SmartMat - 2022 - Wang - Recent Progress in MXene Layers Materials For Supercapacitors High Performance Electrodes

Received: 16 March 2022 | Revised: 5 April 2022 | Accepted: 7 April 2022
DOI: 10.1002/smm2.1130
REVIEW
Recent progress in MXene layers materials for

supercapacitors: High‐performance electrodes
Yitong Wang | Yuhua Wang
Hubei Province Key Laboratory of

Science in Metallurgical Process, Wuhan Abstract
University of Science and Technology, In 2011, Gogotsi et al. discovered a new type of two‐dimensional transition
Wuhan, China
metal carbides and nitrides, called MXenes, which have become a dazzling
Correspondence new star in the energy storage industry. MXenes are endowed with a series of
Yuhua Wang, Hubei Province Key fascinating properties due to their unique structures and tunable surface
Laboratory of Science in Metallurgical
Process, Wuhan University of Science and chemical functional groups. The application of MXenes in electrochemical
Technology, Wuhan 430081, China. energy storage has attracted special attention, especially showing great
Email: wangyuhua@wust.edu.cn
potential in supercapacitor applications. Compared with other materials,
Funding information MXenes have high mechanical flexibility, high energy density, and good
National Natural Science Foundation of electrochemical performance, so they are especially suitable as electrode
China, Grant/Award Number: 11375136 materials for supercapacitors. However, similar to other 2D materials, due to
the strong van der Waals forces, MXene layers inevitably undergo stacking
agglomeration, resulting in severe loss of electrochemically active sites. If the
self‐stacking of MXenes layers can be effectively suppressed, their electro-
chemical performance will be enhanced. Structural optimization of MXenes
and composite doping of MXenes with other materials are two strategies with
significant effects. This review summarizes recent advances in MXene
synthesis, fundamental properties, and composite materials, focusing on the
latest electrochemical performance of MXene‐based electrodes/devices, and
puts forward the challenges and new opportunities that MXenes face in this
emerging energy storage field.
KEYWORDS
composite materials, MXene, MXene‐based, supercapacitors
1 | INTRODUCTION development of smart electronics.1–5 Although batteries

are known for their high energy density, in most cases,
Today, energy storage devices (ESD) play a vital role in their cycle life and charge/discharge rates are not ideal.6,7
smart electronics, wearable textiles, and resource recy- In contrast, supercapacitors (also known as electroche-
cling. Rechargeable batteries (including lithium, sodium, mical double‐layer capacitors [EDLCs]) rely on the
potassium, and zinc ions) and supercapacitors physical adsorption/desorption of ions by nanoporous
are considered promising ESD for the sustainable carbon materials to store charge. This mechanism
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
© 2022 The Authors. SmartMat published by Tianjin University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.
SmartMat. 2023;4:e1130. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/smm2 | 1 of 35

https://doi.org/10.1002/smm2.1130
2688819x, 2023, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/smm2.1130, Wiley Online Library on [17/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2 of 35 | WANG AND WANG
imparts high charge/discharge rates (indicative of high considered an effective strategy. Over the past decade,
power density) but fundamentally limits the achievable MXene materials for supercapacitors have proliferated
energy density in supercapacitors due to the complex (Figure 1A). Notably, a total of 237 articles were
nature of porosity in electrodes.8,9 There is a great need published in 2021, of which 196 were related to
to find novel nanomaterials that can provide different MXene‐based composites. These composite materials
charge storage mechanisms for supercapacitors. with MXene mainly include carbon nanomaterials, metal
MXene is composed of n + 1 (n = 1–3) layers of early oxides, and conductive polymers. In particular, papers on
transition metals (M) interwoven with n layers of carbon carbon nanomaterials, metal oxides, and conducting
or nitrogen (X), and the general formula is Mn polymers account for about 34.54%, 16.36%, and 38.18%
10–13
+1XnTx, where Tx is introduced by liquid‐phase of MXene‐based composites (Figure 1B). The improved
etching. Surface functional groups, such as −OH, −F, MXene‐based composites can effectively weaken the
−O, and so on, these fascinating surface groups can MXene stacking phenomenon and improve the oxidation
inherently provide a large number of active sites with resistance, and have outstanding performance in improving
great potential for surface modification and efficient cycle life and energy density.27,28 Since 2013, MXene‐based
loading of active materials.14,15 Benefiting from their rich composites with excellent properties have been increasingly
surface chemistry and tunable composition, 2D materials used in supercapacitors (Figure 2A–J).31–34,36,37 For exam-
MXenes have excellent electrical conductivity, hydro- ple: Ti3C2Tx MXene mixed with charged polydiallyldi-
philicity, and ion intercalation, as well as high mechani- methyl ammonium chloride (PDDA) or electrically neutral
cal strength and volumetric specific capacity, which can polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to produce Ti3C2Tx/polymer
be directly prepared binder‐free electrode materials have composites, this study is to explore the first, but also
attracted increasing interest in supercapacitor applica- critical, step toward the potential of using MXenes in
tions.16–19 However, MXenes still have some problems to functional nanocomposites (Figure 2A).29 Zhao et al.30
be solved.20 For example, the preparation method of fabricated freestanding and flexible interlayer‐like
MXenes needs to be improved, and the traditional MXene/carbon nanotube (CNT) papers using a simple
MXenes prepared by etching with hydrofluoric acid filtration method, which exhibited high volumetric
(HF) have a large number of defects.21,22 In addition, capacitance, good rate performance as electrodes
MXene sheets are prone to close packing, which tends to for supercapacitors, and excellent cycling stability
restrict the transport and diffusion of electrolyte ions, (Figure 2B). Wen's team35 synthesized a novel
especially organic electrolyte ions, thereby affecting nitrogen‐doped two‐dimensional MXene (N‐Ti3C2Tx)
the energy storage performance of MXenes in super- by postetch annealing Ti3C2Tx (MXene) in ammonia
capacitors and limiting their excellent electrochemical gas, which is a promising supercapacitor electrode
performance.23,24 On the other hand, MXenes are easily material (Figure 2E). With the increasingly widespread
oxidized at higher anode potentials, reducing the cycle and irreplaceable role of MXene materials in the field
efficiency and lifetime.25,26 of supercapacitors, there is an urgent need to system-
To address the above problems, rational design and atically summarize the latest progress of MXene
construction of MXene‐based composite electrodes is supercapacitors in a timely manner to provide possible
F I G U R E 1 Increased demand for MXene supercapacitors over time. (A) Development of publications indexed by the keywords of
“MXene supercapacitor” during the past decade. (B) A pie chart showing the proportion of various materials in MXene‐base complexes.
Data from Web of Science: http://www.webofscience.com/. Accessed August 24, 2021.
WANG AND WANG | 3 of 35
F I G U R E 2 (A) Ti3C2Tx Mxene was mixed with charged polydiallyldimethyl ammonium chloride (PDDA) or electrically neutral
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to prepare Ti3C2Tx/polymer composites. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2014, Springer Nature.29
(B) MXene/carbon nanotube (CNT) paper electrode. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2014, John Wiley and Sons.30 (C) MXene based
SnO2 thin film nanosponge (SnO2‐SPM) for stable solar energy driven simultaneous water purification and power generation. Reproduced
with permission: Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry.31 (D) A rGO/Nb2CTx/Fe3O4 composite with a hierarchical architecture is
prepared by integrating multilayered Nb2CTx, magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles and two‐dimensional rGO sheets. Reproduced with permission:
Copyright 2021, Elsevier.32 (E) An electrostatic assembly approach for fabricating 2D/1D/0D construction of Ti3C2Tx/carbon nanotubes/Co
nanoparticles (Ti3C2Tx/CNTs/Co). Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021, Springer Nature.27 (F) Flexible and fiber‐based
supercapacitors of Ti3C2Tx MXenes. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2017, John Wiley and Sons.33 (G) The RuO2/Ti3C2Tx
asymmetric pseudocapacitor. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2018, John Wiley and Sons.34 (H) Schematic illustration of the
Ti3C2Tx doped with nitrogen atoms, with terminal groups of −F and of −OH, respectively. Light gray color, Ti; dark gray color, C; red, O;
white, H; cyan‐blue, F; blue, N. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2017, Elsevier.35 (I) Schematic representation of m‐V2CTx MXene
with various terminal functional groups. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society.36 (J) Braided coaxial
FSC. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021, Springer Nature.37
development directions for the next generation of high‐ 2 | S Y N T H E S I S AN D P R O P E R T I E S

performance supercapacitors. OF MXene
Herein, a review on the use of MXene‐based
composites for supercapacitors is timely presented 2.1 | Synthesis of MXene
(Figure 3).38,39 First, the synthesis, layering, and physi-
cochemical properties of MXenes are summarized. Then MXene is a kind of metal carbide and metal nitride
the advantages and working principles of supercapacitors materials with two‐dimensional layered structure, which
over other secondary batteries are presented. As the core is a graphene‐like structure obtained by MAX phase
part of this review, the design and electrode properties of processing.37,40 The specific molecular formula of the
MXene composites are fully discussed from four applica- MAX phase is Mn+1AXn (n = 1, 2, or 3), where M refers to
tions: symmetric supercapacitors, asymmetric superca- a transition metal of the former group, such as Sc, Ti, Zr,
pacitors, flexible supercapacitors, and other functional V, Nb, Cr, or Mo; A usually represents III and IV Group
supercapacitors. Finally, the development trends, chal- chemical elements; X refers to C or N elements. Due to
lenges, and opportunities of MXene composites for the strong bond energy of M–X and the more active
energy storage are summarized and prospected, to chemical activity of A, A can be removed from the MAX
provide guidance for the design of MXene for energy phase by etching to obtain a graphene‐like two‐
storage and other related applications. dimensional structure‐MXene. Before etching, MAX has
of Ti3C2 containing −OH or −F in Equations (2) and (3).

Ghidiu et al.42 added 2 g Ti3AlC2 (400 mesh) to 400 ml
HF solution, stirred at 200 r/min for 24 h at 25°C,
centrifuged at 3500 r/min for 5 min, washed the suspen-
sion to pH 6, and finally dried at 35°C for 24 h to complete
the etching step. The dried sample was then sonicated in
deoxygenated water for 4 h for delamination and then
centrifuged at 3500 r/min for 20 min to obtain Ti3C2
nanosheets. A typical HF solution etching method with
the advantages of simple steps and high productivity, the
operating, and the structure diagram were shown in
Figure 4A. The preparation of MXene by HF etching of
the MAX phase is currently the most widely used method.
The MXene prepared by this method has the characteristics
of clear sheet layer structure and uniform interlayer
spacing. However, the HF reaction conditions are violent
and there are often certain hole defects in the prepared
MXene structures,46,47 which will adversely affect the
structural stability and transmission rate of the subse-
F I G U R E 3 This illustration shows the importance of advanced quently prepared electrode materials. Therefore, optimiza-
MXene substrates in supercapacitors, including symmetrical tion of the reaction conditions such as HF concentration,
supercapacitors, asymmetrical supercapacitors, and flexible etching time, and etching temperature is crucial.
supercapacitors. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2020,
Elsevier.38 Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021, John
Wiley and Sons.39 2.1.2 | LiF + HCl
Gogotsi et al.43 devised a one‐step etching and intercala-

a compact bulk structure, and its properties are difficult tion method based on the nature of MXene's preference
to optimize, which limits the application range. After for cations when intercalating, with the flow shown in
etching, a multilayer accordion‐shaped MXene can be Figure 4B. Ti3AlC2 was slowly added to 6 mol/L HCl
obtained, which can theoretically be applied in multiple mixed with LiF and mixed with stirring at 40°C for 45 h.
fields. Finally, the etched MXene can be intercalated and This process occurs in Equation (4), producing HF which
layered to obtain single‐layer or few‐layer MXene, which is used as etching agent. The resulting precipitate was
will be more conducive to the modification of the then washed to remove the reaction product and
material. centrifuged to raise its pH to obtain a monolayer of
MXene. The clay paste can be shaped according to
requirements and can be used for the production
2.1.1 | HF of electrodes and supercapacitors. Furthermore,
Soundiraraju and George48 used a mixture of HCl + KF
Initially, Ti3AlC2 is etched with HF solution to remove to etch the MAX phase of Ti2AlN. The K+ and H2O
the Al layer and obtain an accordion shape, this is the molecules in the mixed solution can intercalate the Ti2N
HF etching method.41 When Ti3AlC2 is immersed in HF nanosheets, resulting in well‐spaced and uniform Ti2N
solution, the simplified reaction principle is shown in the phase MXene. The one‐step process to obtain monolayers
below equations. of MXene is simpler, gentler, and safer.
3
Ti3AlC2 + 3HF = AlF3 + H2 + Ti3C2 , (1) LiF(aq) + HCl(aq) = HF(aq) + LiCl(aq). (4)
2
Ti3C2 + 2H2 O = Ti3C2 (OH)2 + H2 , (2)

2.1.3 | NH4HF2
Ti3C2 + 2HF = Ti3C2 F + H2 . (3)
Both HF etching and hydrogen fluoride (NH4HF2)
It can be seen from Equation (1) that the Al layer is etching were investigated by Halim et al.44 In the
successfully removed and that there is an exfoliated layer study, the same Ti3AlC2 samples were etched by two
F I G U R E 4 (A) Schematic of the exfoliation process for Ti3AlC2. Ti3AlC2 structure. Al atoms are replaced by OH after reaction with HF.
Breakage of the hydrogen bonds and separation of nanosheets after sonication in methanol. The 3D physical structure of the MAX phase
and the corresponding MXene 3D physical structure. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2011, John Wiley and Sons.41 (B) Chematic of
MXene clay synthesis and electrode preparation. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2013, Springer Nature.43 (C) MXene film
synthesized by epitaxy. Schematic diagram of magnet sputtering for depositing Ti3AlC2 phase on a supporting substrate. The atomic
structure of the Ti3C2 MXene film after selective removal of the Al layer. Indicates that the colors of Ti, C, O, and H are yellow, black, red,
and white, respectively. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society.44 (D) Schematic of Pt/e‐TAC catalyst
formation, location of metals in the structure, and HRTEM of Pt/e‐TAC. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2014, RSC Pub.45
different chemical solutions and the Ti3C2 obtained 2.1.5 | Molten fluoride salt etching
were both successful and the presence of −OH and −F
functional groups was observed. Some of the etching Ghidiu et al.42 mixed Ti4AlN3 powder with a fluoride salt
intercalation Equations with NH4HF2 are below mixture (59 wt%) potassium fluoride (KF), 29 wt%
equations. lithium fluoride (LiF), and 12 wt% sodium fluoride
3 (NaF) in a 1:1 mass ratio and then heated the mixture at
Ti3AlC2 + 3NH 4 HF2 = (NH 4)3 AlF6 + Ti3C2 + H2 , 550°C for 30 min at a rate of 10°C/min to prepare
2
(5) Ti4N3Tx for the first time. The innovative use of molten
salt etching to obtain Ti4N3Tx provides a new idea for the
Ti3C2 + aNH 4 HF2 + bH2 O = (NH3)c (NH 4)d Ti3C2 (OH)x Fy ,
preparation of MXene. However, the MXene structure
(6)
will contain large amounts of fluoride salt impurities and
the high‐temperature molten salt method will be strictly
As can be seen from the equations above, the NH4HF2 limited by decomposition conditions such as temperature
etching process differs from HF in that (NH4)3AlF6 is and thickness of the raw material. Li et al.18 used Lewis
generated during the reaction and the NH4HF2 acid (ZnCl2) instead of HF to obtain a new MXene
solution is chosen to allow direct intercalation, and (Mn+1XnCl2) with a Cl surface. In addition, further
both NH3 and NH4+ are intercalated into the Ti3C2Tx exfoliation of Ti2AlC, Ti3AlC2, Ti3AlCN, Nb2AlC,
interlayer (Figure 4C). Halim et al.44 used mild Ta2AlC, Ti2ZnC, and Ti3ZnC2 MAX phases using a
NH4HF2 to slowly etch Ti3AlC2 at room temperature. variety of molten salts (CdCl2, FeCl2, CoCl2, CuCl2, AgCl,
As the Al atomic layer in the MAX phase was gradually NiCl2) confirmed the commonality of molten salt
etched, NH3 and NH4+ in solution were equally particles to obtain MXene.
embedded in the Ti3C2 sheet layer, and finally, MXene
with uniform atomic structure distribution was
obtained. Further etching and delamination with 2.1.6 | NaOH + H2SO4
NH4HF2 solution to obtain monolayer MXene is
simpler than the composition of the etching method Xie et al.45 first immersed large pieces of Ti3AlC2 in
using LiF and HCl solutions and results in a few layers NaOH solution for surface treatment, followed by H2SO4
of MXene with richly linked moieties. hydrothermal treatment to obtain Ti3C2 layers with the
Al layer and the −OH‐containing end removed. The
conventional carbon carrier will degrade the Pt/C
2.1.4 | Anhydrous etching with polar cathode catalyst, resulting in reduced catalyst activity
organic solvents and stability, while the Pt/e‐TAC layered structure
obtained by loading Pt onto the Ti3C2 layer will produce
Barsoum et al.49 added 1 g of Ti3AlC2 to 10 ml of propylene strong interactions causing changes in the electronic
carbonate (LPC) and stirred it at 500 r/min for 196 h at structure, resulting in higher catalytic activity and
35°C under argon to obtain Ti3C2Tx and compared the stability, indicating that the NaOH + H2SO4 etching
difference between etching in organic solvents such as method is more suitable for use in harsh environments
acetonitrile (ACN), N‐methylmethacrylate (NMP) and (Figure 4D).
N,N‐dimethylformamide (DMF) and HF alone. Finally,
it was found that the electrode capacity of Ti3AlC2 7
Ti3 AlC2 + OH− + 5H2 O = Ti3 C2 O2 + Al(OH)−4 + H2 .
obtained in the LPC environment was almost twice 2
(7)
that in the HF environment, and that the low melting
point of ACN and the simple recovery and purification
after etching provided a new idea for large‐scale 2.1.7 | Bayer etching method
industrial production. In 2021, Shi et al.14 reported a
fluorine‐free etching method using iodine in anhy- In 1887, Bayer refined bauxite for the aluminum
drous acetonitrile with subsequent exfoliation in a industry, using concentrated NaOH solutions at high
hydrochloric acid solution. The etching reaction was temperature and pressure to erode bauxite and extract
kept at 100°C to ensure the production of Ti3C2Tx, aluminum, lithium, and so on. Inspired by this, it
which could be further converted to Ti3C2Tx was recognized that higher temperatures and higher
nanosheets with suitable dimensions and high alkali concentrations would help dissolve aluminum
oxygen content. hydroxide. After gradient experiments, Yang et al.50
found that treatment in an aqueous 27.5 mol/L NaOH Ti3C2Tx could also be successfully prepared from silica‐
solution at 270°C under an argon atmosphere gave based MAX using this fast NH4+ method, demonstrating
Ti3C2Tx (Figure 5A) with high purity (92 wt%) and the advantages of the universality and mass production
no −F contamination to obtain samples containing of the method.
−OH and −O terminals (Figure 5B,C). This provides
new ideas and synthetic diversity options for the
preparation of MXene and is more suitable for use in 2.1.9 | Other methods of etching
large‐scale preparations.
The synthesis of carbide‐derived MXene is also possible
by passing the more corrosive chlorine gas into the
2.1.8 | Solution phase flocculation etching carbon‐based MAX phase by gas phase etching. In
addition, alkali solution etching has also become a new
The solution phase flocculation method (NH4+ method option for the synthesis of MXene. Yang et al.52 used
and modified NH4+ method) was used by Zhang et al.51 electrochemical etching to prepare fluorine‐free Ti3C2
to prepare monolayer or less L amount of layered Ti3C2Tx phase MXene materials in yields of over 90% in alkaline
powder on a large scale (Figure 5D), which fundamen- solutions above 270°C and with a large number of
tally solved the agglomeration problem of MXene hydroxyl functional groups in the structure.
nanosheets. NH4+ combined with a small amount of With the increasing variety of raw material nitrides
MXene nanosheets reduced the negative surface charge and carbides and the significant increase in demand for
of MXene, and the MXene nanosheets finally completed MXene, more and more preparation methods have
classical flocculation, and after freeze‐drying, annealed to been developed,16,17,19,53–57 such as chemical meteoro-
produce TiC2Tx nanosheet powder. A variety of layered logical deposition (CVD) and plasma enhanced pulsed
MXene powders such as V2CTx, Nb2CTx, Nb4C3Tx, and laser deposition (PE‐PLD).58 These methods are still in
F I G U R E 5 (A) Schematic of the etching and delamination process. Cross‐sectional HRTEM images (B) and SEM images (C) of Ti3C2Tx.
Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2018, John Wiley and Sons.50 (D) Schematic preparation process of few‐layered Ti3C2Tx MXene
powders. (E–G) SEM images of Ti3C2Tx MXenes. (H) AFM results of Ti3C2Tx MXenes. (I,J) TEM images of Ti3C2Tx MXenes. Reproduced
with permission: Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society.51
the exploratory stage and prepare MXene for a smaller while molybdenum‐based MXenes exhibit semiconducting
range of applications.59 properties.105 Surface functional groups also have a great
In LiF + HCl, NH4+ etchants, both Li+ and NH4+ influence on the electrical conductivity of MXenes. Taking
have the ability to intercalate in MXene, thus allowing TiCTx, the most typical representative of MXenes, as an
mechanical sonication to obtain a single layer of MXene, example, when Tx is a fluorine group (Ti2Fx), its Fermi level
while etching steps where intercalation is not possible (e.g., is located at the d‐bond of the M‐layer atom, which has
HF) require additional intercalation to obtain a single layer metal‐like conductivity, while when Tx is an oxygen
of MXene, with the option of mechanical layering and functional group (Ti2COx), whose d‐bonds are above the
solvent intercalation layering methods.15,60–66 Due to the Fermi level, exhibiting semiconducting properties.106
strong interactions between multiple layers of MXene, most Another factor that affects the conductivity of MXene is
organic compounds are currently chosen as intercalators the state of the MXene sheet.107,108 The fewer defects and the
for delamination,67–72 for example, hydrazine hydrate, urea, larger the lamellar scale, the higher the electrical conductiv-
isopropylamine, tetrabutylammonium hydroxide or di- ity of MXenes. For example, Ti3C2Tx etched by HF has a
methylsulfoxide after HF etching, the latter two being large number of defects, and the conductivity after cold
considered as excellent intercalators for use.73–80 pressing is lower than 1000 S/cm,106 while the Ti3C2Tx
In summary, it can be seen that the various preparation etched by LiF and HCl mixed system reached 4600 and
schemes for MXene have shortcomings.26,81–88 The 15,100 S/cm after vacuum filtration and dirty coating,
structure of HF acid etching is clear and complete, but respectively.104,109
monolayer MXene cannot be obtained in one step; the
structure of MXene obtained by the LiF + HCl method is
more ambiguous and the small monolayer pieces are easy 2.2.2 | Mechanical properties
to fall off, which is suitable for the preparation of
monolayer MXene; the NH4HF2 product is hierarchical Through first‐principles and molecular dynamics simu-
but the by‐products are difficult to remove; the product lations, the elastic modulus and flexural strength when
obtained by molten fluoride salt is incomplete in structure stretched along the MXene plane are higher than those of
and fluoride impurities have to be removed, so when no multilayer graphene in the same case, with favorable
new perfect preparation method appears, it is necessary to mechanical properties.110 MXenes can be vacuum
choose a suitable MXene preparation scheme according to filtered to produce films with excellent mechanical
the content of each study. Table 189–99 lists the preparation strength.108,111 Both the M atom and the surface group
conditions and parameters of some MXenes. T have significant effects on the properties of MXenes. In
general, oxygen‐functionalized MXenes have smaller
lattice parameters and higher mechanical strength than
2.2 | Properties of MXene fluorine‐ and hydroxyl‐functionalized MXenes, and the
fracture strains of 2D Ti2Co2 due to strong covalent
As M in MXene is a transition metal (e.g., Ti, Mo, Cr, V, bonds between Ti atoms and surface end groups,
etc.) and the surface functional groups vary,100 MXenes respectively increased by 20%, 28%, and 26.5%.112,113 In
of different compositions exhibit different propert- other words, the bonding strength is a key factor in
ies.101,102 The various properties and applications of maintaining the elastic stiffness of the nanosheets. On
MXene are shown in Figure 6. the other hand, the mechanical properties of Ti3C2Tx
films can be improved by incorporating polymers such as
chitosan and polyethylene.114 The introduction of chit-
2.2.1 | Electrical properties osan can amplify the displacement of Ti3C2Tx na-
nosheets, increasing the tensile strength of the film from
By first‐principles calculations, MXenes exhibit similar 8.2 to 43.5 MPa.114 By incorporating PVA into the MXene
conductivity to metals when there are no functional matrix, the mechanical strength of the composites can be
groups on the surface, but it is still a challenge to prepare greatly enhanced. For example, Ling et al.29 embedded
synthetic MXenes without surface functional groups.103 PVA into Ti3C2Tx thin films, which showed good
The conductivity of Ti2CTx, Ti3C2Tx, Mo2CTx, Mo2TiC2Tx, electronic conductivity and excellent mechanical proper-
and Mo2Ti2C3Tx has been obtained by experiments.53,104 ties, which could withstand 5000 times its own weight.
It has been shown that the conductivity of MXenes is This study presents a huge opportunity to form conduct-
closely related to the type of M‐layer atoms, for example, ing polymer/MXene composites, that is, reinforced
titanium‐based MXenes have metal‐like conductivity, composites, for various applications.
TABLE 1 Experimental parameters of MXene synthesis

Etching Temperature
MXene MAX phase Etching solution time (h) reflex References
Ti3C2Tx Ti3AlC2 50% HF 2 RT [41]
Ti3AlC2 40% HF 20 RT [10]
Ti3AlC2 NH4HF2 11 RT [44]
Ti3AlC2 KHF2 24 60°C [89]
Ti3AlC2 3 mol/L LiF + 6 mol/L HCl 24 35°C [90]
Ti3AlC2 27.5 mol/L NaOH 12 270°C [91]
Ti3SiC2 1.17 mol/L H2O2 + 15 mol/L HCl 45 40°C [92]
Ti2CTx Ti2AlC 10% HF 10 RT [10]
Ti3CNTx Ti3AlCN 30% HF 18 RT [10]
TiNbCTx TiNbAlC 50% HF 28 RT [10]
Ta4C3Tx Ta4AlC3 50% HF 72 RT [10]
(V0.5Cr0.5)3C2Tx (V0.5Cr0.5)3AlC2 50% HF 69 RT [10]
Mo2CTx Mo2Ga2C 50% HF 3 50°C [93]
Mo2Ga2C 3 mol/L LiF + 12 mol/L HCl 384 35°C [94]
Mo2Ga2C 14 mol/L HF 160 55°C [94]
Mo2TiC2Tx Mo2TiAlC2 50% HF 48 RT [95]
Mo2Ti2C3Tx Mo2Ti2AlC3 50% HF 90 55°C [95]
Nb4C3Tx Nb4AlC3 48%–51% HF 96 RT [42]
Nb2CTx Nb2AlC 50% HF 90 RT [96]
(Nb0.8Ti0.2)4C3Tx (Nb0.8Ti0.2)4AlC3 50% HF 96 50°C [97]
(Nb0.8Zr0.2)4C3Tx (Nb0.8Zr0.2)4AlC3 LiF + 12 mol/L HCl 168 50°C [97]
V2CTx V2AlC 50% HF 90 RT [96]
Zr3C2Tx Zr3Al3C2 50% HF 72 RT [98]
Hf3C2Tx Hf3Al(Si)4C6 35% HF 60 RT [99]
2.2.3 | Hydrophilic room temperature and atmospheric pressure, and it is

relatively stable.115,119–121 The chemical expression of
The surface of MXene prepared by liquid phase etching MXene is MnTx, and the stability of MXene increases with
contains a large number of −OH, −O, −F, and other the value of n. On the contrary, the binding energy of
energy groups, which makes its surface negatively MXene decreases with the increase of n value, and the
charged. When dispersed in water, MXene will maintain binding energy of carbon atom MXene is smaller than that
a stable dispersion in an aqueous solution due to the of nitrogen atom MXene, indicating that the stability of
classical repulsion between MXene layers.115,116 The transition metal carbides is better than that of transition
hydrophilic nature of MXenes not only allows them to metal nitrides. Combined with thermogravimetric and
be used for the preparation of MXene inks, films, and mass spectrometry analysis demonstrated that the thermal
sprayed devices but also facilitates the liquid phase stability of MXenes strongly depends on their chemical
synthesis of MXene‐based nanocomposites.117,118 composition and environment.108,122 However, MXenes
with exposed metal atoms on the surface are generally
thermodynamically metastable, possess high surface en-
2.2.4 | Thermal stability ergies, and usually oxidize spontaneously in air.123 For Ti2C
MXenes, the unsaturated Ti 3D orbitals on the pristine Ti2C
Density functional theory calculations show that MXene surface strongly interact with the approaching O2 mole-
has negative lattice energy, its structure does not change at cules, leading to efficient O2 dissociation. Therefore, the
to induce MXene and graphene 3D self‐assembly for high‐

performance pseudocapacitors. Wu et al.139 used a facile
strategy of multiscale structural engineering to fabricate
high‐performance MXene hydrogel supercapacitor electro-
des. Lin et al.140 reported a method to synthesize MXene by
preparing titanium Al carbide using elemental precursors
and subsequent in situ etching in molten salt tanks and
explored its excellent lithium‐ion energy storage properties.
Yao et al.141 selfassembled MXene + ZIF derived composite
electrodes for improving the multiplicative performance of
Al‐ion batteries. Wang et al.142 used the topology of MXene
films to design high‐performance lithium batteries. In the
field of catalysis,44,143,144 MXene can be used for high‐
temperature catalysis.36 MXene powers photocatalytic
synthesis of NH3.145 In the field of electromagnetic
shielding,18,50,146 Xiao et al.147 demonstrated a polymer‐
polyacrylic acid latex (PAL)‐based MXene aqueous coating
(MWP), which not only has powerful terahertz EMI
shielding/absorption efficiency but also can be easily adhered
to various substrates commonly used in the terahertz band.
F I G U R E 6 Schematic showing the properties of MXenes
Miao et al.148 successfully prepared Ag nanowires by
(conductivity, mechanical flexibility, hydrophilicity, thermal
laminating them with MXene to produce flexible electro-
stability) and applications (energy storage, sensors, electromagnetic
magnetic shielding films. In the field of sensing,149–154 Ko
shielding, biodetection).
et al.155 demonstrated a 3D multivacancy structure based on
MXene(Ti3C2Tx)/PVDF with high sensitivity and wide
adsorbed O on Ti2C impairs the thermodynamic stability of sensing range for self‐supplied voltage electronic skin. Wang
the latter.112 In addition, the excellent thermal conductivity et al.156 reported a self‐fed NH3 sensor prepared from
of MXene also facilitates the heat dissipation of electronic accordion‐like Ti3C2Tx MXene and metal‐organic backbone
devices and improves the reliability of the devices.124,125 derived CuO. In the field of biology,91,92 Cao et al.157 drove
MXene‐based sodium/potassium ion storage by adding
microorganisms and MXene‐based surface Raman high‐
2.2.5 | Other properties sensitivity detection as a new method for the detection of
neo‐coronavirus S proteins.158 In recent years, MXene has
MXene film and its complex have a certain transpar- been more widely used, for example, MXene membranes to
ency.66,67,126 It is found that the 1 nm thick MXene can fuel chemical potential discharges,159 MXene quantum
penetrate 97% of visible light, and its photoelectronic dots,24 MXene membranes to anchor wastewater treat-
properties can be adjusted by chemical or electrochemi- ment,160 MXene based preparation of sensitive humidity
cal methods to embed cations, indicating that MXene has driven brakes161 and high‐efficiency MXene based organic
a certain prospect in the field of transparent conductive light‐emitting diodes.162 In particular, MXene's excellent
coatings and photoelectronic devices.15 electrical conductivity, hydrophilicity, abundance of surface
According to theoretical calculations, MXenes with- functional groups, and high density have led to the most
out functional groups on the surface exhibit a certain extensive research in the field of flexible energy storage
degree of magnetism,127–129 but once functional groups (flexible batteries,163 flexible supercapacitors164).
are present, the magnetism decreases or even disappears,
but there are special cases where, for example,
chromium‐based MXenes exhibit magnetism even in 3 | ADVANTAGES AND
the presence of functional groups.64 PRINCIPLES OF
These properties have made MXene widely studied in SUPER CAP AC ITO RS
various fields. For example, in the field of energy
storage,40,76,130–136 Zhang et al.137 used C‐MoS2/CNTs‐Ti3C2 3.1 | Features of supercapacitors
composite negative electrodes to achieve excellent perform-
ance sodium‐ion batteries. Sikdar et al.138 proposed a pure Supercapacitors have higher energy density and power
room temperature casting‐based method with zinc particles density than other ESD. Supercapacitors are capable of
TABLE 2 Comparison of supercapacitors, capacitors, and batteries

Parameters Supercapacitor Capacitor Battery
Energy storage Watt‐second energy Watt‐second energy Watt‐hours of energy
Charging method Voltage between terminals Voltage between terminals Current and voltage
Power supplied Fast discharge, linear or Fast discharge, linear or Constant voltage over
exponential voltage decay exponential voltage decay a long period of time
Charging/discharging time Milliseconds to seconds Picosecond to millisecond 1–10 h
Dimension Small Small to large Large
Weight (g) 1–2 1–10 1 to >10
Energy density (Wh/kg) 1–5 0.01–0.05 8–600
Power density (W/kg) High, >4000 High, >5000 Low, >100–3000
Operating voltage 2.3–2.75 V per section 6–800 V 1.2–4.2 V per section
Lifetime >100 k cycles >100 k cycles 20–1500 cycles
Operating temperature (°C) −40 to 85 −20 to 100 −20 to –35
167
Note: Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society.
storing thousands or even tens of thousands of times enabling them to be charged and discharged in a very
more power than ordinary capacitors,61,63 which is short time with very little loss of capacity.177,181
the reason for the “super,” by generating a large (4) Extra‐long service life: In the process of charging and
capacity through a large specific surface area or redox discharging, a supercapacitor occurs with a good
reaction.165,166 reversible electrochemical reaction, and it is not easy
The performance of supercapacitors is compared with to have the phenomenon of active material crystal
that of flat plate capacitors and conventional batteries in transformation and shedding, so the life of a super-
Table 2.167 From the table, it can be seen that supercapacitor is very long.182,183 In theory, the life of a
capacitors show the ability to store energy in conven- supercapacitor can be infinite, but in practice, it can
tional batteries, but also have the advantages of ordinary reach more than 100,000 times, but it is also
capacitors. Specifically, supercapacitors have the follow- hundreds of times of the battery.175,184
ing characteristics.103,166,168,169 (5) Excellent low‐temperature performance: When super-
capacitors work, most of the charge transfer process
(1) Super‐high electric capacity:170–173 Supercapacitors takes place on the surface of the electrode active
have a large capacity (6000 F), thousands of times material, so it is not affected by temperature. Unlike
larger than those of flat capacitors of the same batteries, whose capacity is affected by electroche-
volume.114–119 mical thermodynamics, batteries can lose more than
(2) Super‐high specific power: The specific power of 70% of their capacity at low temperatures.185,186
supercapacitors is tens to hundreds of times higher
than that of batteries.89,174–176 It can release high
currents ranging from hundreds to thousands of 3.2 | Energy storage principle of
amperes in a very short period of time. Therefore, supercapacitor
supercapacitors are more suitable than other ESD for
high output power and short charge/discharge Depending on the energy storage mechanism, super-
times.89,122,177 capacitors are divided into two categories, one is the
(3) Superfast charging speed: There are two modes of double layer supercapacitor and the other is the Faraday
supercapacitor charging, a physical process (charging pseudo capacitor.187–191 As an ESD, the size of its energy
and discharging of the double electric layer) and a storage is the size of its capacitance.19,192–195
chemical process (the reversible and fast electro-
chemical process of electrodes adsorbing substances (1) Electric double‐layer capacitors (EDLCs)
on their surface).178–180 The synergy of the two The energy storage principle of a double‐layer
engineering processes allows supercapacitors to be capacitor is simply that the energy is stored through
charged and discharged using high current density, the double layer formed at the interface between the
F I G U R E 7 Schematics of charge‐storage mechanisms for (A) electrochemical double‐layer capacitors and (B) different types of
pseudocapacitive electrodes: underpotential deposition, redox pseudocapacitor, and ion intercalation pseudocapacitor. Reproduced with
permission: Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society.167
electrode and the electrolyte, using the high specific mechanisms of electrode materials and the second one
surface area of the electrode material.138,139 The according to the different electrolytes.
detailed explanation is that when the electrode is
charged, under the action of intermolecular forces, a (1) Classification according to different energy storage
stable double layer of charges of opposite sign will mechanisms
appear on the contact surface of the electrode and According to the different energy storage mech-
the electrolyte,123,140,141 and because there are barri- anisms, supercapacitors can be classified into
ers at the interface, the double layer of charges will symmetrical supercapacitors, asymmetrical super-
not be neutralized, thus forming a tight double layer capacitors, and hybrid supercapacitors, and the
on the surface of the electrode, called the interface performance of the three types of supercapacitors
double layer.142 The principle is shown in Figure 7A. is shown in Table 3.167
(2) Faraday pseudo capacitor (2) Classification according to different electrolytes
For Faraday pseudocapacitance, the stored charge According to the type of electrolyte, it can be
contains not only the charge stored on the double conventionally classified into the water‐based elec-
potential, but also the charge stored by the electrolyte trolyte and organic electrolyte, of which water‐based
ions in the active material through redox reactions.143 electrolyte includes three types, one is an acidic
The charging and discharging principle of the pseudo electrolyte, mostly using 36% H2SO4 aqueous solu-
capacitor is shown in Figure 7B. The electrode is tion as an electrolyte, the second is an alkaline
charged under the action of an applied electric electrolyte, usually using strong bases such as KOH
field,196,197 and the ions in the electrolyte move from and NaOH as electrolyte and water as a solvent, and
the solution to the electrode–solution interface, fol- the last is a neutral electrolyte, usually using KCl and
lowed by an electrochemical reaction at the interface, NaCl as electrolyte and water as solvent. The last
and then the charge enters the electrode active category is neutral electrolytes, usually using salts
material, and a large amount of charge is stored in such as KCl and NaCl as the electrolyte and water as
the electrode.146 During discharge, the stored charge is the solvent, mostly used in the electrolyte of
released in the form of current through an external manganese oxide with age materials. Organic elec-
circuit, while the electrolyte ions that have entered into trolytes usually use LiClO4 as a typical representative
the active substance reenter the electrolyte solution.147 of lithium salts, Tetraethylammonium tetrafluorobo-
rate (TEABF4) as a typical representative of quater-
nary amine salts, and so forth as electrolytes, and
3.3 | Classification of supercapacitors organic solvents such as polycarbonate (PC), aceto-
nitrile (ACN), gamma‐butyrolactone (GBL), treha-
As there are more criteria for classifying supercapacitors, lase (THL), and so on as solvents, where the
this paper mainly introduces two classifications, the electrolyte is close to saturation solubility in the
first one according to the different energy storage solvent. Also included are solid‐state electrolytes,
TABLE 3 Performance indicators for different types of supercapacitors

Symmetrical
Projects supercapacitors Asymmetric supercapacitors Hybrid supercapacitors
Main mechanisms Double electric layer Double electric layer + Double electric layer + Faraday
pseudocapacitor
Energy density 5 30 100
(Wh/kg)
Power density (kW/kg) 9 5 4
Operating −40 to 80 −25 to 60 −40 to 60
temperature (°C)
Typical electrodes Carbon material Carbon materials metal oxides Carbon materials de‐embeddable
conductive polymers materials, and so on
Typical electrolyte Organic system Aqueous system Organic systems
Maturity Already commercialized Material research Process research
Early commercialization
Advantages High power density Higher power density higher High energy density
energy density
Disadvantages Low energy density High price short lifetime Low power density
Note: Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society.167
which have become a research hotspot in the field of sulfuric acid electrolyte with an energy density of
electrolytes for supercapacitors as solid‐state electro- 29.2Wh/kg and the capacitance is maintained at 89%
lytes for lithium‐ion batteries continue to break after 5000 cycles, achieving the importance of maintain-
through. ing the original structure of MXene while improving its
electrochemical properties.
Inspired by the mortar and brick structure of the pearl
4 | MODIFICATION OF MXENE layer, Cai et al.199 developed a stand‐alone MXene pearl
FOR SUPERCAPACITOR layer through a layer‐by‐layer column and effectively willed
the stacking of MXene nanosheets (Figure 8F). The MXene
4.1 | Structural optimization of MXenes “pearl layer” (Figure 8G) exhibits excellent mechanical
strength (78.3 MPa) without sacrificing flexibility, and good
The problem of heavy stacking of 2D MXene materials specific capacitance (190 F/g in 1 mol/L H2SO4 at 10 mV/s
greatly limits the electrochemical performance of their scan rate), and high capacitance retention (87.4% after
electrode materials.197 Typical strategies such as the 5000 cycles). The all‐solid‐state supercapacitor exhibits
insertion of nanomaterials and 3D structure design are 6.7 μWh/cm2, 91.5% capacitance retention, and superb
expected to reduce the advantages of MXene materials cycling performance (over 90% capacitance retention after
and diminish the advantages of their electrodes over 500 cycles of folding/unfolding) after 4000 cycles. This
other electrode materials. Tang et al.198 proposed a novel study provides a new idea for further applications of
sulfuric acid oxidation method for the restacking of link structural flexible ESD.
MXene layers with a small amount of electrochemically
active negative products (Figure 8A,B). The MXene
obtained by the optimized pathway still has a very high 4.2 | MXene‐based composites for
surface‐specific capacitance and is of great practical supercapacitors
application.
Zhang et al.38 performed low‐temperature annealing 4.2.1 | Symmetrical supercapacitors
(below 400°C) of MXene under argon conditions to
improve the capacitive properties of the MXene material Sun et al.22 prepared layered MXene nanosheets on
(Figure 8C). This was due to the formation of more active cobalt sulfide nickel/carbon cloth (CC) by spraying
C–Ti–O sites and larger interlayer voids (Figure 8D). This MXene on the surface of cobalt sulfide nickel
MXene can exhibit high capacitive energy (429 F/g) in a (Figure 9A). The nanosheets (Figure 9B) not only
F I G U R E 8 (A) Schematic illustrations of the etching process of Ti3C2Tx nanosheets and the obtained hierarchical nanoporous structure.
(B) The schematic illustration of the ion pathway optimization in S‐etched Ti3C2Tx film compared with the L‐pristine film. Reproduced with
permission: Copyright 2020, John Wiley and Sons.198 (C) Schematic of the synthesis of few‐layer Ti3C2Tx. (D) Top‐view and
(E) cross‐sectional SEM image of Ti3C2Tx freestanding film. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2020, Elsevier.38 (F) Schematic diagram
of the strategy for constructing the bioinspired MXene pearl layer. (G) FE‐SEM image of MXene@SnS2 heterostructure. Reproduced
with permission: Copyright 2021, Elsevier.199
obtained excellent specific capacitance at high current Ti3C2Tx, Ti3C2Tx@PEDOT has improved capacitive
densities but also had better cycling stability. The performance and good electrochemical stability
electrodes were optimized to achieve a maximum specific (Figure 9C). One of the Ti3C2Tx@PEDOT (1:10) compo-
capacitance of 2326 F/g at a current density of 1 A/g and sites showed a maximum capacitance value of 564 F/g at
a cycling stability of 93.8% at a current density of 10 A/g. a current density of 1 A/g and capacitance retention of
The results show that proper surface coating of MXene 96.5% after 10,000 charge/discharge cycles (Figure 9E),
can simultaneously improve the conductivity and ion which can be attributed to the synergistic effect between
penetration of cobalt‐nickel sulfide, resulting in excellent Ti3C2Tx and PEDOT. PEDOT with high conductivity can
electrochemical performance. Thus, the excellent elec- improve the interlayer conductivity and charge transport
trochemical properties of this hybrid electrode make it a of Ti3C2Tx, effectively inhibiting the restacking of
prominent candidate for high‐performance, flexible ESD. multilayer Ti3C2Tx, where the sulfur in PEDOT can
Polymers are another promising additive that can be further improve the hydrophilicity and ion exchange rate
combined with PEDOT to greatly improve the mechani- of the composite. Yan et al.201 prepared selfsupporting
cal properties of materials, particularly conductive PPy‐Ti3C2Tx MXene film materials (Figure 9F) by
polymers, which can optimize mechanical strength electrochemical deposition of PPy and Ti3C2Tx MXene
without sacrificing conductivity. Liu and coworkers202 on the fabric surface and assembled all‐solid‐state flexible
successfully prepared Ti3C2Tx@PEDOT composites with capacitors, which also exhibited good electrochemical
significantly improved electrical properties for use as properties (Figure 9G).200
supercapacitor electrode materials by loading a large In recent years, cobalt and nickel oxides have become
number of nanoscale PEDOT particles on the surface of typical pseudocapacitive materials due to the availability
Ti3C2Tx via chemical oxidation. Compared with pure of low cost, low toxicity, and high theoretical ratio
F I G U R E 9 (A) Schematic illustration of the assembly process of Ti3C2Tx/NiCo2S4@CC (TNSC) by hydrothermal and spray coating
methods. (B) SEM image of TNSC. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021, Springer Nature.7 (C) Galvanostatic charge–discharge
(GCD) of xCoOx‐NiO/Ti3C2Tx and Ti3C2Tx. (D) X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) survey spectra of xCoOx‐NiO/Ti3C2Tx and Ti3C2Tx.
(E) Cyclest ability of xCoOx‐NiO/Ti3C2Tx at a current density of 5 A/g. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021, Elsevier.200 (F) The
represent SEM image of PPy‐MXene coated textile. (G) The comparison of GCD curves between MXene‐based and PPy‐MXene coated textile
electrodes under a current density of 2 mA/cm2 (H) GCD curves of PPy‐MXene coated textile electrodes at various current densities.
Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society.201
capacitance. Cobalt–nickel bimetallic oxides have electrochemical capacitance of 1960 F/g at a current
attracted much attention due to their enhanced charge density of 1 A/g as the number of depositions reached 90,
transfer and surface redox reactions that increase their and still preserved 90.2% capacitance after 8000 cycles,
specific capacitance. Zhang et al.200 successfully depos- demonstrating excellent cycling stability.
ited cobalt–nickel bimetallic oxides on MXene nano- Ti3C2Tx, as a type of the MXene family, has ultrahigh
layers using atomic layer deposition techniques and used electrical conductivity, good flexibility, and high electro-
them as pseudocapacitive materials for supercapacitors. chemical activity, but the inevitable Ti3C2Tx film self‐
The uniform distribution of metal oxide particles on stacking problem seriously affects the specific area of the
the MXene nanosheets enabled the pseudocapacitor film and hinders ion transport in the film. Zhang et al.131
material to have more active sites, and the synergistic introduced layered porous carbon (HPC) into Ti3C2Tx
effect between cobalt oxide and nickel oxide greatly films (Figure 10A), which not only, can act as a columnar
improved the electrochemical performance. Using the structure for adjacent Ti3C2Tx nanosheets (Figure 10B),
number of times the metal oxide was deposited as a effectively preventing their typical self‐stacking and
variable parameter, the material exhibited an optimum accelerating ion transport in the lateral direction, but
F I G U R E 10 (A) Schematic illustration for preparing the MXene/layered porous carbon (HPC) hybrid film by vacuum‐assisted filtration.
(B) Large number of macroscopic holes in Ti3C2Tx nanosheets. (C) Longitudinal channels. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021,
Elsevier.131 (D) Digital photographs of Ti3C2Tx MXene colloid and flexible films. (E) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process for the
Ti3C2Tx MXene negative electrode (left section), IDT@rGO heterojunction positive electrode (right section), and the all‐solid‐state
asymmetric supercapacitor device. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society.203 (F) Schematic
representation illustrating the fabrication process of asymmetric supercapacitor. (G) Low magnification SEM image showing uniform
coating of Ti3C2Tx on carbon fibers. (H) Wrapped Ti3C2Tx flakes over an individual fiber of the carbon fabric. Reproduced with permission:
Copyright 2021, Royal Society of Chemistry.39
also ensuring fast ion transport in the longitudinal foundation is laid for alleviating the self‐stacking
direction by introducing abundant macroscopic meso- phenomenon in Ti3C2Tx films.
pores (Figure 10C). The quasi‐solid‐state symmetric
supercapacitor prepared by introducing 60% HPC ex-
hibits good stability at different bending angles with a 4.2.2 | Asymmetric supercapacitors
capacitance of 211 mF/cm2 and an energy density of
4.68 μWh/cm2 at 19.91 μW/cm2, and capacitance reten- The voltage window for the symmetrical MXene super-
tion at 10,000. The capacitance retention after charge/ capacitor is only about 0.6 V because oxidation occurs at
discharge cycles was 86%. By constructing transverse and high anode potentials. The assembly of MXene electrodes
longitudinal channels for rapid ion transport, a and other pseudocapacitive materials into asymmetric
supercapacitors makes for an effective strategy to extend surface of MXene and avoid the problem of MXene
the voltage window. restacking. On this basis, lignosulfonate‐modified MXene
Xu et al.203 took the breakthrough of expanding the reduced GO 3D porous aerogels were synthesized, exhibit-
voltage window and maximizing capacitance by ratio- ing excellent electrochemical properties and being light-
nally coupling a multielectron redox reversible and weight (Figure 11B). The energy density of this asymmetric
structurally stable indolone π backbone with a reduced supercapacitor was 142 Wh/m2 at a power density of
graphene oxide (GO) backbone in 2021 to form idt@rGo 4900 μW/cm2, and the capacitance retention was 96.3%
molecular heterojunction to fabricate a flexible asym- after 10,000 charge/discharge cycles (Figure 11C), achieving
metric supercapacitor based on PVA/sulfuric acid the dual utilization of the high chemical reactivity and
hydrogel electrolyte, this flexible supercapacitor is based pseudocapacitance properties of lignosulfonates on the
on idt@rGo heterojunction positive electrode and positive and negative electrodes of the asymmetric
Ti3C2Tx MXene (Figure 10D) negative electrode, steps supercapacitor.
as shown Figure 10E,203 due to the rational construction Transition metal oxides can be used in electrodes for
of graphene and hetero molecules and the selection of supercapacitors due to their excellent pseudocapacitive
MXene film as the paired negative electrode, which properties, but their poor electrical conductivity has
increases the electrode capacity and widens the as- hindered the study of high specific capacitance.206,207 In
sembled asymmetric supercapacitor, can output 1.6 V 2021, Mahmood et al.208 reported a new MnO2/MXene
and high capacitance of 60 F/g for the whole device, composite to overcome the bottleneck of MXene stacking
reaching 17 Wh/kg at a power density of up to 8 kW/kg, and poor metal oxide conductivity by introducing sub‐
and also has excellent multiplicity performance. The 50 nm thick MnO2 nanowires (NWR) into the interior of
device also offers excellent multiplier performance, cycle MXene (Figure 11D), effectively organizing the MXene
stability, and mechanical flexibility. These outstanding stacking and the new super. The surface area of the
performances offer brighter prospects for the future of capacitors was also increased, with specific requirements
smart and wearable devices. for the thickness of the NWR, which was to ensure that
Jiang et al.34 designed a fully pseudocapacitive the introduction of MXene could be adjusted in a
asymmetric supercapacitor (Figure 10F) by combining controlled manner. A comparison of individual MXene
MXene in an acidic electrolyte with a ruthenium oxide (527.8 F/g), MnO2 (337.5 F/g) and MnO2 (NWR)/MXene
cathode, extending the operating window of the device to electrochemical plots show that the MnO2 (NWR)/
1.5 V, approximately twice that of a symmetric MXene MXene composite (Figure 11E) is the best choice for
supercapacitor. Ti3C2Tx MXene sheets are uniformly supercapacitor electrodes, with the MnO2/MXene
coated with carbon fibers (Figure 10G,H).39 The comple- composite (Figure 11F) being observed to be about
mentary operating site windows of MXene and ruthe- 611.5 F/g. The calculated specific capacity of the
nium oxide and the proton‐induced pseudocapacitance MnO2/MXene composite was about 489.5 C/g at 1 F/
improved the performance of the device. After 20,000 g. The electrode material synthesized from the com-
charge/discharge cycles, the capacitance remains at posite exhibited excellent capacitance retention of
around 86% with very high cycle stability. about 96% over 1000 cycles (Figure 11C). The specific
Liang et al.39 assembled asymmetric supercapacitors capacity of the MnO2/MXene composite was about
by wrapping MXene material on CNTs as the negative 489.5 C/g at 1 A/g. Chen et al.209 used electrochemical
electrode and polybrene on CNT as the positive deposition of MnO2 and MXene on activated CC to
electrode, resulting in devices with voltages up to 1.6 V. synthesize free‐bonded MnO2/MXene/CC composite
The good material performance at high active masses electrodes (Figure 11G). Taking advantage of the
was associated with the application of multifunctional excellent electrical conductivity of MXene and
chelating dispersants for the codispersion of MXene and the excellent pseudocapacitance property of MnO2,
CNT and highly water‐insoluble hydrophilic binders. The the prepared composite electrode could obtain a high
high‐capacitance polybrene cladding on CNT obtained in specific capacitance (411.5 F/g) at a current density of
the complementary site range first had an excellent 1 A/g. The MnO2/MXene/CC composite was used as
performance as a positive electrode, achieving higher the positive electrode and the MXene/CC composite
capacitance at a lower resistance. as the negative electrode to successfully assemble
The surface modification of MXene was also carried an all‐solid‐state flexible asymmetric supercapacitor
out by Ma et al.204 in response to the build‐up problem. The (Figure 11I). The assembled supercapacitor can reach a
P‐Π conjugated structure of the lignosulfonate imparts a voltage of 1.7 V, a power density of 850 W/kg, and an
strong chemical activity and local positive potential to α energy density of 24.3 Wh/kg, making a great contri-
and β carbonyl groups (Figure 11A), which can modify the bution to the preparation of composite electrodes and
F I G U R E 11 (A) Illustration of the fabrication process of the LS modified‐MXene (Ti3C2Tx)‐reduced graphene oxide (rGO) 3D porous
aerogel (MLSG) aerogel negative electrodes and LSG aerogel positive electrodes. (B) Digital images of MLSG‐6 aerogel standing on a flower.
(C) Cycling stability and coulombic efficiency of the asymmetric device over 10,000 cycles in 3 mol/L H2SO4 electrolyte at a current density
of 8 A/g. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021, Elsevier.196 (D) Schematic showing the synthesis of materials and their application
in SCs. (E) Sub‐50 nm MnO2 NWRs, and (F) MXene flakes incorporated with MnO2 NWRs. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021,
American Chemical Society.203 (G) Schematic diagram of the preparation process of the asymmetric supercapacitor. (H) GCD curves of the
device at different current densities. (I) CV curves of the flexible device bent at 0°, 90°, and 180° at the scan rate of 50 mV/s. Reproduced
with permission: Copyright 2020, John Wiley and Sons.205
all‐solid‐state asymmetric supercapacitors with high conductivity, and stability).210–212 In recent years, the
electrochemical performance. synthesis of many different conducting polymers has
Conductive polymers are considered as a class been developed under mild conditions, which greatly
of organic materials with unique advantages,201 includ- expands the possibilities of advancing them into the
ing low cost,204 easy processing,206 compatibility,207 fabrication process of ESD.213–215 For instance, recogniz-
and tunable intrinsic properties (electronics, optics, ing that combining positive materials with negative
F I G U R E 12 (A) Schematic representation of designed all pseudocapacitive asymmetric device in which PANI0.7/MXene and MXene
electrodes serve as the cathode and anode, respectively. (B,C) PANI0.7/MXene film (1.0 mg/cm2). (D) Schematic illustration of the
fabrication process of PANI/MXene inks. (E) Schematic diagram of ion and electron transport pathway in the PANI/MXene film electrode.
Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021, Elsevier.11 (F) Schematic illustration for the synthesis of the Ti3C2/FeOOH hybrid films.
(G) HRTEM image of the Ti3C2/Fe‐15% hybrid nanosheet. (H) Cycling stability of Ti3C2/Fe‐15% electrode at 4 mA/cm2, the inset shows the
GCD curves before and after 5000 cycles. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2019, Elsevier.216
MXene to design asymmetric devices can widen the film materials, providing an incredible energy density of up
operating voltage window, Wang et al.11 embedded to 65.6 Wh/L (1687.3 W/L).
small‐sized PANI nanoparticles into the MXene inter- Zhao et al.216 designed Ti3C2/FeOOH quantum dots
layer to prepare dense PANI/MXene thin‐film electrodes (QDs) hybrid films by a simple electrostatic selfassembly
(Figure 12A,D,E) and developed functional PANI/MXene method, in which amorphous FeOOH QDs not only act
inks to prepare composite films on a large scale. The as a barrier to Ti3C2 nanosheet repacking (Figure 12F),
prepared electrodes have a combination of MXene but also provide considerable capacitance as an active
nanosheet dispersion (Figure 12B), binding, conductivity, material. The surface capacitance of Ti3C2/FeOOH QDs
and a flexible substrate for PANI nanoparticles hybrid films (485 mF/cm2) was 2.3 times higher than that
(Figure 12C). Meanwhile, PANI nanoparticles can be used of the pure Ti3C2 film (Figure 12G), with good cycling
not only as high pseudocapacitive materials but also as stability in a neutral electrolyte (94.8% capacitance over
interlayer conductive column assemblies to reduce MXene 5000 cycles) (Figure 12H). And the asymmetric device
stacking and achieve electron and ion transport, resulting with an output potential difference of 1.6 V was made by
in a good synergistic effect. In addition, the assembled using the hybrid film as the negative electrode and MnO2
asymmetric devices consist of fully pseudocapacitive dense on CC as the positive electrode. The maximum energy
F I G U R E 13 (A) Schematic diagram for the fabrication of MXene‐bonded AC films, including mixing MXene flakes and AC particles in
water, vacuum‐assistant filtration, peeling off, and drying. (B) Cyclic performance at 10 A/g. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2018,
American Chemical Society.217 (C,D) Cross‐section SEM images of 3D porous MXene‐rGO‐20 film. (E) Long‐term cycle performance at
100 A/g of MXene‐rGO‐20 with the charge–discharge curves at different cycles in the inset. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021,
Elsevier.218
density of the device was 40 µWh/cm2 and the maximum 57.9% in 100 A/g organic electrolytes (Figure 13B), which
power density was 8.2 mW/cm2, and the capacitance is necessary for the development of high‐performance
retention after 3000 cycles was 82%. flexible supercapacitors.
Miao et al.218 prepared a flexible 3D porous MXene
film by introducing GO into the MXene film followed by
4.2.3 | Flexibility supercapacitors self‐propagation reduction (Figure 13C). The self‐
propagation process is simple and effective, taking only
The preparation of active electrode materials for flexible 1.25 s to complete, and forms a three‐dimensional porous
SCs using MXene materials as substrates has become a skeleton through the instantaneous release of secondary
hot research topic in recent years. Yu et al.217 reported gases. The MXene‐rGO films (Figure 13D) exhibit
a strategy for using two‐dimensional Ti3C2Tx MXene as a excellent capacitive and multiplicative properties as the
flexible, conductive, and electrochemically active binder three‐dimensional porous structure provide a large
in a one‐step process to prepare MXene bound activated number of ion‐accessible active centers, facilitating rapid
carbon as a flexible electrode for supercapacitors in ion transport. At 20% rGO content, the MXene‐rGO‐20
organic electrolytes (Figure 13A). In this electrode, film has a capacitance of 329.9 F/g at 5 mV/s in a 3‐mol/L
activated carbon particles are encapsulated between H2SO4 electrolyte and 260.1 F/g at 1000 mV/s and has
MXene layers without the need for an insulating polymer good flexibility. In addition, the initial capacitance
binder. MXene plays a multifunctional role in the remained above 90% after 40,000 cycles at 100 A/g
electrode, including as a binder, flexible backbone, (Figure 13E), demonstrating good cycling stability. This
conductive additive, and additional active material. The study not only provides high‐performance flexible
synergistic effect of MXene and activated carbon forms a electrodes for SCs, but the self‐propagation reduction
three‐dimensional conductive network, increasing the method offers an efficient and time‐saving strategy for
MXene layer spacing and greatly improving the electrode building 3D structures using 2D materials.
capacitance and multiplicity capacity. The results show Wang and colleagues219 successfully prepared HHK‐
that the specific capacity of the MXene bonded flexible CC@Ti3C2Tx (HHK‐CC = activated CC, TX = −F, =O or
activated carbon electrode is up to 126 F/g in 0.1 and −OH) electrode materials by a drop coating method
100 A/g organic electrolytes, with a retention rate of (Figure 14A,B) and studied the effect of loading on the
F I G U R E 14 (A) SEM image of HHK‐CC. (B) Synthesis schematic representation of the HHK‐CC@Ti3C2Tx‐X (X¼ 1, 2, 3, and 4).
(C) Pictures of the prepared symmetric supercapacitor under bending or twisting. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2020, John Wiley
and Sons.220 (D) MnO2/MXene/CC composite. (E) Ragone diagram of the supercapacitor and some other devices from previous literature for
comparison. (F) Cycle performance of the device for 10,000 cycles. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2019, Elsevier.221
electrical properties. At a loading of 3 mg/cm3, HHK‐ performance of the new electrode was improved with
CC@Ti3C2Tx had the best electrical properties and the excellent rate performance (Figure 14E) (when the current
capacitance retention could still reach 97.6%. The flexible was increased from 1 to 5 A/g, 60.3% of the capacitance is
solid electrode was assembled and had a capacitance still retained), good cycling stability (after 10,000 cycles, the
value of 413 mF/cm2 at a current density of 0.5 mA/cm2 capacitance only drops to 83%) (Figure 14F), and the
and the capacitance value did not change significantly in supercapacitor prepared from the new electrode also has
180° bending conditions, demonstrating the stability and good flexibility (bending at 180°, the performance remains
flexibility of the electrode material (Figure 14C). The largely unchanged).
capacitance retention rate was 94.2% and an energy In 2020, Zheng et al.223 used a novel and facile vapor
density of 0.0045 mWh/cm2 was obtained at a power phase polymerization (VPP) and spraying strategy for the
density of 0.779 W/cm2. In the same year, Li et al.220 surface of fibers on the construction of laminates
presented a unique composite material consisting of containing PEDOT films and Ti3C2Tx MXene sheets
uniformly grown multiwalled carbon nanotubes (Figure 15A–K). The prepared PEDOT/MXene decorated
(MWCNTs) on CC supported MXene sheets (noted as cotton fabrics exhibit excellent electrochemical propert-
MWCNTs‐MXene@CC). MWCNTs‐MXene@CC exhib- ies, Joule heating properties, good electromagnetic
ited a synergistic combination of exfoliated large specific interference (EMI) shielding, and strain sensing propert-
surface area and excellent electrical conductivity. The ies. This provides a new strategy for the structural design
specific capacitance of the electrodes was 114.58 mF/cm2 of multifunctional textiles and lays the foundation for the
at a discharge current of 1 mA/cm2, while high retention development of multifunctional wearable electronics.
was maintained after 1.6 × 104 cycles at 10 mA/cm2. This The selfstacking of MXene nanosheets seriously affects
high‐performance composite structure is attributed to the their rate performance and mass loading. To solve this
good interlayer and intergranular conductivity of the problem, Fan et al.224 doped Fe(OH)3 nanoparticles with
grown MWCNTs, which also act as interlayer pillars for diameters of 3–5 nm into MXene films and then dissolved Fe
the MWCNTs, thus preventing the spontaneous collapse (OH)3 nanoparticles, followed by low‐temperature calcina-
of the MWCNTs. tion at 200°C to obtain highly interconnected nanopore
Zhou et al.221 designed a highly flexible self‐supporting channels, thus without affecting their ultrahigh density
electrode (MnO2/MXene/CC electrode [Figure 14D]) based effectively facilitating ion transport, resulting in the prepara-
on a CC composite of MnO2 nanorods and MXene and tion of a free‐standing, flexible modified nanoporous MXene
compared with MnO2 nanopins,222 the electrochemical film. The results show that the modified nanoporous MXene
film has good bulk capacitance (1142 F/cm3 at 0.5 A/g) and from the interaction forces between MXene and CNT,
good multiplicative properties (828 F/cm3 at 20 A/g). Fur- the CNT was able to disperse the insert well into the
thermore, it even exhibits a high bulk capacitance of 749 F/ MXene nanosheets, forming a mesh‐like labyrinth‐like
cm3 and good flexibility under a high‐quality load of three‐dimensional channel (Figure 16A). This three‐
11.2 mg/cm2. Thus, this flexible, self‐supporting nanoporous dimensional continuous MXene‐CNT nanostructure
MXene film is a promising electrode material for portable, (Figure 16B) exploits the hydrophilicity of MXene to
compact and flexible memory devices. This study provides improve water permeability and separation, which is a
an effective material design for flexible ESD with high bulk new attempt and breakthrough in the field of water
capacitance and high multiplicity performance even under purification (Figure 16C).235
high‐quality loads. Some typical MXene‐based flexibility Zhang et al.229 reported the benefits of tartaric acid, a
supercapacitors are summarized in Table 4.225–236 natural source, as a nonharmless additive in MXene
composites. In water, most importantly, it inhibits the
oxidation of Ti3C2Tx and firmly binds the components of
4.2.4 | Other supercapacitors the Ti3C2Tx/poly (3,4‐ethylenedioxythiophene): poly-
styrene sulfonate (Ti3C2Tx/PEDOT:PSS) composite
Sun et al.226 assembled multidimensional MXene together (Figure 16E); equally importantly, it increases
CNT ultrathin films by loading MXene inserted into the electronic conductivity of the composite by a factor of
CNT onto tubular ceramic membranes. Benefiting four. At the same time, they fabricated a tartaric
F I G U R E 15 Strain sensing performance of PEDOT/MXene decorated fabrics (PMF as the strain sensors to detect the human motion.
Finger bending and recovering process (A) and (B), wrist bending and recovering process (C) and (D), elbow swing process (E) and (F), knee
bending and recovering process (G) and (H). (I) Preparation of Ti3C2Tx MXene. (J) Fabrication of PMFs. (K) Multiple applications of PMFs
on energy storage, strain sensing, EMI shielding, and joule heating. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021, RSC Pub.223
WANG
AND
WANG
TABLE 4 Summary of main performances of MXene‐based flexibility supercapacitors

Capacity
Materials Rate Specific capacitance Cycle number retention (%) Flexibility References
3
rGO/Ti3C2Tx 1 A/g 370 F/cm 10,000 100 Bending [172]
MXene/rGO (20%) 1000 mV/s 260.1 F/g 40,000 90 Bending/twisting [218]
MXene/CNTs 5 mV/s 74.1 F/g 10,000 86.3 Bending/rolling/folding [225]
CNTs/D‐Ti3C2 5 mV/s 393 F/g 10,000 ≈100 Bending [226]
2 2
MXene/carbon cloth 1 mA/cm 312 mF/cm 8000 97 Folding [227]
2 2
HHK‐CC@Ti3C2Tx 0.5 mA/cm 413 mF/cm 1000 94.2 Bending [219]
MXene/MnO2/CC 5 A/g 511.2 F/g 10,000 83 Bending/rolling/folding [221]
2
MXene/MnO2(NWs) 10 mV/s 216.2 mF/cm 10,000 85 Stretching/bending [228]
MXene/MnO2(NWR) 1 A/g 489.5 F/g 1000 96 Folding/bending [208]
MXene/CoOx‐NiO 1 A/g 1960 F/g 8000 90.2 Bending/folding/twisting [201]
Ti3C2Tx@ PEDOT (1:10) 1 A/g 564 F/g 10,000 96.5 Twisting [229]
2
MXene/PSS: PEDOT 5 mV/s 614.5 F/cm 10,000 95 Stretching [230]
MXene/PPy/PVA 1 A/g 614 F/g 1000 83 Stretching/knotting/twisting/bending [231]
PPy/MXene@Cotton 1 A/g 506.6% 10,000 87 Bending/stretching/folding [232]
2 2
Ti3C2/V2O5 1 mA/cm 477 mF/cm 6000 93 Bending/twisting/folding [233]
MXene/Ni‐Fe 0.2 mA/cm2 328.35 mF/cm2 10,000 90 Bending/folding [234]
|23 of 35
acid‐treated, water stable MXene/PEDOT:PSS conductive integrate MXene into textile‐based supercapacitors
coating for use as electrodes in ultrafast SCs, demon- (TSCs) that significantly improve the area and bulk
strating excellent electrochemical performance and capacitance. For example, asymmetric TSCs were fabri-
cycling stability. cated by pairing MXene/CNT double‐roll yarns with
With the advantages of high‐power density, fast RuO/CNT double‐roll yarns. In this way, the operating
charging and discharging, and long lifetime, micro‐ window in the H2SO4/PVA gel electrolyte was extended
supercapacitors have received a lot of attention for their from 0.6 to 1.6 V, and the maximum energy and power
potential applications in the field of microelectronics and densities obtained were 61.6 MWh·cm (168 and
have made great progress in recent years. Huang et al.236 8.4 μWh·cm) and 5428 mW·cm (14.8 mW·cm and
utilized a low‐cost Ti3C2Tx MXene substrate on a process‐ 741 μW·cm) and excellent flexibility (0°, 90°, 180°
cut‐coat (PCC) fabrication platform for the rapid [Figure 17H–J]).
preparation of MXene‐based electrodes by cold laser
cutting and Xuan coating on a Kapton masked Si/SiO2
substrate (Figure 17A–C). The material has an area and 5 | C O N C L U S I O N S AN D
volume capacitance of 472 and 21.4 F/cm3 and has PERSPEC TIVES
excellent cycling stability with capacitance retention of
more than 87.6% after 10,000 cycles. This study We review recent advances in modified MXenes and
successfully addresses the challenges of weakly con- MXene‐based materials engineering for supercapacitor
nected interfaces and expensive fabrication processes for electrodes, starting with four applications including
silicon‐based micro‐supercapacitors. symmetric supercapacitors, asymmetric supercapacitors,
MXene is well known for its metallic conductivity flexible supercapacitors, and other functional super-
and high bulk capacitance in acidic electrolytes. By capacitors. First, the different synthetic methods, hierar-
incorporating MXene into fibers, a variety of functional chical processing, and rich properties of MXenes are
fiber structures (coated, double rolled, laminated, and introduced. The advantages of supercapacitors over other
integrated) can be created.75,118 The integration of these secondary batteries and how they work are also
fiber sensors into the textile makes the garment “smart”‐ discussed. The focus of this paper is that MXenes are
capable of storing charge (Figure 17E), harvesting expected to become active materials by exploiting their
energy, heating, sensing, and communicating with advantages (e.g., metallic conductivity, excellent hydro-
nearby electronics (Figure 17F).59 Driven by these philicity, rich surface chemistry, etc.) and further process
excellent properties, there are numerous ways to design and doping for better performance, conductive
F I G U R E 16 (A) Fabrication process. (B) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process for the PDA‐modified α‐Al2O3 support. (C)
Rhodamine B permeances and rejections of MCNM‐180 under feed pressures from 1 to 5 bar. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021,
Elsevier.226 (D) Photographs of pr‐MXene dispersion and the aged samples in water (wa‐MXene) and tartaric acid (ta‐MXene) and UV‐vis
spectra for pr‐MXene dispersion, the aged dispersions in water (wa‐MXene), and tartaric acid (ta‐MXene). (E) Structurally stabilized
Ti3C2Tx/PEDOT:PSS composite coating. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2021, Elsevier.229
F I G U R E 17 (A) The detailed manufacturing process of on‐chip Micro‐supercapacitor (MSC). Kapton tape was used as a mask.
(B) Cross‐section SEM image of the MXene electrodes. (C) AFM image of MSC‐10. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2020, Elsevier.236
SEM images showing the surface (D) and (E) cross‐section morphologies of the BMX yarn containing 97.4 wt% MXene.
(F) High‐magnification colored SEM image of the marked section in (E) with enhanced contrast illustrating how the MXene sheets are trapped
within carbon nanotube yarn corridors. (G) SEM image showing a BMX yarn containing 90 wt% MXene tied into a reef knot. (H–J) Photographs
showing the freestanding YSC device under different bending angles. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2018, John Wiley and Sons.59
additives, hosts or substrates, and other multifunctional and hydrogen evolution reactions (Figure 18). Despite
substrates. Researchers are more interested when the significant achievements of MXene materials in
MXenes are designed into several layers or flakes, supercapacitor applications to date, there are still a
especially for the fabrication of MXene‐based materials number of challenges and opportunities for the further
as stand‐alone electrodes, modified layers, and ESD. development of MXene improvements and designs and
Besides attractive electrochemical and mechanical prop- their corresponding devices, some of which are high-
erties, several aspects contribute to this trend: (i) lighted below.
graphene and its derivatives have been widely assembled
into graphene‐based films for energy storage before 2D (1) Materials and film preparation (Figure 19A):
MXenes, paved the way for the exploration of MXenes; Although nearly 30 MXene species have been
(ii) in the past few years, great progress has been made in experimentally synthesized to date and at least 100
the modified synthesis and solution processing of stoichiometric MXene compositions have not been
MXenes, and theories on how to improve their stability fully investigated, only a limited number of MXene
and mechanical properties have also been formed; (iii) have been investigated as building blocks for MXenes
various techniques have emerged for the designable, to date, with more than 70% of them concentrated in
cost‐effective, and large‐scale fabrication of MXenes to the first discovery of Ti3C2Tx. More attempts should
enhance device performance. At present, MXenes have be made with new physical or chemical structured
been widely used in catalysts, ion sieving, photothermal species and compositions. In addition, most of
conversion, field effect transistors, topological insulators, the MXene synthesis routes employed involve
fluorinated compounds in aqueous environments, between fine control and large‐scale fabrication
and it can be a challenging task to achieve MXenes should be well handled. Improved processes or new
with controlled and uniform surface terminations. methods with controllable parameters may help to
However, these terminations are critical for optimiz- achieve this. For example, smart and digital printing
ing the solution process, hybridization, and stability techniques, emerging as a versatile, reproducible,
of MXene nanosheets as well as the performance of scalable, and cost‐effective patterning method, show
the obtained MXene. Moreover, degradation/oxida- great promise for the preparation of MXene for
tion of MXene under humid conditions during the functional devices.
solution process remains a limitation for practical (2) Material improvement design (Figure 19B): Serious
applications. Controlling and modifying the MXene problems such as tortuous and inefficient interlayer
surface under mild conditions during MXene syn- nanochannels and reduced active surfaces due to the
thesis and film preparation may be beneficial to selfstacking of MXene nanosheets remain to be
obtaining monolayer or few‐layer MXenes with solved. Several emerging solutions show great
desirable properties. Further studies are needed to potential to overcome these limitations, including
control the size, number of layers, and atomic defects reduction of sheet size and film thickness, cultivation
of MXenes to fine‐tune the microstructure and of porous structures on MXene surfaces or in thin
chemical properties of the films. On the other hand, films, and insertion of functional spacers. So far,
most thin film preparation methods are not fine MXene intercalation has been performed based on a
enough to precisely control the pore size or interlayer variety of materials, such as CNT, graphene/rGO,
spacing within MXenes, especially when large‐scale polymers, and QDs. Sheet size tuning, in‐plane pore
preparation is required. Therefore, the trade‐off engineering, and the introduction of three‐dimensional
F I G U R E 18 The growth of the MXenes tree, the absorption of nutrients by the roots (graphene research, MXene improvement,
designability, low sink costs, and large scale), the tree is full of fruits (catalysts, ion sieves, topological insulators, and hydrogen evolution
reactions).
F I G U R E 19 Challenges and prospects of MXenes materials in future energy storage include (A) preparation and precise thin film
synthesis of MXenes materials. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society.45 (B) Improved optimization of
materials including intercalation, doping, and so on. Reproduced with permission: Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society.208
(C) Energy storage of large capacity natural resources, and (D) flexible and wearable electronics.
interconnected networks in multiscale fibers in laminar properties. Most of the reported ones are proposed
structures are relatively effective but need to be further for flexible devices in future applications of portable
developed. In addition, finely designed pores with high and wearable electronic devices (Figure 19D). There-
density and subprecision can create favorable structural fore, it is important to improve the electrochemical
and chemical microenvironments, improve ion trans- properties of materials while maintaining their
port, and bring more exposed active sites for fast redox mechanical properties such as flexibility, strength
reactions, which deserve further investigation. In and toughness. Finally, MXenes with high weight
addition, ultrathin films and simulations based on a capacity/capacitance fabricated and tested in the
single or few layers of MXene can be used to laboratory typically have low mass loading (mg/cm2)
experimentally and theoretically investigate the effect and/or low vibronic density (g/cm3), resulting in
of structure on ion diffusion within MXene‐based mediocre area and/or bulk properties. When target-
materials. ing miniaturized ESD, a rigorous and systematic
(3) Performance improvement and practical applica- study of this aspect would be highly desirable.
tions: In terms of implementing practical applica-
tions, several specific issues need to be addressed. Due to their unique physicochemical properties and
First, how to select high‐performance guest materials typical structural features, MXenes offer a large number
and good applicability of film preparation methods. of new possible applications. To date, various approaches
Currently, most high‐capacity options are randomly to overcome current problems with MXene itself
incorporated into MXenes (Figure 19C), leading to continue to be reported in the energy storage field that
inhomogeneous distribution and ambiguous hetero- will advance the MXene layer improvement design
junction interactions. The construction of fine process and enable further potential applications related
nanocomposite films by reliable and low‐cost meth- to water purification, electromagnetic shielding, sensors,
ods is extremely challenging and requires further and wearable ESD. It can be expected that the continued
exploration of the relationships and interactions rapid development of fundamental understanding and
between MXenes and guest materials. Second, technical processing associated with MXenes will open
how to balance mechanical and electrochemical the door to even more exciting discoveries.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 14. Shi H, Zhang P, Liu Z, et al. Ambient‐stable two‐dimensional

This study was supported by the National Natural titanium carbide (MXene) enabled by iodine etching. Angew
Science Foundation of China (No. 11375136). Chemie. 2021;133(16):8771‐8775.
15. Hwang H, Byun S, Yuk S, Kim S, Song SH, Lee D. High‐rate
electrospun Ti3C2Tx MXene/carbon nanofiber electrodes for
C O N F LI C T S OF IN T E R E ST flexible supercapacitors. Appl Surf Sci. 2021;556(April):149710.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest. 16. Zhang C, McKeon L, Kremer MP, et al. Additive‐free MXene
inks and direct printing of micro‐supercapacitors. Nat
ORCID Commun. 2019;10(1):1‐9.
Yuhua Wang http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8318-2836 17. Li K, Wang X, Wang X, et al. All‐pseudocapacitive
asymmetric MXene‐carbon‐conducting polymer supercapa-
citors. Nano Energy. 2020;75(May):104971.
REFERENCES
18. Li M, Lu J, Luo K, et al. Element replacement approach by
1. Nataf K, Bradley TH. An economic comparison of battery
reaction with Lewis acidic molten salts to synthesize
energy storage to conventional energy efficiency technologies
nanolaminated MAX phases and MXenes. J Am Chem Soc.
in Colorado manufacturing facilities. Appl Energy. 2016;164:
2019;141(11):4730‐4737.
133‐139.
19. Liang Y, Luo X, Weng W, et al. Activated carbon nanotube
2. Wang F, Wu X, Yuan X, et al. Latest advances in
fiber fabric as a high‐performance flexible electrode for solid‐
supercapacitors: from new electrode materials to novel
state supercapacitors. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2021;13
device designs. Chem Soc Rev. 2017;46(22):6816‐6854.
(24):28433‐28441.
3. Zhu L, Zheng D, Wang Z, et al. A confinement strategy for
20. Liu A, Liang X, Ren X, Guan W, Ma T. Recent progress in
stabilizing ZIF‐derived bifunctional catalysts as a benchmark
MXene‐based materials for metal‐sulfur and metal‐air batte-
cathode of flexible all‐solid‐state zinc‐air batteries. Adv
ries: potential high‐performance electrodes. Electro Ener Rev.
Mater. 2018;30(45):1‐8.
2022;5(1):112‐144.
4. Zheng H, Zeng Y, Zhang H, et al. Oxygen vacancy activated 21. Gao Q, Sun W, Ilani‐Kashkouli P, et al. Tracking ion
Bi2O3 nanoflowers as a high‐performance anode for rechargeable intercalation into layered Ti3C2 MXene films across length
alkaline battery. J Power Sources. 2019;433(June):126684. scales. Energy Environ Sci. 2020;13(8):2549‐2558.
5. He X, Zhang H, Zhao X, et al. Stabilized molybdenum 22. Sun L, Fu Q, Pan C. Hierarchical porous “skin/skeleton”‐like
trioxide nanowires as novel ultrahigh‐capacity cathode for MXene/biomass derived carbon fibers heterostructure for
rechargeable zinc ion battery. Adv Sci. 2019;6(14):2‐9. self‐supporting, flexible all solid‐state supercapacitors.
6. Divya KC, Østergaard J. Battery energy storage technology J Hazard Mater. 2021;410:124565.
for power systems‐an overview. Electr Power Syst Res. 23. Ghidiu M, Lukatskaya MR, Zhao MQ, Gogotsi Y, Barsoum MW.
2009;79(4):511‐520. Conductive two‐dimensional titanium carbide “clay” with high
7. Zhou J, Zhang S, Zhou YN, et al. Biomass‐derived carbon volumetric capacitance. Nature. 2015;516(7529):78‐81.
materials for high‐performance supercapacitors: current 24. Shao B, Liu Z, Zeng G, et al. Two‐dimensional transition
status and perspective. Electrochem Energy Rev. 2021;4(2): metal carbide and nitride (MXene) derived quantum dots
219‐248. (QDs): synthesis, properties, applications and prospects.
8. Wang G, Zhang L, Zhang J. ChemInform abstract: a review J Mater Chem A. 2020;8(16):7508‐7535.
of electrode materials for electrochemical supercapacitors. 25. Zhu Y, Rajouâ K, Le Vot S, Fontaine O, Simon P, Favier F.
Chem Soc Rev. 2011;41(2):797‐828. Modifications of MXene layers for supercapacitors. Nano
9. Shan H, Qin J, Ding Y, et al. Controllable heterojunctions Energy. 2020;73(June 2019):104734.
with a semicoherent phase boundary boosting the potassium 26. Zheng W, Halim J, Sun ZM, Rosen J, Barsoum MW.
storage of CoSe2/FeSe2. Adv Mater. 2021;33(37):1‐12. MXene—manganese oxides aqueous asymmetric super-
10. Zhang C, Ma Y, Zhang X, et al. Two‐dimensional transition capacitors with high mass loadings, high cell voltages and
metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes): synthesis, properties, slow self‐discharge. Energy Storage Mater. 2021;38(Janu-
and electrochemical energy storage applications. Energy ary):438‐446.
Environ Mater. 2020;3(1):29‐55. 27. Xiang Z, Shi Y, Zhu X, Cai L, Lu W. Flexible and
11. Wang Y, Wang X, Li X, et al. Scalable fabrication of waterproof 2D/1D/0D construction of MXene‐based nano-
polyaniline nanodots decorated MXene film electrodes composites for electromagnetic wave absorption, EMI
enabled by viscous functional inks for high‐energy‐density shielding, and photothermal conversion. Nano‐Micro Lett.
asymmetric supercapacitors. Chem Eng J. 2021;405:126664. 2021;13(1):150.
12. Xu X, Zhang Y, Sun H, et al. Progress and perspective: 28. He S, Sun X, Zhang H, Yuan C, Wei Y, Li J. Preparation
MXene and MXene‐based nanomaterials for high‐ strategies and applications of MXene‐polymer composites: a
performance energy storage devices. Adv Electron Mater. review. Macromol Rapid Commun. 2021;42:1‐48.
2021;7(7):1‐16. 29. Ling Z, Ren CE, Zhao MQ, et al. Flexible and conductive
13. Wang H, Yuan X, Zeng G, et al. Three dimensional graphene MXene films and nanocomposites with high capacitance.
based materials: synthesis and applications from energy Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2014;111:16676‐16681.
storage and conversion to electrochemical sensor and 30. Zhao MQ, Ren CE, Ling Z, et al. Flexible MXene/carbon
environmental remediation. Adv Colloid Interface Sci. nanotube composite paper with high volumetric capacitance.
2015;221:41‐59. Adv Mater. 2015;27:339‐345.
31. Zhang Q, Fu Z, Yu H, Chen S. Nanoplating of a SnO2 thin‐ potential application as surface‐enhanced Raman scattering
film on MXene‐based sponge for stable and efficient solar substrate. ACS Nano. 2017;11:8892‐8900.
energy conversion. J Mater Chem A. 2020;8(16):8065‐8074. 49. Natu V, Pai R, Sokol M, Carey M, Kalra V, Barsoum MW. 2D
32. Cui C, Guo R, Ren E, et al. MXene‐based rGO/Nb2CTx/Fe3O4 Ti3C2Tz MXene synthesized by water‐free etching of Ti3AlC2
composite for high absorption of electromagnetic wave. in polar organic solvents. Chem. 2020;6:616‐630.
Chem Eng J. 2021;405(March 2020):126626. 50. Yang S, Zhang P, Wang F, et al. Fluoride‐free synthesis of
33. Hu M, Li Z, Li G, Hu T, Zhang C, Wang X. All‐solid‐state two‐dimensional titanium carbide (MXene) using a binary
flexible fiber‐based MXene supercapacitors. Adv Mater aqueous system. Angew Chemie‐Int Ed. 2018;57:15491‐
Technol. 2017;2(10):1‐6. 15495.
34. Jiang Q, Kurra N, Alhabeb M, Gogotsi Y, Alshareef HN. All 51. Zhang S, Huang P, Wang J, Zhuang Z, Zhang Z, Han WQ.
pseudocapacitive MXene‐RuO2 asymmetric supercapacitors. Fast and universal solution‐phase flocculation strategy for
Adv Energy Mater. 2018;8(13):1‐10. scalable synthesis of various few‐layered MXene powders.
35. Wen Y, Rufford TE, Chen X, et al. Nitrogen‐doped Ti3C2Tx J Phys Chem Lett. 2020;11:1247‐1254.
MXene electrodes for high‐performance supercapacitors. 52. Yang Y, Hou H, Zou G, et al. Electrochemical exfoliation of
Nano Energy. 2017;38(April):368‐376. graphene‐like two‐dimensional nanomaterials. Nanoscale.
36. Thakur R, Vahidmohammadi A, Smith J, et al. Insights into 2019;11:16‐33.
the genesis of a selective and coke‐resistant MXene‐based 53. Pang J, Mendes RG, Bachmatiuk A, et al. Applications of 2D
catalyst for the dry reforming of methane. ACS Catal. MXenes in energy conversion and storage systems. Chem Soc
2020;10(9):5124‐5134. Rev. 2019;48:72‐133.
37. Shi B, Li L, Chen A, Jen T‐C, Liu X, Shen G. Continuous 54. Wang H, Wu Y, Yuan X, et al. Clay‐inspired MXene‐based
fabrication of Ti3C2Tx MXene‐based braided coaxial zinc‐ion electrochemical devices and photo‐electrocatalyst: state‐of‐
hybrid supercapacitors with improved performance. Nano‐ the‐art progresses and challenges. Adv Mater. 2018;30:1‐28.
Micro Lett. 2022;14(1):1‐10. 55. Hart JL, Hantanasirisakul K, Lang AC, et al. Control of
38. Zhang Z, Yao Z, Zhang X, Jiang Z. 2D carbide MXene under MXenes’ electronic properties through termination and
postetch low‐temperature annealing for high‐performance intercalation. Nat Commun. 2019;10:522.
supercapacitor electrode. Electrochim Acta. 2020;359:136960. 56. Kamysbayev V, Filatov AS, Hu H, et al. Covalent surface
39. Liang W, Zhitomirsky I. MXene‐carbon nanotube composite modifications and superconductivity of two‐dimensional
electrodes for high active mass asymmetric supercapacitors. metal carbide MXenes. Science. 2020;369:979‐983.
J Mater Chem A. 2021;9(16):10335‐10344. 57. Bai Y, Zhou K, Srikanth N, Pang JHL, He X, Wang R.
40. Vahid MA, Liang W, Mojtabavi M, Wanunu M, Beidaghi M. Dependence of elastic and optical properties on surface
2D titanium and vanadium carbide MXene heterostructures terminated groups in two‐dimensional MXene monolayers: a
for electrochemical energy storage. Energy Storage Mater. first‐principles study. RSC Adv. 2016;6:35731‐35739.
2021;41:554‐562. 58. Xu C, Wang L, Liu Z, et al. Large‐area high‐quality 2D
41. Naguib M, Kurtoglu M, Presser V, et al. Two‐dimensional ultrathin Mo2C superconducting crystals. Nat Mater. 2015;14:
nanocrystals produced by exfoliation of Ti3AlC2. Adv Mater. 1135‐1141.
2011;23(37):4248‐4253. 59. Zhang A, Liu R, Tian J, Huang W, Liu J. MXene‐based
42. Ghidiu M, Naguib M, Shi C, et al. Synthesis and characteri- nanocomposites for energy conversion and storage applica-
zation of two‐dimensional Nb4C3 (MXene). Chem Commun. tions. Chem‐A Eur J. 2020;26:6342‐6359.
2014;50(67):9517‐9520. 60. Zhu M, Huang Y, Deng Q, et al. Highly flexible, freestanding
43. Lukatskaya MR, Mashtalir O, Ren CE, et al. Cation supercapacitor electrode with enhanced performance
intercalation and high volumetric capacitance of two‐ obtained by hybridizing polypyrrole chains with MXene.
dimensional titanium carbide. Science. 2013;341:1502‐1505. Adv Energy Mater. 2016;6(21):1600969.
44. Halim J, Lukatskaya MR, Cook KM, et al. Transparent 61. Wang Z, Qin S, Seyedin S, et al. High‐performance biscrolled
conductive two‐dimensional titanium carbide epitaxial thin MXene/carbon nanotube yarn supercapacitors. Small. 2018;
films. Chem Mater. 2014;26(7):2374‐2381. 14(37):1‐9.
45. Xie X, Xue Y, Li L, et al. Surface Al leached Ti3AlC2 as a 62. Yang C, Que W, Yin X, Tian Y, Yang Y, Que M. Improved
substitute for carbon for use as a catalyst support in a harsh capacitance of nitrogen‐doped delaminated two‐dimensional
corrosive electrochemical system. Nanoscale. 2014;6(19): titanium carbide by urea‐assisted synthesis. Electrochim Acta.
11035‐11040. 2017;225:416‐424.
46. Li P, Bu Y, Ai H, Cao Z. Acid‐base behavior study of 63. Zheng J, Pan X, Huang X, et al. Integrated NiCo2‐
glycinamide using density functional theory. J Phys Chem A. LDHs@MXene/rGO aerogel: componential and structural
2004;108:4069‐4079. engineering towards enhanced performance stability of
47. Komen P, Ngamwongwan L, Jungthawan S, Junkaew A, hybrid supercapacitor. Chem Eng J. 2020;396:125197.
Suthirakun S. Promoting electrochemical performance of 64. Xia M, Ning J, Feng X, et al. Ionization‐bombardment
Ti3C2O2 MXene‐based electrodes of alkali‐ion batteries via S assisted deposition of MXene/SiC heterostructure for micro‐
doping: theoretical insight. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. supercapacitor with enhanced sodium storage. Chem Eng J.
2021;13:57306‐57316. 2021;428:131114.
48. Soundiraraju B, George BK. Two‐dimensional titanium 65. Adepu V, Kamath K, Mattela V, Sahatiya P. Laser‐assisted
nitride (Ti2N) MXene: synthesis, characterization, and Gaussian microstructure patterned PDMS encapsulated
Ti3C2Tx(MXene)‐based pressure sensor for object and touch 83. Zhang YZ, Lee KH, Anjum DH, et al. MXenes stretch
detection. IEEE Sens J. 2021;21:16547‐16553. hydrogel sensor performance to new limits. Sci Adv. 2018;
66. Yun J, Echols I, Flouda P, et al. Layer‐by‐layer assembly of 4(6):1‐8.
reduced graphene oxide and MXene nanosheets for wire‐ 84. Verger L, Natu V, Carey M, Barsoum MW. MXenes: an
shaped flexible supercapacitors. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. introduction of their synthesis, select properties, and
2021;13(12):14068‐14076. applications. Trends Chem. 2019;1(7):656‐669.
67. Kim SJ, Koh HJ, Ren CE, et al. Metallic Ti3C2Tx MXene gas 85. Nan J, Guo X, Xiao J, et al. Nanoengineering of 2D MXene‐
sensors with ultrahigh signal‐to‐noise ratio. ACS Nano. based materials for energy storage applications. Small. 2021;
2018;12(2):986‐993. 17(9):1‐20.
68. Zhang L, Liu D, Wu ZS, Lei W. Micro‐supercapacitors 86. Wen Y, Bi S, Hu X, et al. Novel W‐based in‐plane chemically
powered integrated system for flexible electronics. Energy ordered (W2/3R1/3)2AlC (R=Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm and Lu)
Storage Mater. 2020;32(January):402‐417. MAX phases and their 2D W1.33C MXene derivatives.
69. Hou W, Sun Y, Zhang Y, et al. Mixed‐dimensional Carbon. 2021;183:76‐83.
heterostructure of few‐layer MXene based vertical aligned 87. Chen X, Zhu J, Cai J, Zhang Y, Wang X. Nanosheets
MoS2 nanosheets for enhanced supercapacitor performance. assembled layered MXene/MoSe2 nanohybrid positive elec-
J Alloys Compd. 2021;859:157797. trode materials for high‐performance asymmetric super-
70. Zhang Y, Ma C, He W, et al. MXene and MXene‐based capacitors. J Energy Storage. 2021;40(April):102721.
materials for lithium‐sulfur batteries. Prog Nat Sci Mater Int. 88. Feng A, Yu Y, Wang Y, et al. Two‐dimensional MXene Ti3C2
2021;31(4):501‐513. produced by exfoliation of Ti3AlC2. Mater Des. 2017;114:
71. Sinha A, Zhao H, Huang Y, et al. MXene: an emerging 161‐166.
material for sensing and biosensing. TrAC‐Trends Anal 89. Byeon A, Zhao MQ, Ren CE, et al. Two‐dimensional titanium
Chem. 2018;105:424‐435. carbide MXene as a cathode material for hybrid magnesium/
72. Caffrey NM. Effect of mixed surface terminations on the lithium‐ion batteries. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2017;9(5):
structural and electrochemical properties of two‐dimensional 4296‐4300.
Ti3C2T2 and V2CT2 MXenes multilayers. Nanoscale. 2018; 90. Li T, Yao L, Liu Q, et al. Fluorine‐free synthesis of high‐
10(28):13520‐13530. purity Ti3C2Tx (T=OH, O) via alkali treatment. Angew
73. Lipatov A, Lu H, Alhabeb M, et al. Elastic properties of 2D Chemie. 2018;130(21):6223‐6227.
Ti3C2Tx MXene monolayers and bilayers. Sci Adv. 2018;4(6): 91. Alhabeb M, Maleski K, Mathis TS, et al. Selective etching of
1‐8. silicon from Ti3SiC2 (MAX) to obtain 2D titanium carbide
74. Hantanasirisakul K, Gogotsi Y. Electronic and optical (MXene). Angew Chemie‐Int Ed. 2018;57(19):5444‐5448.
properties of 2D transition metal carbides and nitrides 92. Meshkian R, Näslund LÅ, Halim J, Lu J, Barsoum MW,
(MXenes). Adv Mater. 2018;30(52):1‐30. Rosen J. Synthesis of two‐dimensional molybdenum carbide,
75. Wu CW, Unnikrishnan B, Chen IWP, Harroun SG, Mo2C, from the gallium based atomic laminate Mo2Ga2C. Scr
Chang HT, Huang CC. Excellent oxidation resistive MXene Mater. 2015;108:147‐150.
aqueous ink for micro‐supercapacitor application. Energy 93. Halim J, Kota S, Lukatskaya MR, et al. Synthesis and
Storage Mater. 2020;25(May):563‐571. characterization of 2D molybdenum carbide (MXene). Adv
76. Li Z, Guo D, Wang D, Sun M, Sun H. Exploration of metal/ Funct Mater. 2016;26(18):3118‐3127.
Ti3C2 MXene‐derived composites as anode for high‐ 94. Wan X, Vishwanath A, Savrasov SY. Computational design of
performance zinc‐ion supercapacitor. J Power Sources. axion insulators based on 5d spinel compounds. Phys Rev
2021;506(January):230197. Lett. 2012;108(14):1‐5.
77. Zhang J, Seyedin S, Qin S, et al. Fast and scalable wet‐ 95. Naguib M, Halim J, Lu J, et al. New two‐dimensional
spinning of highly conductive PEDOT:PSS fibers enables niobium and vanadium carbides as promising materials for
versatile applications. J Mater Chem A. 2019;7(11):6401‐ Li‐ion batteries. J Am Chem Soc. 2013;135(43):15966‐15969.
6410. 96. Yang J, Naguib M, Ghidiu M, et al. Two‐dimensional Nb‐
78. Deng Y, Shang T, Wu Z, et al. Fast gelation of Ti3C2Tx MXene based M4C3 solid solutions (MXenes). J Am Ceram Soc.
initiated by metal ions. Adv Mater. 2019;31(43):1‐7. 2016;99(12):660‐666.
79. Feng X, Ning J, Wang B, et al. Functional integrated 97. Zhou J, Zha X, Chen FY, et al. A two‐dimensional zirconium
electromagnetic interference shielding in flexible micro‐ carbide by selective etching of Al3C3 from nanolaminated
supercapacitors by cation‐intercalation typed Ti3C2Tx Zr3Al3C5. Angew Chemie‐Int Ed. 2016;55(16):5008‐5013.
MXene. Nano Energy. 2020;72:104741. 98. Zhou J, Zha X, Zhou X, et al. Synthesis and electrochemical
80. Kuang P, Low J, Cheng B, Yu J, Fan J. MXene‐based properties of two‐dimensional hafnium carbide. ACS Nano.
photocatalysts. J Mater Sci Technol. 2020;56:18‐44. 2017;11(4):3841‐3850.
81. Wang R, Luo S, Xiao C, et al. MXene‐carbon nanotubes layer‐ 99. Lai J, Chao Y, Zhou P, et al. One‐pot seedless aqueous design
by‐layer assembly based on‐chip micro‐supercapacitor with of metal nanostructures for energy electrocatalytic applica-
improved capacitive performance. Electrochim Acta. 2021; tions. Electrochem Energy Rev. 2018;1(4):531‐547.
386:138420. 100. Seyedin S, Uzun S, Levitt A, et al. MXene composite and
82. Abdelmalak MN. MXenes: A New Family of Two‐Dimensional coaxial fibers with high stretchability and conductivity for
Materials and Its Application as Electrodes for Li‐ion Batteries. wearable strain sensing textiles. Adv Funct Mater. 2020;
Dissertation. Drexel University; 2014 (April):98‐107. 30(12):1‐11.
101. Geng X, Zhang Y, Jiao L, et al. Bioinspired ultrastable lignin 118. Mashtalir O, Lukatskaya MR, Kolesnikov AI, et al. The effect of
cathode via graphene reconfiguration for energy storage. hydrazine intercalation on the structure and capacitance of 2D
ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2017;5(4):3553‐3561. titanium carbide (MXene). Nanoscale. 2016;8(17):9128‐9133.
102. Huang K, Li Z, Lin J, Han G, Huang P. Correction: two‐ 119. Li Z, Wang L, Sun D, et al. Synthesis and thermal stability of
dimensional transition metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes) two‐dimensional carbide MXene Ti3C2. Mater Sci Eng B Solid‐
for biomedical applications (Chemical Society Reviews State Mater Adv Technol. 2015;191(C):33‐40.
(2018) 47 (5109‐5124) 10.1039/C7CS00838D). Chem Soc Rev. 120. Ghassemi H, Harlow W, Mashtalir O, et al. In situ
2018;47(17):6889. environmental transmission electron microscopy study of
103. Alhabeb M, Maleski K, Mathis TS, et al. Selective etching of oxidation of two‐dimensional Ti3C2 and formation of carbon‐
silicon from Ti3SiC2 (MAX) to obtain 2D titanium carbide supported TiO2. J Mater Chem A. 2014;2(35):14339‐14343.
(MXene). Angew Chemie. 2018;130(19):5542‐5546. 121. Anasori B, Lukatskaya MR, Gogotsi Y. 2D metal carbides and
104. Uzun S, Han M, Strobel CJ, et al. Highly conductive and nitrides (MXenes) for energy storage. Nat Rev Mater. 2017;
scalable Ti3C2Tx‐coated fabrics for efficient electromagnetic 2(2):16098.
interference shielding. Carbon. 2021;174:382‐389. 122. Xiong D, Shi Y, Yang HY. Rational design of MXene‐based
105. Chen JH, Jang C, Xiao S, Ishigami M, Fuhrer MS. Intrinsic films for energy storage: progress, prospects. Mater Today.
and extrinsic performance limits of graphene devices on 2021;46(12):183‐211.
SiO2. Nat Nanotechnol. 2008;3(4):206‐209. 123. Zha XH, Huang Q, He J, et al. The thermal and electrical
106. Wang J, Wu Z, Hu K, Chen X, Yin H. High conductivity properties of the promising semiconductor MXene Hf2CO2.
graphene‐like MoS2/polyaniline nanocomposites and its Sci Rep. 2016;6(June):1‐10.
application in supercapacitor. J Alloys Compd. 2015;619: 124. Zha XH, Yin J, Zhou Y, et al. Intrinsic structural, electrical,
38‐43. thermal, and mechanical properties of the promising
107. Wang Y, Li Y, Qiu Z, et al. Fe3O4@Ti3C2 MXene hybrids with conductor Mo2C MXene. J Phys Chem C. 2016;120(28):
ultrahigh volumetric capacity as an anode material for 15082‐15088.
lithium‐ion batteries. J Mater Chem A. 2018;6(24):11189‐ 125. Wang Z, Li X, Xuan C, Li J, Jiang Y, Xiao J. Photo‐synergetic
11197. nitrogen‐doped MXene/reduced graphene oxide sandwich‐
108. Dillon AD, Ghidiu MJ, Krick AL, et al. Highly conductive like architecture for high‐performance lithium‐sulfur batte-
optical quality solution‐processed films of 2D titanium ries. Int J Energy Res. 2021;45(2):2728‐2738.
carbide. Adv Funct Mater. 2016;26(23):4162‐4168. 126. Hu L, Cui Y. Energy and environmental nanotechnology in
109. Lipatov A, Loes MJ, Lu H, et al. Quasi‐1D TiS3 nanoribbons: conductive paper and textiles. Energy Environ Sci. 2012;5(4):
mechanical exfoliation and thickness‐dependent Raman 6423.
spectroscopy. ACS Nano. 2018;12(12):12713‐12720. 127. Khomenko V, Raymundo‐Piñero E, Béguin F. Optimisation
110. Borysiuk VN, Mochalin VN, Gogotsi Y. Molecular dynamic of an asymmetric manganese oxide/activated carbon capaci-
study of the mechanical properties of two‐dimensional tor working at 2V in aqueous medium. J Power Sources.
titanium carbides Tin+1Cn (MXenes). Nanotechnology. 2006;153(1):183‐190.
2015;26(26):1‐10. 128. Naguib M, Mochalin VN, Barsoum MW, Gogotsi Y. 25th
111. Zhang CJ, Pinilla S, Mcevoy N, et al. Oxidation stability of anniversary article: MXenes: a new family of two‐
colloidal 2D titanium carbides (MXenes). Chem Mater. 2017; dimensional materials. Adv Mater. 2014;26(7):992‐1005.
29(11):4848‐4856. 129. Li Y, Zhang W, Yang X, Zhang J, Wang Z, Zhu H. A high‐voltage
112. Wang J, Wei X, Wang X, et al. Plasmonic Au nanoparti- and high‐capacity Ti3C2Tx/BiCuS2.5 heterostructure to boost up
cle@Ti3C2Tx heterostructures for improved oxygen evolution the energy density and recyclability of zinc‐ion‐hybrid capacitors.
performance. Inorg Chem. 2021;60(8):5890‐5897. Nano Energy. 2021;87(October 2020):106136.
113. Hu C, Shen F, Zhu D, Zhang H, Xue J, Han X. Characteristics 130. Li Y, Shao H, Lin Z, et al. A general Lewis acidic etching
of Ti3C3X‐chitosan films with enhanced mechanical propert- route for preparing MXenes with enhanced electrochemical
ies. Front Energy Res. 2017;4(JAN):2‐6. performance in non‐aqueous electrolyte. Nat Mater. 2020;
114. Wang K, Zhou Y, Xu W, Huang D, Wang Z, Hong M. 19(8):894‐899.
Fabrication and thermal stability of two‐dimensional carbide 131. Zhang D, Luo M, Yang K, et al. Porosity‐adjustable MXene
Ti3C2 nanosheets. Ceram Int. 2016;42(7):8419‐8424. film with transverse and longitudinal ion channels for
115. Luo J, Wang C, Wang H, et al. Pillared MXene with flexible supercapacitors. Microporous Mesoporous Mater.
ultralarge interlayer spacing as a stable matrix for high 2021;326(159):111389.
performance sodium metal anodes. Adv Funct Mater. 132. Li K, Liang M, Wang H, et al. 3D MXene architectures for
2019;29(3):1‐12. efficient energy storage and conversion. Adv Funct Mater.
116. Fang C, Luo J, Jin C, et al. Enhancing catalyzed decomposi- 2020;30(47):1‐22.
tion of Na2CO3 with Co2MnOx nanowire‐decorated carbon 133. Wan L, Tang Y, Chen L, et al. In‐situ construction of g‐C3N4/
fibers for advanced Na‐CO2 batteries. ACS Appl Mater Mo2CTx hybrid for superior lithium storage with significantly
Interfaces. 2018;10(20):17240‐17248. improved Coulombic efficiency and cycling stability. Chem
117. Wang C, Wang H, Hu X, et al. Frogspawn‐coral‐like hollow Eng J. 2021;410(December 2020):128349.
sodium sulfide nanostructured cathode for high‐rate per- 134. Aslam MK, Niu Y, Xu M. MXenes for non‐lithium‐ion (Na,
formance sodium‐sulfur batteries. Adv Energy Mater. 2019; K, Ca, Mg, and Al) batteries and supercapacitors. Adv Energy
9(5):1‐9. Mater. 2021;11(2):2000681.
135. Zhan X, Si C, Zhou J, Sun Z. MXene and MXene‐based 152. Sun D, Wang M, Li Z, Fan G, Fan LZ, Zhou A. Two‐
composites: synthesis, properties and environment‐related dimensional Ti3C2 as anode material for Li‐ion batteries.
applications. Nanoscale Horiz. 2020;5(2):235‐258. Electrochem Commun. 2014;47:80‐83.
136. Wang Q, Liu J, Tian G, Zhang D. Co@N‐CNT/MXenes in situ 153. Alwarappan S, Nesakumar N, Sun D, Hu TY, Li C‐Z. 2D
grown on carbon nanotube film for multifunctional metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes) for sensors and
sensors and flexible supercapacitors. Nanoscale. 2021;13(34): biosensors. Biosens Bioelectron. 2022;205:113943.
14460‐14468. 154. Zhang K, Sun J, Song J, et al. Self‐healing Ti3C2MXene/
137. He F, Tang C, Liu Y, Li H, Du A, Zhang H. Carbon‐coated PDMS supramolecular elastomers based on small biomole-
MoS2 nanosheets@CNTs‐Ti3C2 MXene quaternary composite cules modification for wearable sensors. ACS Appl Mater
with the superior rate performance for sodium‐ion batteries. Interfaces. 2020;12(40):45306‐45314.
J Mater Sci Technol. 2022;100:101‐109. 155. Kim J, Jang M, Jeong G, et al. MXene‐enhanced β‐phase
138. Sikdar A, Dutta P, Deb SK, et al. Spontaneous three‐ crystallization in ferroelectric porous composites for highly‐
dimensional self‐assembly of MXene and graphene for sensitive dynamic force sensors. Nano Energy. 2021;89(PB):
impressive energy and rate performance pseudocapacitors. 106409.
Electrochim Acta. 2021;391:138959. 156. Wang D, Zhang D, Yang Y, Mi Q, Zhang J, Yu L.
139. Huang X, Huang J, Yang D, Wu P. A multi‐scale structural Multifunctional latex/polytetrafluoroethylene‐based tribo-
engineering strategy for high‐performance MXene hydrogel electric nanogenerator for self‐powered organ‐like MXene/
supercapacitor electrode. Adv Sci. 2021;8(18):1‐9. metal‐organic framework‐derived CuO nanohybrid ammonia
140. Ma G, Shao H, Xu J, et al. Li‐ion storage properties of two‐ sensor. ACS Nano. 2021;15(2):2911‐2919.
dimensional titanium‐carbide synthesized via fast one‐pot 157. Cao J, Sun Z, Li J, et al. Microbe‐assisted assembly of Ti3C2Tx
method in air atmosphere. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):1‐6. MXene on fungi‐derived nanoribbon heterostructures for
141. Yao L, Ju S, Xu T, Yu X. Spatial isolation‐inspired ultrafine ultrastable sodium and potassium ion storage. ACS Nano.
CoSe2 for high‐energy aluminum batteries with improved 2021;15(2):3423‐3433.
rate cyclability. ACS Nano. 2021;15(8):13662‐13673. 158. Peng Y, Lin C, Long L, et al. Charge‐transfer resonance and
142. Wang CY, Zheng ZJ, Feng YQ, Ye H, Cao FF, Guo ZP. electromagnetic enhancement synergistically enabling
Topological design of ultrastrong MXene paper hosted Li MXenes with excellent SERS sensitivity for SARS‐CoV‐2 S
enables ultrathin and fully flexible lithium metal batteries. protein detection. Nano‐Micro Lett. 2021;13(1):52.
Nano Energy. 2020;74(April):104817. 159. Liu P, Sun Y, Zhu C, et al. Neutralization reaction assisted
143. Gao L, Li C, Huang W, et al. MXene/polymer membranes: chemical‐potential‐driven ion transport through layered
synthesis, properties, and emerging applications. Chem titanium carbides membrane for energy harvesting. Nano
Mater. 2020;32(5):1703‐1747. Lett. 2020;20(5):3593‐3601.
144. Yang Q, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Recent progress of MXene‐based 160. Li ZK, Wei Y, Gao X, et al. Antibiotics separation with MXene
nanomaterials in flexible energy storage and electronic membranes based on regularly stacked high‐aspect‐ratio na-
devices. Energy Environ Mater. 2018;1(4):183‐195. nosheets. Angew Chemie‐Int Ed. 2020;59(24):9751‐9756.
145. Liao Y, Qian J, Xie G, et al. 2D‐layered Ti3C2 MXenes for 161. Wang J, Liu Y, Cheng Z, et al. Highly conductive MXene film
promoted synthesis of NH3 on P25 photocatalysts. Appl Catal actuator based on moisture gradients. Angew Chemie‐Int Ed.
B Environ. 2020;273(May):119054. 2020;59(33):14029‐14033.
146. Li T, Yao L, Liu Q, et al. Fluorine‐free synthesis of high‐ 162. Ahn S, Han TH, Maleski K, et al. A 2D titanium carbide
purity Ti3C2Tx (T=OH, O) via alkali treatment. Angew MXene flexible electrode for high‐efficiency light‐emitting
Chemie‐Int Ed. 2018;57(21):6115‐6119. diodes. Adv Mater. 2020;32(23):1‐7.
147. Wan H, Liu N, Tang J, Wen Q, Xiao X. Substrate‐ 163. Guo Y, Zhang D, Yang Y, et al. MXene‐encapsulated hollow
independent Ti3C2Tx MXene waterborne paint for terahertz Fe3O4 nanochains embedded in N‐doped carbon nanofibers with
absorption and shielding. ACS Nano. 2021;15(8):13646‐ dual electronic pathways as flexible anodes for high‐performance
13652. Li‐ion batteries. Nanoscale. 2021;13(8):4624‐4633.
148. Miao M, Liu R, Thaiboonrod S, et al. Silver nanowires 164. Chen W, Zhang D, Yang K, Luo M, Yang P, Zhou X. MXene
intercalating Ti3C2Tx MXene composite films with excellent (Ti3C2Tx)/cellulose nanofiber/porous carbon film as free‐
flexibility for electromagnetic interference shielding. J Mater standing electrode for ultrathin and flexible supercapacitors.
Chem C. 2020;8(9):3120‐3126. Chem Eng J. 2021;413:127524.
149. Sivasankarapillai VS, Sharma TSK, Hwa K‐Y, Wabaidur SM, 165. Vaghasiya JV, Mayorga‐Martinez CC, Sofer Z, Pumera M.
Angaiah S, Dhanusuraman R. MXene based sensing materi- MXene‐based flexible supercapacitors: influence of an
als: current status and future perspectives. ES Energy organic ionic conductor electrolyte on the performance.
Environ. 2022;15:4‐14. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2020;12(47):53039‐53048.
150. Cheng Y, Ma Y, Li L, et al. Bioinspired microspines for a 166. Wang H, Wang X. Growing nickel cobaltite nanowires
high‐performance spray Ti3C2Tx MXene‐based piezoresistive and nanosheets on carbon cloth with different pseudocapa-
sensor. ACS Nano. 2020;14(2):2145‐2155. citive performance. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2013;5(13):
151. Yang Y, Cao Z, He P, et al. Ti3C2Tx MXene‐graphene 6255‐6260.
composite films for wearable strain sensors featured with 167. Shao Y, El‐Kady MF, Sun J, et al. Design and mechanisms of
high sensitivity and large range of linear response. Nano asymmetric supercapacitors. Chem Rev. 2018;118(18):
Energy. 2019;66(October):104134. 9233‐9280.
168. Yan J, Ren CE, Maleski K, et al. Flexible MXene/graphene 186. Si C, Jin KH, Zhou J, Sun Z, Liu F. Large‐gap quantum spin
films for ultrafast supercapacitors with outstanding volumet- hall state in MXenes: d‐band topological order in a triangular
ric capacitance. Adv Funct Mater. 2017;27(30):1‐10. lattice. Nano Lett. 2016;16(10):6584‐6591.
169. Yan P, Zhang R, Jia J, et al. Enhanced supercapacitive 187. Khazaei M, Arai M, Sasaki T, et al. Novel electronic
performance of delaminated two‐dimensional titanium and magnetic properties of two‐dimensional transition metal
carbide/carbon nanotube composites in alkaline electrolyte. carbides and nitrides. Adv Funct Mater. 2013;23(17):
J Power Sources. 2015;284:38‐43. 2185‐2192.
170. Butler SZ, Hollen SM, Cao L, et al. Progress, challenges, and 188. Deng Z, Jiang H, Hu Y, et al. 3D ordered macroporous
opportunities in two‐dimensional materials beyond gra- MoS2@C nanostructure for flexible Li‐ion batteries. Adv
phene. ACS Nano. 2013;7(4):2898‐2926. Mater. 2017;29(10):1603020.
171. Huang Y, Li H, Wang Z, et al. Nanostructured polypyrrole as 189. Liu Z, Xu J, Chen D, Shen G. Flexible electronics based on
a flexible electrode material of supercapacitor. Nano Energy. inorganic nanowires. Chem Soc Rev. 2015;44(1):161‐192.
2016;22:422‐438. 190. Yoon Y, Lee K, Lee H. Low‐dimensional carbon and MXene‐
172. Wang L, Lin C, Zhang F, Jin J. Phase transformation guided based electrochemical capacitor electrodes. Nanotechnology.
single‐layer β‐Co(OH)2 nanosheets for pseudocapacitive 2016;27(17):172001.
electrodes. ACS Nano. 2014;8(4):3724‐3734. 191. Aïssa B, Ali A, Mahmoud KA, Haddad T, Nedil M. Transport
173. Sohn M, Park E, Yoo BM, Han TH, Park HB, Kim H. Metal‐ properties of a highly conductive 2D Ti3C2Tx MXene/
assisted mechanochemical reduction of graphene oxide. graphene composite. Appl Phys Lett. 2016;109(4):043109.
Carbon. 2016;110:79‐86. 192. Nishide H, Oyaizu K. Toward flexible batteries. Science.
174. Wang Y, Lai W, Wang N, et al. A reduced graphene oxide/ 2008;319(5864):737‐738.
mixed‐valence manganese oxide composite electrode for 193. Naguib M, Mashtalir O, Lukatskaya MR, et al. One‐step
tailorable and surface mountable supercapacitors with high synthesis of nanocrystalline transition metal oxides on thin
capacitance and super‐long life. Energy Environ Sci. sheets of disordered graphitic carbon by oxidation of
2017;10(4):941‐949. MXenes. Chem Commun. 2014;50(56):7420‐7423.
175. Xu S, Wei G, Li J, Han W, Gogotsi Y. Flexible MXene‐graphene 194. Liu C, Springer D, Clifford GD. Performance of an open‐
electrodes with high volumetric capacitance for integrated co‐ source heart sound segmentation algorithm on eight
cathode energy conversion/storage devices. J Mater Chem A independent databases. Physiol Meas. 2017;38(8):1730‐1745.
Mater Energy Sustain. 2017;5(33):17442‐17451. 195. Lipatov A, Alhabeb M, Lukatskaya MR, Boson A, Gogotsi Y,
176. Zou X, Zhou Y, Wang Z, et al. Free‐standing, layered Sinitskii A. MXene materials: effect of synthesis on quality,
graphene monoliths for long‐life supercapacitor. Chem Eng J. electronic properties and environmental stability of individ-
2018;350(18):386‐394. ual monolayer Ti3C2 MXene flakes. Adv Electron Mater.
177. Ahmed B, Anjum DH, Gogotsi Y, Alshareef HN. Atomic 2016;2(12):2016.
layer deposition of SnO2 on MXene for Li‐ion battery anodes. 196. Wen Z, Yeh M‐H, Guo H, et al. Self‐powered textile for
Nano Energy. 2017;34(17):249‐256. wearable electronics by hybridizing fiber‐shaped nanogen-
178. Wen L, Li F, Cheng H. Carbon nanotubes and graphene for erators, solar cells, and supercapacitors. Sci Adv. 2016;2(10):
flexible electrochemical energy storage: from materials to 1‐8.
devices. Adv Mater. 2016;28(22):4306‐4337. 197. Yang F, Chen Y, Tong C, et al. Association mapping of starch
179. Yousaf M, Shi HTH, Wang Y, et al. Novel pliable electrodes for physicochemical properties with starch synthesis‐related
flexible electrochemical energy storage devices: recent progress gene markers in nonwaxy rice (Oryza sativa L.). Mol Breed.
and challenges. Adv Energy Mater. 2016;6(17):1600490. 2014;34(4):1747‐1763.
180. Gogotsi Y. What nano can do for energy storage. ACS Nano. 198. Tang J, Mathis T, Zhong X, et al. Optimizing ion pathway in
2014;8(6):5369‐5371. titanium carbide MXene for practical high‐rate supercapa-
181. Wang X, Shen X, Gao Y, Wang Z, Yu R, Chen L. Atomic‐scale citor. Adv Energy Mater. 2021;11(4):1‐8.
recognition of surface structure and intercalation mechanism 199. Cai C, Zhou W, Fu Y. Bioinspired MXene nacre with
of Ti3C2X. J Am Chem Soc. 2015;137(7):2715‐2721. mechanical robustness for highly flexible all‐solid‐state
182. Su Z, Yang C, Xie B, et al. Scalable fabrication of MnO2 photothermo‐supercapacitor. Chem Eng J. 2021;418(March):
nanostructure deposited on free‐standing Ni nanocone arrays for 129275.
ultrathin, flexible, high‐performance micro‐supercapacitor. 200. Zhang X, Shao B, Guo A, et al. Improved electrochemical
Energy Environ Sci. 2014;7(8):2652‐2659. performance of CoOx‐NiO/Ti3C2Tx MXene nanocomposites
183. Er D, Li J, Naguib M, Gogotsi Y, Shenoy VB. Ti3C2 MXene as by atomic layer deposition towards high capacitance super-
a high capacity electrode material for metal (Li, Na, K, Ca) capacitors. J Alloys Compd. 2021;862:158546.
ion batteries. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2014;6:11173‐11179. 201. Yan J, Ma Y, Zhang C, et al. Polypyrrole‐MXene coated
184. Liu J, Zhang HB, Sun R, et al. Hydrophobic, flexible, and textile‐based flexible energy storage device. RSC Adv.
lightweight MXene foams for high‐performance electromagnetic‐ 2018;8(69):39742‐39748.
interference shielding. Adv Mater. 2017;29(38):1702367. 202. Liu Z, Wang L, Xu Y, Guo J, Zhang S, Lu Y. A
185. Cai D, Huang H, Wang D, et al. High‐performance super- Ti3C2Tx@PEDOT composite for electrode materials of super-
capacitor electrode based on the unique ZnO@Co3O4 core/ capacitors. J Electroanal Chem. 2021;881:114958.
shell heterostructures on nickel foam. ACS Appl Mater 203. Xu Y, Pan B, Li W‐S, Dong L, Wang X, Zhao F‐G. High‐
Interfaces. 2014;6(18):15905‐15912. performance flexible asymmetric supercapacitor paired with
indanthrone@graphene heterojunctions and MXene electro- 221. Zhou H, Lu Y, Wu F, et al. MnO2 nanorods/MXene/CC
des. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2021;13(35):41537‐41544. composite electrode for flexible supercapacitors with en-
204. Ma L, Zhao T, Xu F, You T, Zhang X. A dual utilization hanced electrochemical performance. J Alloys Compd.
strategy of lignosulfonate for MXene asymmetric super- 2019;802:259‐268.
capacitor with high area energy density. Chem Eng J. 222. Jiang H, Wang Z, Yang Q, et al. A novel MnO2/Ti3C2Tx MXene
2021;405(35):126694. nanocomposite as high performance electrode materials for
205. Zhang Y, Cao Z, Liu S, et al. Charge‐enriched strategy flexible supercapacitors. Electrochim Acta. 2018;290:695‐703.
based on MXene‐based polypyrrole layers toward dendrite‐ 223. Zheng X, Shen J, Hu Q, et al. Vapor phase polymerized
free zinc metal anodes. Adv Energy Mater. 2022;12 conducting polymer/MXene textiles for wearable electronics.
(February):2103979. Nanoscale. 2021;13(3):1832‐1841.
206. Zhang YX, Wang YH. Nonlinear optical properties of metal 224. Fan Z, Wang Y, Xie Z, et al. A nanoporous MXene film
nanoparticles: a review. RSC Adv. 2017;7(71):45129‐45144. enables flexible supercapacitors with high energy storage.
207. Yang Z, Li W, Zhang G, et al. Constructing Sb–O–C bond to Nanoscale. 2018;10(20):9642‐9652.
improve the alloying reaction reversibility of free‐standing 225. Zhang P, Zhu Q, Soomro RA, et al. In situ ice template
Sb2Se3 nanorods for potassium‐ion batteries. Nano Energy. approach to fabricate 3D flexible MXene film‐based electrode
2022;93(October 2021):106764. for high performance supercapacitors. Adv Funct Mater.
208. Mahmood M, Rasheed A, Ayman I, et al. Synthesis of ultrathin 2020;30(47):1‐10.
MnO2 nanowire‐intercalated 2D‐MXenes for high‐performance 226. Sun Y, Xu D, Li S, et al. Assembly of multidimensional
hybrid supercapacitors. Energy Fuels. 2021;35(4):3469‐3478. MXene‐carbon nanotube ultrathin membranes with an
209. Chen X, Liu Y, Zhou Q, Su F. Facile synthesis of enhanced anti‐swelling property for water purification.
MnO2/Ti3C2Tx/CC as positive electrode of all‐solid‐state J Memb Sci. 2021;623(January):119075.
flexible asymmetric supercapacitor. Chem Select. 2020;5(46): 227. Ma C, Cao WT, Xin W, Bian J, Ma MG. Flexible and free‐
14768‐14775. standing reduced graphene oxide and polypyrrole coated air‐
210. Forrest SR. The path to ubiquitous and low‐cost organic laid paper‐based supercapacitor electrodes. Ind Eng Chem
electronic appliances on plastic. Nature. 2004;428(6986): Res. 2019;58(27):12018‐12027.
911‐918. 228. Li X, Li H, Fan X, Shi X, Liang J. 3D‐printed stretchable
211. Shi Y, Peng L, Ding Y, Zhao Y, Yu G. Nanostructured micro‐supercapacitor with remarkable areal performance.
conductive polymers for advanced energy storage. Chem Soc Adv Energy Mater. 2020;10(14):1‐12.
Rev. 2015;44(19):6684‐6696. 229. Zhang M, Héraly F, Yi M, Yuan J. Multitasking tartaric‐acid‐
212. Reese C, Roberts M, Ling MM, Bao Z. Organic thin film enabled, highly conductive, and stable MXene/conducting
transistors. Mater Today. 2004;7(9):20‐27. polymer composite for ultrafast supercapacitor. Cell Reports
213. Qin L, Xu J, Lu B, Lu Y, Duan X, Nie G. Synthesis and Phys Sci. 2021;2(6):100449.
electrochromic properties of polyacrylate functionalized poly 230. Zhang J, Seyedin S, Qin S, et al. Highly conductive Ti3C2Tx
(3,4‐ethylenedioxythiophene) network films. J Mater Chem. MXene hybrid fibers for flexible and elastic fiber‐shaped
2012;22(35):18345‐18353. supercapacitors. Small. 2019;15(8):1‐9.
214. Lu JJ, Fu L, Tang Z, et al. Poly(3,4‐dioxythiophene) soft 231. Zhang W, Ma J, Zhang W, et al. A multidimensional
nano‐network with a compatible ion transporting channel nanostructural design towards electrochemically stable and
for improved electrochromic performance. Polym Chem. mechanically strong hydrogel electrodes. Nanoscale.
2016;7(45):6954‐6963. 2020;12(12):6637‐6643.
215. Kim J, You J, Kim E. Flexible conductive polymer patterns 232. Yang L, Lin F, Zabihi F, Yang S, Zhu M. High specific
from vapor polymerizable and photo‐cross‐linkable EDOT. capacitance cotton fiber electrode enhanced with PPy and
Macromolecules. 2010;43(5):2322‐2327. MXene by in situ hybrid polymerization. Int J Biol Macromol.
216. Zhao K, Wang H, Zhu C, Lin S, Xu Z, Zhang X. Free‐standing 2021;181:1063‐1071.
MXene film modified by amorphous FeOOH quantum dots for 233. Zhang Z, Guo M, Tang Y, et al. High areal capacitance of
high‐performance asymmetric supercapacitor. Electrochim Acta. vanadium oxides intercalated Ti3C2 MXene for flexible
2019;308:1‐8. supercapacitors with high mass loading. Nanotechnology.
217. Yu L, Hu L, Anasori B, et al. MXene‐bonded activated carbon 2020;31(16):0‐16.
as a flexible electrode for high‐performance supercapacitors. 234. Zhang M, Zhou J, Yu J, et al. Mixed analogous hetero-
ACS Energy Lett. 2018;3(7):1597‐1603. structure based on MXene and prussian blue analog
218. Miao J, Zhu Q, Li K, Zhang P, Zhao Q, Xu B. Self‐propagating derivative for high‐performance flexible energy storage.
fabrication of 3D porous MXene‐rGO film electrode for high‐ Chem Eng J. 2020;387:123170.
performance supercapacitors. J Energy Chem. 2021;52: 235. Hojjati‐Najafabadi A, Mansoorianfar M, Liang T, et al.
243‐250. Magnetic‐MXene‐based nanocomposites for water and was-
219. Wang L, Shao D, Guo J, Zhang S, Lu Y. A MXene‐coated tewater treatment: a review. J Water Process Eng. 2022;47
activated carbon cloth for flexible solid‐state supercapacitor. (February):102696.
Energy Technol. 2020;8(3):1‐8. 236. Huang H, He J, Wang Z, et al. Scalable, and low‐cost treating‐
220. Li H, Chen R, Ali M, Lee H, Ko MJ. In situ grown MWCNTs/ cutting‐coating manufacture platform for MXene‐based on‐
MXenes nanocomposites on carbon cloth for high‐performance chip micro‐supercapacitors. Nano Energy. 2020;69(November
flexible supercapacitors. Adv Funct Mater. 2020;30(47):2002739. 2019):104431.
AUTH OR BI OGRAPH IES Technology, Wuhan University. In 2011, he went to

International Center for Theoretical Physics (ICTP,
Yitong Wang received her bachelor from Italy) as research fellow. In the same year, he worked
Heibei Normal University in 2021. She is at the Optical Center of the Department of Physics,
currently a PhD student of Prof. Yuhua University of New Mexico (USA) for postdoctoral
Wang at the Wuhan University of Science research. The main research direction is the explora-
and Technology. Her research interests tion and development of energy and environmental
include the growth nucleation mechanism materials.
of nanomaterials and the design of nanomaterials.
Yuhua Wang is a professor at the

School of Science, Wuhan University of How to cite this article: Wang Y, Wang Y.
Science and Technology. He received his Recent progress in MXene layers materials for
BS in 2001 from School of Physics, supercapacitors: high‐performance electrodes.
Henan Normal University, and his PhD SmartMat. 2023;4:e1130. doi:10.1002/smm2.1130
in 2007 from School of Physics and

SmartMat - 2022 - Wang - Recent Progress in MXene Layers Materials For Supercapacitors High Performance Electrodes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

SmartMat - 2022 - Wang - Recent Progress in MXene Layers Materials For Supercapacitors High Performance Electrodes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Received: 16 March 2022 | Revised: 5 April 2022 | Accepted: 7 April 2022

Recent progress in MXene layers materials for

Yitong Wang | Yuhua Wang

Hubei Province Key Laboratory of

1 | INTRODUCTION development of smart electronics.1–5 Although batteries

SmartMat. 2023;4:e1130. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/smm2 | 1 of 35

development directions for the next generation of high‐ 2 | S Y N T H E S I S AN D P R O P E R T I E S

of Ti3C2 containing −OH or −F in Equations (2) and (3).

Gogotsi et al.43 devised a one‐step etching and intercala-

Ti3C2 + 2H2 O = Ti3C2 (OH)2 + H2 , (2)

TABLE 1 Experimental parameters of MXene synthesis

2.2.3 | Hydrophilic room temperature and atmospheric pressure, and it is

to induce MXene and graphene 3D self‐assembly for high‐

TABLE 2 Comparison of supercapacitors, capacitors, and batteries

TABLE 3 Performance indicators for different types of supercapacitors

TABLE 4 Summary of main performances of MXene‐based flexibility supercapacitors

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 14. Shi H, Zhang P, Liu Z, et al. Ambient‐stable two‐dimensional

AUTH OR BI OGRAPH IES Technology, Wuhan University. In 2011, he went to

Yuhua Wang is a professor at the

You might also like