and is generated by "unrolling" the developed testing over full scale or prototype testing in the
sections into straight lines. The section shapes early stages of a design. Eventually, of course, a
are drawn in the expanded outline at several prototype vehicle must be tested to show that
radii. The expanded area AE is simply the area the performance requirements of the design have
enclosed by the expanded outlines of all the been fulfilled. Savings in both time and money
blades. are the main advantages afforded by scale model
If the pitch is not constant, the radial tests. In addition, unwanted effects from wind,
variation is shown as in Fig. 7-72. A blade skew waves, tides, etc., are avoided by testing under
line and maximum thickness line are also seen in the controlled conditions of a towing tank. •
expanded outlines in this figure. The projected Dynamometry and data are more reliable and
outline is omitted from the third projection in accurate in a controlled environment.
this figure which merely shows the radial The scaling laws which apply to propeller
distribution of maximum thickness and the model testing will be discussed before describing
extent of blade rake. the various tests and their usage.
3rd PROJECTION 2nd PROJECTION BLADE SECTIONS

BLADE TIP _ _ _-'_ "__ _
/' / // . ... m•.
PROJECTED SCREW RADIUS

OUTLINE REW RADIUS.
C0
GENERATRIX TRAILING EDGE

LEADING EDGE 0 0
BLADE ROOTI
.. t DEVELOPED
__
PROJECTED OUTLINE
__ . . ..
0
BOSS FORE PART BOSS EXPANDED OUTLINE
Figure 7-94. Various Projectionsof a Screw

7-173
0 0 0 0 0- 0 -0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
7-7.6.1 Laws of Similitude Thus, the restriction imposed by Froude scaling

is not too serious so that model tests of surface
Propeller model tests are governed by laws of propellers are practical. We shall see, however,
similitude or scaling laws in a similar manner to that the conditions imposed by Reynolds scaling
ship model tests. First, the model must be are not so easily satisfied. Generally, propellers
geometrically similar to the prototype propeller operate deeply submerged so that gravitational
with all dimensions reduced by the scale ratio X; forces are insignificant and Froude scaling (Eqs.
thus the diameter is 7-117 and 7-118) need not be applied in
propeller tests.
D. = D,/A (7-115) The Reynolds number Re for a propeller may
be written
where the subscripts m and p refer to model and
prototype, respectively. The blade thickness, Re = -D
chord, pitch, etc., are all defined in the same V (7-120)

manner. Dynamic similitude must be satisfied by
operating the model at the same speed where v is the kinematic viscosity, ft 2 /sec.
coefficient as the prorotype To assure that the ratio of friction forces to
inertia forces are the same for mc,-I! and 0 0 0
- = V prototype, the Reynolds numbers must be
IMDL) (7-116) equated. If the viscosity is held constant we can
derive:
In order to completely satisfy the conditions V. = V1, X (7-121)
for dynamic similitude, the ratio of inertia
forces to friction forces and gravitation forces and p e
should be made constant by Reynolds scaling
and Froude scaling. When the propeller is n, = np X 2 (7-122)
working at or near the water surface,
gravitational forces become important so that These requirements are difficult if not
the Froude number of the model must be the impossible to fulfill in practice. If we take the
same as for the prototype, i.e., same quarter scale model and apply Reynolds
scaling, the propeller should be run at sixteen P
Froude number I ( VgVDbn, nd (7-117) times prototype rpm and four times the
(7-117- advanced speed. It is customary in propeller
ia model testing work to be satisfied with as near
where g = gravitational acceleration, ftlsec2 an approach to the theoretical requirement as is
Combining Eqs. 7-115 and 7-117 (with g practical. To this end, the models are made large
constant) we obtain and tested at the highest speeds obtainable with 0 •
the available equipment. Fortunately, blade
V = VA/ friction has no appreciable influence on the
(7-118) propeller forces above a certain critical value
(Ref. 67). Even when the test Reynolds number
Similarly, by equating the speed coefficients of is below the critical value, the resulting
model and prototype (Eq. 7-117) we deduce, "scale-effect" errors are small and conservative;
with the aid of Eqs. 7-115 through 7-118, that predicted efficiencies from model tests will be
on the low side.
n.n -np V, (7-119) The conclusion that blade friction is usually
negligible simplifies matters considerably. In this
If, for example, one were testing a quarter scale case only the inertia forces are considered and
semi-submerged propeller (X = 4.0), he should the necessary condition for similitude, Eq.
run the model at twice prototype rpm (Eq. 7-116, becomes sufficient for dynamic I • 0
7-119) and one-half the speed (Eq. 7-118) of similitude. If gravitational forces from free
advance of the prototype. In addition, the depth surface effects are involved; Froude scale, Eq.
of submergence should be geometrically scaled. 7-117, must also be applied.
7.174
0 S S
AMCP 706-350
The laws of similitude must be extended in propeller are presented in Fig. 7-95. The curve
cases where the propeller is affected by for torque coefficient KQ may be omitted in
cavitation. The cavitation number a. is modeled some presentations because it can be derived
to assure similarity of the cavitation process (Eq. directly from the curves of thrust coefficient KT ..........
7-93). Strictly speaking, Froude scaling should and efficiency 77. ID
also be applied in this case because local
cavitation number on a blade element varies 7-7.6.3 Self-propulsion Tests
with change in depth due to rotation. In
practice, however, this refinement is overlooked Self-propulsion tests are conducted to
with no sensible error being introduced, determine the interactions between the propeller
and hull and in particular the wake fraction,
7-7.0.2 Open Water Tests thrust deduction, and relative rotative
efficiency. An open water test of the propeller
Model propeller open water tests are generally alone and a resistance test of the hull alone are
conducted in towing tanks but may also be required along with the self-propulsion test in
made in recirculating flow channels in which order to obtain the desired results.
case the propeller rotates in a stationary plane The model propeller is located in its proper
and the water speed past the propeller position on the hull model with all the L- • 0
determines the advance speed V. In a towing appendages. The model scale for the propeller
tank the propeller is supported by a horizontal and hull must, of course, be the same. An
drive shaft protruding from a streamlined electric motor drives the propeller, and
housing attached to the towing carriage. The arrangements are made so that thrust, torque,
housing contains the dynamometer and the drive and rpm can be measured. The hull is attachea
shaft is made sufficiently long so that the to the towing dynamometer in the same manner t 0
presence of the housing will not affect the as for resistance tests.
inflow to the propeller which advances into The test is conducted as follows: (1) the
undisturbed water. A streamlined fairwater is towing carriage is brought up to the desired
placed in front of the propeller hub. speed (Froude scaling), and (2) then the
Test runs are made over a range of speed propeller rpm is adjusted until the drag force on
coefficient J which is controlled by varying the the dynamometer is equal to a predetermined
towing carriage speed (advance speed) and/or value D,. The thrust, torque, and rpm are
the propeller rotative speed rpm. Thrust, torque, recorded. The dynamometer force D, arises
advance speed, and rpm are measured for each from the difference in friction resistance
run. These data are then reduced to coefficient coefficient between model and prototype
form and presented graphically as open water (Reynolds scaling effect-see par. 7-4.1.1.3). In
characteristic curves. The nondimensional practice, the effects of frictional resistance
coefficients which are most generally used are scaling for amphibian models have been I 0 .
neglected because the friction resistance is a
KT = T small percentage (about 5 percent) of the total
pn2 D 4 resistance. Hence, the dynamometer force for an
amphibian self-propulsion test would be set at
KQ Q zero. For the determination of D, in tests where
pn2 D 5 Reynolds effects are important see Ref. 67, p.
(7-123) 146.
TV _KTJ The thrust deduction t is found from a
70o 2wQn K. 27r comparison of the measured thrust T necessary
to propel the model at a given speed V, and the
Vo resistance R of the hull alone at the same speed
(1- t)=- (7-124) _ 0 _
where the subscript o is used to denote "open T
water". The efficiency of a propeller 17B behind a
The open water characteristics of a typical model hull generally differs from the efficiency
7-175
-. ~1
AMCP 706-350 0 0
NUMBER OF BLADES 3
EXP. AREA RATIO 0.559 0 0
MWR 0.393
BTF 0.039
P/D 0.804
DIAMETER 7.460 IN.
PITCH 6.000 IN.
ROTATION R. H. 0 0
MAXIMUM HUB DIAMETER 2.51 IN.
MINIMUM HUB DIAMETER 1.66 IN.
HUB LENGTH 2.375 IN.
DESIGNED BY MICHIGAN WHEEL

An 8- inch M-P type with hub built up by
DTME and diameter cut to 7.46 inches.
The final dimensions are given above.
TESTED FOR LYCOMING DIVISION OF AVCO CORPORATION

0 0.7
o TEST n 20.0 rps 1

-- TEST V 2.2 to 12.0 ft/sec I
z 0.a6 U-,-O.,z
5
u.-- .O 0 - -0 R-e _
u
"0 0 5 Re =7.8x
<oU"0,• "-.o,1 0.5 Re7
1_,<o
I I 0- 0
U 1
•- 0.4 0,- KQ
K
0.3
, I0 0
LU -
LU 00.1
U. L
z LU
01 02 0.3
L0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0
SPEED COEFFICIENT J
I--
0
SPEED COEFFIIENT.
Figure 7-95. Open-water Characteristicsfor DTMB Propeller4008
7-176
0.10 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.6 0. 0. 0. .0 0 0 0
.. .. . Oe-aerChaactrisic fo
... ~Fgr 7-95e T.o Prple
.. 40..
AMCP 706-350
o in open water. They are related by the Thrust identity is more commonly used in
relative rotative efficiency 1?r as in Eq. 7-85. In this country than torque identity. An alternative
this equation, the values of the wake fraction w method is to use the average speed coefficient
and relative rotative efficiency 17r are not found from both thrust and torque identity.
unique. Their values depend upon whether they The wake fraction found from self-propulsion 40
are determined by thrust or torque identity. tests is known as the effective wake fraction and
With thrust identity the thrust coefficient KT is must not be confused with the "nominal" wake
calculated from the measured self-propulsion which is obtained from measurements of the
thrust and rpm. With this value of KT., the velocities in the propeller planes of a towed
open-water characteristic curves are entered to model without a propeller.
find the speed coefficient J and corresponding
open water efficiency ??,, and torque coefficient 7-7.6.4 Ctato T
KQ . The advance speed is then calculated
JnD (7125) Modeling of the cavitation number 0O

necessitates that cavitation tests of a model
The wake is then determined propeller be conducted in a variable pressure
V flow channel or water tunnel. In this type of
(1 - w)= - (7-126) facility a vacuum pump is used to control the
V. ambient air pressure over the free surface. In this
Finally, the relative rotative efficiency is given manner, the static pressure P0 at the propeller
by axis can be varied to provide a wide range of
cavitation numbers a, (see Eq. 7-93) for testing.
KQ0 Q0 (7-127) The facility discussed in Ref. 91 allows model
7r = KQ Q propeller tests to be made for a range of 0o from 0 0
about 0.2 to 5.0.
With torque identity, a similar procedure is Tests are usually conducted at fixed values of
followed, but the open water curves are entered 00, i.e., P. and water speed are held constant.
with a calculated (test) value of torque The speed coefficient J is then varied with
coefficient KQ which will result in a slightly propeller rpm. The results of propulsion tests
different value of speed coefficient J and, can be presented as open water characteristic . -
consequently, q,. With torque identity, the curves with cavitation number as a parameter as
relative rotative efficiency is redefined by in Fig. 7-71. In addition to measurements of
KT T thrust and torque, cavitation inception studies
7r =T= T ( may be made by observing the blade cavities
KT0 To (7 with stroboscopic illumination.
SECTION III SUSPENSION SYSTEM DESIGN

7-8 SUSPENSION SYSTEMS APPROPRIATE The suspension system provides the necessary
FOR USE ON WHEELED AMPHIBIANS clearance between the ground and hull in order
to enable the amphibian to traverse uneven 0 0
The suspension system provides flexible terrain and to surmount obstacles. It also has an
support between the ground and the important effect on the stability of the
amphibian's hull or frame. This support must be amphibian on side slopes.
flexible in order to reduce the transmission of The suspension system provides the contact
shock and vibrations to the hull and personnel, area between the amphibian and the ground.
arising from encounters with uneven terrain. The Mobility in soft soils is a function of the ground
maximum overland speed of an amphibian is pressure exerted by the tires. Hence, both the
often limited by the operator's ability or gross vehicle weight and the total ground
willingness to tolerate large motions and contact area provided by the suspension system
accelerations. help to determine the amphibian's mobility.
7-177
AMCP 706-350
The principal components of suspension an impact absorbing mechanism, its design is

systems for wheeled vehicles are springs, shock influenced greatly by the requirements for
absorbers, bogies, axles, wheels, and tires. Not power transmission, mobility, and steering.
all of these components are necessary for a These requirements dictate that all the wheels be
suspension system. In some cases, the particular powered, hence "live" axle assemulies must be 0 0
component(s) may be modified to perform the used to drive the wheels. It is also probable that
function of one or several of the other all wheels will be steerable (par. 7-9.4) and that
components. Suspension components suitable the system will use "independent suspension" in
for wheeled amphibians are essentially the same which each wheel is free to oscillate
as for any military wheeled vehicle and are independently of the others. The requirements
discussed in another Handbook, Ref. 26. for marine operation also influence the "
suspension system design.
7-8.1 Ci-4ITERIA FOR SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Criteria which must be considered in the 7-8.3 EFFECTS OF MARINE ENVIRONMENT

design of the suspension system include Amphibian waterborne operation
maintainability, simplicity, durability, requirements affect the design of the suspension
reliability, vulnerability, mobility, weight, and, (aside from the obvious problems of corrosion
of course, econnmy. Most of these qualities are and electrolytic action). Most recent amphibian
defined and disc,.ssed in par. 5-1.3. In particular, designs have placed increased emphasis on
however, mobility was not included as a waterbome performance with the result that
criterion for design. In the present context, the "unsprung" or rigid suspension systems have
term mobility is limited to apply to the ground been favored. While waterborne, the suspension
mobility of the amphibian. system serves no useful purpose (with the
In Ref. 63, mobility is defined as "the possible exception of steering by means of the
competence of a vehicle to perform its mission wheels, par. 7-9.3) and only adds to the
as measured by its best average speed over a displacement and drag of the amphibian. It has
route representative of the terrain where it will been estimated that 65 percent of the total
operate". The average speed of a vehicle in a water resistance of the DUKW is attributable to
given terrain is the proper measure of its the exposed suspension system and its associated
mobility for that particular terrain. Thus, an wheel-well cutouts. Thus, in order to minimize S S
amphibian's mobility might be categorized as the weight and drag of the suspension system,
soft-soil mobility, sand mobility, etc., or could springs and shock absorbers have been
be based on some particular mission profile. The eliminated, sole reliance being placed in the tire
average speed should be based on the straight design to provide adequate flexibility and
line distance between two points regardless of damping in the system.
the actual path that the vehicle must travel in The LARC V is a good example of an
order to negotiate the terrain, amphibian having a rigid suspension system.
While its top water speed is undoubtedly higher
7-8.2 GENERAL DISCUSSION OF DESIGN than could be achieved by a similar amphibian
The strength and dynamic response with a conventionally sprung suspension, its top
characteristics of the suspension system land speed is decidedly lower (25 mph compared
components will be designed to withstand the to about 50 mph).
forces (including shock loadings) and to provide As long as primary interest is focused on the
the flexibility necessary to isolate the operating waterborne performance of amphibians, it is
thersonexlifrom
personnel excessive motions and systemsceswillmprevail.n
reasonable to assume that unsprung suspension
vibrations. Discussion of these forces and systems will prevail.
motions is presented in par. 7-3.1. More detailed 7.4 VEHICLE-SOIL MECHANICS
information can be found in Refs. 26, 63, and
120. Design variables include the ratio of 7-8.4.1 Shearing Strength of Soil
unsprung to sprung mass, spring constants, and
damping coefficients. The shearing stress T which a soil can support
Although the suspension system is primarily is given by the classic Coulomb's equation
7-178
JI
AMCP 706-350 -
r = c + a tan p (7-129) correlated only empirically with the "go and

where no-go" soil conditions with respect to particular
c = coefficient of cohesion, psi existing vehicles in a limited number of ground
a = normal stress on the soil, psi types. While the method is expedient, it does
angle of friction, deg not account for all soil conditions; it is not too S= 0 0
accurate; and it does not permit prediction of
Dry sand has no cohesion (c = 0), whereas in wet the performance of nonexistent, unorthodox
clay there is no friction (ýp = 0). Most actual soils vehicles in the design stage.
are neither purely cohesive nor purely frictional.
The important point to remember is that 7-8.4.3 The LLL (Land Locomotion Laboratory) Soil
traction in different types of soil is supported by Value System
entirely different mechanisms (cohesion and
friction) and, thus, mobility in different soils The LLL soil value system (Ref. 93) is a
depends upon different parameters. It follows potential design tool to estimate the soft soil
that an amphibian with good (relative) sand mobility of new wheeled amphibians. This
mobility does not necessarily have good system takes into account more of the soil
mobility in clay soils. parameters than the vehicle cone index, and
incorporates allowances for a number of detailed 0 l
7-8.4.2 The Cone Index types of soil-vehicle behavior. Twc sets of
independent soil parameters are used: (1) the
The cone penetrometer was developed by the direct shear reactions c and ip (Eq. 7-129)
Corps of Engineers to obtain a simple, measured by plate penetration tests and a
straightforward measurement of soil normally loaded annular shear vane,
"trafficability". It is one of the most widely respectively, and (2) the soil sinkage parameters
used instruments for determining an index of K and n.
the soil strength in the field. The cone p = Kz, psi (7-130)
penetrometer's value as a tool for measuring where
bearing and tractive capacity lies in the fact that
a vast number of tests have been performed with p unit ground pressure, psi
it to correlate vehicle performance with soil
condition. condeitietifoikae,0.norsad z = sinkage, in. S S
The cone penetrometer is a right, circular, = coefficient of sinkage, 0.5 for sandy
loam
30-deg cone with a base area of 0.50 in? The
cone index (psi) is the force that must be K and n are experimental coefficients for
applied to the penetrometer per square inch of specific soil structures. K is a function of the
cone end area to force it into the undisturbed form and size of the loading area as well as the
ground. The force required is measured at soil physics. If K is expressed in terms of the 0 0
increments of depth so that the gradient of the "cohesive" modulus K, and the frictional
cone index can be computed. The rating cone modulus K the parameter is made
index is similar to the cone index but is "independent' of size (Ref. 94).
determined after the same soil has been pounded K,
in a mold with 100 blows of a 21½-lb tamper K- +Ko (7-131)
falling 12 in. The ratio of the rating cone index b
to the cone index (i.e., the ratio of the index where b = breadth of footing.
after and before tamping) is called the remolding For a complete discussion of the refinements
index (dimensionless) and can be greater or less and use of LLL soil value system, refer to Ref.
than 1.0. The rating cone index is an overall or 93. The main problem with this system is that it
final measure of the soil's ability to support is not fully verified experimentally.
sustained traffic. A vehicle cone index (VCI) is
the minimum value of the rating cone index at 7-8.4.4 Correlation of Various Soft Soil Indexes L . 0
which a particular vehicle can negotiate the soil.
The cone index has many shortcomings as a There are other indexes in addition to the
quantitative index of mobility. It has been vehicle cone index and LLL soil value system
7-179
0 .. 9 0 9- -. 0 0 0 00 -0
AMCP 706-350 0
which have been developed to predict relative "no-go" basis. This figure must be considered as
performance in soft soils, Refs. 26, and 95 to preliminary; however, more complete data
100. Nuttall, Ref. 101, has attempted to would exhibit the same characteristics. A few
correlate the theories and test results of the examples will illustrate the use of this figure:
various agencies pertaining to soft-soil (1) The 50-pass vehicle cone indexes for the
performance in different soil types. When LARC V and DUKW (from Table 7-45) are given
certain simplifying assumptions are made, one as VCI = 53 and 63, respectively. From Fig. 7-96
basic parameter-the nominal unit ground for the tropical climate during the wet season
pressure (NUGP) -is found to be common to all the frequency of occurrence of soils with rating
the mobility indexes. The NUGP is arbitrarily cone index below the critical value for each
defined as vehicle is estimated to be 21 and 27 percent,
w .respectively. Conversely, the percentage of all
NUGP = w, psi (7-132) land area which is trafficable is 79 for the LARC
and 73 for the DUKW. Thus, it is estimated that
where the LARC is capable of negotiating about 22
w = average gross load carried on a single percent of the area which is impassable for the
tire, lb DUKW or 6 percent more of the total area.
b = undeflected tire section width, in. (2) Comparing the single pass mobility of the
rr = undeflected tire radius, in. LARC V and LARC LX (VCI, = 34 and 70,
respectively) for the temperate climate and
The Army Tank-Automotive Command high-moisture condition, the respective
(ATAC) uses a similar expression to calculate trafficable areas are estimated to be 82 and 40
the average ground pressure percent of the total area, i.e., less than half of
w this land area open to the LARC V (on a single 0 0
P., - , psi (7-133) pass basis) can be negotiated by the LARC LX.
Thus, p., is related to NUGP by the simple 7-8.4.5 Other Aspects of Terrain-vehicle Technology
constant 0.7 which is introduced as a "shape
factor" to account for the elliptical shape of the 7-8.4.5.1 Roughness
theoretical footprint area.
A summary of Nuttall's findings is given in The dynamic behavior of an amphibian
Table 7-44. These results show that, in clay soils, operating at any speed over hard ground with
reduction of NUGP of the tire will clearly known geometry (roughness) can be treated
extend the operating range into weaker soils. In statistically with methods analogous to those
other words, an amphibian with lower nominal used to predict motions and r-,sistance in waves
unit ground pressure (less weight or larger, (par. 7-4.1.2.4). The important parameters are:
broader tires) will go in soils with less cohesion. a. The geometry of the surface
In sandy soils, the NUGP is, again, a controlling b. The geometry of the amphibian
factor. However, larger vehicles (or larger tires) c. The mass of the amphibian and its
may operate at high NUGP without loss in distribution
performance relative to smaller vehicles in sand. d. Articulation (if any)
Table 7-45 from Ref. 101 presents the critical e. Elastic and damping characteristics of the
soft soil mobility indexes for various wheeled suspension system components
amphibians along with their payload and top f. Coefficients of traction of the running gear
speeds in water and on land. The indexes are on elements of the surface
calculated from the original equations of the The accuracy of motion prediction depends
various agencies (not the equations in Table entirely upon the accuracy of the dynamic
7-44). The LARC V has the best relative soft soil constants and the detail with which the
mobility of the amphibians presented in the terrain-vehicle system is mathematically
table. modeled. The vibrational motions and
Fig. 7-96 has been included in order to accelerations of a particular amphibian are
illustrate the relationship between a soft soil found as relatively simple functions of speed and
mobility index and actual mobility on a "go" or the power spectrum density (PSD) of the land
7-180
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-44 COMPARISON OF SOFT SOIL MOBILITY INDEXES
Soil Type Basic Source Critical Index Units
0.25 NUGP
(I + psi
1 FVRflE rigid wheels c = the larger of or 7 /
Clays
with sidewall traction |o.264 NUGP
2 FVRDE rigid wheels w/o c - 0.50 NUOP psi
sidewall fraction
3 LLL rigid wheels w/o - 0; c 0.50 NUOP

sidewall traction In - 0.5; c 0.40 NUGP psi
4 WES single tires in _
the laboratory CI 2.5 NUGP
2 psi
Fine Grained 5 WES 50-pass (from VCI . 4 NUGP + 14 psi
Soils (loams,
siltsclays, etc.) 6 WES single pass VCI - 3 NUGP + 3 psi
(from field tests)
0 5 2 5
7 LLL rigid wheels w/o K = NUGP (2/d . ) lb/in. "
A Sandy Loam
sidewall traction (NUGP > 4.85 psi) •
"Optimum" 8 EKLUWD Me' = NUGP (2.2/d0"85) nd

0 5 0 5
Sands 9 WES field tests G1 NUoP (6/b " d " ) psi/in.
0 5 0 5
10 WES single tires a - NUGP (8/b' d . ) psi/in.
in laboratory
NOTES: FVRDE - British Laboratory, Ref.95

LLL - Land Locomotive Laboratory, Ref.93
WES - U. S. ArM Egineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Refs. 96 ,to99
EKUND, Ref. 100
MUGP - u/br, psi
where w - average load on single tire, lb
b - undeflected tire width, in.

r - d/2 - undeflected tire radius, in.
D - undeflected tire diameter, in.
The critical index is the minimum value of the index at which
a vehicle will Just maintain headway In unaccelerated, level,
straight-line operation.
c - coefficient of cohesion of soil, psi
rI = average cone index of soil, psi
VCI - average rating cone index of field soils for a, .
minimum of 50 passes in the same ruts, psi
VCI - average rating cone index of field soils for single
pass, psi
K - soil consistency in selected sandy loam where
n = 0.5, c - 0.56 and tan CP
g 0.31
n = an exponent expressing the sinkage characteristics
of the soil
- the angle of friction (Eq.7".129)
M - the inverse of the Eklund Mobility Factor (not in
percent). Me' greater than 100 indicates an over-
loaded tire and less than optimum off-road
performance
a - average gradient to cone index of sand versus
depth in 0.6 in. layer
7-181
,. _•@ 0
0 0 0 0 0 • .... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-45 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF SEVERAL WHEELED AMPHIBIANS
Soft Soil Mobility Indexes Pay- Speed, mph

Amphibian load _ -
VCI VCI 1 Go• M'e Klo,, c ,y tons, Land Water
1943 DUKW 63 43 4.6 101 4.2 5.1 2.5 50 6.5

1951 SUPERDUCK 82 53 5.3 137 5.0 6.4 4.0 48 6.7
DRAKE 92 56 5.0 125 5.0 6.7 8.0 45 9.0
1960 LARC V(u) 53 34 2.4 85 2.6 4.0 5.0 25 8.6 0 S
LARC XV(u) 82 54 3.4 96 3.8 6.5 15.0 20 9.5
LARC LX(u) 103 70 3.2 102 4.2 8.6 60.0 14 7.0
High-speed
Amphibians
1962 LVW-Xl(u) 80 53 4.2 103 4.3 6.2 5.0 35 35
1964 LVH-X1 40 81 4.1 104 4.3 6.3 5.0 40 40
Truck
1960 M34 62 37 3.9 102 3.4 4.4 2.5 - N.A. 0 0
Notes: A lower value of the index indicates greater relative mobility (except MI).
(u) = unsprung suspension. G =- average gradient to cone index of sand vs
N. A. = not applicable depth in 0.6 in. layer
VCI = average rating cone
for a minimum of 50index
passesofin field soils
the same M".
e Insff=inverse
pt uM Mobility
of Eklund iaron
factor (not in ..
ruts, psi percent)
VCI 1 = average rating cone index of field soils K •aý = soil consistency in sandy loam
for a single pass, psi c ., = coefficient of cohesion in clay soils, psi
surface, Ref. 102. The human responses to the Obstacle crossing is a "go" or "no-go" situation
motions are discussed in par. 9-2.1.2. for the most part; speed and vibrations are of
secondary importance. 0
rtn.
7-8.4.5.2 Obstaclesseodrim
7-8.4.5.3 Bank Egress
Obstacles, geometric features too large to be The bank egress capability may be considered
considered as roughness, include such things as to be a combination of the soil mechanics and
boulders, trees, stumps, and ditches (see Ref. obstacle problems. Stream and river banks are
103). The parameters which affect an characterized by steep slopes and high, vertical 0
amphibian's potential ability to deal with steps. The steep slopes are often wet and
obstacles are mainly geometrical including: slippery; where the slopes are more favorable,
a. Wheelbase the soil is likely to be composed of weak,
b. Wheel diameter waterlogged silts as in marshes and bogs. Thus,
c. Approach, departure, and break angles the problem of bank egress severely limits an
d. Ground clearance (both static and amphibian's riverine mobility. It is safe to say
dynamic) that no existing amphibian is capable of crossing
e. Weight distribution a majority of the larger streams and rivers in this
f. Suspension compliance with features of the country if the point of egress is chosen at
terrain random.
7-182
0 0
AMCP 706-350 -
100 0
- TEMPERATURE CLIMATE
_-- (UNITED STATES)
CLIMATE 20 STROPICAL
Z (PUERTO RICO, PANAMA,
J •COSTA RICA, HAWAII,
a. THAILAND) z
UJ
U HIGH-MOISTURE 40___
60 CONDITION
4 I 0 0
UU
0 WET SEASON
0 -..
S 40 CONDITION 60
FINE GRAINED SOIL,
V • • J •'•6 TO 12 INCH LAYER
U. 20 so
300 200 100 80 60 40 20 10
VEHICLE CONE INDEX VCI

(MINIMUM RATING CONE INDEX)
Figure 7-96. Cumulative Frequency of Rating Cone Indexes

7-8.5 TIRE SELECTION amphibian would be capable of road speeds on 0 0
the order of 50 mph. Inadequate damping must
In a rigid suspension system, the pneumatic be accepted in a rigid suspension system unless
tire must perform the functions of both a spring some future development in tire design results in
and a shock absorber (damping) as well as its a major improvement in tire damping without
normal role of providing traction for propulsion. seriously degrading rolling resistance.
The spring rate k of a tire is a complicated
function of compression of the air in the tire 7-8.5.1 Tire Tread
and the flexure of the sidewalls. The spring rate
is not a constant, but has definite nonlinearities The choice of tire tread will be a compromise,
characterized by an increase in k as deflection in most cases, between conflicting requirements
begins and then a decrease in k with increased for different soil conditions. For sand, hard soils
deflection. There is also some damping inherent and roads, a shallow-ribbed pattern is desired. A
in the flexure of the tire; however, it is believed deeper, lugged tread is needed in soft platic soils . 0 0
that the greater portion of damping with respect where the tires must excavate soil in order to get
to tires is between the tire and the soil surface down to the hardpan. A deeper tread, of course,
and within the soil itself (Ref. 120). contributes greatly to the rolling resistance of
The damping in the tires is insufficient with the tire.
respect to operations on hard surfaced roads.
The LARC V land speed is limited to about 25 7-8.5.2 Estimating Tire Weight (Ref. 101)
mph. Any attempt to increase the speed results
in large amplitude motions (galloping) at the An empirical fit to published data on the
system's resonant frequency because of weight Wt of a number of existing tires leads to
underdamping. With suitable damping, the the following equation:
7-183
S....
e . _o....
• .....•... • • • • • • • • 0 0
_ 0 0 -0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 AMCP 706-350 0
2½\ Off-Road Grader 0.0014 20

WtK K 2 , lb (7-134) NDCC* Military(') 0.0013 0
Sand 0.0009 20
where Earthmover
Rock Tread 0.0011 100
0.0015 50 ' 0
W1 = maximum rated load on the tire at Duplex, Rock Tread 0.0011 20
its designed inflation pressure, lb. If Compactor (slow speed) 0.0011 0
highway operation is included, the
load (and, implicitly, the inflation Terra- Smooth 0.0005 5
pressure) for this service is used. Tires (2) Terragrip Tread 0.0006 30
b = undeflected tire section width, in.
d = undeflected tire outside diameter, (1) Casing only: Tubes and flaps add approxi- I 0 0
in. mately '75 percent.
dr = rim diameter, in. (2) The scatter of actual Terra-Tire weights ver-
K~andK 2= constants which vary somewhat for sus values computed by this equation is
various types of tires. Average relatively great, suggesting that the form
values are tabulated below: of the equation is not entirely appropriate
K, K2 for these extreme types-which is not sur- -
prising. The constants given provide rough
Highway Mileage Tread, standard 0.0015 10 guidance, nonetheless.
Duplex 0.0011 20
Extra Small 0.0017 1 *NDCC Nondirectional Cross Country
SECTION IV STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN

7-9 STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN M = moment about any reference axis,
ft-lb 2
7-9.1 WATERBORNE STEERING THEORY S = rudder area, ft
7-9.1.1 Steering Forces v = mean flow velocity over rudder, ft/sec
c = chord of rudder, ft 3 p
The forces on a rudder follow the same p = density of water, slug/ft
principles as forces on low aspect ratio airfoils
and hydrofoils. They are usually expressed as The force and moment coefficients are functions
dimensionless lift, drag, and moment of angle of attack a, aspect ratio A, section
coefficients denoted by CL, CD , and C,,, shape, and planform. Determination of these
respectively. Lift is defined as the force normal coefficients are discussed in par. 7-9.2.2.
to the direction of inflow and drag is parallel to The forces generated for any particular rudder 0 0
the inflow. Rudder lift is directed in the are mainly determined by the effective angle of
horizontal plane and normal or nearly normal to attack a of the rudder and the relative water
the amphibian centerline. The relationship speed v. In open water, a and v are readily
between the forces and their coefficients is as determined, but behind a ship the conditions are
follows: not as simple. Fig. 7-97 illustrates these
ID conditions. In this figure, a is the effective angle
L = CL (a SV2 , lb of attack, 6 is the rudder helm angle, 0 is the -
\2/ drift angle of the ship, and e is due to the
straightening influence of the hull, appendages,
D = CD Sv 2 , lb (7-135) and propeller. The velocity relative to the rudder
is a function of the ship speed, hull wake, and
M =C P SCV 2 , ft-lb propeller slipstream.
The turning moment applied to the ship by • 0
where the rudder is given by
L = lift force, lb
D = drag force, lb A= IL cos (6 - a) - D sin (6 - a)] + Ar, ft.lb (7-136)
7-184
__ A
AMCP 706-350
* 0 0
* 0
SHIP CENTERLINE
D
S
0ýGIN
V-~
Figure 7-97. Effective Rudder Angle for a Rudder Behind a Ship Duringa Turn
where angle (a = 6 ) and Eq. 7-136 reduces to: .

M = moment about the ship's CG, ft-lb Mi = LR + Mr (7-137)
M, = moment about the rudder stock, ft-lb where
L = rudder lift force, lb Mi = initial turning moment applied to the
R = arm from rudder stock to ship's CG, ft ship by the rudder
a = effective inflow angle, deg The initial moment to turn the ship can be made
5 = rudder helm angle, deg larger by increasing the lift on the rudder and
In a maneuver, the angles a and 6 will change increasing the moment arm by placing the
from the instant the rudder is put over until a rudder far behind the center of gravity. The
new state of equilibrium is reached. It takes moment about the rudder stock M, is usually
some time to put the rudder over to the desired negligible. The lift is directly proportional to the
helm angle, but this time is short enough that lift coefficient CL, area S, and the square of the
the ship's heading has not changed very much inflow velocity v (see Eq. 7-135). The lift • .
when the desired angle is reached. At this instant coefficient is a function of the angle of attack
then, the angles 0 and e are negligible so that and is maximum when the rudder is at the "stall
the angle of attack is equal to the rudder helm angle".
7-185
_ ____ _ __ __•
AMCP 706-350
Once the ship starts turning, hydrodynamic dividing by the ship's length. For example, the
forces are generated by the cross-flow over the tactical diameter of the LARC V with a rudder
hull. This flow is comprised of velocity angle of 450 is about 2.5 ship lengths with an
components due to the drift angle (sway) and approach speed of 9 mph.
angular velocity (yaw) of the ship. On a The ship's inertia forces have not been 0 0
directionally unstable ship, these hydrodynamic included in this discussion. The complete
forces create a moment in the same direction as equations of motion are presented in Ref. 67.
the rudder moment and tend to decrease the The moment on the rudder stock M, is
turning radius. At the same time the drag on the important in determining the strength of the
ship is increased causing a speed reduction. With steering gear and linkages. In addition to the
the rudder helm angle unchanged, the ship will static forces, however, consideration must be
continue to tighten its turn until a steady given to the additional torque needed to attain
turning motion is reached. At this equilibrium the desired angular rate of rudder deflection.
condition, the hydrodynamic moments on the The product of angular rate and the maximum
ship and the rudder are balanced (equal and torque determines the power which must be
opposite). supplied by the steering gear (or helmsman). The
Fig. 7-98 is a schematic diagram of a ship rudder torque in many cases is greatest when the
executing a steady turn maneuver. This ship is going astern. If so, this condition will 0
maneuver is useful in determining some of the determine the strength requirements.
parameters which are used to measure a ship's Steering forces can be )roduced without
relative maneuverability. The steady turning resorting to rudders. In many cases, the
radius, advance at 900 change in heading, alternatives provide a greater degree of
transfer at 90' change in heading, and tactical maneuverability and control. Vertical axis
diameter are often made dimensionless by propellers, water jets, and right angle drives are
ADVANCE AT 90° CHANGE OF HEADING
AT 9 00
RUDDER CHANGE|
EXECUTEAT OF HEADING
UJ.
0
zc
<UJu
A o
Figure 7-98. Geometry of a Turning Circle

7-186 • • •• • • • • • • • • • •
0MAXIMUM
AMCP 706-350
examples in which the thrust of the main disconnected and steering was effected with the
propulsor can be directed in any desired wheels alone.
direction to produce a turning moment about
the ship's center of gravity. Perhaps the greatest 7-9.1.2 Directional Stability and Maneuverability -
advantage that these devices have over rudders is

that large turning moments can be generated at Maneuverability may be defined as a ship's
low and zero advance speeds. ability to follow a desired course as steered by
The active rudder consists of a small propeller the helmsman. The degree of maneuverability
driven by a submersible electric motor which is depends on the rapidity and magnitude of
housed in a nacelle on the rudder. At high response to the helm and on a consistent,
speeds the active rudder is used as a one-to-one relation between rudder angle and .
conventional rudder. But at low speeds the steady turning rate. Directional stability implies
propeller is activated to produce thrust which is that this one-to-one relation exists.
trainable by moving the rudder in the desired Unfortunately, a high degree of directional
direction. stability in a ship is associated with slow turning
The steering nozzle is simply a Kort nozzle rates and large tactical diameters, i.e., limited
which can be rotated about a vertical axis maneuverability.
through the plane of the propeller. This "tube" The degree of directional stability or 0 .
rudder produces superior turning forces by instability is commonly determined for a free
diverting the entire propeller slipstream while running scale model by the spiral maneuver. In
most of the advantages of a Kort nozzle for this test, the rudder is put over in a succession of
propulsion are retained. The primary discrete angle increments to one side, to the
disadvantage lies in the nozzle's vulnerability to other side, and back to zero. Each rudder angle
damage. is maintained until a steady yaw rate is
Ducted thrusters are finding increased established and recorded. The results are plotted
application on merchant vessels. A transverse with steady yaw rate w as a function of rudder
tube open to the sea is located deep in the bow angle 6 as in Fig. 7-99. A stable ship has a single
of the ship and houses a propeller which may curve through zero rudder angle. The degree of
have controllable pitch and is likely to be driven stability is qualitatively indicated by the slope of
by an electric motor. At slow speeds, activating the curve at the origin; the lower the slope, the ..... .....
the bow thruster gives lateral thrust and large higher the stability. However, for a given ship 5
turning moments. The ducted thruster becomes the slope of this curve is a function of the
less effective at higher speeds and conventional rudder lift-curve slope. Hence, a comparison of
rudders are used for high speed maneuvers. It stability between two ships should be limited to
does not seem very likely that ducted thrusters ships having similar rudder effectiveness. A
will be used on future amphibian designs hysteresis-type loop, Dieudonne loop, around
because of problems with arrangements, lost the origin is characteristic of unstable ships. The 0
buoyancy, and increased complexity. existence of a Dieudonne loop signifies that
Many other devices for producing steering continuous rudder activity will be required to
forces are conceivable, but one application maintain a steady course. The size of the loop
which is worthy of particular note concerning gives a qualitative measure of instability. Its
wheeled amphibians is the use of the wheels as height indicates the extent to which the turning
crude rudders. It is essential that steering of the rate will vary with the rudder held amidships,
wheels of an amphibian be coordinated with the i.e., its instability. The width of the loop is a
rudder when operating in surf so that a smooth fairly good measure of the ship's course keeping
transition may be made from water to land ability because it defines the envelope of rudder
operation. The front wheels are quite effective angles which must be used to hold a course.
as bow rudders and invaluable for control in a The directional stability of a ship depends
following sea (par. 7-9.1.5). Indeed, the tactical upon its lines or hull form and its appendages
turning diameter of a recent high-speed such as skegs or deadwood. The size of the 0 •
amphibian in the surf mode of operation was amphibian's appendages should be kept small
not appreciably changed when the rudder was unless the amphibian is directionally unstable, in
7-187
0 _ 00O 5 0 0 0 0_ _-. 0
AMCP 706-350
flow over its surface. As ship speed decreases,

L- the effectiveness of the control surfaces also
decreases. At zero speed of advance, any rudder
forces are limited to those which arise from
velocities in the slipstream of a thrusting
propeller. In this case the turning force comes
from the change in momentum caused by the
rudder deflecting the flow in the propeller race.
RUDDER ANGLE 6 The lift on the rudder will be a rather small
fraction of the propeller thrust. The thrust of
the propulsor is more effectively used for low . ... -
speed maneuvering if it can be trained in any 0
desired direction as with vertical axis propellers,
vertical shaft right angle drives, and water jets.
With these devices the thrust may be directed at
(A) DIRECTIONALLY STABLE SHIP right angles to the centerline so that a turn may
be executed without imparting any forward
motion to the vessel. S S
In many amphibian supply operations it is
necessary to hold the amphibian next to a large
- /1 ship for cargo transfer. If a springline is attached
to the bow of the amphibian, its rudder may be
/
S used to hold the stern against the cargo ship
while maintaining propeller thrust against the
I aspring line. With a trainable propulsor, an .
6amphibian may maintain a station next to the
/ Isupply ship without passing a line between the
I/ hulls.
/ "I 7-9.1.4 Steering When Reversing
The forces supplied by a rudder for steering at

low speeds are smaller when the propeller is
reversed to apply astern thrust. Inflow velocities
to a propeller are small compared to the outflow
in the race so that when going astern the flow
Figure 7-99. Results of Spiral Maneuvers velocity past the rudder is relatively low. River
towboats are often equipped with flanking
which case appendages may be enlarged or skegs rudders, ahead of the propeller, which are
added to attain stability. It is particularly operated only when the propeller is reversed, at
important that amphibians be directionally which time they are effective for deflecting the
stable so that response to the helm is positive propeller race to produce steering forces.
and rapid for difficult surf operations. As long as While the speeds and rudder forces in astern
the amphibian is stable, any increase in tle operations are generally low, the torque on the . 0
degree of stability is undesirable because it leads rudder stock may be maximum for this
to slower response and increased turning condition. The axis of rotation for a balanced
diameters unless larger more effective rudders rudder will pass through or near the
are employed, quarter-chord point of a section. In ahead
operations, the center of pressure for a properly
7-9.1.3 Steering at Very Low or Zero Speed of Advance designed balanced rudder will be within 0.05 0
chord length of the axis. However, in astern
The force producing capabilities of a rudder operation the center of pressure will be at about
are proportional to the square of the velocity of the 3/4-chord point or about 0.5 (chord) behind
7-188
\ e.
....
_ 0 0_ _ • 0_ ... o. 0 ... _ 0 o. 0 . •@ 0 0 0 0 0 S 0
AMCP 706-350
the axis. Thus, the moment arm of the rudder the low relative flow velocity past the stern due
lift about the rudder stock is about ten times to the orbital trajectories in the waves. On the
larger for astern operation. The maximum other hand, steering by means of the front
torque, of course, is the product of the lift times wheels is enhanced by the high relative velocities
its respective moment arm. encountered at the bow of amphibian.
7-9.1.5 Steering in Rough Water and in Surf 7-9.2 DESIGN OF MARINE STEERING SYSTEMS
The steering ability of any ship is adversely 7-9.2.1 Design Criteria

affected by waves. The worst condition occurs
when the ship is running in a following sea with The main objective of the requitements for
an advance speed about equal to the wave the marine steering system is to insure that the 0 0
celerity. This is because the hydrodynamic yaw amphibian will be able to safely negotiate some
forces created by following waves are applied prescribed minimum surf. Successful operation
over a longer period of time so that the resulting through the surf zone depends largely on
yaw motion is more severe, experience and good seamanship. However, the
Amphibians are required to operate safely characteristics of the amphibian with respect to
through the surf. Waves always become higher roll stability and maneuverability are also 0 6
and steeper as they approach a beach from open important. Two criteria used to judge
water. Thus, the need for a high degree of maneuverability are directional stability and
maneuverability is most pronounced for an tactical turning diameter. These qualities are
amphibian landing through surf. The greatest defined and measured only for calm water
pitfall facing the helmsman is the tendency of maneuvering. The tacit assumption is made that
the amphibian to broach in the surf. He must an amphibian with good maneuverability in calm
quickly apply opposite rudder to counteract any water will also exhibit good maneuverability in
tendency of the amphibian to veer off course rough water. In general this assumption is
and the rudder (or other steering device) must probably well founded. However, for the
be effective in creating a turning moment to particular case of an amphibian in following
resist the yawing motion. If the vessel should seas, conventional rudder control may be
broach near the beach line, it is likely that it will compromised so that some alternative steering
subsequently be swamped or overturned, device may be desired. The low speed and zero 0 S
An amphibian that is directionally stable in speed maneuverability of an amphibian design
calm water may behave as if unstable when it is may be required to meet some specification so
"riding" a wave through the surf. This behavior that even in rough water it will be able to reach
is attributable to the orbital velocities of the and maintain a station next to a ship for cargo
water particles in the waves, as illustrated in Fig. transfer.
7-100. The arrows in this figure are vectors The previous discussion applies to the
which indicate the direction and velocity of performance of the amphibian, which is only
particle motion in the fluid. An amphibian is one of the many design criteria which will be
shown poised on the wave front with its stern at used to evaluate the steering system design.
the crest of the wave and bow in the preceding Other criteria are described in par. 5-1.3 and
trough. The water velocity relative to the include maintenance, simplicity, ruggedness,
amphibian is nearly zero at the stern and about vulnerability, reliability, weight, arrangements,
twice the amphibian's forward speed at the bow. and economy.
Thus, the stabilizing influence on any Much of the time it will not be sufficient to
appendages at the stern of the vessel is lost apply the design criteria to the steering system
because there is no flow there, whereas the yaw as an entity. For example, the performance of
forces due to asymmetry of flow past the bow the st eering system is reflected in the
(from some initial yaw perturbation) are larger amphibian's degree of maneuverability. But
than normal with the high relative velocities in maneuverability is a function of the hull design S
the bow. and its appendages as well as the steering system
Steering by means of a conventional rudder in effectiveness. Thus, if a change in the steering
the foregoing example is also handicapped by system also alters the hull in any way, then the
7-189
AMCP 706-350
Figure 7-100. Schematic Diagram of a Wave Approaching a Beach Showing the Distribution
of
ParticleVelocities
steering performance and all the other criteria, empirical curve of lift coefficient slope as a . 0 0
as well, must be applied to the hull and steering function of aspect ratio AR for rectangular
system together. Unfortunately, there are many lifting surfaces. Aspect ratio is the ratio of span
interrelationships among the various systems on to chord, thus
an amphibian design so that evolution of the
design based on all the criteria becomes quite AR =- (7-139)
complex and difficult. IS
where
7-9.2.2 Rudders AR = aspect ratio of the foil, nd
b = span of the foil, ft 2
7-9.2.2.1 Theory of Operation S = area of the foil, ft
The lift coefficient slope is relatively
The main purpose of the rudder is to produce independent of the thickness of the foil.
moments about the center of gravity of a ship The maximum lift coefficient for symmetrical
with which to initiate and control turning foils with thickness-chord ratio tic = 0.15 is
motions. It is important to know the lift of the shown in Fig. 7-102 taken from Ref. 105. The
rudder at a given speed and rudder angle and,
especially, the maximum lift force which can be ____ _
produced by the rudder. The turning moment is
a function of rudder lift L as in Eqs. 7-136 and * .
7-137. The rudder lift is a function of velocity
0.06
and the lift coefficient CL (Eq. 7-135). The lift K - ____ ___
coefficient is, in turn, a function of rudder

aspect ratio and angle of attack. The maximum 00
value of lift coefficient is a function of Reynolds
number, aspect ratio, and thickness-chord ratio.
0 0
The lift coefficient is approximately a linear
function of angle of attack up to the stall angle. 0.02
Thus, the lift coefficient CL at any angle below 5

the stall angle can be approximated from the lift
coefficient slope dCL /da: 00 .0 2.0 3.0 4,0 5.0
CL =•a(dCL/da) (7-138) RATIO

ASPECT A•
Figure 7-101. Slope of Lift Coefficient as Func-

where a is the rudder angle, deg. tion of Aspect Ratio for Rectan-
Fig. 7-101, taken from Ref. 104, shows an gular Wings
7-190
'-- .... o. 0
9. . .. 0 . ... . •0S... 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
,.0t.,O
AMCP 706-350
stall angles which are associated with these W

dCL 0.0988 A1
maximum lift coefficients are shown in Fig. CL. I =- =
7-103 from the same reference. Note that the - da A (7-140)
I1.8 +cos 12 +4
stall angles for low aspect ratio foils are higher [8cos co92
than for high aspect ratio foils. High aspect ratio 0 0
foils have a higher lift coefficient slope, but their where
lower stall angles usually result in lower Ae = effective aspect ratio and is just twice
maximum lift coefficients. The thickness-chord the value in Eq. 7-139
ratio has an effect on the maximum lift S2 = sweep angle of the one-quarter chord
coefficient of a foil, as discussed in Ref. 67. The line, deg
thickness of a balanced rudder is seldom less a = rudder angle of attack, deg .
than 15 percent of the chord. The flow velocity past the rudder must 0
In practice, it is very difficult to determine include the effects of both the hull wake and the
the stall angle and maximum lift coefficients for propeller slipstream. If we assume that the
rudders on a ship. The flow past the rudder is ultimate contraction of the slipstream occurs
turbulent so that larger stall angles are found ahead of the rudder, then the mean velocity and
than for foils in undisturbed flow. Interaction diameter of the slipstream are given (by . ...
with the hull increases the effective aspect ratio momentum theory): 0 0
of the rudder. Free surface effects are also
present. Model tests for stalling are of little use 2T (7-141)
because of serious scale effects. Scale effects a +
.may be considered negligible for rudder angles

below the stall angle, however.V + (7-142)
Lift coefficient data from model tests on DvI = D /-i 2v, --
spade type rudders are presented in Ref. 106. where
An empirical fit to these data gives the following D = propeller diameter, ft
equation for the lift coefficient slope CL'a with D, = slipstream diameter, ft
respect to angle of attack for small angles: v, = mean slipstream velocity ft/sec
1.8
S1.6
U
I.-
LI! 1.4
U.
U-
U.'
0 __
U 1.2 -' ASPECT RATIO = 1
U_ /--N-ASPECT RATIO =2
1.0~<>jW ASPECT RATIO = 3
0.8 -
,2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000
VC
REYNOLDS NUMBER V
Figure 7-102. Effect of Reynolds Number on Maximum Lift Coefficient for Various Aspect Ratio
Foils
7-191
.... •
_ 0 0.
• o. • ... 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 S S
I
AMCP 706-350
42 i 1 ratio is limited by considerations of

vulnerability. The rudder should not extend
38 A r below the base line unless there is some other
A C projection such as a skeg or Kort nozzle which
34 affords adequate protection from likely hazards. 0 0
Structural limitations must also be considered in
0J 20 selecting aspect ratio. The center of pressure is
30 PE I- generally about midway between the root and
- ~ P'S? tip of the rudder. Thus, the greater the span, the
LU
_J 26 greater will be the bending moment on the
Z rudder stock.
S22 From the hydrodynamic standpoint,
OD 0increasing the aspect ratio increases the slope of
18 ASPECT RTIO the lift curve with respect to angle of attack.
Thus, the rudder will be more effective at low
14P rudder angles so that less rudder angle is
14 [required to counteract deviations in heading
(with the same rudder area).
10 The root of the rudder should be as close to
0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 the hull as possible. If the gap between hull and
Vc
REYNOLDS NUMBER x 10-
6 rudder is sufficiently small, the effective aspect
%) ratio is theoretically twice its geometric aspect
Figure 7-103. Effect of Reynolds Number on b. •
Stall Angle for Various Aspects b. Planform and Section Shapes. Two
Ratio Foils principles govern the selection of the rudder
planform. First, the advantages of elliptical
advance speed of the propeller, ft/sec spanwise loading are minimum induced drag,
T = propeller thrust, lb reduced bending moments, lower critical
2
A = propeller disc area, ft cavitation numbers, and increased lift carve
3
p = mass density, slug/ft slope. Elliptical loadings can be achieved by . - -
With these
be used values, the
to calculate thefollowing equation
mean velocity overmay
the selecting
line with the sweep
respect to angle of the
the taper quarter
ratio chord 0
as given in
rudder surface: Ref. 105. Of more practical importance is the
second principle, namely, to keep the largest
D, v, + V. (DI - b) possible proportion of the rudder area in the
v b ,ft/sec (7-143) propeller slipstream.
A suitable section for all-movable rudders is 0 0
where the NACA symmetrical section. The ordinates
b span of the rudder, ft. for this section are given in Table 7-46.
If the rudder is behind a Kort nozzle, of
course, the assumption about the slipstream The designation NACA 0015 refers to a NACA
contraction will not be valid. In this case the symmetrical section with a thickness to chord
slipstream diameter should be taken as the ratio tc =0.15. 0 0
propeller diameter and the mean slipstream The spanwise thickness distribution usually
velocity as given by Eq. 7-141, where T is tapers from a maximum at the root (t/c- 0.18)
propeller thrust and does not include the thrust to a minimum at the tip (t/c-0.04).
contributed by the nozzle. c. Balance. The objective in balancing the
rudder is to minimize the rudder torque. Low
7-9.2.2.2 Geometrical Considerations torque is, of course, desirable to minimize the
size and weight of the steering gear. It is not
Geometric parameters which must be possible to obtain full balance (zero torque) at
considered in the design of a rudder include: all rudder angles because the center of pressure
a. Aspect Ratio. The magnitude of the aspect moves aft with increasing angle of attack. Thus,
7-192
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-46 OFFSETS FOR NACA SYMMETRICAL allowable rudder travel in the astern condition
SECTIONS so that the torque does not exceed the
maximum ahead torque. Otherwise, the astern
Chord from Percent of torque can be reduced by increasing the balance
Leading Edge, Maximum Section area so that the rudder is overbalanced in the
aedcniin p
% Thiknessahead condition.
d. Stock Angle. It was found that the
0 0 effectiveness of the rudder on the DUKW was

2.5 43.6 increased considerably by raking the rudder axis
5 59.3 aft. This rudder was in a tunnel so that there was
7.5 70.0 a large interaction between the rudder and hull.
10 78.1 By raking the rudder, the flow was deflected
15 89.1 down and clear of the tunnel at large rudder
20 95.6 angles to reduce the interaction.
25 99.0 e. Maximum Rudder Angle. The effect of
30 100.0 aspect ratio on the maximum lift force that a
40 96.7 rudder can develop has not yet been determined.
50 88.2 It can be shown, however, that rudder angles • 6
60 76.1 greater than the stall angles in Fig. 7-103 can be
60 76.1 used effectively to decrease an amphibian's
80 43.7 turning diameter. The explanation for this lies in
80 43.7 the fact that the angle of attack a (Fig. 7-97) is
00 24.1 less than the rudder angle 8 in a turn. If rudder
angles greater than the stall angle can be
attained, the helmsman must be careful to avoid
inadvertent stalling of the rudder. If the rudder
if a rudder were designed to have zero torque at is put hard over so that it stalls, there will be a
20 deg rudder angle, the torque would be large increase in rudder drag without the desired
negative at lower rudder angles and positive at maximum lift for turning. For this reason, it is
higher angles. Ideally, the maximum negative advisable to have a simple rudder angle indicator ....... .....
torque should equal the maximum positive on the control panel for the operator's use. • -
torque in order to minimize the torque. A Maximum rudder angles as high as 65 deg may
positive torque is defined as one which opposes be practical, but should only be considered if a
an increase in rudder angle. A hand-steered small turning diameter is essential.
vessel cannot have a negative rudder torque at L Hull Geometry. The shape of the hull in
small angles or the rudder will not trail at zero the vicinity of the rudder can have an impurtant
angle when the rudder is free. With power effect on rudder performance especially if the
steering, negative rudder torques are accepted in propeller and rudder are placed in a tunnel. This
order to lower the maximum positive torque. topic is discussed in par. 7-1.4.
The balance of the rudder is expressed in
terms of the percentage of the total rudder area 7-9.2.3 Trainable Propulsors
which is forward of the rudder turning axis. This
percentage will range between 20 and 30 percent The side force that a trainable propulsor can
to achieve equal positive and negative maximum exert at zero advance speed is just equal to its
torques. The optimum area balance depends on static thrust. With a steering angle of 90 deg, the
the disposition of rudder area, section shapes turning moment is simply the thrust multiplied
and thickness, the effect of propeller race on the by the moment arm from the propulsor to the
rudder center of pressure, and the maximum amphibian's center of gravity.
rudder angle.
The maximum rudder torque in the astern 7-9.2.3.1 Water Jets S S
condition depends on the maximum rudder
angle and speed, and the degree of rudder area The side force of a trainable water jet at some
balance. It may be desirable to limit the advance speed can be estimated from simple
7-193
• •• • • .. • • • • • •- • S
0 0 *~0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 - 0 0
momentum theory. The thrust coefficient C, AR = d/c, nd

(neglecting interactions with the hull) may be S = dc, ft 2 (7-147)
written
where
C= T - , -1 (7'1' d = inside diameter of the shroud, ft
1/2pA V2) =2 ) (7-44) c = length of the shroud, parallel to the
centerline, ft
Eq. 7-140 may be simplified (E2 = 0) and
where
wTere =increased by a factor of two to yield an equation
T = water jet thrust, lb for the slope of lift coefficient with respect to .
2 0 S S
A = jet area, ft angle of attack for an annular foil in free stream
V, = advance speed at the water scoop flow:
inlet, ft/sec
= jet velocity, ft/sec d CLo.7
S= ratio of jet velocity to advance speed, L 0 = da a =0 - (7-148)
nd 1.8 +(/(AR-2 +4
3
p = mass density, slug/ft
Similarly, a lift coefficient corresponding to the where L
side force may be writtenwhr L
ser bw--V- = lift coefficient for a shroud in
LV free stream flow, nd
L -2( 1)2 sin a L = lift or force normal to direction of
CL (pA V2) flow, lb
S = projected area of shroud, ft•
where V = advance speed, ft/sec

3
L = component of thrust normal to the = mass density, slug/ft
vehicle centerline, lb This equation gives a good fit to the
a = "rudder" angle of jet, deg experimental data in Ref. 107.
The lift of a Kort nozzle shroud will be
Eqs. 7-144 and 7-145 can be combined to give influenced by the flow velocities induced by the --.........
the slope of the lift coefficient curve with propeller. A rough estimate of this effect can be •
respect to angle (in degrees) as: made from simple momentum theory by
assuming that the effective velocity past the
shroud is the advance speed augmented by
"
2
0 =- ICT+ C I -
+
11one-half
(7-146) slipstream. Thus,
the velocity increment in the
7-9.2.3.2 Outdrive Units CLa =CLo 2 (7-149)
The lift force of a right angle drive with an

open propeller will not be considered here
because it is believed more likely that a right where -
angle drive unit designed for a future amphibian CL, = slope of the lift coefficient curve for a
will have a Kort nozzle propulsor. Annular foils shroud enclosing a thrusting propeller.
have been tested in a wind tunnel to investigate nd
their lift characteristics, Ref. 107. The results of Cl, = slope of the lift coefficient curve for a
these experiments indicate that the lift shroud in free stream flow, nd
coefficient of a shroud in free stream flow is CT = thrust coefficient of the propeller, nd
about twice the lift coefficient of a conventional
low aspect ratio rudder (Eq. 7-140) where the TP
aspect ratio AR and projected areas S of the CT (p- 2 (7-150)
shroud are defined, respectively, as V/(pAlV )
7-194
•_• • • _ • . •.....
O • • • • • S
AMCP 706-350 0 0
where openings, which is a function of the hull shape.

TP = portion of total thrust produced by There are no data available for the performance
propeller, lb of a tunnel thruster installed in a hull similar to
A = irD 2 /4 = propeller disc area, ft 2 an amphibian. However, based on available data,
D = propeller diameter, ft it is not unreasonable to expect that the side 0 0
K = advance speed, ft/sec force produced by a tunnel thruster in the bow
3
p = mass density, slug/ft of an amphibian at cruise speed would be less
To complete the picture, one must consider the than 30 percent of its static thrust.
propeller thrust component normal to the ship
7-9.2.5 Box Rudders
D- 1 si In order to improve the docking performance -
CL
C'T- wpSV2) CTP
"-cd,)s a of the LARC V amphibian, model tests were
.
conducted at the Davidson Laboratory of the

If D=-d, C(lsin
"L \4T a (7-151) Stevens Institute of Technology, Ref. 111.
Several rudder configurations were tested:
a. Existing single flat plate rudder
Then, CL = 0.0137 (AR) CTp (7-152) b. Three-parallel-bladed rudder 0 6
c. Three-tandem-bladed rudder
The total lift coefficient slope may be estimated d. Circular nozzle* with airfoil section
by adding Eqs. 7-149 and 7-151, i.e., e. Circular nozzle* with flat plate sections
CL. + .f. Elliptical plawe nozzle*
CLOT g. Rectangular plate nozzle*
Refs. 108 and 109 present model test data for h. Rectangular plate nozzle* with center
the normal force of Kort nozzle configurations, plate
One study was made for the design of *These are more accurately described as tube
positioning units for the Project MOHOLE rThes; the are acedrately describe opsllub
Drilling Platform and the other was made for the rudders; they are placed behind the propeller
design of a tilt-duct VTOL craft, and do not function as a Kort nozzle. The
propeller was enclosed in a fixed nozzle,
7-9.2.4 Ducted Thusters independent of the rudder configuration. . •
Measurements of side force and yawing
The static thrust produced by a transverse moment were made in the static condition; the
tube type thruster may be estimated from propeller produced thrust, but the model was
constrained so that there was no motion. The
T= [C 2P 2 pAl 1/3, lb (7-153) various configurations were compared on the
basis of a steering performance index which was .,
where simply the rudder's lift curve slope (side force
P = delivered power, ft-lb/sec per degree of rudder angle). On this ba.is, the
2 rectangular plate nozzle with center plate (box
A = disc area, ft rudder) was the most effective, yielding some 72
C = figure of merit, nd percent improvement over the existing rudder
p = mass density, slug/ft3 configuration.
Ref. 110 shows that the value of C for tunnel The large improvement in side force (per S
thrusters is approximately 0.8. This may be degree of rudder deflection) realized by the box
compared with the value of C for Kort nozzles rudder configuration is due largely to the simple
which may be as high as 1.4. Thus, for the same fa• that more rudder area is placed in the
power and diameter, the static thrust produced propeller slipstream. This rudder configuration
by a Kort nozzle will be about 40 percent was adopted for the LARC XV and is now
greater than by a tunnel thruster, standard equipment. 0 0
The side force of a tunnel thruster is seriously
degraded when the ship is underway. The effect 7-9.2.6 Steering Linkages
of forward speed on the thrust of such a device
depends greatly upon flow across the tunnel It is important that the waterborne steering
7-195
0. O
0_ . __O O ... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
system be coordinated with the overland 8 mph speed should have a rudder rate on the
steering system. This coordination allows the order of 17 deg per sec.
transition between waterborne and overland The rotational velocities in the propeller
operations to be made smoothly and safely. In slipstream can cause the rudder to have a lift
addition, as was pointed out earlier, it is force when it is placed amidships (zero rudder
desirable to use the wheels as rudders for angle). This effect was noticeable on the DUKW.
operations through the surf where steering may As a result, the steering linkage on the DUKW
alternately be accomplished either by rudder or was modified so that when the helm angle was
wheels, or both. These considerations dictate zero the rudder was at the angle which gave zero
that water and land steering systems be turning moment. The linkage was also arranged
interlocked, and that -teering be accomplished so that the ratio of rudder travel to helm angle
by a single control. The linkage should be was greater on one side of the zero helm angle
designed so that the maximum deilection of the than the other. This was done so that the helm
rudder will correspond with the maximum would have equal effectiveness to port and
cramp angle of the wheels, starboard even though the rudder did not.
The large forces necessary to turn a 40,000-lb
amphibian on land will dictate that power 7-9.3 WATERBORNE STEERING BY MEANS OF THE
steering be employed. Hence, both land and WHEELS I S S
waterborne steering will likely be hydraulically
powered. It has already been noted that the wheels can
The strength of the waterborne steering be used effectively as rudders in the surf mode
system linkage should be based on the maximum of operation. Their effectiveness is improved by
rudder torque, whether it be from ahead or placing faired covers over the hubs which also
astern operation. The maximum power P which decreases their form drag. Close attention to the
must be supplied is a product of the maximum hull design in way of the wheel wells can also
ahead rudder torque and the desired rudder improve the flow past the wheels so that their
angular velocity: effectiveness as rudders is increased.
Many amphibians, and especially high speed
Q h(r designs, have provisions for retracting the wheels
550(57.3) ,hp (7-154) and/or extending flaps or fairings to "clean up"
the flow around the wheel wells. These . O
where
tprovisions are all directed toward decreasing the
Q = torque, ft-lb form drag which is a large part of the total drag
W, = rudder angle rate, deg/sec on the amphibian. When the amphibian is
The optimum angular velocity of the rudder operating in the hull mode or some high speed
depends, to a large extent, on the quickness o mode with wheels retracted or covered with
the ship's response to the rudder. A fast rudder flaps, the wheels cannot be used as rudders and I 0 •
deflection rate is of little use if the ship responds some provision should be made to automatically
so slowly that the rudder stall angle is almost disconnect the overland steeling system from
immediately exceeded. If the ship's response is the waterborne steering system when the wheels
quick so that the drift angle 0 (Fig. 7-97) are retracted.
increases rapidly with an increase in rudder angle
5, then the angle of attack a will not exceed 7-9.4 OVERLAND STEERING SYSTEM
the stall angle. Ref. 105 suggests that a suitable S •
rudder rate may be The overland steering system, in conjunction
60 V with the suspension system, determines the
6 (7-155) degree of control and stability for the amphibian
S L on land. The turning radius is a function of the
where amphibian geometry and the type of steering
w, = rudder angle rate, deg/sec employed. Figs. 7-104 and 7-105 show the 0 0
V = ship speed, ft/sec geometry of various turning radii for
L = ship length, ft conventional Ackermann (2-wheel) steering used
If we apply this formula, a 40-ft amphibian with on all standard military vehicles and for 4-wheel
7-196
S. ... 0
S S 5 0 0 ... 0 5 0 0 S *• 0 0 0 •
AMCP 706-350 p -
steering, respectively. The angle j3 is the

maximum cramp angle for the inside wheel in a
minimum radius turn. The angle a is the cramp
angle for the outside wheel. The relationship
between a and P3 is chosen so that the axis of I •
each wheel goes through the center of curvature
of the vehicle path. Otherwise, there would be Rf
4
excessive lateral scrubbing of the tires in a turn.
The relation between the front wheel steering
angles for Ackermann steering is: CENTER
OF 3
cot3=cota- (7-156)"
where I R,
L = wheelbase, ft
W = length between steering pivots, ft
It can readily be shown that the maximum
cramp angle of the front wheels to effect a given 0 0
radius turn is smaller with four-wheel steering. R COT w
The maximum cramp angle is of importance for Rf2=[ I , W)2 L2] 0
an amphibian design because it determines the R2 LSLN 2

depth of the wheel well cutouts. Deep wheel 2
2
wells are undesirable with respect to drag, Rt = lw w) + (L) ] /2
buoyancy, arrangements and, especially, Figure 7-104. Ackermann Steering 0 0
strength of the hull. Amphibians with
four-wheel steering can be made even more
maneuverable by making provision for crab
steering, as shown in Fig. 7-106. Crab steering is
indispensable for maneuvering a large
cumbersome vehicle in close quarters. Of course,
the advantages of four-wheel and crab steering
are offset to some extent by the increased R4
complexity of the system.
CENTER 1
Other factors to be considered in the design OF ft
of wheeled amphibian steering systems are ROTATION 3
effects of braking and traction, suspension R2 " -- -

geometry, inertial and aerodynamic forces, 1 L S
powering, gearing, and alignment. These factors
are all discussed in Ref. 63. 62 2 1
7-9.5 LOCATION OF THE STEERING POSITION,

CONTROLS, AND INDICATORS
The operator's location on an ampbibian will

be a compromise between the optimum position w
for steering on land and steering on water. On LI (
=2TAN B, TANB2)
land the most desirable position is as far forward 2 A /STN
6) 62
as possible so that the operator can see over the R2 = L, COT R)2 L ]1/2
bow in order to avoid obstructions. On water, R2 =(L
1
COTSI 6 LN21B2
however, safe operation dictates that the 3 I _=_I
operator's station be placed farther aft to afford Rf

4 = COT , w
W+ )2 (t, j1 )211/2
protection from the impact of the surf and also
to improve the helmsman's "feel" of the rudder. Figure 7-105. 4-wheel Steering
7-197
0 0__
0= 0 0 e~e - _ 0 0 0 0 _0_t _0.
AMCP 706-350 0 0
On a ship, the operator senses changes in

heading by sighting across some reference point
on the bow at a point on the horizon. The
spatial relationship between these two points 0 0
indicates to the operator any change in heading
and also the rate of the change. The sensitivity
of this type of navigation increases as the
distance between the operator and his visual
reference point on the ship increases. It should .-
be noted that the inner ear is virtually useless in -
sensing changes in heading on a tossing vessel. 6 0
This, along with the fact that there is no feel to
the rudder with power steering, points up the
need for a rudder angle indicator.
The LARC XV was designed to head in one
direction at sea and the other direction on land
in an attempt to solve the conflicting I S
requirements for operator location. In this
manner, the cab was positioned on the extreme
forward end for good road visibility on land and
aft for protection at sea. This was not a
completely satisfactory solution to the problem,
however. Upon reaching land through the surf,
the amphibian must come to a stop while the
operator changes seats (the seats face in opposite
directions, and one of them is elevated to place
the operator in a bubble on top of the cab for
complete 360 deg visibility at sea) and turns the
amphibian around for land operation. The
sequence of operations is reversed for entry into . - . 5
the water. This arrangement led to increased
complexity in the controls which had to be used
for both modes of operation, and certain
instruments and indicators were difficult to
monitor from one seat or the other.
The LARC V has only one steering position _
- 0
which is placed farther aft than would be
considered as ideal for overland operations. As a
result, an assistant must climb out of the
amphibian to direct the operator over difficult
terrain.
An alternative design which should be studied
for future amphibians would place the cab far _ 0 .
forward. An auxiliary steering station would be
located on the aft end of the amphibian. This
station would have duplicate controls and
instruments needed for safe waterborne
operation, and would only be manned during
operations in heavy surf and high seas. The . . _
feasibility of this type of solution would require

further study.
Figure 7-106. Crab Steering The location of the controls should be
7-198
S• . .: i i - - : . - :.- 0
S 0 0 . 0.60
.0 0 0 0,
AMCP 706-350 1 0 .
convenient to the operator, and all instruments certain vital controls are out of reach and
and indicators should be in full view and easily instruments cannot be seen is to build a full
read and interpreted. The operator's seat should scale mock-up of the control station which can
be adjustable to suit his particular anatomy. The be evaluated by experienced amphibian .
best way to insure against a poor design in which operators. 0 0
SECTION V AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
7-10 AUXILIARY SYSTEMS DESIGN e. Miscellaneous components such as 0

reservoirs, filters, heat exchangers.
Amphibians are generally multi-mission Combinations of these components make up
vehicles operated by a crew of from two to five the hydraulic system. Frequently a single
men. The auxiliary systems must therefore hydraulic pump is used to power a number of
provide basic, remote control, and labor saving components.
services so that the crew-vehicle combination The design techniques and use of fluid-power O
9 - .
can provide a flexible, cost-effective system. The and fluid-control systems are expanding rapidly.
auxiliary systems necessary to accomplish this This implies that present design criteria will
goal are numerous, and in some instances, change as new components are produced and a
complex. This section of the handbook does not larger production base evolves. Machine Design
explain the design procedure for each system magazine publishes annually a reference issue
but it does consider the problems generated by devoted entirely to fluid power which contains
the marine environment and reviews, for each current information on hydraulic system design. L
system, the important lessons learned from The Mobility Equipment Research and
recent amphibians. Development Center, Fort Belvoir, Virginia,
maintains the Qualified Products List (QPL) of
7-10.1 HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS hydraulic equipment. The QPL's should not be
used without consulting the maintaining
Hydraulic systems are used to transmit power authority. Some of the design guidelines in use S
and to provide remote controls. Amphibian at present (1969) are described in the paragraphs
hydraulic systems could transmit and provide which follow.
power for: For a required performance level, the system
a. Steering weight tends to decrease with an increase in
b. Braking system pressure. The cost and maintenance,
c. Wheel extension and retraction however, tend to increase with system pressure.
d. Ramp extension and retraction Most system pressures do not exceed 3,000 psi ...... .....
e. Winch drives and the variety of available components for
f. Miscellaneous drives higher pressures is limited. Component
Hydraulic remote control is normally used only availability is greatest at 2,000 to 2,500 psi.
in conjunction with a power transmitting Systems in which the pump runs continuously
system. Components of a system include: nM be either open or closed center systems.
a. Source of mechanical power such as an When the drive end of the systems is not using 5 0
electric motor, power take-off (PTO) from the fluid, the open center configuration discharges
main engine, or manual the fluid back to the reservoir through the
b. Power converter (mechanical to hydraulic) control valve, while the closed center system
such as a rotary or reciprocating pump returns the fluid through the pressure relief
c. Hydraulic power transmission system valve. This means, of course, that when there is
which includes valves, tubes or pipes, regulators, no power required and the system is on
and manifolds "stand-by", the open-center configuration
d. Power converter (hydraulic to mechanical) operates at a reduced pressure and pump power
such as a hydraulic cylinder, rotary actuator or level while the closed-center system pump
hydraulic motor maintains a full head of pressure. The
7-199
.0_0 ..
S, •_ • - " . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . . .. •0
.• _ .- .. 0..-
• ..- .0. .0.- -- - -'%
AMCP 706-350
closed-center configuration is used where there and the maintenance cost. Fittings are made of
are two or more branches in the circuit, steel and are connected with mechanical seals
operating independently. It is possible to use an which may be flanged, flared, or flareless types.
open-centered configuration to power more than Flanged seals are used only in the larger sizes.
one cylinder or motor independently if a series Flared tubing for hydraulic applications is 0 S
arrangement is used. Special precautions are normally used with the JIC-SAE 37 deg flare. A
required because the tankport on control valves 45 deg SAE flare is frequently used for low
is usually not designed for full system pressure. pressures with copper tubing. For steel tubing,
In general, the closed system is preferred for the flareless fitting is leakproof to very high
multiple branch systems where at least one of pressures and resists vibrations well. If flared
the motors is used continuously. Open-center type fittings are used, the nut-and-sleeve type is
configurations are preferred for simple systems preferred. Thin wall stainless steel tubing work I
which are not used continuously, hardens readily and both the tube-cutter and the
Another important system consideration is various flaring tools can work-harden the tube so
the selection of the hydraulic fluid. Ref. 112 is a that either flareless or flared fittings leak at
handbook on hydraulic fluids. moderate pressures.
Simple low pressure hydraulic systems are The hull of any vehicle flexes and some
easy to understand, operate, and maintain, machinery components will rock on their S S S
Systems on amphibians, however, are complex foundations so that it is important to arrange
and are frequently hampered with fluid dynamic the tubing to allow for motion between
problems such as cavitation. In order to obtain a components. If the relative motions are large,
cost-effective trouble-free system, it must be flexible hose should be used. In addition to
completely designed and tested by engineers permitting relative motion, hose can
who have experience with similar systems in a accommodate the following environmental
similar environment. In the past, attempts to conditions:
reduce the cost using components with marginal a. Severe vibrations
capabilities have resulted in systems with low b. Manufacturing tolerances
reliability and the added expense of additional c. Complex routing for piping runs
development time. d. Hydraulic shock absorption
The source of mechanical power is Flexible hose changes length when pressurized - ......
frequently a mechanical power take-off (PTO) so that it should not be installed in tension. ItP
from the main engine which is normally a fails more quickly from twisting than bending so
standard optional feature. The power converter it is desirable to support the hose in such a
is usually a simple piston pump for manual manner that the motion in any one section is in
operation or one of a variety of types of one plane.
motor-driven pumps. Ref. 113 contains a list of Valves can be classified as follows:
available types of motor-driven pumps and a a. Pressure control p
discussion of the general characteristics of each b. Flow control
type. Gear pumps were used on the LARC V c. Direction control
and LARC XV. In spite of serious development The flexibility of hydraulic systems is in large
efforts, these pumps had problems which measure the result of the variety of control
resulted in unpredictable operation and short valves available. This constitutes a large complex
lives. It is recommended that these problems be subject and the manufacturers should be
consulted as to the characteristics of available 0
reviewed before using this type of pump.
Hydraulic power is transmitted primarily valves. Automatic pressure regulating valves have
through rigid tubing. Steel is the only tubing been a high maintenance component on some
material permitted without restriction by the past amphibians. In general, complicated control
"Joint Industry Conference, Hydraulic and valves cannot be expected to be highly reliable
Pneumatic Standards for Industrial Equipment". in the amphibian environment. For Navy
Tube fittings are selected for minimum hydrofoil boats, packaged hydraulic systems 0 0
resistance to flow in the system, reliability in the have performed better than those assembled at
environment, resistance to leakage, and life cycle the boat yard.
cost, including the initial cost of parts and labor Hydraulic power is converted back to
7-200
0 0
0 00@ ~ 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 _0 0
AMCP 706-350 0
mechanical force by: environmental conditions, a heat exchanger will

a. Linear actuators be necessary to cool the hydraulic fluid. These
b. Hydraulic motors heat exchangers usually use the same fluid that
c. Rotary actuators cools the main engines. Finned tubing has been
Linear actuators include all of the types of used effectively for this purpose. In general 0
hydraulic cylinders. These have high force there is very little air flowing over the reservoir
capability, high power per weight and size, so that the heat exchanger should be designed to
mounting flexibility, and ease of speed control, carry off the full amount of heat generated in
Hydraulic motors include a variety of variable the system.
and constant volume configurations. Motor-type
comparisons are presented in Ref. 113. 7-10.2 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Rotary actuators are either vane or piston
types. Typical maximum arcs of rotation are Electricity is required for lights, horn,
280 deg for single vane and 100 deg for double controls, gages, electronic equipment, and power
vane types. Piston-type rotary actuators can for small motors. Components in the electrical
exceed 360 deg rotation. system of a typical amphibian include:
The miscellaneous accessories for a hydraulic a. Batteries
system are sometimes neglected since they b. Starter solenoid 0
generally serve only an auxiliary function. c. Alternator
Reservoirs, one of the more important of these d. Starter motor
items, are sized to hold the full flow from the e. Engine fan disconnect switch
pump for from one to three minutes. Factors f. Fuel shut-off valve
which affect the size are: g. Junction box with contactors, circuit
a. Volume to fill the system at start-up breakers, relays, and a shunt 4D
without exposing the intake filter h. Fuel pump motor
b. Capacity to accommodate variations in the i. Lights, including headlights, taillights,
system requirements during each cycle of the running lights, bow light, stern light, cab lights,
operation machinery space lights, instrument lights
c. Heating and cooling dynamics during j. Instruments
extreme temperatures k. Windshield wiper - .
Other factors that must be considered in 1. Radio S 0
selecting the reservoir are: m. Horn
a. Line location at extreme angles of heel and n. Slave receptacle
trim o. Heater fan motor
b. Baffles to reduce surging in the tank p. Ramp horn
c. Provisions for draining and cleaning the q. Emergency hydraulic pump motor
tank The major differences between electrical S •
d. Level indicator systems for amphibians and those provided for
e. Air filters to remove the contaminants trucks are that stray current in a metal
from the air as the tank breathes amphibian can accelerate electrolysis, and salt
Reliable hydraulic systems require clean water spray and salt-laden air accelerate the
hydraulic fluid. Filters are required, even if the corrosion of contacts and the deterioration of
system is initially clean, because of the many insulation. Electrolysis caused by stray currents
sources of contamination. Filters are available in is practically eliminated by using a two wire
a variety of types. The selection criteria include: system where the metal hull is not used as one
a. Fluid characteristics side of the circuit. Two wire systems, however,
b. Solids to be removed are heavier and more expensive. In order to
c. Piping material prevent premature failure of the system, it is
d. Pressure necessary to select satisfactory materials for the
e. Environment environment and encapsulate or otherwise 0 0
All hydraulic fluids have limiting values of waterproof the entire system.
practical operating temperatures. For systems Most boats are fitted with a 6- or 12-V system
which operate continuously in normal but marine equipment is frequently available for
7-201
) .. 0• S
0 0 @ • ... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
24-V service. At the present time 24-V DC particularly the valves and filters or strainers
systems are standard for all military vehicles. d. Adequately protected from high pressures
This voltage is prescribed by the Department of caused by thermal expansion of the fuel when
the Army in AR 705-19, Ref. 114. Refs. 115 the system is secured
to 119 contain information pertaining to the e. Properly bonded across components that 0 0
design and requirements of electrical systems for will not carry electricity and grounded so that
boats. all metallic components have a low resistance
Ref. 63 contains discussions of electrical continuity to ground, thus preventing static
systems for military vehicles. The U. S. Army electricity sparks
Tank-Automotive Command, Warren, Michigan, f. In areas that are not subject to
maintains the list of qualified electrical products accumulation of water which might eventually
for use in Army vehicles, leak into the system
Some design problems and/or solutions from g. Able to withstand exposure to free burning
recent amphibian development program are: fuel for a specified time so that the crew can
a. Wires and components must not be located escape in event of fire (Ref. 115 recommends
in the bilge, in areas where there may be 2.5 min for yachts.)
excessive spray, or where they will be h. Constructed of materials that are
susceptible to damage by maintenance compatible with the fuel .
- S
personnel. i. Built to withstand the pressures, vibration,
b. Alternators are simpler than marine shock, and other environmental conditions
(nonsparking) DC generators. j. Fitted with the necessary filters and fuel
c. Most prevalent failures have been pick-up tubes since the vehicle motions may be
waterlogged switches and contacts, and extreme
insulation deterioration. k. Fitted with connections only on the top to
d. In cold weather the batteries may require reduce the amount of fuel leakage in case of a
heating. fitting failure
e. A receptacle and extension cord for 1. Fitted with a fill pipe or pipes that open
jumping electrical systems between vehicles are only on deck, with a watertight cap, in a
desirable, location where spilled fuel and/or fumes will
Some of the present amphibian operators find flow overboard
a high-intensity searchlight useful for finding the m. Fitted with vent lines that have flame • -_
low spots in the surf when coming from the sea screens to prevent flashbacks
into shore. These should be located on the cab n. Arranged such that a broken distribution
roof and could be either fixed in position or line cannot siphon the fuel from the fuel tank
manually trainable, into the bilge
o. Able to prime engines for cold starts or
7-10.3 FUEL SYSTEMS after running out of fuel 0 0
These vehicles will occasionally be fueled
Fuel systems for gasoline, or other fuels with alongside a ship so the location of the fill pipes
a flashpoint of 1100F or lower, must be must be safe for personnel and free from water
designed with more safeguards than required washing into the fuel system. Fill pipes must be
when using Diesel fuel. Gasoline vapor is heavier sized so that they do not restrict the refueling
than air and tends to collect at the low point of operation. Vents must be located so that the
the bilge. In a truck installation the vapor flows fuel vapor flows overboard and, in heavy
out the bottom and is dissipated. If the weather, sea water does not flow back through
concentration is within certain hounds, any the vent line. Vent lines should not be tapped
spark or open flime will cause an explosion. A into fill lines.
safe fuel system should be: Rigid fuel tanks may be constructed from
a. Liquid and vapor tight to the interior of steel, aluminum, or Fiberglas. Each has
the hull advantages and disadvantages which must be 0 0
b. Permanently installed with all components evaluated with respect to the particular design.
properly secured Flexible bladder fuel tanks have also been used
c. Accessible for inspection and maintenance, to permit fitting into locations which are
7-202
_- .. 9 ... • 0 ... - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 i - 0
inaccessible to rigid tanks. However, they are by any Army driver in any environment in
susceptible to fire and abrasion. which the vehicle will operate. Some of the
Electrically driven submerged fuel pumps are problems experienced in the development of
dependable and tend to avoid vapor lock. recent amphibians have shown:
a. The need for a throttle locking device in 0 0
7-10.4 COOLING SYSTEMS the waterborne mode
b. That the orientation and direction of
Boat machinery cooling system heat motion of controls should coincide with the
exchangers are located under or inside the hull. direction of the action controlled
If under the hull, it is normally located alongside c. In general, the control wires and/or rods
the keel where it is well protected and is usually are too light and frequently bind, stretch, or
defined as a "keel cooler". For installations with bend requiring frequent adjustment and/or
the heat exchanger inboard, the seawater is repair.
pumped directly through the engine and the As an example of the complexity of these
other components or through a heat exchanger. systems the controls and panel lights for a
For craft which operate in the surf, such as simple amphibian are listed by type in Table
landing craft or amphibians, where there is a 7-47.
large quantity of suspended solids in the water, a 0
system that pumps water through a piping 7-10.6 NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
system is impractical. The Navy LCVP's using
this type of system at times experience filling of For most operations, navigation of
the interior water passage of the engine with amphibians can be conducted without special
sand. Amphibians, therefore, are fitted with keel devices because the route between the cargo
coolers located in the position best suited to the ships and the landing beaches is normally within
hull design. sighting distance. For those occasions when
Three feasible arrangements are: visibility is restricted, a compass and navigation
1. A special recess in the hull with a grille lights are necessary safety features. A
protectinga compact heat exchanger element combination chartboard and navigation
2. Tubular or other heat exchanger, without instrument is useful if a chart is used. It is also
protection, in a natural recess such as a wheel desirable to provide dry stowage for charts, 0 0
well or propeller tunnel maps, and manuals.
3. Pipes or special shapes welded or extruded For those situations where the destination is
with the bottom shell to provide heat exchange not visible for part of the voyage, while
through the bottom following a single given compass course, a more
For the land mode, a truck-type radiator is sophisticated navigation system is required. One
fixed in a recess in the hull with a declutchable solution is to furnish, when necessary, a portable - -
fan behind it. The recess is open on the top so homing receiver for each vehicle to indicate to
that the air can be drawn through the radiator the operator the direction to a transmitter. The
and exhausted. Tests run on amphibians have transmitters would also be portable and could be
shown that land cooling must be sized to stationed on ships, the beach, orrbos buoys. Itti is
long saindo hptebah
accommodate mnecessary engine output for
acc modae maximum that the vehicle crew be capable of
periods. setting the receiver to home on a number of
The major problems that plagued the LARC different transmitters.
V and. LARC XV cooling systems were:
a. ,Electrolytic corrosion of fan drives and
heat exchangers 7-10.7 COMMUNICATION SYSTENM
b. Insufficient cooling at high ambient
temperatures It is desirable to provide some form of
c. Magnetic fan clutch failures communication between the control personnel
and the vehicle crew. This can be accomplished L . -0
7-10.5 CONTROL SYSTEMS with either portable or fixed equipment. In
general, the same equipment provided for trucks
Control systems must be designed to be used will be satisfactory.
7-203
S....9 _ 0 .
_
... * ~.~~.
0 ...
_0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 7-47 LARC V CONTROLS c. Removal of noxious gases and resupply of

breathing air
Start and Control Switches d. Removal of fuel vapcrs in machinery
Master switch compartment
Ignition switch e. Engine cooling for air cooled engines, e.g.,
Bilge pump switches gas turbines
Converter lock switch Except for air cooling of engines, the quantities
Horn button of air involved are relatively small. The

Fan drive switch requirement is the design of an intake and
exhaust system which will allow the air to pass ..
but still not allow dangerous amounts of water • •
Levers and Foot Pedals into the hull in any reasonable operating
condition. In general, no conditioning of the air
Throttle is required except for possibly heating the air for
Forward-neutral-reverse shift lever the cab and passenger spaces.
Land drive selector In the presence of salt-spray, gas turbines salt
Marine drive selector up causing excessively high operating -
Parking brake temperature and accelerated corrosion. This
Front wheel disconnect condition reduces the power level until the salt
Retarder pedal is washed off with fresh water. For this reason,
Brake pedal the ventilation system for a gas turbine
Accelerator installation usually includes demisters, and
filters. It is recommended that the engine
Light and Accessory Switches manufacturer be consulted regarding the type 0 0
Windshield wiper and amount of filtering required for any specific
Panel lights design.
Driving lights For very cold weather, it is desirable to
Navigation lights provide for restricting the ventilation in the
Heater controls machinery space so that the temperature inside
Defroster controls will stay above freezing and prevent ice from
forming in the recesses and on the deck.
Emergency Equipment Controls The cab should be provided with a fresh air
supply, heated when necessary, and a good
Engine fire control handle defroster. A change of air every two minutes is
Manual bilge pump desirable for occupied spaces. For hot weather,
Emergency tiller devices should be available to secure some of the
doors, windows, and hatches in an open
Instrument and Warning Lights position. A hatch in the cab roof is particularly
Fuel gages useful for venting the hottest part of the cab. A
fan to circulate the air in the engine space is
Engine and pressure beneficial to maintenance personnel.
Engine water temperature
Fan stopped light 7-10.9 LUBRICATION SYSTEM 0 0
Speedometer
Low oil pressure light There is such a large assortment of moving
parts on an amphibian that the job of keeping all
parts properly lubricated is critical and
7-10.8 VENTILATION SYSTEM time-consuming. It is desirable to reduce the
number of different lubricants to a minimum. It
The air is changed in the enclosed sections of is also important to eliminate maintenance
an amphibian for: under the vehicle and in the bilge during the
a. Engine combustion air requirements time between maintenance periods. On the
b. Temperature control LARC V and LARC XV, for example, the
7-204
0 0
._0. ... o.... •. • ,0 0 ... 0 .O 0 0 0 •.o

AMCP 706-350
propeller shaft bearing is to be greased every 2. Vehicle transit to destination

four hours of operation. For a continuous 3. Off-load cargo at the land destination
operation, this requires that the crew crawl point
under the vehicle while it is still wet and, At sea, the cargo is handled easily with the
possibly, while it is being loaded. It is ship's crane but there are serious difficulties in 0 0
understandable that this preventive maintenance safely landing and securing the cargo on the
is sometimes overlooked. The universal joints amphibian cargo deck while it is rolling, heaving,
hidden away in the wet and dirty bilge suffer and pitching. The location of the tie-down pads
from the same problem. is important since a lack of pads may limit some
The lubricating oil sump on engines built for types of cargo to a partial load. The lashing
land vehicles is sometimes not designed for the arrangements must be capable of being easily
high angles of roll that occur on amphibians. and quickly attached and adjusted by one man
The entire range of practical motions must be wearing gloves.
considered for the design of the lubricating oil It has been suggested that lashing
system. Sump drains must be specially arrangements, designed to fail if the amphibian
considered because the engines are usually rolls in excess of some fixed angle, might be a
mounted as low in the vehicle as possible. In the desirable safety feature.
LARC V, for example, the engine oil was first Heavy swinging draits of cargo present 0 0
drained into the bilge and then pumped into a particular problems. The draft will damage any
waste container. This is obviously an inefficient projection above and adjacent to the cargo area
procedure which increases maintenance costs. that is not properly designed.
Elements of a typical lubrication oil system The deck in the cargo area also receives severe
include pumps, filters, heat exchangers, valves, punishment from heavy items of cargo with
piping, sumps, and level and pressure gages. The sharp corners. Some remedies are the provision
engine oil sump is not cooled by the air flow of a layer of rubber bonded to the deck, a layer
generated by the motion of the vehicle, hence a of plywood, or increased deck plating scantlings.
heat exchanger with sufficient capacity is The last solution probably requires the least
required. maintenance.
The transit phase is not a particular problem
7-10.10 FRESH WATER SYSTEM with regard to the cargo handling system unless ..
the cargo shifts or must be jettisoned. Fabric
Fresh water systems are normally fitted on side curtains supported with wire rope prevent
amphibians only for water washing gas turbines shipping some water in the cargo space and still
to eliminate the salt water. The requirements for allow the water trapped on the cargo deck to
the service should be obtained from the engine drain overboard quickly.
manufacturer. The protection of cargo from the weather
with a tarpaulin can be useful. The covering and 0 0
7-10.11 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM supporting structure must be strong enough to
withstand effects of the surf. Configurations
Compressed air may be used for engine with nonwatertight cargo decks must be
starting, tire inflation, air powered tools, and protected to prevent swamping. Protected
control power, e.g., air brakes. The importance storage for all portable equipment must be
of variable tire inflation with regard to mobility provided.
is discussed in Ref. 26. The last phase, off-loading the cargo, is a
A compressed air system is relatively simple problem because of the great variety of the
and consists of a compressor, accumulator equipment available to handle the heavy items.
piping, valves, and water traps. A flush deck arrangement with side curtains
allows the use of fork lift trucks. Cargo that
7-10.12 CARGO HANDLING SYSTEM must be lifted out of a well is particularly
difficult to handle. The provision of 0 0
Cargo handling is usually accomplished in self-contained unloading gear requires additional
three phases: weight and space, and penalizes the performance
1. Transfer of cargo from ship to vehicle of the vehicle. Ramps can be used for wheeled
7-205
S.
. .t _ o
• •• • • • • • • • O_-9-
0• 0. 0ri 0 0 0 0i 0 0 0- 0 0 0...,0..... 0
AMCP 706-350 O 0
cargo and for rolling off heavy boxes. This is a 7-10.14 BILGE PUMPING SYSTEM
slow method, however, and requires added
weight, increased complexity, and maintenance. The primary consideration for the design of
A winch with a flexible arrangement of snatch the bilge pumping system is the rate at which
blocks, deck pads, wire rope, nylon line, and water can enter the bilge. If the vehicle has a 0 0
assorted fittings can be used in a variety of ways cargo well deck that is open to the bilge, similar
to assist in off-loading in many circumstances, to the DUKW arrangement, the safety of the
vehicle in the surf or high seas depends on the
7-10.13 FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEM pumps' removing the water faster than the
average flooding rate. Portable covers such as
Combustible materials on an amphibian tarpaulins supported by bow frames are very -
include fuel, electrical equipment, cargo, and effective in reducing the quantity of water. The
possibly the hull of a Fiberglas vehicle. The covers must be sufficiently strong to prevent
vehicles are relatively compact and easily failure in the surf. The DUKW's were equipped
disabled by fire so it is necessary that the crew with tarpaulin covers and, on occasion, they
be able to detect and extinguish a fire quickly. were swamped when the covers were split by the
The fire fighting system may include a force of the plunging surf.
detection device, and portable and fixed For vehicles with a watertight deck, the pump 0 0
extinguishers with the necessary controls. There must be able to handle the water that can come
are a number of types of detection devices that aboard through the ventilation system, exhaust
might be used. The type selected should be system, hatches, and, possibly, the machinery
quick-acting, repeating, accurate, and reliable, cooling system waterpump to allow for a broken
The detector may actuate lights, alarms, and a water line. The pump capacity should also be
fixed extinguishing system. greater than the possible inflow through the hull
Ei t h e r c a r b o n d i oxide or drains so that the vehicle will not founder if the
monobromotrifluoromethane Halon 1301 may drains arc accidentally left open.
be used as the extinguishing agent. The latter is When the amphibian is receiving cargo from a
reportedly much more effective than CO 2 and is ship in rough weather, the amount of water
only a little more expensive. Portable entering the hull may be relatively high due to
extinguishers should be located in the cab and the interacting wave patterns between the ship
also at the aft end of the cargo compartment so and the vehicle. Usually the amphibian will L , 0 0
that at least one is accessible in any situation. operating with a moderate amount of ahead
A fixed extinguishing system has a supply of thrust to maintain tension on the spring line
extinguishing agent, distribution system, and, consequently, the engine will probably be
nozzles, and local or remote control and is operating at a low rpm. The bilge pump system
normally installed in the engine space. In order design must provide sufficient pumping capacity
for the system to be safe and effective it must: at low engine power levels to prevent the 0
a. Contain sufficient agent to fill the accumulation of an excessive amount of bilge
compartment where the fire is to be water in this situation. Table 7-48 lists bilge
extinguished pumping rates for amphibians.
b. Permit evacuation of personnel from the Other design requirements include:
space a. The pump suctions must be located where
c. Stop the fuel supply the water will collect in any condition. Some
If the engine draws combustion air from the craft are lowest forward while at rest and lowest
space, it will stop as soon as the agent drives the aft underway. If the cargo is off center, the low
air from the compartment. The control may be point will be on one side for vehicles with flat
manual or automatic, and local or remote. The bottoms.
control mechanism should be relatively fireproof b. Pumps should be self-priming and designed
so that it is not damaged by fire before the to run dry continuously.
system is actuated. If local control is used, it c. Operation can be controlled automatically 0 0
should be located where it can be reached during or manually. The overboard discharge should be
a fire. Ref. 115 recommends quantities of CO 2 located above the waterline where the operator
to be installed in fixed systems on boats. can observe the discharge. A high water alarm
7-206
0 J
AMCP 706-350 O 0
TABLE 7-48 BILGE PUMP RATES
Total
Power Number of Capacity, - .
Vehicle Source Pumps Capacity of Each Pump GPM 0
DUKW Mechanical 1 225 GPM > 300

Mechanical 1 > 75 GPM
Manual 1 25 GPM
LARC V Hydraulic 3 300 GPM 900 0 •

Manual 1 0.75 gallon per stroke
LARC XV Hydraulic 3 300 GPM 900

Manual 2 0.75 gallon per stroke
LARC LX Hydraulic 3 100 GPM (bilge) 300

Hydraulic 2 2000 GPM (cargo well) 4000
can also be provided. The present system for holding an amphibian

d. Hydraulic drive or submersible electric alongside a ship while receiving cargo provides
drive should be used so that high water level in for the ship to furnish a spring line which is
the bilge does not stop the pump. attached at the forward inboard comer of the S S
e. The suctions should be located to be vehicle and led aft to the attachment on the
observed during normal maintenance so that rags ship. The amphibian is then held against the ship
and other debris that collect at the pump by running the propulsor in the slow ahead
suction can be removed as they collect. The condition with the steering device directed to
suction should also be accessible when there is at hold the stem against the ship's side.
least a one foot depth of water in the bilge. This The mooring system consists of properly
criterion has been overlooked in boats which placed cleats and nylon mooring lines. The
have foundered only because the crew could not lifting and/or towing pads can be used if they
clear the pump intakes, are in the correct position. Ref. 115 may be
f. Bottom drains are normally fitted to keep used for guidance in the selection of
the hull dry inside during operation on land. It is components for the mooring and anchoring
important that they be designed so that parts are systems.
not easily lost, and the drains can be easily .
removed and reinstalled. 7-10.16 EXHAUST SYSTEM
g. The system piping should be designed to
withstand the maximum pressure that the pump The exhaust systems used for amphibians are
can provide. similar to those used on trucks, i.e., dry
h. The bilge suctions should be installed to mufflers, and they exhaust out of the top of the
provide a free flow area through the strainer at vehicle. The entire system must be shielded or 0 0
least 1.5 times the suction pipe cross-sectional insulated for personnel safety. The system must
area. be arranged so that engine motion, thermal
expansion, and local hot spots do not crack the
7-10.15 MOORING AND ANCHORING SYSTEMS exhaust lines. The exhaust should not discharge
forward of the operator's position.
Amphibians are not expected to anchor Gas turbine exhausts are hot, large, and noisy.
frequently or for long periods. Accordingly, a The engine manufacturer should be consulted to
lightweight anchor, a short length of anchor determine the requirements for a particular
chain, and a nylon line are sufficient for the engine. The Navy conducts research on this
anchoring system. problem and the Boat Engineering Department,
7-207
o S
0 0 0 * ~ ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
Norfolk Division of the Naval Ship Engineering b. Boat hook

Center, Norfolk, Virginia, may be contacted for c. Boarding ladder (if not built-in)
the latest information. d. First aid kit
e. Anchor and line
7-10.17 SAFETY AND LIFESAVING SYSTEMS f. Repair parts S S S
g. Portable fire extinguisher
Safety has to be discussed throughout the h. Life preservers
text because it must be considered with each i. Mooring lines
part of the design. Some of the more important j. Lifesaving ring buoy
features required are: k. Spotlight/flashlight
a. Fast, accessible escape routes from the cab 1. Lubrication order
in any situation including a capsized vehicle m. Technical manual
b. Handholds so that the entire vehicle is n. Marine fenders
accessible at sea in an emergency o. Pyrotechnic pistol
c. Convenient life rings or lifesaving devices p. Radio set
d. Emergency tiller q. Signal lamp
e. Fire fighting equipment (par. 7-10.13) r. Portable trouble light
s. Emergency steering wrench
7-10.18 HEATING AND DEFROSTING SYSTEMS Proper storage must be provided for all OEM
and some personal equipment for the crew,
Heating and defrosting systems can be including such items as coats, boots, hats,
provided with hot water from the engine cooling helmets, rifles, ammunition, tool boxes, and
system or require a separately fired burner. The charts.
latter should use the same fuel as the engines.
Hot water heaters are not as efficient as 7-10.20 COLD WEATHER KIT
separately fired heaters but require less
maintenance. The heat must be properly Operating in very cold weather is a severe
distributed and free of fumes. The defroster condition for any vehicle. If an air heater is used
should be capable of blowing fresh, unheated in the bilge of an amphibian and the air is
air, independent of the heater. circulated throughout the vehicle while the fresh ... . .
air ventilation is restricted, many of the O 0
7-10.19 ON EQUIPMENT MATERIEL (OEM) problems are modified. The procedure warms up
all of the interior components and reduces the
OEM are portable items of basic issue placed amount of external icing on the hull. When
on board vehicles, as necessary for proper securing the vehicle, any seawater entrained in
operation and maintenance by the crew, the hull or machinery must be removed.
including: Engine starting problems are the same for O 0 0
a. Tool kit amphibians as they are for trucks.
SECTION VI COST ESTIMATING
7-11 COST ESTIMATING AND THE alternative systems so that the greatest return
OVERALL DESIGN PROCESS for a fixed expenditure will be assured. With this
approach, certain decisions will have been made
The financial and technical resources allotted long before a specific vehicle design is begun,
to our national defense are inadequate to i.e.:
develop and produce all of the possible weapons a. How the vehicle concept fits into the total
and logistical systems that would assure plan for national defense, thus establishing 0 0
continued superiority in our defense posture. As performance requirements
a result, a system analysis approach has been b. How the vehicle will be transported,
initiated to permit rational selection between supplied, maintained, and manned as a
7-208
0 0,.o0 0.... o0•....

0 0 _• 0 0 0_
AMCP 706-350 - 0
subsystem in the total integrated logistic support While this example is directed toward a small
plan. thus defining support requirements part of a vehicle, it can be seen that it would
c. What expenditure will be allocated to the apply to changes in subsystems such as
system based on its total life cycle cost, thus alternative power plants or to total vehicle
defining budget requirements concepts. Thus, life cycle cost is the total cost of
Any given vehicle, despite its actual excellent a system over the entire lifetime of the vehicle.
physical performance, will not represent an
effective solution to thc total defense problem if 7-11.2 COST ESTIMATING METHOD
it cannot be developed within an established
budget. Cost estimating performs two vital The following two principoes are basic to the
functions in the development of a new philosophy of cost estimating: I 0 •
amphibian design. The first is to provide the 1. The higher the degree to which the cost
system analyst or planner an appraisal of the estimate is broken down into types of costs and
amount of performance and capability that can divisions of systems into subsystems and
be reasonably expected for a given expenditure. individual parts, the more-reliable the estimate
The second function is the provision of the should be. This follows because the costs of
necessary tools to permit the designer to control different systems are characterized by different,
costs so that the system will be developed, but predictable, rules. For example, the cost of
constructed, and operated within the allowed constructing an aluminum hull structure can
budget. The discussion that follows will consider probably be expressed as a function of hull
cost estimating methods that are useful to the weight in dollars per pound, whereas fuel costs
designer. The methods used by the system are related to engine size and time in operation
analyst in the planning stages are complex and in terms of dollars per horsepower-hour.
beyond the scope of this handbook. 2. Cost estimating is largely based on past •
experience. Hence, the more complete, accurate,
7-11.1 THE TOTAL, OR LIFE CYCLE, COST CONCEPT and detailed the past cost figures arc, the more
reliable the future cost estimate should be. The
To illustrate the concept of total life cycle historical cost data figures may be adjusted
cost, it is useful to consider the actual costs that to al!nw for known changes such as inflation.
would be incurred by a change in design of a Where undefined areas exist, the designer must 0 .
small fitting to be made of a new material. Such use good judgment in modifying estimating
costs might include: methods until he is satisfied that it represents a
a. The cost of research to Atudy the reasonable approach.
properties of the new material It should be emphasized that high cost
b. The development cost of adapting the new estimates by the designer in order to prevent
material to the specific requirements of the apparent cost growth is not a responsible
fitting approach to cost estimating. Conversely,
c. The cost of redesigning the particular unreasonably low estimates must be considered
fitting and any corresponding changes that unresponsive.
become necessary in the overall design Cost estimating of individual systems or
d. The cost of buying the particular part components are treated in the paragraphs which
including purchase price, tooling charges, and follow.
possible costs due to long lead times, delays, etc. , 0
e. The cost of testing necessary to verify the 7-11.3 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT COSTS
performance of the new fitting and the systems
of which it is a part, including alterations or Research includes the studies, experiments,
replacements needed to make the new fitting and calculations needed to develop and verify
acceptable new solutions to the basic engineering problems
f. The cost of operating, maintaining, and encountered during the evolution of an
repairing the fitting including any special amphibian design. Development is the process
training needed to operate an unusual system, whereby the results of research and advancing
and costs for shipping and storing sufficient technology are integrated with the vehicle
inventories of replacement parts performance requirements to establish a
7-209
0 0
0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
satisfactory design configuration. Included in multiplied by projected numbers of drawings

this process are the construction, testing, and and pages of specifications, again based on
evaluation of new prototype subsystems, experience.
systems, and complete vehicles. The process may In either case, allowances should be made for
be continued through change orders and product contingencies such as travel expense, and cost of
improvement studies, evaluating new equipment and manufacturers'
Research and development (R & D) costs are proposals if they differ from the general
probably the most difficult to estimate because , conditions upon which the historical data were
every new vehicle concept will present new based.
problem areas requiring R & D. Since the The design costs are likely to be divided
solution is not known, it is difficult to estimate between the designer and the builders, where 0 6
how much cost will be involved in arriving at a these are different agencies. Care should be
solution. However, R & D costs are typically a exercised in allocating this cost since the
very small part of the vehicle total life cycle builder's portion will show up as construction
cost. Hence, accuracy in estimating this part is costs and will depend on the share of the design
not critical to the accuracy of the total estimate. work furnished by the builder.
Before a cost estimate can be made, the It should be noted that the total cost of R &
problem areas must be recognized and defined. D and design will be only a small percentage of
This requires a thorough study of the vehicle the total life cycle cost for any vehicle produced
performance requirements in light of current in large quantities. Research and development
technology. R & D costs are directly related to costs for new aircraft designs range from 1 to 5
the number and magnitude of such problems percent of life cycle cost. Aircraft are very
that require solution. The further removed from complex systems and evolve from intensive R &
past vehicles and the more difficult the D efforts. Research, development, and design 6 0
performance requirements, the higher the cost efforts for amphibians are small by comparison.
for R & D. A thorough understanding of the For example, the LARC V and LARC XV
technological problem areas and insight designs were each bought for less than
concerning the probable solutions, coupled with $250,000.
past experience and data, are all necessary to
make reasonable cost estimates of R & D. 7-11.5 CONSTRUCTION COSTS
7-11.4 DESIGN COSTS Total construction costs may be considered to

include:
Design costs are incurred in transforming the a. Initial contract estimate
vehicle concept and performance requirements b. Cost of Government-furnished material
into specific written instructions (plan and (GFM)
specifications) from which the final product can c. Cost for change orders
be built. Sometimes termed engineering costs, d. Cost for inspection and administration
design costs can be derived from historical data: e. Cost of delays and unforeseen technical
a. For a given type of vehicle, the design problems
labor may be expressed as a constant ratio of f. Cost of increased labor rates and material
direct construction labor for one vehicle. The prices over long construction periods.
design material (drawings and specifications) is, S 0
in turn, proportional to design labor. Thus, the 7-11.5.1 Estimating Methods
estimate of design costs may be made by adding
factors for design labor and design material and Various designers have their proprietary
multiplying by the projected number of methods for estimating construction costs. The
construction labor hours, method given in the paragraphs which follow
b. If no similar vehicle has been constructed, represents one approach to the problem. The
an alternative method would be to estimate the vehicle components are catalogued into suitable
average cost of preparing an engineering drawing cost groups. These are the same groups used in
and a page of written specifications, based on weight estimating as given in Table 6-6:
experience. These cost figures would then be A. Hull Structure
7-210
AMCP 706-350 - •
B. Machinery for succeeding vehicles

C. Main Drive Train To estimate the effects of these savings it is
D. Marine Drive Train customary to:
E. Running Gear and Suspension System a. Estimate the total of nonrecurring changes, - ........
F. Miscellaneous Systems adjusted for such items as mold repairs, jig and 0 S
Two additional groups should be included: fixture replacement, etc. This total is divided by
G. Engineering and Procurement-includes the number of vehicles contemplated to obtain a
the cost of engineering supervision in addition to cost per unit.
design work to be performed by the builder and b. Obtain quotations from manufacturers
the cost of purchasing components regarding quantity price discounts to be
H. Construction Services-jigs, fixtures, expected on major vendor items. S
performance bonds, and insurance, to be c. From past experience with labor for
charged against the specific contract, multiple vehicles, plot a curve of hours
Group A, Hull Structure, costs can be expended on each subsequent vehicle, expressed
characterized by a price per pound for materials as a percentage of the first. This "learning
and a number of man-hours per pound for curve" can then be applied to the hours
construction labor. These numbers are based on estimated for the first vehicle to determine the
historical data. The same technique is used for hours spent on subsequent vehicles. Fig. 7-107
the items in Groups B to F. shows a typical learning curve.
Group G, Engineering and Procurement, can
be expressed as a function of the total labor in 7-11.5.3 Manufacturer's Estimates
groups B to F above. Group G materials are a
fixed cost per man-hour of Group G labor. In order to confirm cost estimates it is
Group H labor and material, likewise, are necessary to obtain quotations from a 40
functions of the total labor of Groups B to F. representative number of suppliers. Two distinct
The sum of labor in Groups A to H is adjusted types of estimates are common in industry and
by a multiplier to reflect overhead and is priced are considered here:
at an average labor rate. The total labor cost is 1. Budget Prices. These figures are requested
added to the total material cost and then from manufacturers in order to ascertain the
multiplied by a suitable factor for the builder's price range of certain services. Prepared as a
profit. courtesy by manufacturers, these figures are
The above discussion shows some of the usually very approximate and obligate neither
complexity of the cost estimating process. More party. In asking for budget estimates the
important, it demonstrates the reliance on designer should realize that they are provided
previous cost data. Available cost records must out of courtesy, and care should be exercised to
be accurate and clearly understood with respect avoid taking undue advantage of manufacturers.
to category groupings. Unfortunately, cost data . ._ .. ___
for existing amphibians are not readily available. 100
Hopefully, more attention to cost accounting
will be given for future amphibians and will be 2 9 --
available to the designer.
90 _
7-11.5.2 Multiple Construction Savings
The cost of succeeding duplicate vehicles 2 E _
should be less than the first vehicle because of

the following savings that result from
duplication:
0
< I _ _
a. Nonrecurring charges, including costs of

molds, patterns, jigs, and fixtures
LABOR
FOREACHSUCCEEDING
VEHICLE
1 - •-
b. Vendors' savings, such as quantity price 2 4 -6 B 10 12 14
discounts from manufacturers and suppliers NUMBERN

VEHICLE
c. Labor savings, due to increased efficiency Figure 7-107. Typical Learning Curve
7-211
'ii',i
AMCP 706-350 S • 0
It is also important to ask the manufacturer to major items in the total life cycle cost. These
state weights, probable delivery schedules, and costs include:
to include allowances for crating, loading, and a. Cost of materials (fuel, lubricant, etc.)
freight. consumed during the life of the vehicle
2. Quotations. These represent offers on the b. Wages paid to operators and support 0 6 S
part of the manufacturer to supply an exact item personnel
by a specified delivery date, satisfying certain c. Cost of special training necessary to
performance and construction requirements. operate and maintain vehicle
Usually the quoted price is firm for a limited d. Cost for repairs including labor and parts
time, such as 90 days from date of quote. This The largest portion of these costs is expended in
type of response represents a legal commitment wages to operate and support the vehicle. The
on the part, of the supplier and is prepared after wages for operating personnel are easily
detailee estimates. estimated from the number of crew that are
needed to operate the vehicle. However, the
7-11.5.4 Current Costs wages for support personnel needed to maintain
the vehicle are a function of the maintenance
Current (1968) catalog prices for the LARC requirement which, in turn, depends on how
series of amphibians are given here for much effort is directed toward improved
information: maintenance in the development and design
LARC V $ 44,207 each, for 250 vehicles stages of the amphibian life cycle. Table 7-49
LARC XV $165,000 each, for 110-115 vehicles presents maintenance data reported by field
LARC LX $390,000 each, for 10 vehicles units in Southeast Asia for the LARC V and
LARC LX from The Army Equipment Record
System (TAERS) (TM 38-750), along with
7-11.6 TESTING COSTS forecasts quoted from U. S. Army Mobility
Equipment Command (MECOM) studies for
A certain amount of the testing of any vehicle comparison. Organizational maintenance
is usually conducted by the builder to includes the routine servicing, adjustment,
demonstrate compliance with the vehicle inspection, and minor repairs that are performed
specifications (proof tests). This testing cost is by the vehicle user-operator. Support
included in the contract cost and is not of maintenance includes inspection, complicated S 0
concern to the designer as a separate item. adjustment, major repairs and modifications,
Costs associated with operational tests (from and major replacement performed by support
R & D to acceptance tests) conducted by the unit personnel who are better equipped and
Army are of the following types: trained for more complex maintenance jobs.
a. Repairs and alterations to vehicle Maintenance is reported in terms of man hours
b. Fuel and lubricants of maintenance required per hour of vehicle 0 0
c. Wages for operating personnel and operation.
consultants TAERS records do not include organizational
d. Transportation charges for operating level maintenance. However, the MECOM
personnel and materials to and from test site studies may be considered accurate and
e. Overhead associated with the test facility representative of actual requirements with
Historical cost data in this category should be respect to organizational maintenance. The 0
sufficiently well documented for cost estimates, projected estimates of support maintenance
provided the number of tests and their probable were on the high side, almost twice the actual
duration (allowing for delays for repairs and man hours reported in the case of the LARC V.
inclement weather) can be estimated. As a result, the estimated total maintenance for
this vehicle was approximately 25 percent
greater than the actual maintenance.
7-11.7 OPERATION, MAINTENANCE, AND REPAIR The other costs involved in operation, 9 5 5
COSTS maintenance, and repair are best estimated using
experience, records of similar vehicles, and good
Operation, maintenance, and repair costs are judgment.
7-212
9 __ 5 0
0.. 0 ... 0 0 .... .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

AMCP 706-350 -
TABLE 749 LARC AMPHIBIAN MAINTENANCE, MAN-HOURS/OPERATION HOUR
LARC V LARC XV LARC LX
Organizational Maintenance 0 0
(MECOM-projected) 0.46 0.58 1.48
Support Maintenance
(MECOM-projected) 0.35 0.41 0.34
Support Maintenance 6 0
(TAERS-recorded) 0.19 0.32
SECTION VII DETAIL DESIGN COORDINATION, SUMMARY, AND OUTPUT
7-12 DESIGN COORDINATION, SUMMARY, may cause major changes in the design close to
AND OUTPUT the completion of the design.
Preparation of the detail design, or working 7-12.2 DETAIL DESIGN PLANWORK

plans, is normally accomplished with the
prototype construction within a single contract. The plans and specifications must furnish
This provides for good communications between sufficient information so that the materials can
the designer and the builder. In addition to the be ordered and fabricated by a competent
main contract, there may be component or manufacturer who is familiar with vehicle
system subcontractors, research contractors, and construction. Any necessary information
contractors furnishing components directly to omitted increases the construction cost. Military -
the Army. For the detail design to proceed specifications for each class of vehicle contain - -
smoothly in an orderly fashion, many segments lists of the applicable documents, including a list
of the design must be conducted simultaneously. of required plans. This plan list for a similar
This requires flexible planning and continuous vehicle may be used to estimate the type and
communications. number of drawings required for a new design.
7-12.1 SCHEDULING 7-12.3 FINAL DESIGN REPORT I " 0
Scheduling the detail design requires the The final design report is used by the vehicle
gathering, at the proper time, of qualified development team and by the designers for their
designers and the necessary information. Ideally, work in designing later generations of
the critical categories of information are amphibians.
determined and the availability dates are
The final design report should contain: 0 0
established. With these dates as a framework,
each item of work can be scheduled. This, of a. Final vehicle description
course, is ideal and in practice there are many b. Final vehicle performance data
conflicts and gaps in the information available to c. Design history
the planners. One typical problem is the long d. Major design decisions
period of time required to manufacture and test e. Summary of design techniques and
a waterborne model. The delay in obtaining assumptions
these results places a greater importance on the The major design decisions must be recorded
initial resistance and propulsion estimates periodically or the reasons for each decision
because a significant error in these estimates will be lost.
7-213
.._ 0 .. . 0
_ 0 _ ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01
AMCP 706-350 p 0 S
REFERENCES
1. U. Kilgore, "Developable Hull Surfaces", 13. T. C. Gilmer, Fundamentals of

Fishing Boats of the World-I I I.Fishing Construction and Stability of Naval Ships, .
News (Book) Limited, London, England, The United States Naval Institute,
1966, pp. 425-431. Annapolis, Maryland, 1966.
2. E. A. Mossman and L. M. Randall, An 14. J. P. Comstock, Ed., Principles of Naval
Experimental Investigation of the Design Architecture, SNAME, New York, 1967.
Variables for NACA Submerged Duct 15. Compensating Polar Planimeters,
Entrances, RM A7130, NACA, Washington, Instruction Manual, Keuffel and Esser Co.,
D. C., January 1948. New York, 1963.
3. D. R. Christiani and L. M. Randall, A 16. Sarchin and Goldberg, Stability and
Preliminary ExperimentalInvestigation of a Buoyancy Criteria for U S. Naval Surface
Submerged Cascade Inlet, RM A9A24, Ships, SNAME, New York, 1962.
NACA, Washington, D. C., March 1949. 17. "Imco Stability Criteria for Fishing
4. M. R. Nichols and K. P. Pierpoint, Vessels", Ship and Boat Builder
Preliminary Investigation of a Submerged International (December 1967). S S
Air Scoop Utilizing Boundary-Layer 18. General Specifications for Ships of the
Suction to Obtain Increased Pressure United States Navy, Department of the
Recovery, TN 3437, NACA, Washington, Navy, Bureau of Ships, 1965.
D. C., April 1955. 19. R. F. Chaillet and A. R. Honegfeld, Human
5. E. F. Hewins and J. R. Reilly, "Condenser Factors Engineering Design Standard for
Scoop Design", Trans SNAME, New York, Wheeled Vehicles, HEL Standard 5-6-66,
1940. U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratories, 0 0
6. A. H. Gibson, "The Conversion of Kinetic Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md., September
to Pressure Energy in the Flow of Water 1966.
Through Passages Having Divergent 20. D. Van Deusen, Human Response to
Boundaries", Engineer 93, 205 (1912). Vehicle Vibration, SAE Paper 680090,
7. D. L. Cochran and S. J. Kline, The Use of New York, January 1968.
Short Flat Vanes for Producing Efficient 21. A. Lee and F. Pradko, Analytical Analysis . 0 .
Wide Angle, Two Dimensional Subsonic of Human Vibration, SAE Paper 680091,
Diffusers, TN 4309, NACA, Washington, New York, Jan. 1968.
D. C., September 1958. 22. F. Pradko, R. Lee, and V. Kaluza, Theory
8. J. M. Robertson and D. Ross, Water Tunnel of Human Vibration Response, ASME
Diffuser Flow Studies, Ordnance Research Paper 66-WA/BHF-15, New York, Nov.
Laboratory Report, Penn. State College, 1966. j
State College, Penn., 1949. 23. Werner Goldsmith, Impact (The Theory
9. A. A. Kalinske, "Conversion of Kinetic to and Physical Behavior of Colliding Solids),
Potential Energy in Flow Expansions", Arnold Ltd., London, 1960.
Trans. ASCE 112, 355 (1946). 24. Rules for the Construction of Steel Tank
10. D. N. Contractor, Design Study of Water Barges for Service on Rivers and
Jet Propulsion Systems for Shallow Draft Intercoastal Waterways, American Bureau
Boats, TR 516-1, Hydronautics, of Shipping, New York, 1952. 0 0
Incorporated, Laurel, Maryland, April 25. Rules for Building and Classing Steel
1965. Vessels, American Bureau of Shipping, New
11. A. L. Beal, Powering Characteristicsin Still York, 1956.
Water and Waves for LARC-5 as 26. AMCP 706-356, Engineering Design
Represented by Model 4722, Report 1315, Handbook, Automotive Series, Automotive
David Taylor Model Basin, Washington, Suspensions.. 0 S
D. C., May 1959. 27. TM 9-500,Data Sheets for Ordnance Type
12. Attwood and Pengelly, Theoretical Naval Materiel, Department of the Army,
Architecture, Longmans, London, 1966. September 1962.
7-214
_ S S 0~e S 0 0 0 0 0.o_.
AMCP 706-350 -
REFERENCES (Continued)
28. Design Data Book, Department of the Oakland, California, 1967.

Navy, Bureau of Ships, January 1962. 44. Adhesive Bonding Alcoa Aluminum,
29. Marine Design Manual for Fiberglas Aluminum Company of America,
Reinforced Plastics, Gibbs and Cox Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1967.
McGraw-Hill, Inc., N. Y., 1960. 45. W. Steffan, Machinery Foundation Study
30. G. A. Butz and G. E. Nordmark, Fatigue for LARC V, Engineering Department
Resistance of Aluminum and its Products, Report No. 66-16, Pacific Car and Foundry
Society of Automotive Engineers, 1964 Company, Renton, Washington, 5 April ... .....
(Distributed by Aluminum Company of 1966. 0•
America). 46. Tracked Amphibian Personnel and Cargo
31. Alcoa Aluminum Handbook, Aluminum Carrier Feasibility Study, Borg-Warner
Company of America, Pittsburgh, Pa., Corp., Ingersoll-Kalamazoo Division,
1967. Kalamazoo, Michigan, November 1961 (AD-
32. Forming Alcoa Aluminum, Aluminum 420 739).
Company of America, Pittsburgh, Pa., 47. Proposal for Amphibious Loading Support S S
1962. Vehicle (LVK) Phase I Study, Vol. I, Bell
33. W. D. France, "Bandability and Springback Aerosystems Company, Buffalo, New
of 8 Common Aluminum Sheet Alloys", York, June 1965.
Modern Metals, July and August 1966. 48. Landing Force Amphibious Support
34. J. 0. Lyst, Fatigue Properties of 5000 Vehicle, Hydrofoil (LVH-X2), Volume I,
Series Alloys at Room and Elevated FMC Corporation, San Jose, California, 1
Temperatures, Aluminum Company of November 1961.
America Report No. 9-64-13, April 1964. 49. "Assumptions to be Used for Structural
(Not released for publication). Analysis of Mobile Floating Assault
35. Fred B. Seely and James 0. Smith, Bridge-Ferry", Enclosure 1 to Purchase
Advanced Mechanics of Materials, 2nd Ed., Description Welded Hull Transporter for
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1959. Mobile FloatingAssault Bridge-Ferry Unit,
36. Raymond J. Roark, Formulas for Stress U. S. A. Mobility Equipment Research and 0 0
and Strain, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Development Center, Fort Belvoir,
New York, 1954. Virginia, E-13, Revised 21 November 1967.
37. S. R. Heller, Jr. and N. H. Jasper, "On the 50. General Specifications for Ships of the
Structural Design of Planing Craft", United States Navy, Department of the
Transactions of the Royal Institution of Navy, Bureau of Ships, July 1965.
Naval Architects, July 1960. 51. David R. Grove, "Physical Properties of
38. Earl A. Phillips, "Quick Calculations for L OF P l a t e '', Data S h e e t,
Corrugation Stiffness", Product Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass Company, 8
Engineering,September 12, 1960. March 1965.
39. Structures Manual, National Aeronautics 52. Aluminum Afloat, Aluminum Company of
and Space Administration, Marshall Space America, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1968.
Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, 1961. 53. T. Baumeister, Ed., Mark's Mechanical
40. Alcoa Handbook of Design Stresses for Engineers Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book -
Aluminum, Aluminum Company of Co., Inc., New York, 1950.
America, 1966. 54. Reports on Hydrodynamic Model Tests of
41. Arthur L. Phillips, Ed., Welding Handbook, High Speed Wheeled Amphibian Concepts,
5th Edition, American Welding Society, Hoboken, N. J., Davidson Laboratory
New York, 1962. Report 726-11, Stevens Institute of
42. Selected Welding Techniques, NASA Technology, Hoboken, N. J., Nov. 1966. 0
SP-501, National Aeronautics and Space 55. Towing Tests of a Proposed Lighter, 5-Ton,
Administration, April 1963. Amphibious, Report LR-701, Experimental
43. Welding Kaiser Aluminum, Kaiser Towing Tank, Stevens Institute of
Aluminum and Chemical Sales, Inc., Technology, Hoboken, N. J., June 1958.
7-215
0
0 @ @ 00 0 0_1__ 0
00 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 -
56. Towing Tests of a ProposedLighter,15-Ton 68. A. L. Beal and W. B. Hinterthan, Resistance

Amphibious, Report LR-702, Experimental and Propulsion Characteristics for LCU
Towing Tank, Stevens Institute of 1466, DTMB Report 1037, David Taylor
Technology, Hoboken, N. J., June 1958. Model Basin, Carderock, Md., March 1961.
57. A. L. Beal, Powering Characteristicsin Still 69. J. D. van Manen, "Recent Research on
Water and Waves for LARC 15 as Propellers in Nozzles", SNAME Journal of
Represented by Model 4721, Report 1337, Ship Research 2 (1957).
David Taylor Model Basin, Washington, 70. L. Kobylinsky, "The Calculation of Nozzle .. ..
D. C., May 1959. Propeller Systems Based on the Theory of -
58. Model Tests of 35-toot Amphibian for Thin Annular Airfoils with Arbitrary
ACF-Brill Motors Company, Report 425, Circulation Distribution", International
Experimental Towing Tank, Stevens Shipbuilding Progress 88 (1961).
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J., 71. C. F. Chen, Shrouded Supercavitating
October 1951. Propellers, ONR Fourth Symposium on
59. Resistance and Propulsion Experiments, Naval Hydrodynamics, Vol. 1, August 40
Model Hull Number 4196D (The LVW), 1962.
Model Screw No. W. 195, Part III - Model 72. E. R. Miller and W. T. Lindenmuth,
with Propeller Retracting Plate in Up Optimum Characteristics for High Speed
Position, National Physical Laboratory, Amphibians, TR 742-2, Hydronautics, Inc.,
Ship Division, Teddington, England, Laurel, Md., March 1968.
February 1962. 73. W. B. Morgan, Open Water Test Series of a
60. Optimization of LVH Hull Configuration Controllable Pitch Propeller with Varying 0 0
and Determination of Calm Water Number of Blades, DTMB Report 932,
Resistance in Three Operational Moors, David Taylor Model Basin, Carderock, Md.,
Report ORD 829, Ordnance Division FMC November 1954.
Corporation, San Jose, California, May 74. W. B. Morgan, The Design of
1962. Counterrotating Propellers Using Lerbs'
61. H. Maruo, "The Excess Resistance of a Theory, SNAME Spring Meeting, 0 0
Ship in Rough Seas", International Washington, D. C., May 1960.
Shipbuilding Progress 4, 336-345 (1957). 75. N. L. Ficken, Conditionsfor the Maximum
62. W. H. Michel, "Sea Spectra Simplified", Efficiency Operation of Cycloidal
Marine Technology 5, 17-30, (1968). Propellers, SNAME, Chesapeake Section,
63. AMCP 706-355, Engineering Design April 1966.
Handbook, Automotive Series, The 76. Reed, Sarchin, and Leiby, New Concepts
Automotive Assembly. Applied to Research Ship Design, SNAME,
64. R. L. Wiegel, OceanographicalEngineering, Chesapeake Section, May 1968.
Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 77. Brochure of the Mobile Floating Assault
1964. Bridge-Ferry, U. S. Army ERDL (now
65. D. A. Sloss, W. J. Baner, D. M. Lassaline, MERDC), Fort Belvoir, Virginia, December
and C. X. C. F. Miranda, Analysis of 1964.
Estimated River Exiting Performance, 78. S. Gyves, Test Report for Half-Scale Model 0
Tech. Report 9684, College of Engineering, of the High Speed Inverted "V" Hull,
University of Detroit, July 1967, for U. S. Amphibious Vehicle Wheeled (LVW-X3),
Army Tank-Automotive Command, Hydronautics, Incorporated Technical
Warren, Mich. Report 742-1, January 1968.
66. H. Dugoff, "Vehicle Egress from Streams, 79. D. N. Contractor, Experimental
A Mathematical Model", Journal of Investigation of a Water Jet Propulsion
Terramechanics 4, 17-29 (1967). System for Shallow Draft Boats, TR 516-2,
67. H. E. Rossel and L. B. Chapman, Principles Hydronautics, Inc., Laurel, Md., September
of Naval Architecture, Vol. II, SNAME, 1966.
New York, 1939. 80. E. C. Watson, Some Low-Speed
7-216
414
AMCP 706-350
Characteristicsof an Air Induction System 93. W. L. Harrison, et al., A Soil Value System
Having Scoop-Type Inlets with Provisions for Land Locomotion Studies, Report No.
for Boundary-Layer Control, NACA RM 5, LLL, December 1958.
A51F15, August 1951. 94. M. G. Bekker, A Practical Outline of the
81. S. Goldstein, On the Vortex Theory of Mechanics of Automotive Land
Screw Propellers, Proceedings of the Royal Locomotion, Detroit Arsenal Land
Society A, 123 (1929). Locomotion Laboratory, January 1955.
82. H. W. Lerbs, "Moderately Loaded 95. F. L. Uffelman, Vehicle Mobility Research
Propellers with a Finite Number of Blades in the United IAingdom, Report No. BR
and an Arbitrary Distnbution of 135, FVRDE, April 1955.
Circulation", Transactions SNAME 60 96. D. R. Freitag, A Dimensional Analysis of
(1952). the Performance of Pneumatic Tires on
83. M. K. Eckhardt and W. B. Morgan, "A Soft Soils, Report No. 3-670, WES,
Propeller Design Method", Transactions Vicksburg, Miss., August 1965.
SNAME 63 (1955). 97. VMEA, A Vehicle Analysis for Remote . .
84. H. W. Lerbs, Propeller Pitch Correction Area Operation, Misc. Paper No. 4-702, S
Arising from Lifting Surface Effect, DTINB WES, Vicksburg, Miss., 1965.
Report 942, David Taylor Model Basin, 98. D. R. Freitag and S. J. Knight, Technique
Carderock, Md., 1955. for Estimating the Slope Climbing Ability
85. K. E. Schoenherr, "Recent Developments of Wheeled Vehicles in Sand, SAE, January
in Propeller Design", Trans. SNAME 42 1963.
(1934). 99. One-Pass Performance of Vehicles in
86. J. D. van Manen, "Fundamentals of Ship Fine-Grained Soils, Contract Report No.
Resistance and Propulsion, Part B, 3-152, Wilson, Nuttall, Raymond
Propulsion", International Shipbuilding Engineers, Inc., Chestertown, Maryland,
Progress 34 and 35 (1957). June 1965.
87. P. Eisenberg, On the Mechanism and 100. K. F. Eklund, The Influence of Load and
Prevention of Cavitation, DTMB Report Inflation on the Selection of Pneumatic ................
712, David Taylor Model Basin, Carderock, Tires for Military Vehicles, Report No. - •
Md., July 195C. 922, U. S. Army Engineer Board, Ft.
88. K. E. Schoenherr, "Formulation of Belvoir, Virginia, April 1961.
Propeller Blade Strength", Trans. SNAME 101. C. J. Nuttall, Ground-Crawling: 1966 The
71 (1963). State-of-the-Art of Designing Off-Road
89. Y. Miniovich, Investigation of Vehicles, Contract Report No. 3-162,
Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Screw Contract No. DA-22-079-eng-392, Wilson,
Propellers Under Conditions of Reversing Nuttall, Raymond Engineers, Inc.,
and Calculation Methods for Backing of Chestertown, Maryland, May 1967.
Ships, (Translation), Royer and Roger, 102. L. J. Cote et al., "Introduction to a
Inc., Washington, D. C., 1960. Statistical Theory of Land Locomotion",
90. H. I. Chase and A. L. Ruiz, "A Theoretical Journal of Terramechanics 2, 3, and 4,
Study of the Stopping of Ships", Trans. 1965. 0
SNAME 59 (1951). 103. Z. J. Janosi, Geometric Obstacle
91. V. E. Johnson, Jr. and A. Goodman, The Performance Programs for Conventional
Hydronau tics, Variable-Pressure, Vehicles, Technical Report No. 10207,
Free-Surface, High Speed Channel, TR Mobility Systems Laboratory,
229-1, Hydronautics, Inc., Laurel, Md., USATACOM, Warren, Mich., Sept. 1968.
January 1964. 104. M. Lotveit, "A Study of Rudder Action
92. Nuttall and Ashton, Model Tests of with Special Reference to Single Screw - 0 .
35-Foot Amphibian, Report 425,Davidson Ships", Trans. N. E. Coast Institution of
Laboratory, SIT, Hoboken, N. J., October Engineers and Shipbuilders 75, 1959.
1951. 105. P. Mandel, "Some Hydrodynamic Aspects
7-217
S. . . . 0_
* .. 0 0 • O .... 0 .O • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 . -
REFERENCES (Concluded)
of Appendage Design", Trans. SNAME 61 Davidson Laboratory, Hoboken, N. Y.,

(:1953). January 1966.
106. Whicker and Fehlner, Free-Stream 112. AMCP 706-123, Engineering Design 0
Characteristicsof a Family of Low-Aspect Handbook, Hydraulic Fluids.
Ratio, All-Movable Control Surfaces for 113. Machine Design 40 (19 Sept. 1968).
Application to Ship Design, Report 933, 114. AR 705-19, Electrical Systems in Motor
David Taylor Model Basin, May 1958. Vehicles, 27 May 1966.
107. H. S. Fletcher, Experimental Investigation 115. Safety Standardsfor Small Craft, American
of Lift, Drag and Pitching Moment of Five Boat and Yacht Council, Inc., New York,
Annular Airfoils, TN 4117, NACA, 1968.
October 1957. 116. CG-259, Electrical Engineering
108. Project MOHOLE PropellerDesign Studies, Regulations, U. S. Coast Guard.
Analysis of Model Tests, RT-11701, 117. Recommended Practice for Electric
Fairfax, Va., November 1964. Installations on Shipboard, IEEE No. 45,
109. K. J. Grunwald and K. W. Goodson, The Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Aerodynamic Loads on an Isolated Engineers, Inc., New York. 0
Shrouded-Propeller Configuration for 118. Fire Protection Standards for Motor Craft,
Angles of Attack From -100 to 1100, TN NFPA No. 302, National Fire Protection
D-995, NASA, Janury 1962. Association, Boston, 1964.
110. Notes on Ship Controllability, Technical 119. CG -169, Rules of the Road,
and Research Bulletin No. 1-27, SNAME, International-Inland, U. S. Coast Guard, -
N.Y. September 1965. P S 0

111. H. Dugoff and Y. H. Chey, Model Study of 120. C. D. Roach, Design of Wheeled
Docking Characteristics of the LARC V Amphibians, Chesapeake Section, SNAME,
Amphibious Vehicle, Report No. 1090, April 1960.
I 7 .
7-2 18
S *~ S
.~ ~0
S 5 0 0 S S
AMCP 706-350
PART THREE EVALUATION AND TESTING OF WHEELED AMPHIBIANS

CHAPTER 8 EVALUATION AND TESTING 0
8-1 OBJECTIVE OF TESTS AND from which greater detail in any specific area of
GENERAL DISCUSSION interest may be obtained.
The primary objective of Army materiel
For any given test there are two basic possible testing as stated in Ref. 1 is "to insure that
reasons for its conduct. One reason is to materiel for Army use satisfies the minimum
determine the characteristics of some unknown operational, technical, and safety requirements
phenomenon or to determine a not readily in all types of environments of intended use as
predictable result. A second basic purpose of described in the QMR.... or equivalent
testing, in general, is to verify (or disprove) an requirements, and to determine what changes
expected or previously predicted result, are required to make new materiel suitable and -
The purpose or objective of a test is, safe for Army use".
therefore, usually related to the stage of What this means to the designer of a wheeled
development of the test item. For example, amphibian is that the (usual) ultimate goal of a
research or feasibility tests fall into the area of vehicle design is to become "Type Classified" in
testing where the test results indicate whether a accordance with the design objectives and QMR.
concept is feasible or attainable. On the other Army materiel is Type Classified in order to
hand, tests are performed on prototype associate the particular item of materiel with
amphibians and other Army materiel to regard to development or service status relative
determine whether a predicted or designed to other Army items. The levels of Type
characteristic or result has actually beeni Classification and description are as follows:
attained, a. Development Type. Materiel (amphibian)
This chapter will deal mainly with the latter being developed or tested to meet a QMR.
type testing where the feasibility of a concept or b. Limited Production Type. Materiel in
vehicle has been proven or accepted, and the limited production that has not yet passed all
interest of further tests is to verify (or disprove) tests required; however, urgency of the situation
that the requirements (i.e., the QMR's) of a warrants initiation of production and the
design have been met. This limitation has been confidence level of meeting minimum
made for two reasons. First, a complete requirements is high.
dissertation on testing and testing philosophy c. Standard Type. Materiel which has
would require a Handbook in itself and, second, completed all tests satisfactorily; is authorized I 0 0
the maximum benefit to the designer can be for Army use; and is included in published
realized by a knowledge of the amphibian tests adopted item lists.
which will eventually lead to an item's d. Contingency and Training Type. Materiel
acceptance into Army service, which is not acceptable for U.S. Army
This chapter is of value to the amphibian operational requirements, but may be used for
designer, but is no substitute for a thorough training or to fill a need until a standard (type)
knowledge of the U. S. Army philosophy of item becomes available.
research and testing. This entire picture is a e. Obsolete Type. Materiel which is no longer
necessary tool for the program manager, project acceptable for U.S. Army use and is being or has
manager, and planning personnel involved in an been phased out of the supply system.
amphibian design and, of course, is mandatory The methods and requirements for type
knowledge for the designer. Ref. 1 presents a classification of Army materiel are presented in
good basic description of the Army test detail in Ref. 1, pages 11-12 through 11-15. •
organizations, testing concepts, testing There is another, sometimes overlooked,
documents, testing terms and definitions, objective of testing which is of major
funding, etc., along with pertinent references importance to the designer. That is the
8-1
I- °
_ e 0 0*!0 0
AMCP 706-350 -
"feedback" to the designer of quantitative test Environmental Tests, Confirmatory Tests (Type
data which can be compared with the I), and Check Tests.
performance predicted during the design and Category II Tests are those in which
development phases. In this manner, the design USATECOM is performing a testing service for
methods and predictions can be modified to the requesting agency and in which the test
provide more accurate or more quantitative objectives, plan of tests, and processing and
design predictions for future vehicle distribution of the report of test are the
developments, responsibility of the requester. The concept of
From the long range viewpoint, this feedback Category II Tests is the providing of
of test data to the designer is of equal or greater USATECOM facilities and knowledge to using
importance than the short range objective of commands and agencies in order to expedite the -
vehicle type classification since it is these data conduct of development and procurement test 0 0
which, in part, should prevent repetition of programs.
design errors and lay the groundwork for further The above definitions were extracted from
improvement of amphibian designs. Ref. 1, and are of value in attempting to
Acquisition of test data is the responsibility establish a logical sequence of testing and a test
of the development command (designer). Each program. The significant inference in these
development program organization should definitions is that the Development Command I S S
establish channels for the procurement of test or Agency has no control over the Category I
data. Methods of obtaining data and its Tests on an amphibian. Category I Tests are the
presentation should be specified so that the test sole responsibility of USATECOM and are
results are in a useful form (comparable with developed directly from the amphibian QMR.
other amphibians or design data). The These Category I Tests, alone, determine
paragraphs which follow are intended to aid the whether the vehicle has been successfully
designer in establishing a meaningful test designed to meet the requirements for Type
program including test specifications, conduct of Classification.
tests, and data formats which fall under his Category II Tests are the responsibility of the
cognizance. Developing Agency or Command, and therefore
are directly influenced by the designer. In this
8-2 TYPES OF TESTS regard, it is important that the Technical
Characteristics (TC) developed by the designers I 0 0
from the QMR's are based on the interpretation
According to the definitions or doctrines of of the QMR made by the USATECOM in
the U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command, conjunction with the committee composed of
(USATECOM), there are three broad personnel from the Development Command or
classifications of testing: Category I Tests, Agencies which generated the QMR. This is
Category II Tests, and Special Tests. important since the tests undertaken by the
Category I Tests are those in which development agencies, whether performed by ..
USATECOM is responsible for the establishment USATECOM or not, will most likely refer to the
of the test objectives, preparation and approval TC as opposed to the QMR; however, the final
of the plan of test, and processing and amphibian design will be required to pass the
distribution of the report of test. The basic tests prescribed by USATECOM, which are
philosophy of Category I Tests is the provision strictly based on interpretation of the QMR.
of timely, objective, and factual test results to This point is discussed further in par. 8-3. 0 0
HQ, AMC, in order that decisions affecting type
classification include materiel performance 8-2.1 CATEGORY I TESTS
considerations. These results are obtained by
independent testing and evaluation of the item, The following are Category I Tests which are
and normally lead to type classification of the conducted on a vehicle after it is released to
materiel undergoing tests. USATECOM has sole USATECOM by the Development Command(s) 0 0
primary responsibility for the planning and for Type Classificaticn. It should be noted that
conducting of Engineering Tests, Service Tests, all Category I Tests are intended to verify (or
Integrated Engineering Service Tests, disprove) that an amphibian meets the QMR.
8-2
AMCP 706-350
8-2.1.1 Engineering Tests 8-2.1.4 Environmental Tests
The purpose of Engineering Tests is to Environmental Tests are performed to

determine to what degree the test item meets determine if an item performs effectively in the
the performance characteristics expressed in the environments of its intended use. Environmental 0 0
QMR and whether the item is safe for use by Tests form an integral part of testing, at all
troops during Service Tests. The basic concept phases, whether it be Engineer Design Tests,
of Engineering Tests is the elimination of human Engineering Tests, Service Tests, or Troop Tests.
bias and errors in judgment so far as possible Testing in simulated climatic extremes is
through the use of engineering and scientific normally used to the maximum extent in the
methods of testing. Engineer Design and Engineering test phases.
The results of the Engineering Tests should Testing in extreme natural climatic
provide sufficient information to permit environments is used to substantiate or
determination of: supplement data obtained from simulated tests.
a. Degree to which the technical performance Category I testing in natural environments will
of the item meets the requirements of the QMR normally be an Integrated Engineering Service
b. Relative safety of the item in the hands of Test. Since testing in natural locations of
Army troops extreme climate is costly in terms of manpower, 0
c. Suitability of the item for conduct of money, materiel, and time; each individual
Service Tests item's requirements for testing in natural
environments must be carefully determined
8-2.1.2 Service Tests before submitting the item for such testing.
Such predetermination of necessary testing in
environments
natural not vitally
be omitted inis test important and [ 0 S
The purposeTheoof SeviceTess
urpse Tests isto
Service eterine
is to determine should design.
Military
to what degree the test item meets the
Characteristics expressed in the QMR, and the
suitability of the item and the maintenance 8-2.1.5 Confirmatory Tests (Type I)
package for use by the Army. During the various
tests that comprise a complete Service Test A Confirmatory Test, Type I, is the test or
Program, factual records are maintained showing investigation conducted on an item or system, L . -
the item's performance under specific after type classification as standard or limited
conditions. This record must be complete and production, using early production models to
explicit since it forms the primary basis for insure that required modifications not
decisions by higher headquarters on the merits previously tested are acceptable and to insure
of the tested item. Except in the most unusual that the modifications have not adversely
circumstances, the test results should provide affected the Technical and Military
sufficient information to permit determination Characteristics of the item or system. Service
of the degree to which the item meets the Test procedures are utilized td insure that no
current military requirements of the prospective deficiencies or shortcomings have been created.
user.
Service Tests use subjective approaches to 8-2.1.6 Check Tests
produce test results. The tests prescribed are
conducted or from
simulated actual the
field user standpoint under
conditions. The purpose of Check
Teproeo hc Tests
et isst to determine
eemn,
on Service Test models of items whether
major
deficiencies found in the Service Test have been
8-2.1.3 Integrated Engineering Service Tests corrected, these deficiencies being of such a
nature that the item was found unsuitable for
The purpose of an Integrated Engineering type classification. The philosophy of Check
Service Test is to minimize testing time and cost Tests is to retest items using the Service Test S
by running Engineering and Service Tests at one procedures to insure that previous deficiencies
location. Complete integration or partial and shortcomings have been eliminated, and no
integration constitutes an integrated test. new ones have been created.
8-3
L 0 0
AMCP 706-350
8-2.2 CATEGORY II TESTS made available by the developing agency for use
in Engineering and Service Tests.
Category II Tests are the responsibility of the Engineer Design testing is primarily for the
Development Command and are conducted by purpose of obtaining data necessary for initial
anyone selected by that Command (i.e., private design of the prototype item, or specific 0 0 0
contractor, USATECOM, or the Development components thereof, whereas determining the
Command). performance characteristics of the prototype is
the purpose of the Engineering Test. In the
8-2.2.1 Research Tests interest of expediting testing and completion of
development, requirements for design data for
Tests conducted during the research phase in further refinement and completion of the .6
order to confirm concepts and to further development can and should be provided by the
research projects and tasks. Engineer Design Test, including Research and
Development Acceptance testing of a contract
8-2.2.2 Feasibility Tests item, particularly when complex elements of
design or development are involved.
The determination of a process of technical
examination and study of the possibility of 8-2.2.5 Research and Development Acceptance Tests 0 6
attainment of end-item materiel development.
Technical feasibility consists of two parts: Research and Development (R&D)
1. Long range or state-of-the-art study Acceptance Tests are conducted on an item or
wherein the probability of attaining general system designed and developed by a contractor
technological goals is determined to insure that the specifications of the
2. Feasibility study of a desired end-item after development contract have been fulfilled. 41
the Military Characteristics are known Acceptance of the item or system for
Engineering and Service Tests is dependent on
8-2.2.3 Component Engineering Tests the results of the R&D Acceptance Test. The
effectiveness, or readiness, of a given
Engineering-type tests are conducted by or development project, however, is measured at
under the direction of the developing agency the time of type classification, not at the time it
where the objective is the development of begins Engineering and Service Tests. Early
component design concepts, or the evaluation of initiation of Engineering and Service Tests,
components embodying new and advanced irrespective of minor deficiencies anticipated in
state-of-the-art principles. The test item need these tests, as a means of expediting an overall
not be specifically related to any existing development process should be the goal of both
end-item development, developing and testing agencies. - -
8-2.2.4 Engineer Design Tests 8-2.2.6 Product Improvement Tests
These tests are conducted to determine Product Improvement Tests are conducted on
inherent structural, electrical, and other physical modified standard items of Army materiel to
and chemical properties of materials and items, verify that essential Military Characteristics have
including the effects of environmental stresses not been adversely affected and to establish the
on these properties. These tests collect design durability, operational capability, and
data; confirm preliminary concepts and maintainability of the modified item.
calculations; and determine the compatibility of
the components. For complex systems, e.g., an 8-2.2.7 Preproduction Tests
amphibian system, these tests may include a
complete system demonstration. The Engineer Preproduction Tests are Engineering-type
Design Tests will be formrilated by the developer tests of a preproduction model or initial - 0 0
after approval of the design concept and prior to production sample-produced in accordance
the initiation of prototype fabrication. with the supply ?rocurement specifications and
Applicable Engineer Design Test data will be drawings using the same methods, material, and
8-4
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AMCP 706-350
equipment as will be used during regular evaluate a selected item or system of early
production-to verify production drawings, production materiel, after type classification as
processes, and materials. Standard or Limited Production, by expedited
and intensive testing in the field to preclude
8-2.2.8 Initial Production Tests time-consuming retrofit programs. Items may be 0 0
recommended for Type II Confirmatory Testing
Initial Production Tests are tests of an early by project managers, commodity commands,
item or system from the first production run separate installations and activities reporting
which are used to verify the adequacy and directly to AMC Headquarters, and the
quality of the materiel when manufactured directorates of AMC Headquarters. DCSLOG, in
according to the production drawings and of the coordination with the other members of the
mass production processes. Army General Staff, acts on recommendations
of the major developing agencies in the selection
8-2.2.9 Comparison Tests of items and furnishes the major developing
agencies an approved list of items to undergo
Comparison Tests of random samples of Type 11 Confirmatory Tests. Service Test
production line items are conducted as a quality procedures are utilized to insure that no
assurance measure in order to detect any design, deficiencies or shortcomings have been created. 0 •
manufacturing, or inspection deficiencies that
may reduce the effective operation of the items 8-2.3.2 Surveillance Tests
by the using agency.
Surveillance Testing is performed on items
8-2.2.10 Acceptance Tests that are subject to rapid deterioration of
Acceptance Tests are conducted on individual materiel or performance. These items are stored
producets, or condutems, wc hvia
estsofmarel and tested on a continuing basis in all climatic
products, or lots of materiel items, which have environmental conditions to determine the
been submitted for acceptance to determine extent of deterioration as compared with the
conformance of the products or lots with original requirements. Facilities and test
requirements and specifications prior to personnel of the commodity commands,
acceptance. separate installations, and activities reporting 0
directly to USAMC as well as USATECOM test
8-2.2.11 Reconditioning Tests sites are utilized. The basic responsibility for
Reconditioning Tests are conducted on such programs on an item by item basis has been
standard items, which have been modified to assigned to the cognizant AMC command. The
correct deficiencies discovered during use, to Commanding General, USATECOM, however, is
verify that essential Military Characteristics have responsible for assuring existence of adequate
surveillance test programs. S S
not been adversely affected, and to establish the
durability, operational capability, and 8-2. SEQUENCE OF TESTS
maintainability of the modified item.
8-2.3 SPECIAL TESTS Fig. 8-1 illustrates a logical sequence of tests
performed during the life cycle of any Army
Special Tests are so named and categorized amphibious vehicle.
because of their unusual nature in regard to
reporting and control procedures, method of 8-3 RESPONSIBILITY FOR VEHICLE
conduct, facilities, and services required. Special TESTS
Tests which are generally applicable to wheeled
logistic amphibians are defined in the paragraphs The scope of this discussion on test
which follow. responsibility is limited to the specific areas of
respon•sibility for prescribing the tests and
8-2.3.1 Confirmatory Tests (Type II) associated test formats, and the responsibility
for conducting the tests.
Type II Confirmatory Tests are used to As indicated earlier in this chapter, the total
8-5
.0 •0 0 0 .. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 P 0 0
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00
z 0
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02 Z
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8-6 4 _.Uq_
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AMCP 706-350
responsibility for testing a vehicle with regard to under the Mobility Equipment Command
Type Classification and Army acceptance falls (MECOM).
under the USATECOM. Therefore, the In this regard, it is the responsibility of the
responsibility of USATECOM is to insure that a project office to determine and to be aware of
vehicle meets the military requirements of the high risk areas evolving from the military I 0 0
QMR. Results of these tests will be quantitative requirements which may require test and
only insofar as the QMR or its interpretation is evaluation during the amphibian development
quantitative, i.e., Category I Test results will be stage. For example, if requirements dictate a
of little or no use to the designer with regard to propulsion system or hull form which is unique
solving design deficiencies; these results will only or "border line state-of-the-art", a component
indicate the problem areas. development program including
It is the responsibility of the amphibian engine-transmission test or hull testing may be
development command(s) to supply a vehicle to required. More specifically, in the case of
USATECOM which meets the military engines and transmission systems, for example,
requirements and/or provide a "fix" when a test facilities at ATAC permit simulation of
performance requirement is not met. It logically loads and environmental conditions on
follows (and is in fact the case) that propulsion systems which exactly duplicate
responsibility for obtaining quantitative test those experienced under any selected 0 e
data (design data) with which to predict vehicle operational condition. It is under controlled test
performance and to correct design deficiencies conditions such as these that high risk areas
lies with the cognizant development commands. should be initially evaluated for several
The commands and agencies most likely reasons-detailed and accurate engineering data
involved with wheeled logistic amphibians, along are easier to obtain than on a completed
with their areas of cognizance, are listed in Table amphibian, and it is obviously much more
8-1. desirable to make as many design changes as
The responsibility for administering a test possible before a prototype amphibian is built.
program, conducting tests, and test data retrieval There are, of course, a number of trade-offs
can- be delegated by the cognizant development with regard to testing components before or
command(s) to private contractors, and/or after installation in the amphibian. These
USATECOM. Of course, the ultimate trade-offs involve such things as probability of
responsibility for the amphibian meeting the failure (risk), scheduling, funding, and the
QMR and for rectification of design deficiencies availability of equipment and test site. Clearly,
lies with the amphibian project office, usually the responsibility for making the engineering
TABLE 8-1 AMPHIBIAN DEVELOPMENT COMMANDS
Command or Agency Cognizance
U. S. Army Tank-Automotive Command (ATAC) Engines, power trains, suspensions, tires, soil
Warren, Michigan analysis, environmental factors.
U. S. Army Mobility Equipment Command Amphibious Lighters

(MECOM)
St. Louis, Missouri
U. S. Army Mobility Equipment Research and Research, development, testing, and evaluation
Development Center (MERDC) of mobile equipment and amphibious vehicles.
Ft. Belvoir, Virginia
U. S. Army Combat Developments Command Development of Logistic Over-the-shore (LOTS)

Transportation Agency (CDCTA) capability.
Fort Eustis, Virginia
8-7
I 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
decisions, with regard to establishing an agreement can be reached between USATECOM

optimum test program for development, rests and the cognizant development or commodity
with the development command(s), the command.
individual designers, and program officers. There are several test sites available to the -
With the above testing responsibilities designer to which the responsibility for
defined, it is important that the designer be conducting amphibian tests may be delegated.
aware of how USATECOM achieves its prime Each of the various test sites has the
responsibility-testing and type classification of environmental facilities for conducting tests of a
materiel. The ultimate goal (Standard Type specific type. For example, Aberdeen Proving
Classification) must be considered throughout Ground, Maryland, has extensive facilities for
the amphibian development cycle, determining land mobility. Table 8-2 includes a 0 •
For the past several years, USATECOM has list of the major amphibian test sites with their
been engaged in a program of standardizing their corresponding areas of test capability.
test procedures to the greatest extent possible. Other contractor test facilities are available to
This program entails the establishment of the designer through the amphibian
Materiel Test Procedures (MTP's) which outline, manufacturer. The selection of appropriate test
as specifically as possible, the tests performed on sites for an amphibian test program is obviously
all possible items of Army materiel. At the dependent on availability, logistics, and test
present time, it is anticipated that the basic requirements.
series of MTP's will be completed in the early
1970's; however, continual updating will be 8-4 DESCRIPTION OF AMPHIBIAN TESTS
required. AND TEST PROCEDURES
Theoretically, at some future date, an entire
test format will be developed by calling for the 8-4.1 GENERAL 0 0
appropriate MTP's. The MTP's will provide the
basic guidelines for amphibian testing; but the The detailed description of all possible
details and ramifications will be described within amphibian tests including procedure, data
the framework of the set procedures or will accuracy, and instrumentation would take
supersede the MTP's, if necessary. undue space. The details of test procedures are
The significance of the MTP's to the not as important to the designer as the desired
amphibian designer is that an awareness of the end product or the basic concept motivating the
tests, test objectives, and methods which will be test. In line with the scope of this handbook, an
applied to the amphibian, will enable him to attempt will be made in the discussion which
better design an acceptable item. Also, it should follows to indicate types of tests, the specific
give some insight as to what areas of design objectives of each type of test, the general
require quantitative test data retrieval or methods or procedures involved, accuracy
updating, such that the risk of test failure is required, and application of test results by the .......
minimized. It is possible that the test procedures designer.
should be updated to result in more quantitative Another limitation must also be imposed on
results which will allow the designer to compare the discussion of tests, i.e., quantitative or
items on an equal basis, and evaluate design engineering tests will be covered in some degree
concepts and changes. of detail, and qualitative (e.g., endurance,
Materiel Test Procedures and information service) tests will be mentioned only briefly. The 0 0
regarding the status of the above mentioned reason for this is that qualitative test data are of
program can be obtained from the USATECOM, value in indicating problem areas; however,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. The basic where the solutions to these problems are not
concept of MTP usage and a comprehensive list intuitive or obvious, the application of
of available and planned MTP's are included in quantitative test data is generally the best means
Ref. 1. of reaching a sophisticated solution to a given
In areas of low risk, it may be possible to problem.
obtain the necessary design test data at the same A statement about accuracy is considered
time USATECOM is conducting the Category I necessary at this time since the difference
Tests, provided the tests are compatible and between qualitative and quantitative tests is
8-8
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AMCP 706-350 0
TABLE 8-2 AMPHIBIAN TEST SITES AND CAPABILITIES
Site Capabilities(Facilities)
Aberdeen Proving Ground (APG), Land mobility testing

Maryland
Fort Story, Virginia Water operations, LOTS, evaluation, land

mobility, surf performance (limited)
Monterey, California Surf tests . •
Yuma Proving Ground Environmental (desert), land mobility tests

Yuma, Arizona
Camp Pendleton, California Land endurance testing, beach and water-

borne performance testing
General Equipment Test Activity Water performance, beach operations and

Fort Lee, Virginia coordinated ship and amphibian operations
Harts Lake Proving Ground, Land mobility and water testing

Michigan
Warren Dunes, Sand beach and dunes, water tests

Michigan
Twenty Nine Palms, California Desert environment tests
really an undefined difference in accuracy of data can give rise to improved methods of . S
test measurements, whether "go-no go", gross performance prediction, resulting in lower
human observation and comment, or instrument design margins or ignorance factors and, thus,
readouts. In general, the degree of accuracy of enhance the optimization of amphibians by the
test measurements is basically a function of such evolution process.
items as the test objective, the available
instrumentation, sensitivity of the amphibian 8-4.2 ENGINEERING (QUANTITATIVE TESTS) ..
design performance to the measured parameter,
cost, and time. As far as the designer is For convenience, the testing of an amphibian
concerned, the motivation for greater accuracy is divided into four categories.
at additional cost and time, is a direct function 1. Static tests, instrumentation, and
of the sensitivity or effect of the test data on the calibration
design and performance of the amphibian. As an 2. Land tests
example, the developed engine power varies 3. Water tests 0
approximately as the waterborne speed cubed 4. Surf tests
(i.e., HP a: V 3 ); therefore, in order to have a The nature of an amphibian does not readily
balanced effect, design water speed permit such a division or categorizing of tests
measurements might warrant more attention to since many functions and tests will overlap into
accuracy than does power measurement. This other areas; however, the division is necessary
example is presumptuous in that other factors for establishing a framework within which to _ ...
such as guaranteed (under contract) power discuss amphibian tests.
availability may dictate a high degree of Instrumentation required for obtaining the
accuracy in engine power measurements, desired test data will generally include
It should be noted that more accurate test thermocouples, pressure sensors, pyrometers,
8-9
S.... •0..... . • .0.o ... • *• !,.... S 0 0 0 0 0 0

AMCP 706-350 I 0
gages, flow meters, load cells, scales, strip (11) Winch and ramp operation
recorders, surveying instruments, stop watches, (12) Heaters and ventilators operation
ohmmeters, thermometers, torsion meters, (13) Cooling fans operation
inclinometers, accelerometers, thrust meters, (14) Bilge pumps operation
etc. These types of instruments are (15) Windshield wipers operation 0
commercially available with accuracy ranges of 1 (16) Exhaust system integrity
to 3 percent (plus or minus). (17) Short test of power to marine
All instrumentation should be calibrated, propulsor
both prior to and at completion of engineering (18) Safety equipment, fire extinguishers,
tests. Calibration checks should also be made tools, etc.
during tests if erratic readings are noticed or (19) Check lifting rings, hand rails, towing S 6 0
instrumentation damage is suspected for any eyes, hold down attachment points, etc.
reason. (20) Check communication system opera-
In the test descriptions which follow, the tion
types of instruments will be related to specific (21) Test hatches, cab, etc., for watertight-
tests, and the significance of the data obtained ness
will be noted where appropriate. In many tests, The purpose of the static tests outlined is to
the usefulness of the test and instrumentation insure that the amphibian is ready for the actual
required is obvious. Refs. 2-4 provide additional engineering tests to follow. The values of
information. hydrostatic test pressure, electrical resistances,
steer time, etc., should be obtained and checked
84.2.1 Static Tests, Instrumentation, and Calibration against the amphibian specifications. All
deficiencies and malfunctions should be
The preparatory tests or checkout tests are corrected prior to conduct of further tests. Any 0 6
grouped under this category, namely: corrective measures can usually be carried out
a. Measure and record physical dimensions during the instrumentation installation phase of
and characteristics of amphibian. the test agenda.
b. Fill all fluid systems with prescribed type
and amount of fluids (except fuel). Flush and 8-4.2.2 Land Tests
bleed as required.
c. Check visually all lubrication points for 84.2.2.1 Determination of Weight, Center of Gravity,
lubricant and accessibility, and Adequacy of Lifting Eyes
d. Check resistance of all electrical circuits
with ohmmeter for open and closed resistance These three tests lend themselves to
within required limits. Check insulation for simultaneous performance in most cases. The
adequate resistance. object of the test is evident by its title. The
e. Hydrostatic test of hydraulic and other reason for measuring weight and CG location is 9
pressurized fluid systems to 1.5 to 2.0 times their relation to design weight and amphibian
working pressure and check for leaks. stability, respectively.
f. Fill fuel systems and check for leaks. The first step of the test procedure is to
g. Test operation of amphibian components accurately record the condition of the
and systems including: amphibian with regard to fuel load and location
(1) Starter system of movable items of onboard equipment. 0 0 S
(2) Engines Weight of the amphibian is usually
(3) Generator (alternator) determined by measuring and recording weight
(4) Hydraulic pumps on each wheel. The center of gravity location is
(5) Steering mechanism(s) located by hanging the amphibian from slings as
(6) Transmission-drive train shown in Fig. 8-2. A vertical line from the point
(7) Brakes including emergency brake of suspension will always pass through the CG.
(8) Lights By heeling the amphibian in both directions, the
(9) Tire pressure and pressure control vertical and transverse location of the CG is
system operation indicated by the point at which these (plumb)
(10) Operation of all installed gages lines do intersect.
8-10
AMCP 706-350 p 0 -
NOTE: Both of the sling methods indicated of pump or engine speed. It should be noted
in Fig. 8-2 locate the vertical center of that bilge pumps are usually driven hydraulically
gravity. This provides a cross check of the by the main engine.
tests. Another measurement which is recorded is
By recording all added or subtracted weights the elapsed time between actuation of bilge I 0 0
and their location, the weight and CG location pumps and start of discharge.
of the amphibian can be determined for any Hand or emergency bilge pumps are similarly
given condition. tested.
84.2.2.2 Maximum Draw Bar Pull and Towing Pad Tests 8-4.2.2.4 Minimum Turn (Steering) Radius and Response
Time Tests
Fig. 8-3 shows a method for conducting
towing pad tests. A specified load is applied, and The amphibian is driven over a surface which
after the test the tow pads and attachment will clearly define the tire tracks of all wheels.
structure are checked for evidence of failure or Condition of the amphibian (i.e., weight, tire
overstress. The tension is applied slowly in pressures, etc.) is recorded (or specified). For
increments. Then, if a failure does occur, a "hard over" turns to the right and left, for both
reasonable estimate of the failure load may be two-wheel and four-wheel steering, if applicable, 0
made. Measurements of pad eye diameter and the mean radius of the center of the inside wheel
length are made prior to and following the test track and outside wheel tracks for a 360 deg
in order to detect any deformation, turn, are measured and recorded. See Fig. 8-4.
Maximum draw bar pull tests are conducted The steering response test measures the
in much the same manner as the towing pad elapsed time for steering from stop to stop or
tests. However, only one end of the amphibian is hard right to hard left. The time varies with
bridled and the tension is applied by the engines amphibian load, tire pressure, engine speed
through the tires of the amphibian. The engine (hydraulic pressure and flow), and surface
speed is set at or near the maximum torque rpm conditions.
with torque converter in a stall condition (static
vehicle) and the maximum attainable tension is 8-4.2.2.5 Winch Tests
measured. Temperatures and pressures of engine
oil, cooling water, torque converter fluid, etc., For various engine speeds (hydraulic pressures L S
must be closely monitored during this test so as and flow rates), line speed is measured in feet
not to cause failure or damage. per second for pulling a known heavy load
During this test, torsion meters and mounted on wooden skids over dry pavement.
tachometers may be employed to determine From these test data, winch capability can be
e ngine power and torque converter established and compared with design data.
characteristics. 9
8-4.2.2.6 Tire Inflation System Tests
8-4.2.2.3 Bilge Pump Tests Each tire is inflated to an overdesign pressure

and isolated from the compressor system.
Bilge pumps are tested in order to determine Pressure loss is recorded after 24 hr.
that capacity requirements are met. For each
pump, the discharge capacity is measured as a 8-4.2.2.7 Ramp Tests 0
function of the prime mover rpm. This is usually
accomplish-d by maintaining a level of water in The ramp is repeatedly opened and closed.
the amphibian's bilges and recording the time The time for each operation is measured and
required for the pump to discharge a related to various parameters such ais engine
predetermined quantity of water. Water flow speed, number of engines running, and hydraulic
meters may also be used for this test. pressure and flow rate. 0 0
By recording elapsed time and measured
water quantities (or flow rates) for increments 84.2.2.8 Fan (Cooling) Tests
of prime mover speed (rpm), the bilge pump
capacity (gpm) can be determined as a function Each fan is tested over a range of engine rpm
8-11
0 0 0 0 .0 0 .0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
- S
"PARALLEL SLINGS
7705- 0CG
MAINTAIN ZERO INCLINATION DURING HEEL AS SHOWN ABOVE (30 min

HEELING OF LIGHTER ATHWARTSHIPS REPEAT FOR HEEL OF OPPOSITE HAND .
(A) TRANSVERSE AND VERTICAL CENTER OF GRAVITY DETERMINATION
0 0
PARALLEL SLINGS p. .
G 0
0i
INCLINE AS SHOWN ABOVE (30 mn ) MAINTAIN ZERO HEEL DURING

REPEAT FOR INCLINATION OF OPPOSITE INCLINING OF LIGHTER FORE AND AFT
HAND
(B) LONGITUDINAL AND VERTICAL CENTER OF GRAVITY DETERMINATION 1 , _
Figure 8-2. Center of Gravity Determination

8-12
Ilk .. . 9 _ _ o_ ....
AMCP 706-350
TENSION METER
/ -II ,I
I iTO WINCH
- DEADMAN TENSION METER
PLAN VIEW
Figure 8-3. Towing Pad Test Procedure
and fan rpm. Air temperatures (to and from the distance is provided for acceleration to constant
fan), velocities, and flow rates are measured, maximum speed prior to entering the measured
These data are used to determine the fan's course.
cooling capacity.
8-4.2.2.9 Brake System Tests 0 0
With the amphibian in a known load INSIDE O

condition, emergency stops are made on dry RADIUS RADIUS
pavement from a range of speeds including
reverse. The speeds and corresponding stopping .. _ ........
times, and distances are measured and recorded. 0
Accelerometers are sometimes used in these tests
to record braking "g" levels.
8-4.2.2.10 Parking Brake Tests
Two types of tests are performed on the -,00ft

system. One is a static pressure test which
measures loss of pressure over a period of hours.
Another is determination of the maximum grade
on which the brake will hold the loaded
amphibian in both forward and reverse INSIDE
directions at the design holding pressure. RADIU
8-4.2.2.11 Speed Trials (Maximum) OUTSIE

RADIUS •
Speed trials are conducted on a level, dry, HDI

improved surface. At a specified load condition,
the amphibian is run through a measured
distance at maximum (constant) engine speed in
forward high gear and the elapsed time
determined. Velocity is then calculated Runs
are made in both directions and sufficient Figure 8-4. Diagram of Steering Radius Test
8-13
I S •
~ .~ ~. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0t
AMCP 706-350
8-4.2.2.12 Fuel Consumption Tests consisting of swamps, marshes, mud slopes,

clays, and sands to determine its off-road
The fuel consumption (as a function of speed) mobility-i.e., the range of soil conditions over
tests are usually run for full and light load which it can operate--and to define the
conditions on a level improved surface. The operating limitations. Similar tests are
method used to measure fuel consumption is to conducted to determine the ability and
time the consumption of a premeasured limitations (go or no-go) of the amphibian to
quantity of fuel which is placed in a calibrated negotiate specified obstacles such as vertical
auxiliary fuel tank. This tank can be cut in and banks and ditches.
out of the fuel service system as required. A related test is used to determine the
amphibian's bank egress capability. However,
8-4.2.2.13 Gradability Tests the conditions are very difficult to define and
measure for this particular type of test.
With the amphibian in low gear, it is slowly
driven up a gradually increasing grade until 8-4.2.3 Water Tests
forward motion is impossible due to the grade.
The test conditions which may be varied include 8-4.2.3.1 Stability Tests
grade surface condition, tire pressure(s), and
load condition. Care should be taken not to over The stability tests are performed to determine
heat, over torque, or cause damage to the power an amphibian's righting moment (i.e., stability)
system. for roll angles up to the point where capsizing is
Results of this type of test are sometimes imminent. Tests are run for both light and
presented in terms of maximum attainable speed loaded conditions.
for various specified grades. Again, these data Fig. 8-5 shows a typical method of inclining
are functions of road surface, load, etc. the amphibian with a series of cable
attachments, winches, and anchors. This figure
8-4.2.2.14 Rolling Resistance Tests also indicates the data .corded (i.e., cable
tension, roll angle, and rigging geometry) along
The purpose of this test is to determine the with the method of calculating the righting
rolling resistance of the amphibian as a function moment. It is important that the amphibian
of speed for various land surfaces. weight and center of gravity be known by ,O . O
One method of obtaining this information is relating added weights and their locations back
to run the amphibian through a calibrated (posts to the light condition center of gravity
or stripes placed at regular intervals) course at determined during land tests.
constant speed. Upon entering the course, power Heel angles should be increased by
is removed from the wheels (declutch) and the approximately 5 deg increments until the
amphibian is allowed to coast to a stop. Movie heeling force (cable tension) drops off sharply.
films are taken and analyzed to determine the This drop in tension indicates approaching
change in amphibian speed versus time. From instability (imminent capsizing) and the test is
these data, the deceleration force (rolling then discontinued. Safety ropes or cables must
resistance) can be calculated. be used during these tests in order to prevent
The same method can be used in braking tests possible capsizing, but these ropes must not
to determine braking force, i.e., total restrain the heeling.
deceleration force = rolling resistance + braking The data obtained provide a good measure of 0 •
force. waterborne static stability and can easily be
Another method which can be used to compared to other amphibian data. An accepted
determine the rolling resistance is to tow the means of representing these data and typical test
amphibian at constant speeds and measure the results is shown in Fig. 8-6.
towing forces with a tension dynamometer.
8-4.2.3.2 Moment to Trim One Inch (MT1)
8-4.2.2.15 Off-road Mobility and Obstacle Tests
For a specified loading condition, the
The amphibian is run over prescribed courses moment required to cause the sum of forward
8-14
9 0 0
0 0 • 0 0 ._O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
CAUTION SAFETY ROPES MUST BE USED TO

=50 ft PREVENT CAPSIZING WITHOUT
WINCH- RESTRAINING THE HEELING
ELECTRIC
READING CLINOMETER 0 0
DYNAMOMETER
A E CLINOWATER
WATER
S".-... =50 ft -.
50Oft
- - BOTTOM1
NOTE: LINES TO WINCH AND TO ANCHOR MUST BE PARALLEL (p •)
TO WINCH V,
F ____________ _ BRIDLES SHALL BE g
F = force, 16 0 ATTACHED TO
LIFTING EYES
d = couple arm, ft d
ASHORE - OFFSHORE
- - ---
40- F THE OFFSHORE BRIDLE
LEADS DOWN THEL
TO ANCHORAGE SHOREWARD SIDE, L • •
RIGHTING MOMENT = Pd F [B sin(6+I) + H cos(8 UNDER HULL, AND
TO ANCHOR POINT
Figure 8-5. Righting Moment Determination by Inclining Test
waterline elevaticn plus the aft waterline methods used for orientation and course keeping
depression to equal one inch is determined. The may be inferred. t • 0
locations (stations) at which waterline The amphibian is run through the calm water
measurements are made are usually specified course at specified (constant) engine speeds, and
and/or coincide with the fore and aft draft elapsed time is measured. Waterborne speed is
markings. then calculated.
The moment variation is accomplished by Power, trim, fuel consumption, engine data,
moving a weight longitudinally along the etc., may also be obtained at this time, if 0 .0
amphibian centerline, required.
Data obtained from this test confirm the Power measurements are made in several ways
design objectives and are used to determine the depending on the accuracy required. The easiest,
best cargo placement in order to minimize and usually least accurate method, is to record
waterborne resistance or to maximize directional engine speed and fuel rack (throttle) setting.
stability since these characteristics are a function With these data and the manufacturer's engine
of trim. curve, an estimate of power (BHP) can be made.
Power can also be calculated from measured
torque (torsion-meter) and rpm, or from
8-4.2.3.3 Speed Trials (Power and Fuel Consumption) propeller thrust(s) and amphibian speed.
Waterborne speed trials are accomplished in 8-4.2.3.4 Tactical Diameter (Turning Circle)Tests
much the same manner as land speed tests,
except that the added complications of This test determines the waterborne port and
determining the exact position of the amphibian starboard turning circle diameters for various
and straight course running are involved. Fig. 8-7 conditions as specified or required. Many
shows a typical water course from which the variables influencing the test results must be
8-15
S0 -I
_9 .*e ... • __ .. . *.
. o_
... 0 0 0 0 0 0 • o
AMCP 706-350
70,000
60,000
50,000
n." 40,00
ooo____ ______
z
0
o
z 30,000
DISCONTINUE TEST
20,000
10,000
* 0j
CAPSIZE
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
ANGLE OF INCLINATION, deg
Figure 8-6. Typical Waterborne StaticalStability Curve for an Amphibian
1/2 mile
50 ft 50 ft
(MNMM
(MINIMUM)(MNU) :660 ft -1320 ft 1 2 ft T z660 ft(MNU)
900 900
APPROACH APPROACH
TURN TURN I MRE
COURSE MARKERS r-AROUND SPEED ZONE - -AROUND COURSE MARKERS
ZONE ZONE
SOft • 50--
Sft •
(MINIMUM)5 CHECK MARKERS (MINIMUM)
(MINIUM)
e'ý -__(M6NIMUM)
Figure8-7. Plan View of Typical Water Course for Amphibian Speed Runs
8-16
,q *
* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
taken into consideration including load execution of astern power to a dead stop in the
condition, approach speed, and rudder angle set water.
at execution of turn. If two propulsion devices The method used is to approach a marked
are employed, the minimum turning circle will course at full speed. When range posts are lined
result when reverse or astern power is applied to up, astern power is applied to the propulsor. 0 0
the inboard (with respect to direction of the Distance is ther measured or triangulated from
turn) propulsor. point of execution to the point where forward
As with the waterborne speed trails, the motion is stopped.
determination of the amphibian's position and During this maneuver, care should be taken
path during the turn is the complication, not to over torque the engines; close monitoring
Methods which have been used in the past of the machinery operation should be
include calculating the amphibian's position by maintained.
triangulation from shore stations at regular
intervals during the execution of a turn; see Fig. 84.2.3.6 Astern Operation and Maneuvering Tests
8-8. Another method consists of dropping buoys
at regular intervals during the turn and The amphibian is operated with full power
measuring the turning circle diameter by astern for a sustained period of time. During this
triangulation or direct tape measurement, period, rudder response is recorded and the
sustained astern power capability is evaluated in
8-4.2.3.5 Crash Stop Tests terms of pressures, temperatures, vibration, etc.
One method of evaluating rudder response is to
These tests are used to determine minimum measure the rate of change in heading (compass)
distance (ahead reach) from the point of at maximum astern speed for various rudder
MINIMUM
TURNING 7
Ni
I RADIUS. I. .
SHORE LINE I 0 0
TAISTTRANSIT
- ~BASE LINE 700 ft (MINIMUM)
Figure 8-8. Method for Determinationof Waterborne Turning Radius

8-17
0 0 ,0 0 - * in ua 0 0
AMCP 706-350
angles. Rudder angle required to maintain a

steady (straight) course astern should also be /
recorded.
8-4.2.3.7 Bollard Pull Tests
Bollard pull tests are somewhat analogous to Figure 8-9. Bollard Pull Test Method
the draw bar pull tests on land. The amphibian is
moored to a rigid structure such that the line lies Surf tests in the past have simply compared a
in the vertical plane passing through the new design amphibian with other amphibians by
propeller shaft or line of thrust. The mooring operating them side by side in the surf.
line should also be as close as possible to Evaluation is made by the operators, observers,
u-lts)
horizontal, and, at times, by the surf (when sinking results).
A tension dynamometer is placed in this line, 8-42.5 Other Tests
and tensions recorded for increments of
propeller or propulsor speed (rpm). Other types of tests which are performed on
For multiple propulsor amphibians, each amphibians during typical confirmatory testing,
system should be tested independently. See Fig. are tabulated in Table 8-3. The breakdown is, p
8-9 for a sample test method, for the most part, self-explanatory. It is
recommended that test reports for previous
8-4.2.3.8 Towing Tests amphibians be reviewed for greater detail with
regard to these tests.
These tests are performed to determine an Endurance testing involves much the same
amphibian's towing capability and its ability to procedure as the confirmatory type test.
be towed. Selected vehicles are towed by the However, many operational hours are
test amphibian and tow line tension, speed, and accumulated and gross amphibian reliability,
power are measured. maintainability, and logistic requirements may
The test amphibian may also be towed in be determined.
various load conditions without propellers to During the design phase a-f an amphibian, the
determine its waterborne resistance at various designer should be aware of all the standard
speeds of advance. The effective horsepower tests, and be acutely aware of the possibility of I 0 0
(EHP) can then be calculated. improving these tests and developing new tests
as required for the particular amphibian with its
8-4.2.4 Surf Tests related areas of high risk, high performance
sensitivity, and degree of complexity.
The state-of-the-art in surf testing amphibians
wi.h regard to qualitative analyses is very TABLE 8-3 TYPICAL TYPE II CONFIRMATORY
limited. One of the major variables involved in TEST AGENDA . _ . -
surf testing is the capability of the operator.

With this in mind, the test methods which A. Familiarization and Training
follow represent those that attempt to B. Preoperational Inspection
determine surf performance. C. Road Mobility
Under various load conditions and for various D. Off-road Mobility
surf heights, the amphibian is run through the E. Fuel and Oil Consumption
breakers in both directions, i.e., landing on the F. Ease of Operation (Crew Safety and
beach and re-entering the water. Films are taken Comfort)
of the tests and degree of directional stability is G. Maintenance Evaluation
measured in terms of the amphibian's extent of H. Water Operations
"wallowing", tendency to broach, and amount I. Towing Test
of rudder control required. Another important J. Surf Performance
factor with regard to surfing ability is the ability K. Operation with Landing Ships
of the amphibian to withstand water impact of L. Loading and Unloading
breaking waves over its cab and decks, and the M. Movement Adaptability (Transportability)
ease with which this water is shed.
8-18
,0 0
AMCP 706-350
REFERENCES
1. USATECOM Materiel Test Procedures, Vol. Report No. 105-1-1004, Selwood Research,
I, Introduction to Organization, Format, Inc., Kensington, Md., June 1967.
Style, and Index, Pamphlet 700-700, 3. OrdnanceProofManual,Vol. 1I, Automotive 0 0
AMSTE-RP-702-100, Aberdeen Proving Testing,
Maryland. Aberdeen Proving Ground,
Ground, Maryland, October 1966. 4. Surf Testing Procedure, Amphibian Vehicle
2. Standard Tests for Engineering Testing of Division, Landing Forces Development
Amphibious Landing Vehicles (Tracked), Center, Quantico, Virginia.
8 1
8-19
• •• • •• • • • • • • • • O * 0
AMCP 706-350 0 S
PART FOUR HIGH SPEED AMPHIBIANS
CHAPTER 9 HIGH SPEED AMPHIBIANS

9-1 INTRODUCTION speed limited by the available power or its
motions in waves. The power-limited speed is
There has been considerable interest in the simply the highest speed possible in a given sea
design of wheeled amphibian vehicles with high condition using all of the available power. The
water speed since the late 1950's. The first studies motion-limited speed is the speed at which the
of high-speed amphibians were initiated by U. S. amphibian's wave induced motions, and in
Army Transportation Evaluation Command, Fort particular the acceleration, exceed the tolerance
Eustis, Virginia, under contract with of the crew. The selection of these required
Ingersoll-Kalamazoo Div., Borg-Warner Corp., speeds should be consistent with the other
Kalamazoo, Michigan. After a design study, aspects of waterborne ability (i.e., loading at
further work was suspended due to pressing work ship side and surfing) and the expected
on the development of the LARC V and LARC occurrence of various sea conditions. Ref. 2
XV, and limited funding. provides some information on the latter topic.
A study conducted by the U. S. Army The price-in terms of weight, complexity, and
Transportation Combat Development Group cost for a high speed amphibian with
(Ref. 1) indicated that a high water speed will performance in excess of that actually required I S S
greatly increase the productivity of a logistical for the mission-will be very high.
amphibian if the one-way water distance is on the This chapter on high (water) speed
order of 10 miles or greater. Thus for some amphibians is intended to provide data and
mission requirements a wheeled amphibian with a projections of performance and characteristics
high water speed may be desirable, of different vehicle types, and information on
During the period from the early 1960's until design problems that are unique to high speed
1968, the Amphibian Vehicle Division, amphibians. The design procedures and much of
Development Center, Marine Corp Development the data presented in previous chapters apply to
and Education Command, conducted an high-speed amphibians and thus will not be
extensive study of high-speed wheeled repeated. No attempt will be made to present
amphibians. In order to increase the water detailed procedures for the hydrodynamic
speed, the study revealed that--among other design of a high-speed amphibian since this
things-the hydrodwvamic drag must be reduced would require an effort beyond the scope of this •
below that of the conventional wheeled handbook. However, a list of suitable references
amphibian displacement hull. This fact led for each vehicle type is included.
naturally to the consideration of other hull
configurations including planing hulls, 9-2 PLANING HULL AMPHIBIANS
hydrofoils, surface effect or air cushion craft,
and catamarans. One possible type of high-speed amphibian is 0
As may be expected, the waterborne based on the use of a planing hull form. On a
performirnce requirements will have the greatest planing hull form a large part of the weight is
single influence on the characteristics of a high carried by dynamic lift at high speed. There is
speed amphibian. Thus the performance little wavemaking drag -t high speed so that the
required by the craft's mission must be carefully power required is reasonable. At intermediate
considered and defined. This is particularly true speeds (15 to 20 mph for a 35-ft vehicle) the
with respect to sustained speed in waves, range wavemaking drag is high which may, in fact, fix
or endurance, and maneuverability. It should be the power required. This problem is discussed in
noted that a high-speed amphibian may have its par. 9-3.1.
9-1
AMCP 706-350 I 0 S
9-2.1 EXISTING PLANING HULL AMPHIBIANS and 9-2, respectively; and an outline drawing of
(LVW-X1 and LVW-X2) the LVW-X1 is given in Fig. 9-3.
Numerous planing hull amphibian forms were 9-2.1.1 Waterborne Speed and Power of LVW-X1 and
studied and model tested by the Stevens LVW-X2
Institute of Technology in the late 1 950's and
reported in Ref. 3. From this work evolved the As indicated in par. 9-1, it is necessary to
concept that was ultimately built. In early 1960 carefully define the waterborne speed of a
a contract was let by the Navy Bureau of Ships high-speed amphibian and the conditions under
to the Ingersoll-Kalamazoo Div. of the which it was obtained: In order to obtain these
Borg-Warner Corp. for the design and fibrication data, the U. S. Marine Corps conducted a series 0
of two planing hull amphibians designated of engineering tests on the LVW vehicles. The
LVW-X1 and LVW-X2. The two vehicles were results are summarized in Ref. 4. After initial
accepted by the Marine Corps in early 1964. The testing it was realized that, because of problems
support of these vehicles was later taken over by with weight and various components, the LVW
the Chrysler Corp. vehicles should not be considered as prototypes
The LVW-X1 and LVW-X2 are nearly for a planing hull amphibian. As a result, they
identical vehicles. Both have identical all welded were tested in the water as test bed craft for
aluminum "V" bottom hulls, retractable planing hull amphibian performance. These tests
propellers, retractable aft wheel flaps to increase were conducted at a gross weight of about
the planing surface, and an unsprung suspension 38,000 lb which corresponds to the original full
system with fully retractable wheels. The major load design displacement. Tests at the actual full
differences are that the LVW-X1 employs side load displacement of 44,000 lb would not have
loading and 2-wheel, 4-wheel, or oblique been meaningful because of the increased weight 0 0
steering; whereas the LVW-X2 employs stern over the design conditions.
loading and 2-wheel steering. The LVW-X1 is The measured thrust horsepower, shaft
also equipped with small trim control wedges on horsepower, and propeller rpm as a function of
the wheel flaps. speed in calm water for the LVW-X1 are
The LVW's are each powered by a Lycoming presented in Fig. 9-4. The lines represent model
TF-2036 gas turbine which drives the propellers, test data scaled to full size and the points . .
the wheels, or both as required. represent measured full scale data. An important
For waterborne operation, two propellers and item to note in this figure is the peak or hump in
rudders are provided. These are mounted on a SHP at a speed of 20 knots, i.e., it requires as
hinged propeller retracting plate which provides much power to reach 20 knots as 30 knots. This
a smooth flat bottom for high speed planing hump in SHP is due to high drag from
operation. This plate retracts by pivoting around wavemaking, poor flow conditions to the •
its forward end. Thus in the retracted position propeller, and low propeller efficiency due to a
the propellers are in a tunnel, protected for land high thrust coefficient (see par. 7-7). This
and surf operations. condition is typical of high-speed amphibians
In the land mode of operation, four-wheel and means that the power required must be
drive is provided. Wheel retraction and extension checked over a range of speeds in addition to the
are handled by a pivoting mechanism which design point.
allows the wheel to swing in the fore and aft The actual top speed obtained by the LVW 3 0 0
direction. The operator's cab is located forward vehicles in calm water and Sea States 1, 2, and 3
of the cargo well and is designed for both land are presented in Table 9-3. The speeds given
and water operation with a crew of two. The in Table 9-3 represent the speed obtained when
fully enclosed cab is fitted with 3/.- in. operating at full power. The Sea State numbers
shatterproof glass for protection in surf given refer to Table 9-4.
operation. 0 0
Figs. 9-1 and 9-2 show an LVW operating at 9-2.1.2 Accelerations of the LVW Vehicles
high speed in the water and on land,
respectively. The vehicle characteristics of the The LVW-X2 vehicle was instrumented and
LVW-X1 and LVW-X2 are given in Tables 9-1 the accelerations in head seas were measured at
9-2
40 0 01
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
• • - ,- :.-.
-I- ' * ' •
Figure 9-1. LVW-X1 in High-speed Waterborne Mode
9-3
Fiur 9-2 LVX inLndMd
* 0
Figure 9-2. LVW-X2 in Land Mode

9-:3
I * 0
* 00 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
I i"
36'- 0"
36'- 7"
12'- 5 .2 5'L L - "•••
10-1" 21.75" LOADED 17'-7"
Figure 9-3. External Dimensions of LVW-X1
the bow (crew cab) and at the center of gravity. A nomograph for the solution of Eq. 9-1 is
These data are presented in Ref. 4. Fig. 9-5 presented in Fig. 9-6.
presents the average of the 1/3 highest upward The data in Fig. 9-5 apply to the condition of
(or impact) accelerations in "g's" of the head seas. In following seas, the accelerations are
LVW-X2 as a function of nondimensional wave reduced considerably. Table 9-5 presents this ...............
heights and volume Froude numbers. The reduction for typical planing hulls.
average of the 1/3 highest occurrences of a As previously indicated above, in order to
random variable such as wave height or vehicle define a "motion-limited speed" it is necessary
accelerations is often called the significant value, to know the motions as a function of speed and
The volume Froude number is a nondimensional sea state (wave height), and the tolerance level
measure of speed for a planing hull the same as of the crew to the motions. During the testing of
the conventional Froude number or speed length the high-speed amphibians some data on the
ratio is for a displacement hull (see par. crew tolerance were developed. These data are -
7-4.1.1.3). The relationship between summarized in Table 9-6.

displacement, speed, and volume Froude The reactions given in Table 9-6 are based on
number is given by: a limited sample and thus, must be regarded
V with caution. They are, however, the only data
FV - (9-1) known to exist in which the crew reactions and
1/3 measured accelerations were obtained 0 0
g(-) simultaneously for high speed marine craft.
More data of this type will be developed in the
future, and as it becomes available should be
where used to revise Table 9-6.
Fv = volume Froude number, nd If a waterborne transit time of 1 hr is
V = speed, ft/sec assumed, the allowable significant upward 0 0
A = displacement, lb acceleration level would be 0.9 g. In this case the
2
g = acceleration due to gravity, ft/sec actual sustained speed of the LVW in various sea
3
p = mass density of water, slug/ft states would be as given in Table 9-7.
9-4
0 0
AMCP 706-350 i 0
TABLE 9-1. LVW-X1 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Manufacturer Ingersoll-Kalamazoo Division of Borg-Warner ..
Width, ft-in. 11-8

Length, ft-in. 36-7
Height (Top of Cab), ft-in. 11-0
(Top of Stack), ft-in. 12-51A
Min Ground Clearance, in. 21 3/4
Wheelbase, ft-in. 17-7 I 0 0
Break Angle, deg 15
Land Speed (Governed), mph 35 S S
Water Speed See par. 9-2.1.1
Turn Radius (Land) See par. 9-2.1.3
Turn Radius (Water) See par. 9-2.1.3
Cargo Capacity (Design), lb 10,000 | 0 0
2
Cargo Space (L X W), ft-in. 21-10 X 10-10; Area = 183 ft
Grade Ability (Design), % 60
Side Slope (Design), % 30
Surf Ability (Design), ft 10 0
Engine Data Lycoming TF-2036-B1A Gas Turbine, 1,500 BHP
(cont.) at 3,600 rpm and 80°F
Fuel Type Marine Diesel, JP-3, -4, or -5
Marine Propulsor (2) propellers; D = 24 in., PID = 1.3, BAR = 0.945;
Retractable
Suspension Unsprung rigid system, 4 X 4
Brake System Fawick, Caliper, Hydraulic-actuated, 4 sets of spot
disc type
Tires 18 X 25 in., 12-ply
Land Steering Hydraulic; Selective 2-wheel, 4-wheel, or oblique S
Marine Steering Hydraulic-actuated twin rudders
Electrical System 24-V DC, Single-wire
Hydraulic System 3,000 psi, 15 gpm at 2,000 rpm; 3,000 psi, 33 gpm
at 2,400 rpm
Crew 2 S S
Hull Welded Aluminum 5456
Planing Surface Retractable plate with mounted propeller
9-5
'.. .. 9 0.
5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 0 0
TABLE 9-2. LVW-X2 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Manufacturer Ingersoll-Kalamazoo Division of Borg-Warner
Width. ft-in. 11-7'/

Length, ft-in. 36-71/4
Height crop of Cab), ft-in. 113/4
(Top of Stack) ft-in. 12-51/2
Min Ground Clearance, in. 21½/
Wheelbase, ft-in. 17-7 "
Break Angle, deg 15
Land Speed (Governed), mph 35 I 0 0
Water Speed See par. 9-2.1.1
Turn Radius (Land) See par. 9-2.1.3
Turn Radius (Water See par. q-2.1.3
Cargo Capacity, lb 10,000 p
Cargo Space (L X W), ft-in. 21-10 X 10-10, Area = 180 ft 2
Surf Ability (Design), ft 10
Engine Data Lycoming TF-2036-BlA Gas Turb., 1,500 BHP
(cont.) at 3,600 rpm and 80*F
Fuel Type Marine Diesel, JP-3, -4, or -5
Marne P-opulsor (2) propellers, D = 24 in., PID = 1.3, BAR = 0.945:
Retractable
Suspension Unsprung rigid system, 4 X 4
Brake System (4) Spot discs
Tires 18 X 25 in., 12-ply
Land Steering Hydraulic, 2-wheel only
Marine Steering Hydraulic-actuated twin rudders S
Electrical System 24-V DC, single-wire
Hydraulic System 3,000 psi 15 gpm at 2,000 rpm; 3,000 psi 33 gpm
at 2,400 rpm
Crew 2
Hull Welded Aluminum 5456
Planing Surface Retractable plate with mounted propeller
9-6
.0 0 .. • . 0 0 _. 0 0 0 S 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 9-3 POWER LIMITED SPEEDS OF LVW PLANING HULL AMPHIBIAN
Sea tat 10 0
TABLE 9-4 WIND AND SEA SCALE FOR FULLY ARISEN SEA
X-d ar ;' 1.2 '-. 44
Fl-
rat r-sI
1.- cr41, . . .
C2 ~~1?
1.1 2.? 2.P .Cp1
7 ll . ,1I .1 ,,r;zr~ 11-14 . 2. 1, 3.7 1.2 .
-1 1-, 2.L. 5' ,.
40 :sAp - 17-2I 19 9.3.
45 .r;,- cc r're ... 10 13 34

76-c
5r^7, 7.9 131 37 13' 071-
r2', 9.4 15 70 00: ý
~'F 10 1
1.. . i7
ft, -.
_______V- L___
____________________________
4.51"4
I9-
AMCP 706-350
1800
- NPL MODEL TEST DATA A\ 38,000 LB LCG = 16 ft fwd transom
O WCB DATA A 38,000 LB LCG = 16 ft fwd transom
1600 CHRYSLER DATA A39,580 LB

0
1400 1 11
140 0 RPM
1200 0. 0 1 .
00
0 0
00
aSHP
02o 0
0- SH0 *
0 0 8000
200 0
0 0 0
40
200 -
0 0 0
200
510 15 20 25 30 35
SPEED, KNOTS • •
Figure 9-4. L VIV-XI Speed and Power; Model Test and Full Scale Data
9-8
AMCP 706-350
4.0
FV
3.5 BOW 3.5

BOW ---..
CG / 3.0 0
3.0 -- / / ______
BASED ON LVW EXPERIMENTAL DATA I
0• Fv = VOLUME FROUDE NUMBER / /
2.5 H1/
1 /3 = SIGNIFICANT
WAVE HEIGHT / __._3.5
0Vo = YDISPLACEMENT VOLUME / /
S 2.0 2.0 3.0
4 1.5 I 1 5-
•- i i / 2.5
0
1.0 2.0 --
0.5 1.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

H1/3
NONDIMENSIONAL WAVE HEIGHT,
Figure 9-5. "V" Bottom PlaningHull Vertical Accelerationsfor LVW-X2 in Head Seas
Table 9-7 indicates the considerable increase the left with 2-wheel steering. No tests were
in sustained speeds in high sea states that will conducted with 4-wheel steering.
result if the crew is located in the area of
minimum accelerations aft of the center of 9-2.2 FUTURE PLANING HULL AMPHIBIANS
gravity. From data obtained with the LVW-X1 and
LVW-X2 and other studies of planing hull

9-2.1.3 Control performance, it is possible to make some
projections of the possible characteristics and
The control characteristics of the LVW-X2 performance of future planing hull amphibians.
were measured at high and low speeds, and the Projections of this type have been made and are
results reported in Ref. 5. The observed turning reported in Refs. 4 and 7.
diameters at high and low speeds are presented
in Tables 9-8 and 9-9, respectively. 9-2.2.1 Drag
In high-speed turns the LVW heels inboard and
in general shows satisfactory stability Experimental studies (Refs. 8 and 9) indicate
characteristics. Fig. 9-7 presents the arrangement that more recent "V" bottom and inverted "V"
of the propellers and rudders on the LVW. bottom planing hulls with sizes and
Because of the very low reliability of the displacements suitable for amphibians can be
LVW steering and suspension systems, only designed with less resistance than the LVW-XI
limited data are available on the control and LVW-X2. A comparison between the drag of
characteristics on land. Ref. 6 indicates turning the LVW-X1 and that of a Series 62 "V" bottom
diameters of 138 ft to the right and 120 ft to hull and LVW-X3 inverted "V" bottom hull is
9-9
i~ . ...m m m i . .
0 0 0 0 0a 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
450 1,000,00o
90 400 900,00
•o== 3o~~0-•0,o000•
80
70 30 600,000
-=200
60 500,000
so___ ".5968 VK240,0
40 F .9 V K where g = 32.2 FT/SEC2 400,000
3
40 F ] 150 300,000
30 • p = 1.9924SLUG/FT 3 9%2-00
FOR SALT WATER AT 8o --
tO 70
60
200
20 50 ."
100,0000
ISO 40
160 80,000Z
140 30 - - -
25 000001
12C
10 0020 50,000
9 - 90 40,000
8 z-1
c 6~ = --
= 70
1--• ,15 30,000
760
L-
04I
6L- 50 10
0• .20,000 S4-
540
5: Z 6
o
3D 005
Z 4 I
o 30 .L Z,5
- , 5 10,00000
D 3 0 425
0 Z 70 z8,000 Cl
uLI 3
,,, 6,000
-9i •;
C12[.~ i..
15
LL
U> 22 5,0000 0
0 O0 4,000
>0C. 8 3,000
0.9 5 2,0
0.8
0.7 4-
0. 1.000
0.5 800
700
0.4 2 600
500
0.3 0.3 O
400
0.2-
200
I 5
0.!- T J100
9-10
• . . • O 0
O. 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
AMCP 706-350
TABLE 9-5 PLANING HULL ACCELERATIONS IN dlata arE' alsoE inludlt(edI inl Fig. 9-3. As e'xp'cte'd,
FOLLOWING SEAS the dlrag of such a S arm is laatw' .aa that (ol the
comple'tely faired hulls and l In I,VW Xl with
Voue Acceleration (as Percentage ope'n how and sterni whevel wells.
Frode umber of Acceleration Fo r the paurpo~se of a very an'limivnary 00
~rud
N~ib V in Hlead Seas~) estimiate of the dIrag of a planing hutll ;aaphihian
design, the dat-a inl Fig. 9-8 may he rephl~tted inl
1.5 20'/ Ohl' form oaf a drag-weight, ratio as a fumn h1on of
2.0 21 '; volume lFroude number. A inew planing hutll
2.5 297, a iptI)hilaial rilay bea assuled to
.E h ave Lilt, Sai nt
3.0 33/4. drag-weight. ratio at the' sane' volutna' Irotide
3.54 /,numhber. As sooan as possible, however, a uliara
4.0 64% e'xact. alrakg esti inata' tha~t. ;caE atllltsS for Ii ffE're'nces
4.5 7 'y inl 111111 form, (lisplahceniaent, and cenite'r EECgravit~y
location should he ireparedl. R~efs. 3, 8, 9), and
10 may h~e tise'( foEr this [ir"pose.
TABLE 9-6 SUBJECTIVE REACTIONS OF PERSON- Frplaning hulls, thev drag inl waves IS often
NEL TO HIGH-SPEED AMPHIBIAN MO - estlilat~ea by a ptert'entage inlcrt'as' (Ever calm
TIONS wa ter dIrag.- 'l'ha I E rca'ntaga' useda inus t h e laased
on ex pvrince -li F( g. 9- 11 p resen ts t~he pe-renta1tuga
Upward(Idrag -ýguun incwre'ase i il ro ugh wat~er ais a fun c tioEn oaf
I~?[ Ieci o';
tnW(r IlId i lIRelsiE aia wave i eighit anda va l rime Frin u da
-- ~---. .-. . ____________--. l Iill lar.-D a ta art' inclIuded( fra am tests of several
0.35 Motion Incoanseque'ntial palanling hul~l SErnis whose chlaracte'ristic:, are
0.9 Tolerancea Level - I hr
1,3 'r.,lerance Leve~l - 0.5 to I hr I1
givenl ill Ref. 9, 1I , and 12. 'Ihle dlata ill Fig. 9-I
2.1 TolrEEance~ Level - 10 tEE15 min may he used with the calm Watter dlrag data
2.3-2.6 Be'yonfd Limit oft EnduraneP parevio~usly liSe'LISSe~t to obatain the estimrate EEf
the drag of a fuiture planinlg hull amplhibianl iii
was.t(.
TABLE 9-7 SUSTAINED SPEED OF LVW IN HEAD 'Thle po~wer required for a hligha-speed palanling 0
SEAS GROSS WEIGHT 39,500 POUNDS hutill ampllhhib ian ay hev determinled once the'
________ (rag is a'stimataa bay uising the pracedures
Crew' I'. aroiaura Crew Al deascribe d inl par. 7-7 -
Sea; statoE (1
0 2 (1
0 2 :1 9-2.2.2 Accelerations in Waves
Sp'a'E, m~ph II1 39 25 12 -it -t0 3t 211
_______ ________ ________-- i I El IsidearinIIg futuara'
con plan illg hul~l am ph ihianIs,
it will lbe Il tca ssary to prvit'tlt their accelera tio(nl
p~re'senlta'd inl Fig. 91-8. 'I'ha' size's iand tharactte'ristics. ''liha data plrese'ntedt in Fig. 9-5
(IispIal;Eca'meilts il~i-t'Iwaauld hav suitablav for anl foar the I.VW-X2 may het usa'a for thlis paurpo~se'. A
aIlliphil aia II with a 10,00(-1) -I paylIoaad calpablaiity- comaraIliso~na al h twa e ia tha' accelaeratio a thea
ofI
F~igs.- 9-9 anld( 9- 10 I Ir ' 'Et, Ole chlaracte'ristics oaf 1VW - X 2 aid o(thear lpla Ining IliiI s has been'l mlado'
tha' Seria's 62 andlt LVW-X:1 huall forms, anld tha' ra'stilts are prt'sa'altt' inl Fig. 9-12. 'I'lia'
ra'sjaa'ativa'ly. Na'it~her of tha'sa' hull tarnis hlas aa't''larationas Eat Lita IVW-X2 falloaw at sim~ilar
wheet'al we'llIs, andt tlnas thle' fomrms ara' tra'iad witha speedaa as that. oaf tha' Eotlaar planiang
ra'larEsa'lt~ativ' oaf Elamphibianls with c('mipllattly hullIs conisidearaed. 'Iha' dea'arisa' anagle (at. a
fai~redt wht't' wells. Ira paractice' it. will he v('ry hwvatioia :10 pearcEitut of tha' I#a'ngtll) aft, o~f tha' how)
dlifficult toa paroavidea c'ova'rs foar the' faarward has a signhificanal 'f't ( onla'all((- acca'larat~ioais. 'I'his
wheaels ht'caise aaf thlt high hydraadynamic laaads is ualasista'Elt witil tlla' (xt'Xla''ti' a'fftct aaf alaadrisa'
ill rlaUgh wata'r. Blased oal dlata ill Reaf. :1 all as ra'Iatri.e'a il Ra'f. 1:3. It, is Eaf inta'ra'sIt.aao laaata'S
i'sthimata' was mladet oIf I-ha' drag Eafa ''V' lloat.EiII that thea'tcevlar~atioals Elf Oha l,VW-X3 ilav(rta'al
planing hullI tarnil wit~h ()enlal how wheel wa'lls ''V' litill are similiar t1.Inaa'(E thes4 i ''V"'' ltatt~
and c'(mtda'tely c'tv'i'a'l taft whell'' wa'lls. 'Il'ha',t huills with dea'ari',a anagle's baatwa'en 25 land:30
9-11
0 J
0 P
AMPC 706-350
TABLE 9-8 LVW-X2 HIGH-SPEED TURNING DIAMETERS
Direction Diameter,
ft
Time, A verage Turn /Vehicle I 0 0
sec Speed, mph DiameterILength
Starboard 720 53 29.0 20

Port 640 53 26 17.8
Starboard 720 53 29 20
Port 670 53 27 18.6
Starboard 710 52 29 19.7
Port 690 54 27 19.2
Starboard 780 55 30 21.7
Port 870 58 32 24.2
TABLE 9-9 LVW-X2 SURF MODE TURNING DIAMETERS
Direction Speed, Diameter, Trim,(O) Heel, Turn /Vehicle

mph ft deg deg Diameter[Length
Port 5.5(2) 81 4 2.5 Stbd 2.25

Starboard 5.5 95 4 7 Port 2.64
Port 6.6 91 4.5 4 Stbd 2.52
Starboard 6.6 100 4.5 8 Port 2.78
Port 8.5 104 6 7 Stbd 2.89
Starboard 8.5 136 6 11 Port 3.78
Port 10.5(-) 150 9 9 Stbd 4.16
Starboard 10.5 140 9 14 Port 3.88 0
NOTES:
(1) Trim by the stem; Static trim = 3 deg; (2) Minimum speed dictated by high turbine
GVW = 39,500 lb; Four (4) personnel on exhaust temperature
board; KG = 3.2 ft; Load VCG
approximately 20 in. above deck (3) Maximum speed in surf mode
deg. Based on the above comparisons, it is configuration of the base planing hull amphibian
concluded that the accelerations of the LVW-X2 developed in this study is shown in Fig. 9-13.
are typical of what can be expected of a future Parametric variations were made of this
planing hull amphibian. configuration to determine the effects of
payload and range on vehicle characteristics. The
9-2.2.3 Vehicle Characteristics results in terms of gross vehicle weight, power,
principal dimensions, and payload fraction-all
Ref. 7 presents a parametric study of as a function of payload-are presented in Fig.
high-speed amphibian characteristics. The 9-14. All of these characteristics are for craft
9-12 0 0
0 0 0 0
S0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
;PR oir PROFILE

S~ 2'-6"
r50FLAP
_ _ ST.- 5 FLAP
BASE LINE
STST.7
SI
50FLA
50 FLAP BUILT ON 1' 3--
WHEEL FLAP HALF PLAN SCREW DISC
22' 3.5"
35__P1-. WHEEL FLAP 1'-6.25" HALF VIEW FROM STERN
(PORT SIDE)
5DFLAP BUILT
ON WHEEL FLAP
PROPELLER
FLAP 6- NOTE: DRAWN FOR "WHEELS UP,
FLAP DOWN" POSISTION
-....... . ._ . ._ . .
STERN ARRANGEMENT
Figure 9-7. LVW-X1 Stern Arrangement
with power limited speeds of 30 knots in Sea 11ISAW A C I

State 2. This performance was estimated on the LE
DLSP =
N O33FTALCGRFT
basis of data similar to those presented in Fig. ,o0, 0 "V BOTTOM LAN,NG
3 361F
ULL AMPH-BIAN .3fT C G OFT
9-8 for a vehicle with open bow wheel wells and 6 SERIES62 40 . 12.20 FT LCG = t7 FT
faired aft wheel wells. The increased drag due to 9 L -003 40 . . oFLCO ,1.5FT
1 S
waves was determined from the data presented
in Fig. 9-11. The craft were assumed to be
propelled with a gas turbine engine with a
specific weight of 2 lb/hp and a fuel rate of 0.75 70
lb/hp-hr. The vehicle characteristics presented in
Fig. 9-14 are believed to reflect the current 6M S
(1968) state-of-the-art in planing hull
amphibians. j50
9-3 HYDROFOIL AMPHIBIANS CORRECTED
By (I - 0.90
Another vehicle type which may be suitable

for use as a high-speed amphibian is the - • •
hydrofoil. On a hydrofoil amphibian at high
speed, foils in the water supply sufficient lift to 2000
support the main hull above the water surface.
This eliminates the large wave drag associated low
with displacement-type amphibians, making high
speeds possible at reasonable power levels. As in 0. 52 30•
the case of a planing hull amphibian, a hydrofoil 5 0 is ,0 25
amphibian may require higher power at an

intermediate speed. This may occur at speeds Figure 9-8. Comparison of Planing Hull Am-
between 12 and 25 mph before the hull lifts phibianDrag
9-13
0 0 0 00 0 0 0_ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMPC 706-350 0 0
MODEL 4667-1
MODEL SCALE IN INCHES
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12
, l l i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1l 1 1 I
STA 0 TO STA 4;
BOTTOM OF SPRAY STRIP HORIZONTAL FROM
FAIRS TO DEADRISE ANGLE BETWEEN STA 4 AND 5; FOLLOWS CL 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
6 7
LINE OF BOTTOM FROM STA 5 TO STA 10
8 9 10
ENLARGED SPRAY STRIP
. 4 5 0 "0
5.
4.0
5.02
0.12" 0.5
3.4 1.2 X/-- .

15 30 4.0
5.0 I 0 a
B-10 B-6 B-2 B -2 B -6 B-10

FINAL PARENT (4667-1)
BODY PLAN OF SERIES 62 PARENT MODEL 0 0
MODEL 4666
MODEL SCALE IN INCHES
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9101112
6. t ill I SIi Ii Ii II I)1 2.90" 0 0
SHEER________
1.64"
SHEER
0 0
W L AT STERNL AT BOW
-- !--
CHINE ______f4
B -4 3.54"
2.5'1 9• KEEL 8 .0 1.5 0.5

1.0.---- 7.18"- 0
12.9 L 5.9STATION SPACINýG
-L =5.987' =
(L/B 3.06) 0 0
BOW AND STERN ENDINGS OF SERIES 62 MODEL
Figure 9-9. Series 62 Lines
9-14
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 -0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMVPC 706-350
I I -TRIM
21-0" 1TAB
71 0 1-6
CONTROL AND
INSTRUMENTATION COCKPIT FUEL
/TAN
I ENGINE 0-
LCHINE 18'
L 20'LO
H UL A = 21'
5'-8"
1~-4' - 0"4' 0
QU
BOW STERN
Ftgure 9-10. GeneralArrangement of LVW-X3 (Model)

9-15
0-0
AMPC 706-350 -
1.0
0 LCSR LA=3.0 Dc CALMWATER DRAG
o LCSR L/8 = 4.0 O = ROUGH WATER DRAG

... .
0.8 1ý LC SR LA = 5 .0 t _ _ __.
So LVW-X3
0 LCVP•(T) 0.587 1/3

< 0.6
00
0.4
- 00.0.1
%I- (
"O 0.4 I 0.416
S-,' "' -- "- ., - .I_ •- -- • ' • • •,
Z~~~e 0.0 L~' 0.412

- 0-- - - 0-D0.355
-I I I J -
0 . '
-0.2 ° I
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
VOLUME FROUDE NUMBER FV S
Figure 9-11. PlaningHull Added Drag in Waves
clear of the water. This problem is discussed in be possible to do this and a contract was let to
par. 9-3.1.4.1. Other problems with hydrofoil so equip a WW II DUKW. The conversion
amphibians include the difficulty of foil amounted to adding fully submerged hydrofoils, ... -
retraction and structural reinforcement in way stem drive assembly, Lycoming T-53 gas "
of the foils. turbine, and associated equipment. The actual
conversion work was done by the Miami
9-3.1 EXISTING HYDROFOIL AMPHIBIANS Shipbuilding CorporaLion. The basic conversion
was completed in 1959 and the craft was
The concept of a hydrofoil high speed reported to have operated at a gross weight of
amphibian was first proposed in the middle 29,600 lb and at a water speed in excess of 34 t 6 0
1950's. Work on craft of this type was first mph. Fig. 9-15 is a photograph of the Flying
sponsored by the U. S. Army Ordnance Corps DUKW foilborne. The Flying DUKW
and later by the Navy Bureau of Ships for the experienced difficulty in becoming foilborne in
U. S. Marine Corps. As a result of these efforts waves because of increased drag.
three vehicle types were built. These include the The Flying DUKW was not intended to be a
"Flying DUKW", the LVH-X1, and the prototype for an operational vehicle. The
LVH-X2. addition of the foils, stern drive, and gas turbine
engine more than used up the weight and
9-3.1.1 The Flying DUKW volume available for cargo. Its purpose was to
act as a test bed craft which woild prove the
In April of 1956 the Lycoming Division of feasibility of a hydrofoil amphibian and provide
the AVCO Corporation undertook a feasibility data for its design.
study for the U. S. Army Ordnance Corps to
determine from theoretical and towing tank 9-3.1.2 The LVH-X1
studies whether a WW II DUKW could be flown
on hydrofoils. This study showed that it would The U. S. Marine Corps Landing Force
9-16
- •, - - -- -. . I
AMPC 706-350
4.0 ___ ______
0
0 LVW (DEADRSE =26 )
3.5 - 0 LVW-X3
6 LCVP(T )(DEADRISE = 200)
O 0 LCSRMODEL TEST(DEADRISE= 300) / I 0
3.0 -
NOTE: ALL DATA CORRECTED TO -0.350 /
2.5 (SEA STATE 2 FOR 40,000LB BOAT) .
2 .5
I-4
S ,. .", I//oS S
4 1.0 ___0
0.5
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.4 2.5 3.0 3.5
VOLUME FROUDE NUMBER FV
Figure 9-12. PlaningHull Accelerationsat Bow (1 of 2)
4.0
. 3.5
O 0 LVW(DEADRISE260) -
0 LVW-X3
O 3.0 6 LCVP(T)(DEADRISE = 20P) --
0 LCSRMODEL TEST(DEADRISE=300)
HI
NOTE: ALL DATA CORRECTED TO / = 0.350
U 2.5 - __
(SEA STATE2÷ FOR 40WO LB BOAT)
- 2.0
x
0
x 1.5
1.0 "4 -
4/
0.5
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
VOLUME FROUDE NUMBER Fv

ACCELERATION ATCENTER OF GRAVITY
Figure 9-12. PlaningHull Accelerations at Bow (2 of 2)

9-17
I ... 0 0_o _
0 *• 0 0 O 0 ... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMPC 706-350 5
12'- 0"
I100o
36' -0"
12'-0"
DESIGN SPEED = 30 KNOTS
PAYLOAD = 10,000 LB
POWER =1185HP GAS TURBINE
WATERBORNE RANGE = 150 N. Mi
Figure 9-13. High-speed Amphibian-PlaningHull Type, Base Vehicle Configuration
Development Center was assigned responsibility 9-3.1.2.1 Characteristics

for coordination of the testing and evaluation of
a hydrofoil amphibian (LVH). Contracts were The LVH-X1 was powered with a
awarded by the Navy Bureau of Ships for the TF-1460-BlA gas turbine. This engine was a
design and construction of two different marine conversion of an aircraft gas turbine with
hydrofoil amphibians. The first contract was a continuous rating of 1,000 BHP and an
awarded to the Lycoming Division of AVCO intermittent rating of 1,225 BHP on an 80*F
Corp. and was designated LVH-X1. Two day. The hydrofoils were supported on two --
identical vehicles were constructed. The vehicle hydraulically actuated rotating struts. Thrust for
concept that became the LVH-X1 was first operation in the foil mode was supplied by a
proposed by Lycoming in 1959. Actual design conventional propeller mounted on the forward
of the LVH-X1 started in 1961 and the two end of a pod on the aft strut assembly. For
vehicles were accepted in late 1964 and early operation in the displacement mode, the
1965, respectively. LVH-X1 was propelled by a single retractable
The foil system used in the LVH-XI was directionally controllable propeller in a Kort 0 0
based on fully submerged incidence-controlled nozzle.
foils. This type of foil system has no inherent For land operation, the vehicle was equipped
stability and depends on an auto-pilot to control for 2- and 4-wheel drive and hydraulically
flying height and attitude. The advantage of this controlled steering of the forward wheels. The
type of foil system is that very low motions in power train had an overall ratio (engine to
waves are possible. In the foil mode, additional wheel) in low gear of 194.6:1 and in high gear of 0 0
control forces are generated by flaps on the 68.9:1. The transmission was a 2-speed
forward foils controlled by the auto-pilot. A mechanical dry-sump type. Service brakes were
sonic height sensor was used to provide the disc-type, hydraulic-actuated. Parking brakes
auto-pilot with information on foil immersion, were the internal-expanding-type, mounted to
9-18
_ * _ 0 _S ~0 0 9 .~ ~ -0 ... _- 0
AMPC 706-350 •
the forward differential shaft. All wheels identical vehicles were built and were designated
retracted hydraulically into the hull for the LVH-X2. The design of the LVH-X2 began in
boating and flying modes, and to facilitate ease 1961, and the two vehicles were accepted in late
of loading/unloading in the land mode. 1963 and early 1964.
The LVH-Xl was designed to carry a pay!oad The foil system used on the LVH-X2 is based 0
of 10,000 lb on land and water. The design on a surface-piercing foil forward and a fully
water speed was 30 mph and the design land submerged foil aft. This foil system has inherent
speed was 40 mph. stability in heave, pitch, and roll so that
Figs. 9-16 and 9-17 present photographs of foilborne operation without an auto-pilot is
the LVH-X1 operating on land and water, possible in calm water. For foilborne operation
respectively. The characteristics of the LVH-X1 in high sea states (Sea State 3), an auto-pilot is p •
are presented in Table 9-10 and the external required. The auto-pilot on the LVH-X2 uses a
arrangement in Fig. 9-18. sonic height sensor and exerts control forces
with flaps on the fore and aft foils.
9-3.1.2.2 Performance of LVH-X1 The foil system retracts by allowing the struts
to pass vertically into the hull and the foils to
No engineering data are available on the pivot or seat in faired recesses in the hull.
high-speed waterborne performance of the Retraction is accomplished by hydraulic motor 0 0
LVH-X1. Because of reliability problems, the driven ball screw actuators.
two LVH-X1 vehicles never underwent
engineering tests to determine their foilborne
performance. All testing of the LVH-X1 vehicle 9-3.1.3.1 Characteristics
stopped when one sank after the failure of a
drive shaft in foilborne operation. The LVH-X2 is powered with a Solar Saturn
Some engineering tests were conducted on the gas turbine engine with a continuous rating of
I.VH-X1 in the displacement mode and are 1,050 BHP. Power produced by the turbine is
reported in Refs. 14 and 15. The most delivered through a primary reduction gear to
important finding of these tests was that the the transfer case which distributes power to the
trainable propeller used for hullborne steering land drive train, the marine drive train, or both,
provided excellent control. The tactical depending on the mode of operation. Land . . .
diameters were reported to be 121 ft to power is transmitted to the wheels through a S S
starboard and 63 ft to port in the surf mode. 6-speedTX 365-2 transmission and differentials.
Because of the high rate at which water leaked In the land mode, hydraulically powered
into the vehicle, it was not possible to conduct 2-whecl, 4-wheel, or oblique steering can be
an inclining experiment and determine the static accomplished. Each wheel is retractable using an
stability, air hydraulic cylinder which also provides spring
Land performance tests for the LVH-X1 are and damping action. In all waterborne modes,
reported in Ref. 16. It was concluded that the thrust is provided by a single propeller mounted
performance of the vehicle under desert on the forward end of a pod on the aft foil strut.
conditions was satisfactory but deficiencies were In the foilborne mode, steering is provided by a
encountered with respect to vehicle durability rudder mounted on the aft strut. In the
and/or reliability. The maximum speed of the displacement condition, this rudder along with
vehicle was 45 mph and it was successfully the wheels provide the steering forces.
driven up a 60 percent slope in both forward The LVH-X2 was designed to carry a payload 0 0
and reverse gear. The vehicle was not safe on a of 10,000 lb on both land and water. The
30 percent side slope. The minimum turning foilborne design speed was 35 knots, the boating
radii were 48 ft to the right and 53 ft to the left. mode design speed was 12 knots, and the land
design speed was 40 mph.
9-3.1.3 The LVH-X2 Figs. 9-19 and 9-20 present photographs of
the LVH-X2 operating on land and water,
A second contract for the design and respectively. The characteristics of the LVH-X2
construction of a hydrofoil amphibian was are presented in Table 9-11, and the external
awarded by the Navy Bureau of Ships to the dimensions and foil retraction arrangement in
FMC (Food Machinery Corp.) Corporation. Two Figs. 9-21 and 9-22, respectively.
9-19
_ @
0 0 _ 0.~ 0 0 0 0 0 00 ~ ...~ 0
AMPC 705-350
,-0.70
GAS TURBINE POWER

SEA STATE
SPEED 2
30 KNOTS IN LNGT 60 ' • -•
_j RANGE AS NOTED 6
U Z
O0 0.50 -40
50 < i .... O o--_
LUJ LUi
>Ln
40 ,00040 Z
o 0 150
10
"'0
'Ž80.30- __30_
0LPAYLOAD 300 N. Mi
>_FRACTION kIi I 2
SBEAM 0 0
0.10L. :5 10
, ,> co";°i
160,000 I8000- 0 0
X300 N. Mi
I 150 N. Mi
I GVW
co 120,000 6CM
0
I 150N U-
0 _80,000 2000w
0j 0
I I 0I
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000

PAYLOAD,LB
Figure 9-14. High-speed Amphibian-PlaningHull Type, Effect of Payload

9-20
0~~~~~ 0 .0 0 000
AMPC 70&-350 *
I 0 0
* 0 0
Figure 9-15. Flying DUKW, Foilborne
Figure 9-16. LVH-XJ on Land

9-21
AMCP 706-350
0 *
* ~00
Inn
t --' *
, S S
! ,, ...
*
,9-22
* S
S 5 5 5
9-22-
AMCP 706-350 0 S
N 0 C1 14N
z 0U
u0
LU I-- I
u0 U,
zz
z C
za
3:0
1<>e
Oc
-J
U!
o UA6I / <
0
I
I 0 0i "
CLccL
u I 0
.A.~~
I-'0
IAo
ui LU
uj< --
-c 0
IL.n
.0
9~ Lu Z 0 0 0. o.~
z K ýz
AMCP 706-350
Figure 9-19. LVH-X2 on Land
Figure -20 V-2Oeatn lon
924
0 0
AMCP 706-350 - 0 0
S-9-3.1.3.2 Waterborne Speed and Power of LVH-X2
As with the case of the LVW planing hull

amphibian, the U. S. Marine Corps sponsored a
0 0
2'- series of engineering tests to determine the
waterborne performance characteristics of the
LVH-X2. The results of the speed resistance and
powering tests are reported in Ref. 17. These
tests were conducted over a range o" gross
weights in calm water and waves. Fig. 9-23
presents a summary of the calm water drag data 0
obtained from Ref. 17. The data labeled
-P13-4-
-deduced drag were obtained from measured
SIthrust during acceleration runs by subtracting
IO,-I.625- 21,-6"
FOILS
the force due to the measured acceleration.
E EXTDED - These are only approximate since they do not
account for any unsteady effects. However, the
deduced drag does show a large drag hump at 0
speeds between 10 and 20 knots. This will cause
CENTER
OF GRAVITY
ATNET WEIGHT a high power requirement and means that the
DOOR-RAMPOPENING power available in a hydrofoil amphibian must
"- "- ,.--- \ --- be checked at take-off as well as the design
Fig. 9-24 presents some data on the 0 0

percentage drag increase in waves. The volume
Froude number and nondimensional wave height
S23.-
2375-P-0--. arc the same as defined in par. 9-2.1.2. Also
_8 .-0 presented in Fig. 9-24 are some data on the
Figure 9-21. Externel Dimensions of LVH-X2 added drag in waves of the H. S. DENISON, a
large hydrofoil boat with a foil system of similar 0
.geometry to that of the LVH-X2.
Based on these data, the top speeds (power
limited) of the LVH-X2 in calm water and waves
was estimated in Ref. 4. These speeds are given
in Table 9-12.
9-3.1.3.3 Accelerations of LVH-X2 in Waves •
The LVH-X2 was instrumented and the

accelerations in head seas were measured at the
bow (crew cab) and at the center of gravity.
These data are presented in Ref. 4. Fig. 9-25
presents the average of 1/3 highest upward
acceleration in g's for the LVW-X2 as a function
of volume Froude number.
If the same 0.9 g allowable acceleration lex l
is assumed as for a planing hull amphibian (see
par. 9-2.1.2), a motion limited speed for a
hydrofoil amphibian can be defined. This level
and the rebulting speed and wave heights are 1 0 0
included in Fig. 9-25. Some data have also been
included for the H.S. DENISON.
The motions of the LVH-X2 are quite
Figure 9-22. Hydrofoil System for LVVH-X2 different from those of the LVW. The
9-25
. __9 9
0 *• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I
AMCP 706-350
8000
7000 { 1_
/- LVH - X2 MEASURED THRUST
n\
•GVW = 39,050 LB
-In•" ,
6000
6000
(3 5o00 \I -
DEDUCED DRAG DEDUCED DRAG

Z GVW 39,050 LB
< GVW 32,3000 LB
S4000- -
3000
2000 • 6
1000 _ _ _ _J _
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
VK KNOTS 0 0
Figure 9-23. Hydrofoil Drag
accelerations are lower and in general there is were measured at hgh and low speeds, and the
little difference between the values at the bow results reported in Ref. 18. The observed turning
and center of gravity. It should be realized that diameter at high and low speeds are presented in
the acceleration of a hydrofoil amphibian will be Tables 9-13 and 9-14, respectively.
strongly influenced by the characteristics of the The natural tendency of a hydrofoil
auto-pilot used for control in waves. Also, a amphibian is to heel outboard in a turn. In the
hydrofoil amphibian w-ll have difficulty flying LVH-X2 this tendency is counteracted by the
in following seas although the acceleration will roll control ability of the auto-pilot system. If
be low. In actual practice the performance of too tight a flying turn is attempted, the flaps
the LVH-X2 in high waves (Sea State 3) was reach full deflection and the increase in drag is 0 •
limited by the ingestion of salt water into the sufficient to slow the craft below flying speed. It
gas turbine. The resulting loss of power made it may be expected that the high-speed control
impossible to operate for long periods. In the characteristics of a hydrofoil amphibian will be
design of a new hydrofoil amphibian it should greatly affected by the auto-pilot and control
be possible to eliminate this problem (sec par. surface characteristics.
7-5.2.2). S
9-3.2 FUTURE HYDROFOIL AMPHIBIANS
9-3.1.3.4 Control Characteristics of LVH-X2
Projections of the characteristics and
The control characteristics of the LVH-X2 performance of future hydrofoil amphibians
9-26
• ._
• ....
• ... • O. • • • • 0 •
p ~e0 ~ 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMPC 706-350- S
TABLE 9-110 LVH-X1 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Manufacturer Lycoming Div. of AVCO Corporation
\Vldlh. ft-in. 10-10

Lem'nth. fl-in. 36-11
I (eizht, ft-in. 11-3
Nhn Ground Clearance, in. 18
Draft (foilborne t. ft 2 fwd; 3 V aft
WVheelbame. ft-fin. 19-4 0 0
Track WVidth. ft-in. 8-2
~l
f prac.(eg 33
Angle of D~eparture, deg 30
Break Angle. cleg 15
Land Speed. mph .40
Water Speed IDesign t. knots Ilullborne - 12; flying - 30; takeoff - 12.5
i see par. 9-3.1.3 for actual)
Land Range ID~esign t, mi 295 at 25 mph
Water Range IDesign), N".mi. Boating - 53 at 11.5 knots; flying - 195 at 35 knots
Turn Radios ILand). ft 44, 2-wheel steer
Turn Radius (Water) ( Design). ft 50 boating; 370 flying S
Cargo Capacity. lb 10,000
Cargo Space ILXW), ft-in. 13-7 X 10-2
Total Weight (Gross). lb 43,055
Grade Ahility (Design)t,' 60
Side Slope iDesign 1. 30
Surf Ability, ft 10
Engine Data Lycoming TF-1460 BlA Gas turb.: compr. ratioý 6.5;
RUP at 80'F = 1000 1cont'dt., 1.225 1intermittent)
Fuel Type JP-5 or Marine Diesel
Marine Propulsor Flying: 11) propeller on rear strut. D = 29 in..
P =25 in.
1lullborne: steerable, retractable propeller iii
Kort nozzle; D =22 in., P = 17 in.
Sus pension Oleo strut, retractable on land, with tire inflation
system, -X 4or 2X 4
Brake Sy-stem H ydraulic discs
Tire's 18 X 25 in.. 12-ply (nylon) 0
Laind Steering H yd raulic selective, 2-wheel steering
Marine Steernog Foil flaps and dir-c-. d propeller thrust
EI.-ctrwai System 24-VA D)C
I lydraulit- System 3,000 psi, 20 gpr: 500) psi. 10 grim
Crew 2 0 9
Ilull Mlate-rial Al umninurn
Foil 'lype Submerged
F-ndIfletrdi-tion Ilydrauilit--act oattsl, rotary struts
9-27
-0. 0A.0 *
AMPC 706-350
TABLE 9-11. LVH-X2 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Manufacturer FMC (San Jose)
Width, ft-in. 10-6 3 0 0

Length, ft - in. 38-0
Height, ft-in. 11-3
Min Ground Clearance, in. 20-3/8
Wheelbase, ft-in. 28-2-3/8
Track Width, ft-in. 8-6 - -

Break Angle, deg 15
Land Speed. mph 41
Water Speed (Design), knots Hullborne - 11; flying - 35
(See par. 9-3.1.4.1) 0 0 •
Land Range (Design), mi 250 at 25 mph
Water Range (Design), N.mi (Flying) 210 at 35 knots
Turn Radius (Land )(Design), ft 35, 4-wheel steer
Turn Radius (Water) Hullborne (see par. 9-3.1.4.3)
Cargo Capacity, lb 10,000
Cargo Space (LXW), ft-in. 13-4 X 10-1-5/8
Total Weight (Gross), lb 39,000
Surf Ability, ft 10
Engine Data Solar TS-1 000 gas turb.; 1,040 BHP (cont'd)
at 22,300 rpm and 80* F
Fuel Type JP-5
Marine Propulsor (1) Propeller; D = 26 in., P = 31.2 in., MWR
0.62; 3-bladed
Suspension Retractable airspring;hydraulic shock absorbers; -
2- or 4-wheel drive
Brake System Hydraulic-actuated spot and disc type
Tires 18 X 25 in.; 2-ply
Land Steering Hydraulic selective, 2-, 4-wheel, or oblique
Marine Steering Rudder on aft strut plus fwd and aft foil flaps,
rudder and wheels in surf mode S 0
Electrical System 24-V DC, single-wire system
Hydraulic System (1) 3,000 psi at 2,400 rpm, (2) 15,000 psi at
2,000 rpm
Crew 2
Hull Material Aluminum
Foil Type Surface-piercing _
Foil Retraction Hydraulic motor-driven bal! screws (vertical
retraction)
9-28
AMPC 706-350 5
TABLE 9-12. LVH-X2 POWER LIMITED SPEEDS (HI 31/V 113) above 0.3, the speeds of all craft
shown are affected by motions. The PT 20 and
Sea State 0 1 2 3 PT 50 are craft with surface-piercing foils and no
Speed, mph 42 38 36 33 auto-pilots, and thus are most affected by waves.
The LVH-X2 and the DENISON have •
surface-piercing foils and auto-pilots, and thus
have been made and are presented in Refs. 4 and are less affected. The DOLPHIN with submerged
7. The characteristics and performance of a foils and an auto-pilot has the highest sustained
hydrofoil amphibian will depend largely on the speeds in high sea states. Thus the foil system
requirements, restrictions, and type of foil for a hydrofoil amphibian should be chosen only
system used. As a result, it is not possible to after careful consideration of all the mission 5
present as generalized information on requirements. If it is necessary to make a
performance in calm and rough water as for a performance estimate for a given foil
planing hull. Fig. 9-26 illustrates this problem. configuration, use should be made of references
In Fig. 9-26 the sustained speeds of a number of such as Ref. 19.
hydrofoil boats are presented as a function of Ref. 7 presents a parametric study of the
nondimensional wave height. In calm water, the characteristics of hydrofoil high speed - •
top speed is a function of installed power, foil amphibians. The craft considered were based on
configuration, take-off speed, and cavitation the use of surface-piercing foil systems of two
limits-and thus varies widely for the craft configurations. The basic vehicle and foil
shown. At nondimensional wave heights configurations are presented in Figs. 9-27
0.6
0.5
0 LVH -X2
A DENISON H.. ..
U
, U
II
0.4
.____.-~
H =-H
i
H1/3- -- =0.5
____
0.3
0.3 ___H=0.4 035
0._--F-i
0.
z
4" 0.2.38__
0..2
0.I - 0.18-
0I
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 0
VOLUME FROUDE NUMBER FV
Figure 9-24. Hydrofoil Added Drag in Waves

9-29
I__ _ 0
* 0 S 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
1.4
1.2 12LOCATION F___... ...

sow 3.6
BO 3.6 0
C'GQ 13.0 0 1 11
1.0--
) 10ASSUMED EXTRAPOLATIONS
F•= 3.6 3.0 - -
o- V I0 0
z 0.8
o TEST LOG FOR 12- 7- 66
INDICATES MOTIONS
UNACCEPTABLE
SM
0.60 0
z _ . DENISON
u .z' 0. (F v =3. 7 )
ZO 0.4''
0.2
00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
)/ 3
NONDIMENSIONAL WAVE HEIGHT
Figure 9-25. LVH-X2 Vertical Accelerations in Head Seas
through 9-30. Configuration 1 is intended to power limited speed of 40 knots in a Sea State
provide minimum drag at some sacrifice in 2. The craft were assumed to be propelled with a
motion in waves and maneuverability, gas turbine engine with a specific weight of 2
Configuration 2 is intended to provide minimum lb/hp and a fuel rate of 0.75 lb/hp-hr. As
motions in waves and maximum maneuverability indicated above, the characteristics presented in
at some sacrifice in drag. It is probable that a Fig. 9-31 for the two configurations span the
future hydrofoil amphibian design would be range that may be expected with current 0 'S
between the two extremes represented by (Summer 1968), state-of-the-art, subcavitating,
Configurations 1 and 2. Thus the performance surface-piercing foils.
and characteristics of these two configurations
define the range to be expected of future 9-4 SURFACE EFFECT AMPHIBIANS
hydrofoil amphibians.
A parametric study was conducted to In addition to the vehicle types already
determine the effects of design payload and considered, it is possible that the surface effect
range on the characteristics of the two concept may be suitable for use in a high water
configurations. The results are presented in Fig. speed wheeled amphibian. In a surface effect
9-31. The power estimates were based on a craft the lift is provided by a region of
9-30
"-___090 0
AMPC 705-350 -
TABLE 9-13 LVH-X2 HIGH-SPEED TURNING DIAMETER
Diameter, Time,
sec
Average
Speed, mph
Turn /Vehicle
Diameterl Length _
Direction ft
Starboard 920 55 35 24.2

Port 580 40 31 15.3
Starboard 700 42 35 18.4
Port 590 39 32 15.5
TABLE 9-14 LVH-X2 SURF MODE TURNING DIAMETERS" 1
Speed, Diameter, Trim,(4) Heel, Turn /Vehicle

mph ft deg deg Diameter/ Length
ipr- • 3.4(2) 126 2.0 3 stbd 3.31 *
Starboard 3.4 96 2.0 2 port 2.52
Port 7.0 134 3.0 7 stbd 3.52
Starboard 7.0 106 3.0 7 port 2.79
Port 9.3 153 4.0 8 stbd q.
Starboard 9.3 107 4.0 8 port 1 0 0
Port 10.8(3) 158 6.5 9 stbd I';
Starboard 10.8 111 6.5 9 port 2.92
Notes: (1) Four-wheel steer; GVW = 39,500 lb, two (2) personnel on board, KG ft load __-__
VCG approximately 20 in. above deck

(2) Minimum practical operating speed recommended by vehicle manufacturer
(3) Maximum speed obtainable in the surfing mode
(4) Trim by stern (static trim = 1.0 deg)
pressurized air contained under the craft. As a this type of craft is not amphibious unless
result, at high speeds the wavemaking drag and equipped with wheels. In the flexible skirt-type, t 0 0
frictional drag are greatly reduced from that of a the air cushion is contained by an inflated skirt
conventional form. However, as with the planing around the periphery of the craft. These skirts
hull and hydrofoil, wavemaking drag may be are currently made from a neoprene-coated
large enough at intermediate speeds to cause a nylon or Dacron fabric. In general, the flexible
hump in the drag curve. The extent of this hump skirts do not contact the surface but have a
drag region will depend on the vehicle small clearance. As a result, these craft are L *
configuration and the air cushion pressure. amphibious if propelled by air screws or by
There are two basic types of surface effect wheels.
craft that have been studied and developed. One
of these is the rigid sidewall-type and the other 9-4.1 RIGID SIDEWALL SURFACE EFFECT
the flexible skirt-type. In the sidewall-type, the AMPHIBIANS
air cushion is contained between two rigid
sidewalls that are in contact with the water Two concepts have been proposed for rigid - .
surface. The fore and aft ends of the air cushion sidewall surface effect craft that could be
may be sealed with flexible or rigid seals. Since applied to wheeled amphibians. The first is the
the sidewalls remain in contact with the surface, hydrokeel concept in which the air cushion is
9-31
I 0 0
AMPC 706-350 *
0.7
' DOLPHIN
0.6 LVH -X2
•- 0.5 \ ."
z 0.4
Z 0.3 _ I I i
O PTI50 PT 20
_ I o0I o\0
Z
o 0.2
z
0.1zI . 0
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
VOLUME FROUDE NUM8EP F
Figure 9-26. Hydrofoil Motion Limited Speeds
contained between two shallow and thin was not equipped with wheels. To date (1969)
sidewalls, a flap forward and a conventional no actual hydrokeel amphibian has been built.
planing surface aft. The other is the CAptured The characteristics of the AR.C(K)-Xl are 5
Air Bubble (CAB) concept in which the air presented in Fig. 9-32. The results of tests on
cushion is contained between two deep and the ARC(K)-Xl are summarized in Ref. 4. The
o.•
thick sidewalls, and flexible flaps at the forward ;
measured ,drag of the ARC(K)-XI
; \ -,- • and
in calm
and aft ends. rough water is presented in Fig. 9-33. The
percentage increase in drag in rough water is
presented in Fig. 9-34. A comparison of these 0 0
9-4.1.1 Hydrokeel Amphibians data with similar data previously presented for
0 0 0 0 0. 0 0
the 20planing 2.hull and .0hydrofoil3. amphibians
0. 4.0 0 .... ... 0-
Considerable effort has been devoted by the indicates that the hydrokeel has lower drag in
U. S. Marine Corps to the study of the calm water. However, the drag of a hydrokeel
application of the hydrokeel concept-a type of increases more rapidly as wave height increases
sidewall air cushion vehicle-to a wheeled so that in a State 3 Sea a 40,000 lb hydrokeel
amphibian. As part of this effort a has higher drag than the planing hull and
hydrodynamic test craft called the ARC(K)-X1 hydrofoil.
was built and tested. This craft was intended Measurements were made of acceleration of
only to study waterborne performance and thus the ARC(K)-Xl in head seas. The resulting data
9-32
AMPC 706-35
"12'- 0" 6'- 9"

p . .
37'- 6"
SPAYLOAD= O LB . ....
/ ,1!u'-0" DESIGN SPEED = 40 KNOTS
-/ SHAFT HORSEPOWER = 950
: FLYING
WATERLINE
Figure 9-27. High-speed Amphibian-HydrofoilType, Configuration 1
are presented in Fig. 9-35. Data are also included S S

,- in this figure on the acceleration of the
," LCVP(K), another hydrokeel of about the same
size and characteristics as the ARC(K)-X1. Fig.
9-35 indicates that the accelerations of a
hydrokeel amphibian will be similar to those of
a planing hull amphibian and considerably
greater than those of a hydrofoil amphibian. .-
Studies were also conducted to determine the
O J! e6 Dwt stability and control characteristics of the
ARC(K)-X1. Based on those studies it was
concluded that the stability and control
characteristics of a hydrokeel amphibian would
be satisfactory. However, it was determined that I •
'-o-t ••--6---'-'--" a hydrokeel amphibian would be much more
IIR6NO sensitive to the placement of cargo center of
it was felt that for stability in high speed turns a

hydrokeel amphibian should be equipped with
AFt FOIL FORWARD
FOIL sponsons similar to those on the ARC(K)-X1. *
A parametric study was conducted in Ref. 7
Figure 9-28. High-speedAmphibian-Hydrofoil to determine the expected characteristics of a
Type, Configuration 1, Principal hydrokeel amphibian. The base vehicle
FoilDimensions developed in the study is shown in Fig. 9-36.
9-33
I _ ~~9
... -
_ * 0 ... ....0 0 0 0 0
AMPC 706-350
.... .. .. .
I 12O-" 8''-6"
I , , il. . . . . . . .
J \-." ,S
3r -6-
...... -PAYLOAD= 10,000 9

SHAFT HORSEPOWER 1290
Figure9-29. High-speed Amphibian-Hydrofoil Type, Configuration 2
This craft is intended to reach its power limited

design speed in a Sea State 2. The effects of
range and payload on the characteristics of a ft
hydrokeel amphibian are presented in Fig. 9-37.
\ \ These characteristics are based on the use of a
igas turbine propulsion system with a specific
-- \ weight of 2 lb/hp and a fuel rate of 0.75
lb/hp-hr. Since no actual hydrokeel amphibian
has been built, the estimated characteristics
OWL / shown in Fig. 9-37 are less certain than those
-- given above for future planing hull and hydrofoil
3 amphibians.
'-p------o
r- 9-4.1.2 Captured Air Bubble (CAB) Amphibians
2'-9.75" -9-
-0 "._ Very large surface effect craft of the
- CAB-type have been studied in some detail.
a-0. -However, no test craft have been built of a size
FOIL
FORWARD and displacement suitable for a wheeled
amphibian vehicle. There are theoretical
procedures reported in Ref. 20 that can be used
to make an estimate of the performance of a L .. 9 1. _
Figure 9-30. High-speedAmphibian-Hydrofoil CAB amphibian. Such estimates were made and
Type, Configuration 2, Principal a parametric study of CAB amphibian
Foil Dimensions characteristics are reported in Ref. 7. The base
9-34
S__o S S
__ ... _ 0 ... 0+ _ 0.o_

... •.. • 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0
* F ~I *U U * ** U * UP - .. ~ j* * _. . . --
AMPC 706-350
0.40T 60 S 0
DESIGN SPEED 40 KNOTS I
"r /L~LENGTH
U- - RANGE
zI AS NOTED I /-50 I-,
>Z I "
d - .0 A__AL_.__ 40
Su. PAYLOAD -- .. - 30
•n '- 1300 N. MIZ <M
O < FRACTION
0.20 20 :
0 If, Ij /a,
I I 0- .. .. .
120,000 ________
GAS TURBINE POWER 300N.Mi SHP.i S S
CONFIGURATION 150 N. M,
cc100,000- 2 -- H
-J 3 00 .0
3-Cl-
V LU
O-
U-
• 60,000.
060 LU -1000
SGVW . .
40,000
5000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000
PAYLOAD , LB
Figure 9-31. High-speed Amphibian-Hydrofoil Type, Effect of Design Payload

9-35
I 0 •
. • . .0.. . .0. 0 0 00.

AMPC 706-350 30
DIMENSIONS
SHI P PROPELLERS
KEEL LENGTH LK 32.30 FT NUMBER (2) 4177-4178

LOA 36. 00FT DIAMETER 26.O00IN.
BEAM 1 10.35 FT PITCH 32.50 IN.
BEAM 11 11.91 FT NO.OF BLADES 3
L K/BI 3.12 FT APPROXIMATE BAR 0.52
P/D 1.25
LK/BJý 2.71 FT DIRECTION OF ROTATION OUTWARD
STYLE MICHIGAN WHEEL CO.
DYNA -JET
*
I. U I in IU E U IE U E.. ! | m . . . . . .
AMPC 706.350 -
20,0001 11
18,000 BEAM CONFIGURATION I + ....... •
RUN 9-1 A 40,000 FULL SCALE
3-5 0 A 40,000 "
16,000 16-1 0 440,000 " "

O CALM WATER, FULL SCALE, LCG-14' 6"
O CALM WATER,MODEL TEST, LCG=141 6"
14,000
-" 12,000
10,000 SEA STATE 3,H1/3= 4.0 FT
/I•• lSEA STATE 2 , 2.9 FT
8000
4000 • (•--SEA STATE 1,i.0 FT

4000 __ _
2000
L let
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
SPEED, KNOTS 0 .
Figure 9-33. ARC(K) Rough Water Data

9-37
L g -
* ... ,
0_ _o ... •
0_ .. • .. .. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMPC 706-350
1.2
1.0 S 0 0
D = Drag in Calm Water
D =DraginWaves 1/3
0.8 ____
0.472
V 0.60
0.
0
Z -0.4
z
S 0.2 ___o.__1 _____
-0.2
0 0.5
1@
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
VOLUME FROUDE NUMBER Fv
Figure 9-34. ARC(K) Added Drag in Waves S
vehicle developed in this study is shown in Fig. include a very high water speed (70 knots or
9-38. The effect of range and payload on craft more), excellent mobility over open flat ground
characteristics is presented in Fig. 9-39. The regardless of the soil conditions, and the ability
most notable characteristic of a CAB amphibian to land on a beach through very high surf (i.e., 0 0
is the wide beam required for stability in the they can outrun the surf, see par. 7-4). The
"on bubble" condiion. This has the effect of disadvantages of this type of craft include its
greatly increasing the empty weight of the craft. large dimensions relative to the payload carried,
It should be noted that the characteristics given its poor maneuverability in restricted places, its
in Fig. 9-39 are very approximate because of the limited ability to climb grades, and its limited
lack of experimental and prototype data. ability to exit from a beach through high surf.
To take advantage of the characteristics of this
9-4.2 FLEXIBLE SKIRT SURFACE EFFECT type of vehicle, changes in the operational
AMPHIBIANS techniques now used with wheeled amphibians
would be required.
As previously indicated, the flexible skirt In order to avoid some of the disadvantages of
surface effect craft has an amphibious capability air propellers on flexible skirt surface effect
without wheels if it is propelled by an air screw, vehicles, studies have been made of the 0 0
A number of vehicles of this type have been possibilities of using wheels for partial support
proposed for the amphibious support mission and propulsion on land (Ref. 22). No vehicle of
(Ref. 21). The advantages of this type of craft this type has been built that could provide data
9-38
-9*- Aee _..

. - • - - . . N i S -
AMPC 706-350
4.5
3.5
BOW 0 ARC (K) LABELS ARE NON DIMENSIONAL WAVE HEIGHT H1/3 0
CG 0 LCVP (K) AND LOCATION ON THE VEHICLE
"N 3.0
0.4 BOW
2.5 T..
0.39 BOW
S 2.0-41
< o o0 0o 0.3 BOW
0.41 BOW 0.222 BOW 0.346 BOW
1.5
S0.294 - BOW 0. CG 1 0
_ 10.26 BOW
z 1.0 T
B 0
0o41 - 0.226 CG 0.346 CG 0.1 Dow
0.5 - 0.41 BOW,-,-0.41 CG 0.10-. 0 . 1 0

W0 BO - ".1 C G
0.462 CG .214 __0039 CG 0 0
0.214 BOW 0.000 CG
0.214 CG I I .
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

VOLUME FROUDE NUMBER F
Figure 9-35. Hydrokeel Accelerations in Head Seas - O
12-0 0 0
0 nmr
36' -0"
-- •/ 121
12'--0"
0" DESIGN SPEED = 30 KNOTS
- ----- -PAYLOAD = bO,OOOLB
PPOWER 1150 HP GAS TURBINE
Figure 9-36. High-speed Amphibian--Hydrokeel Type, Base Vehicle Configuration

9-39
1.1 _
_.e . .. • .. • _ _. ... *_..

... • . . .• _ •* _ _ o
AMCP 706-350
zt0.40 GAS TURBINE POW IER 30N i7

ILU
d4 ý SPEED 30 KNOTS IN
E0 SEA STATE 2
> j00 RANGE AS NOTED1C . iU
>2 0.30O-RACTIOF
.1 0. 1c
I-2
0. 1400
22 ,0 2: -
S100,000 0:
28000
140,000 2000 0,0
0 0j
0: 0 5 0 0 0 0
Uj 600 -U X
-4000
AMPC 706-350
17'-0"
37'- 6"
\_/PAYLOAD =10,000 LB
T" /SHAFT HORSEPOWER = 1050 HP
"--SIDEWALL RETRACTED ZONBUBBLE WATERLINE p
Figure 9-38. High-speed Amphibian-CAB Type
for application to a high-speed wheeled economically in this intermediate speed range.

amphibian. However, a prototype air cushion In a displacement type vehicle, high water
truck has been built in France in which the speeds can be achieved at moderate power levels
wheels supply propulsion and carry 5 to 20 if low displacement length ratio hull forms are
percent of the weight on land (Ref. 23). This used. Because of the large size required for such
vehicle has about the same dimensions as a a concept, a single hull would not be practical
LARC V and carries about 6,000 lb payload. It for an amphibian. However, a catamaran hull
has the ability to "swim" in protected waters at form could be developed, with each hull having
speeds up to 4.5 mph. Future developments an acceptable displacement-length ratio, and still
with this type of vehicle should be reviewed by remain within an acceptable size. Such a • 0 0
the designer since they may have direct configuration is illustrated in Fig. 9-40. In this
application to high-speed wheeled amphibians. concept the overall length, for land operations,
can be reduced by folding the bow and stern
sections of the hulls back on the mid-body.
9-5 DISPLACEMENT FORM HIGH-SPEED
AMPHIBIANS 9-5.1 CHARACTERISTICS
All of the possible high-speed amphibian Since the catamaran is a displacement type, it
types considered so far depend on dynamic will not have a high hump drag at moderate
forces for lift at high speed and are characterized speeds. As a result, moderate speeds should be
by high drag at intermediate speeds. As a result, possible with low installed powers. The
there is a speed gap between conventional configuration shown in Fig. 9-40 is estimated to
amphibians with a top speed of 10 to 12 mph have a top speed in calm water of 22.5 knots 5
and high-speed amphibians with minimum with 600 hp delivered to the propeller siaft. The
practical speeds of 18 to 20 mph. Some missions drag estimate was based on the data presented
may require an amphibian that can operate for the Series 64 high-speed displacement hull
9-41
t ~ 0_
0 0 0 0 0 0 __o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
°"-GAS
0 POWER
TURBINE forms. An additional advantage of this type of
SPEED 30 KNOTS -.0 hull form is that it should have good seakeeping
RANGE
AS NOTED characteristics because of the long slender hulls.
N.
1•150 M; The catamaran amphibian shown in Fig. 9-40
1 O•0,20 LENGTH
D1 • ,,•"-7 '• 0 . ,
30 ý
has a design payload of 10,000 lb. The 0 0
AVi ADýý30 characteristics of this concept are presented in
- T -20 Z Table 9-15. As already noted, the bows and
3 0,0 10 sterns fold back for land operations. The wheels
would retract into the hulls for high speed water
__0,o0- operation. This is a feature the catamaran has in
common with all of the high speed amphibian 0 0
M; types. Waterborne, propulsion is provided by a
20o,ON- /0, single propeller out-drive unit, rotatable to
provide steering control. At low water speeds
N. Mi 0 the wheels will also provide some steering
, 2 control if in the extended position.
/60Mo
0 The catamaran configuration is not suitable
SN. M for surf operations because of the small
I buoyancy of the fine bows. The forward end
0 N. Mi 4000 will tend to dig into the back of a breaker,
S-9- GVW 02D causing the vehicle to broach. There is also a
danger of the fine bows or sterns hitting the
bottom as the vehicle pitches in a breaker. To
avoid these problems, the catamaran amphibian P 0 0
0 ,0.00 20.000 30J000 40,000 50.000 ,0M0 must cross the surf with the bows and sterns
PAYLOAD , ILs folded back. In this configuration the catamaran
Figure 9-39. High-speed Amphibian - CAB amphibian should act like the other high speed
Type, Effect of Payload amphibian types in the surf. Also, the roll angle
0..
601 - 0' __________________

42'- -0"
r.- - PAYLOAD = 10,000 LB
I'[/_DESIGN SPEED = 20 KNOTS
HORSEPOWER = 600
--- -------------------------------------
Figure 9-40. High-speed Amphibian-CatamaranType

942
0 0 ._ 0 __ 0. 0 _ 0 0. _ 0. . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
to capsize (range of stability) would be increased The folded bows will cause a visibility problem
somewhat since the folded bows and stems have from the cab when on land unless the vehicle
the effect of increasing the freeboard, height is increased above that shown in Fig.
The advantages of moderately high speeds 9-40. The overall length of the catamaran
with low power, and good seakeeping out of the amphibian may be a disadvantage for land
surf zone, make a catamaran type amphibian operations. The configuration shown in Fig. 0 0
appear attractive. There are, however, a number 9-40 is 2 to 6 ft longer than existing high-speed
of disadvantages with a catamaran form. The amphibians. The length could be reduced by
major disadvantage involves the arrangement of reducing the intersection angle between the
internal components. There is very little internal mid-body and the bows and sterns. This,
volume in a catamaran suitable for the however, would reduce the already small
machinery and drive train components. A approach and departure angles. 0
detailed study would be required to determine if
a satisfactory arrangement could be developed. 9-5.2 PERFORMANCE
TABLE 9-15 HIGH-SPEED SUPPORT AMPHIBIAN- The major unknown from a hydrodynamic
CATAMARAN TYPE standpoint is the problem of interference drag
between the two hulls. There are no I 0 0
Payload - 10,000 lb experimental data on this subject which apply to
Power Limited Speed -CalmWater, 22.5 knots configurations suitable for a catamaran
Sea State 3, 20 knots amphibian. The performance estimates have
Length, Overall been made assuming that interference drag will
Hull, Unfolded - 60 ft be small. If this is not the case, many of the
Hull, Folded - 42 ft justifications for a catamaran configuration are
Breadth- 11 ft lost. The best way of determining the
Height - Wheel Down, 12.5 ft importance of interference drag would be
Wheels Up, 10.5 ft through a small model test program. This is
beyond the scope of this handbook and it was
Power - 600 horsepower gas turbine decided not to continue with a parametric study
Range - 150 N.mi of a catamaran amphibian at this time. However,
Water Propulsion - single propeller out-drive it is felt that the potential of a catamaran 0 0
Gross Vehicle Weight - 40,000 lb amphibian is great enough to justify a small
model test program at some future date.
Weight Summary
Item Weight, lb 9-6 COMPARISON OF VEHICLE TYPES
FOR USE AS HIGH-SPEED AMPHIBIANS
Hull Structure 10,000 The major decision that must be made in the
Folding Bows and Sterns 3,000 design of a high speed amphibian is the selection
Machinery Weight 1,200 of the vehicle type. This selection must depend
Main Drive Train 2,800
Marine Drive 600 on the mission requirements since no one type is
Larind Ge e 6,00 superior in all areas. Table 9-16 has been
Land Gear 6,000 developed to aid in this selection by providing ' S S
Misc. Systems 2,500 the relative rankings of planing hull, hydrofoil,
Empty Weight 26,100 and
otherhydrokeel types inare
a number of areas.
types discussed not included in The
this
Crew 500 ranking since reliable prototype or experimental
Fuel 3,400 data are not available for them. A rank of 1
Payload 10,000 indicates the vehicle type that is best in the
particular area. The quantitative differences
Gross Weight 40,000 between vehicle types can be obtained from the
previous descriptions.
9-43
' " mm~mnmnmmmn..m

mlll • -S
AMCP 706-350 -
TABLE 9-16 RELATIVE RANKING OF VEHICLE TYPES FOR USE AS HIGH-SPEED AMPHIBIANS
Item PlaningHull Hydrofoil Hydrokeel
1. Gross Weight 1 3 2
2. Low Speed Stability and Seaworthiness 1 1 1
3. Sensitivity to Variation of Cargo CG Location 1 2 3
4. Calm Water Top Speed 3 2 1
5. Power Limited Speed in Sea State 3 2 1 3 0 0
6. Motion Limited Speed in Sea State 3 2 1 2
7. Maneuverability and Control at Low Speed 1 2 1
8. High Speed Stability in a Turn 1 2 3
9. Compatibility with Secondary Road Nets 1 1 1 p
10. Complexity 1 3 2
9-44
I * O_ 0 .0
I II I* I. Ii I - I i•m , , .
AMCP 706-350
REFERENCES
L Parameters for High Speed--AmtpibjaaI&_13. D. Savitsky, On the Seakeeping of Planing

U. S. Army Transportation Combat Hulls, Small Craft .Hydrodynamics
Development Group, Fort Eustis, Virginia, Symposium, Southeast Section of SNAME,
December 1960. May 1966.
2. Frequency of Occurrence of Nearshore 14. LVH-X1 Static Stability, Engineering
Seas, State Two and Three, Report No. Report No. R-66-21-065, West Coast
7500-927011, Bell Aerosystems Company, Branch, Amphibian Vehicle Division,
Buffalo, N. Y., February 1966. Marine Corps Landing Force Development
3. Reports on Hydrodynamic Model Tests of Center, Camp Pendleton, Calif., 1965.
High Speed Wheeled Amphibian Concepts, 15. LVH-X1 Hullborne Steering Test, 0
Report No. 726-I, Davidson Laboratory, Engineering Report No. R-66-22-064, West
Hoboken, N. J., November 1966. Coast Branch, Amphibian Vehicle Division,
4. E. R. Miller and W. T. Lindenmuth, Marine Corps Landing Force Development
Optimum Characteristics for High Speed Center, Camp Pendleton, Calif., 1964.
Amphibians, TR 742-2, Hydronautics, 16. F. J. Hiber, Engineering Test (Desert) of
Incorporated, Laurel, Md., March 1968. Landing Vehicle Hydrofoil X-1, Report No. P 0 0
5. Control and Motion Tests, High Speed 6003, CMC Project No. 46-63-06, Yuma
Amphibian Vehicle, Landing Vehicle Proving Ground, Yuma, Ariz., January
Wheeled (LVW-X2), Project No. 46-66-09, 1966.
West Coast Branch, Amphibian Vehicle 17. Engineering Test Report LVH-X2, FMC
Division, Marine Corps Landing Force Corporation, Ordnance Engineering, San
Development Center, Camp Pendleton, Jose, Calif., 1966.
Calif., January 1968. 18. Control and Motion Tests, High Speed 0 0
6. L. L. Brashhars, Engineering Test (Present) Amphibian Vehicle Landing Vehicle
or Landing Vehicle Wheeled, X1, Report Hydrofoil (LVH-X2-2), Project No.
No. 6028, Yuma Proving Ground, Yuma, 46-66-09, West Coast Branch, Amphibian
Arizona, July 1966. Vehicle Division, Marine Corps Landing
7. Miller, Scherer and Barr, A Parametric Force Development Center, Camp
Study of High Speed Support Amphibians, Pendleton, Calif., February 1968.
TR 615-1, Hydronautics, Incorporated, 19. Hydrodynamics of Hydrofoil Craft-
Laurel, Maryland, February 1968. SubcavitatingHydrofoil Systems, TR 463-1,
8. E. Clement and D. Blount, "Resistance Hydronautics, Incorporated, Laurel, Md.,
Tests of a Systematic Series of Planing Hull June 1968.
Forms," SNAME Transactions, 71 (1963). 20. H. R. Chaplin and A. G. Ford, Some Design
9. S. Gyves, Test Report for Half-Scale Model Principles of Ground Effect 0 00
of the High Speed, Inverted "V" Hull, MachinesReport No. 2121, David Taylor
Amphibious Vehicle Wheeled (LVW-X3), Model Basin, Washington, D. C., 1967.
TR-742-1, Hydronautics, Incorporated,
Laurel, Md., January 1968. 21. J. Maravel and T. Brazine, Application of
10. D. Savitsky, "Hydrodynamic Design of the GEM Concept to the Amphibious
Planing Hulls", Marine Technology 1, 71 Support Mission, SAE National
(1964). Aeronautical Meeting, April 1965. 0
11. Foster and Stenson, High Speed Results of 22. A Study of the Operational Feasibility of
Rough Water Trials on Two Experimental the Ground Effect Machine in the
Boats, T. and E. Report No. HML Amphibious Support Mission, Report
142-H-03, Naval Ship Research and ACR/NAR-26, Office of Naval Research,
Development Center, June -1967. Washington, D. C., November 1962.
12. Y. Chey, Model Tests of a Series of 6 Patrol 23. J. Bertin and M. Berthelot, "A Transport
Boats in Smooth and Rough Water, Report Philosophy for Developing Countries, 'The
No. 985, Davidson Laboratory, Hoboken, Terraplane' ", Hovering Craft and Hydrofoil
N. J., August 1964. 2, 24 (1967).
t9...45_ •
• •• • _.O
•...... O .O • • • • • S
"0 0"*0- 0 *--* l

0imu~il .. .0 .
0. ... 0 0
AMCP 706-350
GLOSSARY
active rudder. A rudder fitted with a submersible bollard pull. Thrust delivered by the propulsor
motor and propeller to provide directional at zero forward speed. I 0 •
thrust at low speeds. Bonjeans curves. A plan giving the underwater
aft. Toward, at, or near the stern, area for each station or section along the vehicle
amidships. In the vicinity of the mid-length of as a function of draft.
the vehicle, as distinguished from the ends; also bow.The forward end of the vehicle.
'midships. break angle. The angle formed by a line from a .
angle of approach. Angle formed by a line point on the hull midway between the wheels I S S
connecting the tangent of the front tires and the and tangent to lower edge of the tire (the angle
lowest portion of the vehicle body, and the labeled 220 in Fig. 5-7 is an example).
horizontal. bulkhead. A vertical partition which divides the
angle of departure. Angle formed by a line vehicle into compartments. Bulkheads may be
connecting the tangent of the rear tires and the nontight, water-tight, oil-tight, or gas-tight,
lowest portion of the vehicle body, and the d
horizortal., depending on construction.
appendages. Portions of the vehicle extending buoyancy. Upward force exerted by the fluid on
beyond the hull ofthie; rudders, shafting, a body; proportional to the volume of water
struts, wheels, gear cases, etc. displaced by the body.

area moment of inertia. Second moment of the buttocks (planes). Vertical longitudinal planes,
area; for a discrete area this is the area parallel to the longitudinal center plane,
multiplied by the square of the distance from perpendicular to the base plane and water
the centroid to the axis of reference. planes.
aspect ratio. Ratio of the chord to span of a catamaran.
symmetrical Twin
abouthulled craft which is generally
the centerline.
rudder, foil, or propeller blade. centerline. The middle line extending the
athwartship. Across the vehicle, perpendicular to fore- le of the vehice Moe
the fore and aft center plane. fore-and-aft length of the vehicle. More
ballast. Any solid or liquid weight placed in a accurately described as a center plane.
vehicle to change the trim or to regulate the chine. Intersection between side and bottom 0
stability, shell, or between two bottom shell planes.
baseline. A fore and aft reference line at the chord. The length from leading edge to trailing
lower surface of the bottom plating at the center edge of a foil or shape, in line with the direction
of the vehicle. The base plane is a horizontal of flow.
plane through the baseline, parallel to the coaming. A vertical plate surrounding a hatch or
waterplane. cargo well, serves to restrict water from flowing 0 0 S
bilge. Curved section of the hull and underbody into the opening and to strengthen the hatch
between the vehicle bottom and vertical side; edge.
recess into which the water drains from cargo conceptual design. Phase of design in which
and machinery spaces. basic vehicle characteristics, and realistic and
bilge pump. A pump used to remove the water specific requirements are developed.
and other liquids from the bilge. correlation allowance. Incremental increase in p
bitt, mooring. Short metal column extending the resistance coefficient to account for surface
from a base plate on the d.ck, used for securing roughness.
the vehicle. cross curves of stability. A plan giving the
block coefficient. Ratio of the actual righting arm (GZ) as a function of draft, for
underwater volume to the volume of a various heel angles.
rectangular block, which has dimensions of the curves of form. A plan giving various hydrostatic
length, beam, and draft. properties of the hull as a function of draft.
body plan. Composite drawing outlining the damaged stability. Stability of an amphibious
intersection ef the section planes or stations vehicle when in the damaged (flooded)
with the hull surface. condition.
G-1
I. @ 0
0 '.,,S, ,,0, i0 i l5a0 0.,h.,mamla

i0-0 0 0b
AMCP 706-350 a0 0
deadrise. Rise of bottom of a midship frame the speed and length; (V/JV-g). See volume
from the keel to the bilge. Froude number (Fv)
deck. A deck or platform of a vehicle; fuel rate. The fuel consumption per horsepower
corresponds to the floors of a building. hour.
delivered horsepower. Power delivered to the galvanic action. The production of an electric 0 0
propulsor. current when two dissimilar metals are immersed
depth. Distance from hull bottom to deck. in an electrolyte.
directional stability. The property of a vehicle galvanic series. The order of metals according to
that indicates course-keeping ability, their tendency to corrode galvanically.
displacement. The weight of water the hull geosim. A model which is geometrically similar
displaces, which equals its total weight. to a parent model or prototype vehicle. • 0
draft. The distance from the static waterline to a girth. Any expanded length around a curved
reference plane. The reference plane usually section.
passes through the lowest point on the vehicle, gross vehicle weight (GVW). Total weight of a
draw bar pull. The maximum towline force the vehicle which includes cargo, fuel, crew, and
landborne amphibian can develop, empty vehicle weight.
effective horsepower (EHP). Power actually ground clearance. Height above the ground of 0
delivered by the propulsor. It is defined by the lowest part of the vehicle.
(DV/C) where D = drag, V = speed, C = half breadth plan. Composite drawing outlining
constant; the value of C depends on the units of the intersection of the waterline planes with the
D and V (550 for lb, ft, sec system). hull surface.
failure. A deficiency which prevents a heave. Motion of a vehicle in the vertical
component or subassembly from performing its direction.
intended function within previously established heel. Static inclination of a ship to one side, S 0
limits, caused by off-center loads or external forces.
factor of safety. The ratio of the design load to hogging condition. Temporary or permanent
the expected actual load of a structural member, deformation of the hull in the longitudinal plane
fair (line). A line which is smooth with no such that the hull is deflected convex upward
abrupt changes in the radius of curvature, between hull ends.
final design. Design phase, following preliminary hull. The primary structural body of an
design, in which the final plans are developed, amphibian, including the shell plating, frames,
floor. Vertical, transverse member supporting the longitudinals, and bulkheads.
bottom shell plating. hull efficiency. One minus the thrust deduction
fore. A term pertaining to portions of the divided by one minus the wake fraction, i.e., 1-
vehicle at or adjacent to the bow. t/(1- w).
forward (fwd). In the direction of the bow of hydrokeel. A type of sidewall air cushion
the vehicle. vehicle.
frame. A transverse or longitudinal member of hydrostatic pressure. The pressure of the water
the vehicle's structure which provides support at a given depth.
for the shell plating and acts to maintain inboard. Inside the ship; towards the centerline
longitudinal and transverse hull shape. or away from the sides.
frame spacing. The longitudinal distance inclining test. An experiment performed on a
between transverse frames. Varies with the floating vehicle to determine the initial stability, • 0 •
structure and location along the vehicle's length. or GM.
freeboard. Distance from the waterline to the intact stability. Stability of the vehicle in the
weather deck. intact, undamaged condition.
freeing port. An opening in a bulwark or keel. Principal fore-and-aft member of the
coaming to permit water to drain overboard, vehicle framing, extending along the bottom
frictional resistance. Resistance due to viscous centerline.
forces acting on the vehicle; frictional resistance knot. Unit of speed, equals one nautical mile per
is directly proportional to the density, square of hour, = 1.689 ft/sec or 1.15 mph.
the velocity, and the surface area. length, overall. Extreme length of vehicle from
Froude number (FN). A nondimensional ratio of maximum extent of vehicle stem and stern.
G-2
.-..- 00
+ _ ...0 0..,...-.6...- ,--0 0.---0- 0 , n I

AMCP 706-350
length, waterline. Length of vehicle on the power train. System which transmits power
water, at a given draft, excluding overhangs, from the engine to the wheels and water
lines drawing. A plan containing the three propulsor.
orthogonal views of the vehicle hull geometry. preliminary design. Design phase in which the
longitudinals. Fore and aft structural members. characteristics developed in the conceptual
maneuverability. Property of a marine vehicle design are checked and modified until the
relating to ability to control, change, or retain requirements are satisfied.
direction of motion and speed. profile plan. Composite drawing outlining the
margin. An allowance for weights and center of intersection of the buttock planes with the hull
gravity location to allow for items which might surface.
be overlooked during design or incorporated in propulsor. The system which propels the vehicle
the vehicle after design has been completed. when waterborne, e.g., screw propeller, water 0 0
mass moment of inertia. The second moment of jets, paddles.
mass; for a discrete mass, the mass moment of relative rotative efficiency. A factor which
inertia is the mass multiplied by the square of accounts for the difference in performance
the distance from the reference axis to the between a propeller operating in a uniform and
center of mass, slug-ft 2 . nonuniform wake.
materiel. The equipment, apparatus, and reserve buoyancy. Volume of the watertight hull p 0
supplies required for the operation of a military above the design waterline.
installation, reserve stability. Area between the righting arm
metacenter. The intersection of a line drawn and the heeling arm curves on a statical stability
vertically through the heeled center of buoyancy diagram.
and the ship centerline plane. The heeled center residuary resistance. Sum of the eddy-making
of buoyancy is not on the centerline, and wave-making resistance.
metacentric height. Distance from the Reynolds number. Nondimensional parameter 0 0
metacenter to the center of gravity of the containing speed and length parameters. For
vehicle, symbolically GM. ship: Re = VL/A where L = ship length, V = ship
metacentric radius. Distance from the center of speed, and v = kinematic viscosity.
buoyancy to the metacenter, roll. Dynamic angular rotation of the ship in a
midship. Midway between the ends of the transverse plane about the longitudinal axis.
vehicle; for a vehicle with twenty-one stations rolling resistance. Resistance to land motion of a 0 0
(0,1,.....20), the midship is station 10. moving vehicle; i.e., with tires turning.
mobility. The ease with whch a vehicle can running gear. Wheels and other related
move from one point to another under its own components of the amphibian land system.
power. sagging condition. Temporary or permanent
offsets. Coordinates defining the geometric hull deformation of the hull in the longitudinal plane
form. such that the hull is deflected convex downward 0 0
open center system. Hydraulic system equipped between hull ends.
with a relief valve which allows the fluid from scantlings. The dimensions and thickness of
the pump to empty into the reservoir when it is structural members.
no longer required to run a power take-off. sea state. An arbitrary scale of sea conditions,
outboard. Direction away from the centerline based on significant wave height.
towards the side.
peel strength. The force required to peel section planes. Vertical planes which cut the hull p
adhesives from a surface, transversely.
pdhesitch Dynami aurotatn osheer. Longitudinal curve in the deck height in a
pitch. Dynamic rotation of the ship about the vetclpa .
transverse axis in the longitudinal plane. vertical plane.
pitch, propeller. The theoretical distance that a significant wave height. The average height from
point on the surface of a propeller blade will crest to trough of the 1/3 highest waves.
advance in one revolution. Simpson's rule. A numerical integration
planform. Contour or outline of a body when procedure.
viewed from above, soil index. Quantitative measure of some
port. The left side of a ship or vehicle, when physical property of the soil which can be
looking from aft to forward, empirically related to vehicle trafficability.
G-3
0 0
0 00 0 *~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350 S 0
span. The tip to tip length of a wing or foil, thrust deduction. The augment of ship
perpendicular to the flow, resistance resulting from action of the propeller
spray strip. A strip or wedge on a planing hull, in changing the pressure field around the hull.
just above the waterline, which deflects water or towing pad. An eye on the front or rear of a
spray downward. vehicle to permit attachment of a towing line. P 0 S
stability. Tendency of a marine vehicle to tractive effort. Thrust that the tires must
remain upright or the ability of a vehicle to develop to meet land performance requirements.
return to upright when heeled by wind, wave, or transom. Aft transverse shell of vehi.ie.
other forces. transportability. The ease with which a vehicle
starboard. The right side of a ship or vehicle, can be moved from one location to another by
when viewed from aft to forward. different modes of transport when not under its
stations. Divisions of the length of a vehicle into own power.
ten, or a multiple of ten, equal spaces; also, transverse. Perpendicular to the fore-and-aft or
transverse section planes at these divisions, longitudinal axis.
forward and after
drafts. Difference between
trim.
stem. The bow frame forming the forward sides
of the vehicle. drafts.
volume Froude number (Fv ). A
stern. After end of the vehicle. 0 0
nondimensional measure of speed for a planing
sulfidation. A reaction between sulfur in fuel hull. See Froude number (FN).
and salt in air intake of gas turbine, forming a wake fraction (w). Relationship between ship
corrosive slag. speed and propeller advance speed.
surface effect craft. A vehicle which is supported waterline (planes). Horizontal planes orthogonal
on a cushion of pressurized air. to the section and buttock planes.
surge. Motion of a vehicle; longitudinal wheelbase. Distance between the points of S S S
displacement in the horizontal direction. contact of the front and rear axles of a vehicle.
sway. Motion of a vehicle; transverse wind drag. Resistance to the vehicle's motion
displacement in the horizontal plane. caused by the wind.
tactical diameter. The steady turn diameter of a yaw. Dynamic rotation of a vehicle about the
waterborne vehicle with rudder hard over. vertical centerline axis.
* 0 S
GA
, _. 0
0 0 0 0 0 O. •0 0 0 0 S 0 0 • 0 0
AMCP 706-350
INDEX
A Number, 7-138
Tests, 7-177 0 •
Active rudder, 7-187 Theory, 7-138
Aluminum Center of gravity estimate, 6-14
Adhesive bonding, 7-88 Chine, 7-10
Butt joints, 7-85 Cold weather kit, 7-208
Coatings, 7-57 Collision, 7-37
Cold forming, 7-46 Communication systems, 7-203 .
Galvanic corrosion, 7-51 Component tests, 8-4
Plate, 7-46 Compressor fouling and sulfidation, 7-122
Welding, 7-47 Conceptual design, 4-1
Amphibian, wheeled, history 3-1 Arrangement, 5-7
Anchoring system, 7-207 Inputs and outputs, 5-4
Appendages, 7-11, 7-8U Objective, 5-1
Resistance, 5-26 Procedures, 5-4
ARC(K)-X1, 9-32 Size and arrangements, 5-7
ATTC (American Towing Tank Conference), Construction costs, 7-210
7-94 Estimating, 7-210
Axle loading, 2-8 Manufacturer's estimates, 7-211
Reduction, with multiple vehicles, 7-211
Control systems. 7-203 p
Cooling systems, 7-203
Correlation allowance, 7-94
Bollard pull, 8-18 Corrugated structure, 7-72
Bearings, 7-126 Cost
Bending moment calculations, 7-33 Construction (see Construction costs)
Bilge pumping system, 7-206 Current, 7-212
Requirements, 7-206 Design, 7-210
Blade element, 7-136 Estimating, 7-209
Outline and section shapes, 7-147 Life cycle, 7-209
(see also Screw propeller design) Maintenance, 7-212
Block coefficient, 5-14 Operating, 7-212
Bonjean curves, 7-15 Repair, 7-212
Brakes, 7-129 Research and development, 7-209 P S S
Damage to housing, 7-129 Testing, 7-212
Hydraulic retarders, 7-129 Cross curves of stability, 7-18
C D
Captured Air Bubble (CAB) amphibians, 9-32, Defrosting (see Heating and defrosting)
9-34 Design considerations, total defense concept, S S
Cargo 7-208
Handling system, 7-205 Design cycle, 5-5
Lashings, 7-38 Design process, 4-1
Tie-downs, 7-80 Developable surfaces, 7-4
Catamaran amphibians, 9-42 Differentials, 7-128
Cavitation Dimension limits, 6-5 0 S
Alternative forms, 7-142 Directional stability, 7-187
Critical number, 7-142 Draw bar pull, 8-11
Effect of, 7-142 Drive shafts, 7-128
I-1
L _L A
-- - --- - -
.. ....... • . .. ~~0 e . . .0 .. 0
AMCP 706-350
E Hull resistance (see Resistance)

Hull structure loads, 7-32
Electrical system, 7-201 Hydraulic fluid, 7-200, 7-201
Regulations, 2-9 Hydraulic systems, 7-199
Engines, 6-2 Accessories, 7-201 0 •
Engine Components, 7-199
Amphibian environment, 7-122 Flexible hose, 7-200
Criteria, 7-117 Hydrofoil amphibians, 9-13
Rating, 7-118 Future, 9-26
Selection, 7-117 Hydrokeel amphibians, 9-32
Engineering tests, 8-3
Environmental protection, 7-125
Evaluation and testing, 4-1
Exhaust systems, 7-207 Jacking points, 7-38
F K
Factors of safety, 7-81 Kirsten-Boeing propeller, 7-133 0 0 5

Fasteners, 7-81 Kort nozzles, 7-130, 7-131, 7-187, 7-192
Fillet welds, 7-83
Final design, 4-1 L
Fire fighting systems, 7-206
Flying DUKW, 9-16 Land performance, 5-27
Foundations, 7-80 Laws of similitude, 7-174 p
Framing, 7-80 Lifesaving systems, 7-208
Freeboard, 7-29 Lifting pads, 7-38, 7-80
Requirements, 5-14 Loads, local, 7-33, 7-36
Fresh water systems, 7-205 Impact, 7-32
Fuel line vents, 7-202 Lubrication systems, 7-204
Fuel systems, 7-202 LVH-X1, 9-16
Safety requirements, 7-202 Characteristics, 9-18
Performance, 9-19
G LVH-X2, 9-19
Accelerations, 9-25
Gas turbines, 7-122 Characteristics, 9-19
Generators, 7-128 Comparison with the H.S. DENISON, 9-25
Glass, 7-58 Control characteristics, 9-26 0 •
Gross weight, 2-8 Speed and power, 9-25
LVW-X1, 9-2
H Comparison with a Series 62 "V" bottom
hull and LVW-X3, 9-9
Heating and defrosting, 7-208 Drag, 9-9
Heeling forces, 7-24 Speed and power, 9-2
High-speed amphibians, 9-1 LVW-X2, 9-2
Comparison of vehicle types, 9-43 Accelerations, 9-11
Displacement form, 9-41 Control characteristics, 9-9
Hogging condition, 7-33 Speed and power, 9-2
Hull efficiency, 7-138 LVW-X3, 9-11
Hull lines
Description, 7-1 M L 0 -
Initial, 6-5
Purpose, 6-10 Maintainability, 6-5
Procedures, 7-1 Criteria, 2-9
1-2
-. - -
9O ... .. • 0... 0q....

o •
0.. 0 0o •. 0 .0 0 0 0 ... O 0 0
l . *U U* I - U U U * |. I - - - l - :
AMCP 706-350 0 0
Maintenance requirements, 2-9 Criteria, 7-125

Maneuverability, 2-6, 6-15, 7-187 Design considerations, 7-124
Requirements, 2-5, 8-17 Durability, 7-124
Rough water, 7-189 Electric, 7-127
Materials Flexibility, 7-124 0
Aluminum, 7-46 Hydrostatic, 7-127
Comparisons, 7-39 Mechanical, 7-126
Deflection, 7-39 Transmission efficiency, 7-124
Ductility, 7-39 Preliminary design, 4-1
Elastic failure, 7-62 Design cycle, 6-1
Energy absorbed, 7-42 Inputs and outputs, 6-1
Fatigue strength, 7-39 Purpose, 6-1
Fiberglas, 7-44 Propeller
Selection, 7-39 Contra-rotating, 7-130, 7-132
Steel, 7-42 Controllable pitch, 7-132
Strength-weight ratios, 7-42 Types, 7-130
Mobility, overland, 2-6 Vertical axis, 7-133
Model tests, 6-29, 7-97 Propulsion systems, screw type (see Screw ! 0
Basins, 6-30 propellers)
Data, 7-98 Propulsion unit, criteria, 7-129
Schedule, 6-31 Propulsive efficiency, 7-130
Momentum theory, propeller 7-134 Pumps, 7-128
Ideal efficiency, 7-135
Monocoque construction, 7-62 R S 0
Mooring systems, 7-207
Motors, 7-128 Rake and skew, 7-147
Rate of rotation rpm, 7-147
N Relative rotative efficiency, 7-137
Reliability, 6-5
Criteria, 2-10
Navigation systems, 7-203 Required buoyancy, 5-13
Reserve buoyancy, 5-14
0 Reserve stability, 7-25
Resistance
Aerodynamic, 7-92
On equipment materiel (OEM), 7-208 Appendage, 7-99
Operational requirements, 2-4 Eddymaking, 7-92, 7-99 -
Outdrive units, 7-194 Frictional, 7-92, 7-93
Hull form, 5-26, 7-99
Residuary, 7-92, 7-95
Rough water, 7-108
Waterborne, 7-92
Peel strength, 7-46 Wavemaking, 7-92 0 0
Pitch ratio, 7-147 Reynolds number, 7-174
Planning hull amphibians, 9-1 River bank performance, exiting, 2-7, 7-117
Plate and stiffener construction, 7-74 Road performance, 2-7
Power estimate, landborne, 7-112 Rough ground performance, 2-6
Waterborne, 7-110 Rudder, 7-190
Power requirements, waterborne, 7-91 Balanced, 7-191
Power take-off, 7-199 Box type, 7-195
Power train, 6-4 Maximum angle, 7-193
Characteristics, 7-124 Stall angle, 7-191
Controllability, 7-124 Stock angle, 7-193
1-3
L -
0 9~
0 0 _0 0 0_ 0_l 0_
_ _...• •..... . ...o __ _ . ...__ _ •••• AO•

_
AMCP 706-350
S Position location, 7-197

Reversing, 7-188
Sagging condition, 7-33 Rough water, 7-189
Scale ratio, 7-174 Surf, 7-189
Scaling laws, 7-97 Tests, 8-11
Scantlings, 7-33 Waterborne, 7-195
Screw propeller design, 7-144 Zero speed of advance, 7-188
Astern thrust, 7-169 Stiffeners, 7-62
Expanded area ratio, 7-146 Strain rates, 7-32
Number of blades, 7-146 Stress, bottom structure, 7-42
Overload conditions, 7-168 Structural configuration, 7-60 6
Towing, 7-168 Sulfidation, 7-123
Thickness, 7-147 Surface development procedures, 7-4
Screw propellers, 7-130 Surface effect amphibians, 9-30
Geometry, 7-172 Flexible skirt, 9-38
Tunnels, 7-130 Rigid side wall type, 9-31
Theory, 7-134 Surf
Seakeeping, 2-5, 6-15, 7-13 Considerations, 7-13 a 0
Seals, 7-126 Operations, 7-114
Self-propulsion tests, 7-175 Tests, 8-18
Service allowance, 7-169 Suspension systems, 7-37
Shell plating loads, 7-60
Shock loading, 7-36 T
Container, 7-37 p
Shrouded propellers, efficiency, 7-131 Tactical diameter (see Directional stability)
Side slope stability, 6-29 Tests
Simpson's integration, 7-13 Acceptance, 8-5
Skew (see Rake and skew) Bilge pump, 8-11
Slope performance, 2-6 Category I, 8-2
Soft-soil mobility, 7-177 Category II, 8-4 .7 •
Operational requirements, 2-4 Check, 8-3
Speed trials, 8-15 Comparison, 8-5
Spray strips, 7-10 Confirmatory, 8-3, 8-5
Stability, 5-14, 6-15 Engineer design, 8-4
Calculation of, 7-20 Engineering, 8-3, 8-9
Criteria, 7-25 Environmental, 8-3
Damaged, 7-26 Feasibility, 8-4 5 . .
Dynamic, 7-17 Initial production, 8-5
Free surface effects, 7-27 Instrumentation and calibration, 8-10
Grounded, 7-26 Integrated engineering service, 8-3
Initial, 7-19 Land, 8-10
Intact, 5-16 Objectives, 8-1
Longitudinal, 7-27 Preproduction, 8-4
Positive, 7-16 Procedures, 8-8
Range of, 7-17 Product improvement, 8-4
Transverse, 7-16 Reconditioning, 8-5
Standard military components, use of, 2-10 Research, 8-4
Steering Research and development acceptance, 8-4
Ackermann, 7-197 Responsibility for, 8-5
Crab, 7-197 Sequence of, 8-5
Forces, 7-184 Service, 8-3
Hydrodynamic forces, 7-186 Special, 8-2, 8-5
LARC V and LARC XV, 7-198 Static, 8-10
1-4
S__e
_0 _
S _* 0- 0 0 e ... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AMCP 706-350
Tests (cont'd) Ventilation systems, 7-204

Surveillance, 8-5 Vertical shaft, right angle drives, 7-133
Types of, 8-2 Vibration, 7-38
Water, 8-14 Voith-Schneider propeller, 7-133
Thrust deduction, 7-137 .
Thrusters, ducted, 7-195 W
Torque converter, 7-127
Torsional loads, 7-35
Tractive effort, 6-29, 7-113 Wake fraction, 7-137
Transfer cases, 7-128 Waterborne performance, operation require-
Transmissions, 7-128 ments, 2-5 -
Automotive, 7-125 Water forces, 7-36
Transportability, 2-7 Water jets, 7-133, 7-193
Air, 2-9 Waterproofing, 7-122
Rail, 2-8 Weight equation, 5-17
Requirements, 2-7 Weight estimate, 6-11
Unrestricted highway, 2-8 Weights
Trim, 5-17, 6-15, 7-27 Drive train,
1 8 5-18 0
Trochoidal wave profile, 7-33 Hull, 5-18
Turning moment, 7-184 Loads, 5-21 5-18
Machinery,
U Margins, 5-21
Marine propulsor, 5-18
Universal joints, 7-128 J Miscellaneous, 5-21 p
Running gear, 5-19
V Welding, 7-83
Vehicle types, 8-1 Wet deck, 5-14
I-5
l .. . 0
0 0 _ .. 0 O 0 ..... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOKS •
Listed below are the Handbooks which have ' en published or are currently under preparation. Handbooks with publica-
tion dates prior to 1 August 1962 were published as 20-series Ordnance Corps pamphlets. AMC Circular 310-38, 19 July
1963, redesignated those publications as 706-series AM'Cpamphlets (e.g., OROP 20-138 was redesignated AMCP 706-138).
All new, reprinted, or revised Handbooks are being published as 706-series AMC pamphlets.
No. Title No. Title

100 *Design Guidance for Producibility 202 *Rotorcraft Engineering, Part Two, Detail
104 *Value Engineering Design
106 Elements of Armament Engineering, Part One, 203 *Rotorcraft Engineering, Part Three, Qualifi-
Sources of Energy cation Assurance
107 Elements of Armament Engineering, Part Two, 205 *Timing Systems and Components
Ballistics 210 Fuzes
108 Elements of Armament Engineering, Part Three, 211(C) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part One (U)
Weapon Systems and Components 212(S) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Two (U) .
110 Experimental Statistics, Section 1, Basic Con- 213(S) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Three (U) S
cepts and Analysis of Measurement Data 214(S) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Four (U)
ill Experimental Statistics, Section 2, Analysis of 215(C) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Five (U)
Enumerative and Classificatory Data 235 *Hardening Weapon Systems Against RF Energy
112 Experimental Statistics, Section 3, Planning 239(S) *Small Arms Ammunition (U)
and Analysis of Comparative Experiments 240(C) Grenades (U)
113 Experimental Statistics, Section 4, Special 241(S) *Land Mines (U)
Topics 242 Design for Control of Projectile Flight
114 Experimental Statistics, Section 5, Tables Characteristics
S Basic Environmental Concepts 244 Ammunition, Section 1, Artillery Ammunition--
116 *Basic Environmental Factors General, with Table of Contents, Glossary- O
120 *Design Criteria for Environmental Control of and Index for Series
Mobile Systems 245(C) Ammunition, Section 2, Design for Terminal
121 Packaging and Pack Engineering Effects (U)
123 *Hydraulic Fluids 246 tAmmunition, Section 3, Design for Control of
125 Electrical Wire and Cable Flight Characteristics
127 *Infrared Military Systems, Part One 247 Anmmnition, Section 4, Design for Projection
128(S) *Infrared Military Systems, Part Two (U) 248 tAmmunition, Section 5, Inspection Aspects of
130 Design for Air Transport and Airdrop of Artillery Ammunition Design
Materiel 249 Ammunition, Section 6, Manufacture of Metallic 1 0 S
134 Maintainability Guide for Design Components of Artillery Ammunition
135 Inventions, Patents, and Related Matters 250 Guns--General
136 Servomechanisms, Section 1, Theory 251 Muzzle Devices
137 Servomechanisms, Section 2, Measurement and 252 Gun Tubes
Signal Converters 255 Spectral Characteristics of Muzzle Flash
138 Servomechanisms, Section 3, Amplification 260 Automatic Weapons
139 Servomechanisms, Section 4, Power Elements ?70 Propellant Actuated Devices
and System Design 280 Design of Aerodynamically Stabilized Free
140 Trajectories, Differential Effects, and Data Rockets
for Projectiles 281(S-RD) Weapon System Effectiveness (U) -
145 *Dynamics of a Tracking Gimbal System 282 tPropulsion and Propellants
150 Interior Ballistics of Guns 283 Aerodynamics
160(S) Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part One, 284(C) Trajectories (U)
Kill Mechanisms and Vulnerability (U) 285 Elements of Aircraft and Missile Propulsion
161(S) Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part Two, 286 Structures
Collection and Analysis of Data Concerning 290(C) Warheads--General (U)
Targets (U) 291 Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part One, System
162(S-RD) Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part Three, Integration
Application to Missile and Space Targets (U) 292 Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Two, Weapon I • S
165 Liquid-Filled Projectile Design Control
170(C) Armor and Its Application to Vehicles (U) 293 Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Three, Computers
175 Solid Propellants, Part One 294(S) Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Four, Missile
176(C) 1olid Propellants, Part Two (U) Armament (U)
177 Properties of Explosives of Military Interest 295(S) Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Five, Countcr-
178(C) tProperties of Explosives of Military Interest, measures (U)
Section 2 (U) 296 Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Six, Structures
179 Explosive Trains and Power Sources
180 *Principles of Explosive Behavior 297(S) Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Seven, Sample
185 Military Pyrotechnics, Part One, Theory and Problem (U)
Application 327 Fire Control Systems--General
186 Military Pyrotechnics, Part Two, Safety, 329 Fire Control Computing Systems
Procedures and Glossary 331 Compensating Elements
187 Military Pyrotechnics, Part Three, Properties 335(S-RD) *Nuclear Effects on Weapon Systems (U)
of Materials Used in Pyrotechnic Compositions 340 Carriages and Meunts--General
188 *Military Pyrotechnics, Part Four, Design of 341 Cradles
Ammunition for Pyrotechnic Effects 342 Recoil Systems
189 Military Pyrotechnics, Part Five, Bibliography 343 Top Carriages
190 *Army Weapon System Analysis 344 Bottom Carriages 1 0 6
195 *Development Guide for Reliability, Part One 345 Equilibrators
196 *Development Guide for Reliability, Part Two 346 Elevating Mechanisms
197 *Development Guide for Reliability, Part Three 347 Traversing Mechanisms
198 *Development Guide for Reliability, Part Four 350 Wheeled Amphibians
199 *Development Guide for Reliability, Part Five 355 The Automotive Asse',bly
200 *Development Guide for Reliability, Part Six 356 Autc,-:.- Suspensio-'
201 *Rotorcraft Engineering, Part One, Prelimi- 357 Auto,,tive bodies and Hills
nary Design
* UNDER PREPARATION--not available

t OBSOLETE--out of rtock
S.... __ _0 ... o. _ .... o_ o

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(AMCP 706-350) - Engineering Design Handbook - Wheeled Amphibians-U.S. Army Materiel Command

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AMC PAMPHLET AMCP 706-350

HEADQUARTERS, U.S. ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND JANUARY 1971

.m• . .•-m .z - " d • '

IThis document box been approved

LIST OF SYMBOLS .......................... ... xxii • •

PART ONE. BACKGROUND INFORMATION o

1-1 Purpose of the Handbook ...................... 1-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

2-2.1 General ........ ........................ 2-2

Section II. Engineering Requirements

2-3 The Mission of Army Wheeled Amphibians .......... 2-4

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

CHAPTER 3. PAST AND PRESENTLY OPERATIONAL

Section I. Brief History of Wheeled

3-1 General Requirements Which Led to the

Section II. Tabulation of Vehicle Characteristics

PART TWO. DESIGN OF WHEELED AMPHIBIANS

CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN PROCESS

CHAPTER 5. PARAMETRIC AND CONCEPTUAL

5-1 Objective............................... 5-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

5-1.3.9 Availability ... ..................... 5-4

CHAPTER 6. PRELIMINARY DESIGN

6-1 Objective ........ ......................... 6-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

6-4 Initial Hull Lines and Arrangements ........... 6-5 S

CHAPTER 7. DETAILED DESIGN

Section I. Hull Design

7-1 Hull Lines ........ ........................ 7-1

Sim . .#,. --.. ..mam,. il" .ml..= . .. • . mm

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

7-1.1.2 Developable Surfaces ...................... 7-4

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

7-3.1.3.2 Other Impact or Shock Forces ........... 7-36

7-4 Horsepower Requirements ..... .............. 7-91

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

7-4.3.1 Surf Operations .................. 7-114

S.. . .. ..." - -• - m / / l i ml ' f'm i a'i l li 0 '

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

7-7.4.3 Factors Which Influence Propeller 0 0

Section III. Suspension System Design

7-8 Suspension Systems Appropriate for Use

•.q) ... _9 ....9 ... • ... o. •0 .. • .. • .. O

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

7-8.5 Tire Selection ........................ .. 7-183 0 0

Section IV. Steering System Design

7-9 Steering System Design ................... .7-184

Section V. Auxiliary Systems

7-10 Auxiliary System Design .... .............. .7-199 - 0

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Section VI. Cost Estimating

PART THREE. EVALUATION AND TESTING OF WHEELED AMPHIBIANS

8-1 Objective of Tests and General Discussion ...... .. 8-1 0 0

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Concluded)

PART FOUR. HIGH SPEED AMPHIBIANS 0 0

9-1 Introduction .................... 9-1

FigureNo. Title Page

3-1 DUKW General Arrangement Sketch ............ 3-2

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)

FigureNo. Title Page

7-8 Interaction Between Rudder and Tunnel Walls ......... 7-13