| —— Ietechanical engineering is the discipline that applies engineering physics. engineerin; ‘es, and materials science principles to design, analyzp, manufacture, and maintain mechanical systems, Its one rence broadest of the engineering disciplines. . ‘The mechanical engineering field requires an understanding of cove areas including mechanic, dynamics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis, and electricity. In addition to these core principles, mechanical engineers use tools such as bomputer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and product life cycle management to design and fnalyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and machinery, heating and cooling systems, transport systems, [aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices, weapons, and others. It is the branch of engineering that involves the design, production, and operation of machinery.{1][2] Mechanical engineering emerged asa ficld during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century; however, its development can be traced back several thousand years around the world. In the i9th century, developments in physies led to the development of nlechanical engineering science. The field has continually evolved to incorporate advancements; today mechnical engineers are pursuing developments in such areas as composites, mechatronics, and nanotechnology. It also overlaps with aerospace engineering, metallurgical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, manufacturing engineering, chemical engineering, industrial engineering, end other enginecring disciplines to varying amounts. Mechahical engineers may also work in the field of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport phenomena, biomechatronies, bionanotechnology, and modelling of biological systems. History Main article: History of methanical engineering ‘The application of mechanibal engineering can be seen in the archives of various ancient and medieval societies. The six classic simple machines wefe known in the ancient Near East. The wedge and the inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times (3] The wheel, along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the Sth millenium BC.[4] The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple balance scale,(5] and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology. [6] The lever was also used in the shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane machine, which eppeared in Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC.[5] The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC.[7] ‘The earliest practical waterjpowered machines, the water wheel and watermill, first appeared in the Persian Empire, in what are now Irag and Iran, by the early th century BC.{8) In ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes (287-212 BC) influenced mechanics in thd Western tradition. In Roman Egypt, Heron of Alexandria (c. 10-70 AD) created the first steam-powered device (Aedfipile),(9] In China, Zhang Heng (78-139 AD) improved a water clock and invented a seismometer, and Ma Jun (200-265 AD) invented a chariot with differential gears. The medieval Chinese horologist and engineer Su Song (1020-111 AD) incorporated an escapemeat mectanism into his astronomical clock tower two centuries before escapement devices were found in medieval European clocks. He also invented the world’s first known endless power-transmitting, hee drive.(10] During the Islamic Golden Age (7th to 15th century), Muslim inventors made remarkable contributions in the field of mechanical technology. Al-Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his famous Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206 and presented many mechanical designs. Al-Jazaci is also the first known person to create devices such as the crankshaft and camsHaft, which now form the basics of many mechanisms.{11] During the 17th century, important breakthroughs in the foundations of mechanical engineering occurred in England. Sir Isaac Newton formulated Newton's Laws of Motion and developed Calculus, the mathematical basis of physics. Newton ‘was reluctant fo publish his|works for years, but he was finally persuaded to do so by his colleagues, such as Sir Edmond Halley, nmch to the benefitlof all mankind, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is also credited with creating Calculus during this time period, {citation needed] During the early 19th centufy industrial revolution, machine tools were developed in Fngland, Germany, and Scotland. This allowed mechanical engineering to develop as a separate field within engineering, They brought with them ‘manufacturing machines anf! the engines to power them.[12] The first British professional society of mechanical engineers was formed in 187 Institution of Mechanical Engineers, thirty years after the civil engineers formed the first such professional society Institution of Civil Engineers,[13] On the European continent, Johann von Zimmermann (1820- 1901) founded the first factory for grinding machines in Chemnitz, Germany in 1848. In the United States, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was formed in 1880, becoming the third ‘such professional engineering society, after the American Society of Civil Engineers (1852) and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871),[1/4] The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States Military Academy in| 1817, an institution now known as Norwich University in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1825. Education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science.[15] Education ' Archimedes’ screw was operated by hand and could efficiently raise water, as the animated red ball deinonstrates. Degrees in mézhanical engineering are offered at various universities worldwide. Mechanical engineering programs typically take four to five ygars of study and result in a Bachelor of Engineering (B-Eng. or B.E.), Bachelor of Science B.Sc. or B.S.), Bachelor of Science Engineering (B.So.Eng.), Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.), Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering (B.M.E.), or Bachelor of Applied Science (B.A. Sc.) degree, in or with emphasis in mechanical engineering,In Spain, Portugal and most name for the degree is "Meck course work is based on five| exam at the end of the cours ‘Diploma’ Thesis, which upot Lesouta America, where neither B.S. nor B.Tech. programs have been edopted, the formal Janicel Engineer", and the course work is based on five or six years of training. In Italy the ears of education, and training, but in order to qualify as an Engineer one has to pass a state Tn Greece, the coursework is based on a five-year curieulum and the requirement of a completion a Diploma’ is awarded rather than a B.Se citation needed] cai United Stats, most unflergraduate mechanical engineering programs are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology) ‘web site lists 302 accredited programs in Canada are acer (ABET) to ensure similar course requirements and standards among universities. The ABET mechanical engineering programs as of 11 March 2014.{16] Mechanical engineering ‘edited by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB),{17] and most other ‘countries offering engineering degrees have similar accreditation societies, fn Australia, mechanical engineering degrees are awarded as Bachelor of Engineering (Mechanical) or similar aomenclature, although ther are an increasing number of specialisations. The degree takes four years of full-time study to achieve. To ensure quality|in engineering degrees, Engineers Australia eccredits engineering degrees awarded by Australian universities in ac must complete at least 3 mo! present in South Aftica and In India, to become an engint dance with the global Weshington Accord, Before the degree can be awarded, the student ths of on the job work experience in an enginsering firm [18] Similar systems are also overseen by the Engineering Council of South A\tica (BCSA). er, one needs to have an engineering degree like a B.Tech or B.E, have a diploma in engineering, or by completing a course in an engineering trade like fitter ftom the Industrial Training Institute (IIs) to receive a "ITI Trade Certifi the National Council of V¢ te" and also pass the All India Trade Test (AJIT) with an engineering trade conducted by jonal Training (NCVT) by which one is awarded a "National Trade Certificate". A similar system is used in Nepal. [citation needed) Some mechanical engineers e on to pursue « postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering, Master of Technology, Master of Sci engineering (Eng.D. or Ph.D)} research. The Doctor of Phil Master of Engineering Management (M.Eng Mgt. or M.E.M.), a Doctor of Philosophy in })or an engineer's degree. The master’s and engineer's degrees may or may not include sophy includes a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia.[19] The Engineer's degree exists at a few institutions at an intermediate level between the master's degree and the doctorate. Coursework Standards set by each country’s accreditation society are intended to provide uniformity in fundamental subject material, promote competence among] Joraduating engineers, and to maintain confidence in the engineering profession as a whole. Engineering programs in the|U'S., for example, are required by ABET to show that their students can "work professionally in both thenn: may differ from program to al and mechanical systems areas."{20] The specific courses required to graduate, however, rogram. Universities and Institutes oftechnology will often combine multiple subjects into a single class or split a subject|into multiple classes, depending on the faculty available and the university's major area(s) of research. The fundamental subjects of ‘mechanical engineering usually include: ‘Mathematics (in particular, galculus, differential equations, and linear algebra) Basic physical sciences (inch Statics and dynamics luding physics and chemistry) Strength of materials and solid mechanics Materials engineering, Com ‘Thermodynamics, heat trans Fuels, combustioa, Internal Fluid mechanics (including Instrumentation and measui yosites fer, energy conversion, and HVAC jombustion engine fluid statics and fluid dynamics) ment ‘Mechanism and Machine a (including kinematics and dynamics) Manufacturing engineering, ‘Vibration, control theory an Hydraulics, and pneumatics Mechatronics, and robotics Engineering design and p Drafting, computer-aided de} Mechanical engineers are al tribology, chemical engine: include multiple semesters differential equations, partial others. Jhnology, or processes control engineering fuct design ‘gn (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)(21](22] ‘o expected to understand and be able to apply basic concepts from chemistry, physics, ing, civil engineering, and electrical engineering, All mechanical engineering programs ‘mathematical classes including calculus, and advanced mathematical concepts including, differential equations, linear algebra, abstract algebra, and differential geometry, among In addition to the core mechhnical engineering curriculum, many mechanical engineering programs offer more specialized programs and classes, such engineering, biomechanics, ‘Most mechanical engineeria problem-solving experiencel 3s control systems, robotics, transport and logistios, eryogenics, fuel technology, automotive bration, optics and others, if a separate department does not exist for these subjects.(23), lp programs also require varying amounts of research or community projects to gain practical Tn the United States itis common for mechanical engineering students to complete one orthis is not typically mandated by interns ing, though more internships while studying, Decal OIG Stine, option. Future work skills(24] research pu innovation [25] Job duties ‘i . Mechanical engineers ceses}ch, design, develop, build, and test mechanical and thermal devices, including tools, engines, and machines. Mechanical engineers typicily do the following: ‘Analyze problems to see how mechanical and thermal devices might help solve the problem. Design or redesign mechanical and thermal devices using analysis and computer-aided design, Develop and test prototypes of devices they design. ‘Analyze the test results and|change the design as needed. (Oversee the mamufacturing process for the device. Mechanical engineers design and oversee the manufécturing of many products ranging from medicel devices to new batteries, They also design power-producing machines such as electric generators, internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines as well as power-using machines, such as refrigeration and air-conditioning systems. Like other enginces,mcoblnical enginers use computers to help create and analyze designs, run simulations and test how a machine is likely to work. License and regulation Engineers may seek license|by a state, provincial, or national government. The purpose of this process is to ensure that engineers possess the necessary technical knowledge, real-world experience, and knowledge of the local legal system to practice engineering at a professional level. Once certified, the engineer is given the ttle of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Bangladesh and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in the United Kingdom, Ireland, India and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engineer (much of the European Union). In the U.S,, to become a licensed Professional Engineer (PE), an engineer must pass the comprehensive FE (Fundamentals of Engineering) exam, work a minimum of 4 years as an Engineering Inte (EI) or Engineer-in-Training (EIT), and pass the "Principles and Practice" or PE (Practicing Engineer or Professional Eagineer) exams. The requirements and steps of tHis process are set forth by the National Council of Examiners for Bngineering and Surveying (NCEES), a composed of eilgineering and land surveying licensing boards representing all U.S. states and territories. the university, Cooperative education is another nts that feed students creativity and In the UK, current graduates require a BEng plus an appropriate master's degree or an integrated MEng degree, a minimum of 4 years post erfduate on the job competency development and a peer reviewed project report to become a Chartered Mechanioal Engineer (CEng, MIMechE) through the Institution of Mechanical Engincers. CEng MiMechE ean also be obtained via an ion route administered by the City and Guilds of London Institute (citation needed] In most developed countries, certain engineering tasks, such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and chemical plants, must be approved by a professional engincer or a chartered engineer. "Only a licensed engineer, for instance, may prepare, sign, seal and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or to seal engineering ‘work for public And private|clients."[26] This requirement can be written into state and provincial legislation, such as in the Canadian provinces, for|example the Ontario or Quebec's Engineer Act,[27] In other countries, such as Australia, and the UK, no such legislation exists; however, practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics inflependent of legislation, that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion. (28) Further information: FE Extm, Professional Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Washington Accord, and Regulation and licensure in engineering Salaries and workforce statistics ‘The total number of enginedrs employed in the U.S. in 2015 was roughly 1.6 million. Of these, 278,340 were mechanical engineers (17.28%), the largest discipline by size.[29] In 2012, the median annual income of mechanical engineers in the ‘U.S. workforce was $80,580. The median income was highest when working for the government ($92,030), and lowest in education ($57,090) [30] In|2014, the total number of mechanical engineering jobs was projected to grow 5% over the next decade[31] As of 2009, the average starting salary was $58,800 with a bachelor’s degree.[32] Subdisciplines | The field of mechanical engineering can be thought of as a collection of many mechanical engineering science disciplines. Several of thesd subdiseiptines which are typically taught at the undergraduate level are listed below, with @ brief explanation and the mpst common application of each. Some of these subdisciplines are unique to mechanical engineering, while others arp a combination of mechanical engineering and one or more other disciplines. Most work that a mechanical engineer does|uses skills and techniques from several of these subdisciplines, as well as specialized subdisciplines. Specialized fubdisciplines, as used in this article, are more likely to be the subject of graduate studies or fete job taining than undergraduate researc. Several specialized subdisiplins are discussed inthis section, fechanics Mobis cizcle, a common topl to study stresses in a mechanical element Main article: Mechanics Mechanics is, in the most general sense, the study of forces and their effect upon matter. Typically, engineering mechanics is used to analyze and predict the acceleration and deformation (both elastic and plastic) of objects under known forces (also called Idads) or stresses. Subdisciplines of mechanics include| seats the sry of nonmping bois under known londs owt free affect sti bodies : Feet moving bodies. Dynamics includes kinemat ent, veloci Bn ony eee gga) he et Gb meron ves ‘Mechanics of materials, the study Lia lire nla deform under various types of stress tuid mechanics, the study|of how fluids reat Scraatin the study or ‘motion of bodies (objects) and systems (groups of objects), while ignoring the forces that ‘cause the motion, Kinemat{es is often used in the design and analysis of mechanisms. a tie lca ned of applying mechanics tht assumes that objects are continuous (ater than discret) ot ee noes iypiglly use mechanies in the design or anlyss phases of engineering, Ifthe engineering project were the design of a vehicle, statics might be employed to design the frame of the vehicle, in order to evaluate where the ‘Wresses will be most intense, Dynamties might be used when designing the car's engine, to evaluate the forces in the ‘ions and cans asthe engine eoles. Mechanios of materials might be used to choose appropriate materials forthe pave and engine. Fluid mvchanies might be used to design a ventilation system forthe vehicle (see HVAC), oF to design the intake system forthe egine ‘Mechatronics and robotics ‘Training FMS with learning robot SCORBOT- Main articles: Mechatronics and Robotics Mechatronics is a combination of mechanics and electronics. It is an interdiseiplinary branch of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and goftware engineering that is concemed with integrating electrical and mechanical engineering to create hybrid systems. ls this way, machines ean be automated through the use of electric motors, servo-mechanisms, and other electrical systems in conjunction with special software. A common example of a mechatronies system is a CD- ROM drive. Mechanical systems open and close the drive, spin the CD and move the laser, while an optical system reads the data on the CD and corlvers it to bts, Integrated software controls the process and communicates the contents of the CD to the computer. Robotics is the application|of mechatronies to create robots, which are often used in industry to perform tasks that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive, These robots may be of any shape and size, but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world. To create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics (to determine the robot's range of motion) and mechanics (to determine the stresses within the robot). Robots are used extensively in industrial engineering. They allow businesses to save money on labor, perform tasks that ‘are either too dangerous or|tco precise for humans to perform them economically, and to ensure better quality. Many ‘companies employ assembly lines of robots, especially in Automotive Industries and some factories are so robotized that they can run by themselves, Outside the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space exploration, and many other fields. Robots fre also sold for various residential applications, ftom recreation to domestic applications. Structural analysis Main articles: Structural ajalysis and Failure analysis Structural analysis is the branch of mechanical engineering (and also civil engineering) devoted to examining why and how objects fail and to ‘ie objects and their performance. Structural feilures occur in two general modes: static failure, and fatigue failure. Static structural failure occurs when, upon being londed (having a force applied) the object being analyzed either breaks or if deformed plastically, depending onthe erterion for allure. Fatigue failure occurs when an object fails after a number pf repeated loading and unloading cycles Fatigue failure occurs because of imperfections in the object: a microscopic okack on the surface of the object, for instance, will grow slightly with each eyele (propagation) until the crack is large enoligh to cause ultimate failure,(34] ailare is not simply defingd as when a pert breaks, however; it is defined as when a part does not operate as intended, Some systems, such as the|perforated top sections of some plastic bags, ae designed to break. Ifthese systems do not break, failure analysis might be employed to determine the cause, Structural analysis is often|used by mechanical engineers after « failure has occurred, or when designing to prevent failure, Engineers often use online documents and books such as those published by ASM(35] to aid them in determining the type of failure and possible causes. Once theory is applied to q mechanical design, physical testing is often performed to verify caleulated results. Structural analysis may be used in an| office when designing parts, in the field to analyze failed parts, or in Inboratories where parts might undergo controlled failure tests. ‘Thermodynamics and therto-science Main article: Thermodynamics ‘Thermodynamics is an applied science used in several branches of engineering, including mechanical and chemical engineering. At its simples, thermodynamics is the study of energy, its use and transformation through # system (36) ‘Typically, engineering thefmodynamics is concemed with changing energy from one form to another. As an example, automotive engines conveit chemical energy (enthalpy) from the fuel into heat, and then into mechanical work that eventually tums the wheel . 4u, workbench CNC Mill and CNC Lathe ‘Thermodynamics principlts are used by mechanical engineers in tho fields of heat transfer, thermofiuids, and energy conversion. Mechanical exgineers use thermo-science to design engines and power plants, heating, ventilation, and air~ conditioning (HVAC) systtms, heat exchangers, heat sinks, radiators, refrigeration, insulation, and others.[37]Design and drafting ACAD model of « mechaifieal double seal Main articles: Technical di Drafting or technical draw manufacturing parts, A tec necessary to manufacture information (38) A U.S. mj swing and CNC which mechanical engi iaatructt ig is the means by whi iineers design products and create instructions for hnical drawing ean be a computer model or hand-drawn schematic showing all the dimensions par, aswell as assembly notes, alist of required materials, and othe pertinent chanical engineer or skilled worker who creates technical drawings may be referred to as a tater ot dfsmna, Deatfng has historically been a two-dimensional process, but computersided design (CAD) programs now allow the d -igner to create in three dimensions, Instructions for manufactuting a part must be fed to the necessary machinery, ether manually, through programmed instructions, or through the use of a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) or combined CAD/CAM program, Optionally, ‘an engineer may also mangally manufacture a part using the (echnical drawings, However, with the advent of computer numerically controlled (C Manually manufactured pat economically or precticall Drafting is used in nearly dy architecture. Three-dimen (FEA) and computational Modein tools ‘An oblique view of a four, ‘Many mechani sided engineering (CAB) computer-aided design (C: (C) manufacturing, parts can now be fabricated without the need for constant technician input ‘ts generally consist spray coatings, surface finishes, and other processes that cannot be done by a machine. very subdiseipline of mechanical engineering, and by many other branches of engineering and nal models created using CAD software are also commonly used in finite element analysis uid dynamics (CFD), -linder inline crankshaft with pistons engineeting companies, especially those in industrialized nations, have begun to incorporate computer and analysis processes, including 2D and 3D solid modeling and more exhaustive visualization of grams into their existing d .D). This method has many benefits, including e products, the ability to credte virtual assemblies of parts, and the ease of use in designing mating interfaces and tolerances. Other CAE programs com! only used by mechanical engineers include product lifeeyele management (PLM) tools and analysis tools used to perfjrm complex simulations, Analysis tools may be used to predict product response to expected loads, including fatigue lif dynamics (CFD), and com Using CAE programs, a mi that better meets cost, perf completion, allowing hun analysis programs can mo complex contact between ‘As mechanical engineerin, optimization (MDO) is bei and manufacturability. These tools include finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid uter-aided manufacturing (CAM). chanical design team can quickly and cheeply iterate the design process to develop a product mance, and other constraints. No physical prototype need be created until the design nears reds or thousands of designs to be evaluated, instead of a relative few. In addition, CAE Jel complicated physical phenomena which cannot be solved by hand, such as viscoelasticity, iting parts, or non-Newtonian flows. begins to merge with other disciplines, as seen in mechatronies, multidisciplinary design 1g used with other CAB programs to automate and improve the iterative design process. MDO tools wrap around existing|CAE processes, allowing product evaluation to continue even after the analyst goes home for the day. They also utilize s jphisticated optimization algorithms to more intelligently explore possible designs, often finding better, innovative golutions to difficult multidisciplinary design problems, Areas of research ‘Mechanical engincers are ¢onstantly pushing the boundaries of what is physically possible in order to produce safer, cheaper, and more efficien ‘engineering are listed beloy machines and mechanical systems, Some technologies atthe cutting edge of mechanical (ee also exploratory engineering). Micro electro-mechanical tystems (MEMS) Micron-scale mechanical variety of substrate mates such as silicon, glass and polymers like SU8. Examples of MEMS ei accelerometers that are u: smponents such as springs, gears, fluidic and heat transfer devices are fabricated fom a as car airbag sensors, modera cel plones, gyroscopes for precise pos microfluidic devices used in biomedical applications. Friotion stir welding (FSW) ‘Main article: Friction stir ding Friction stir welding, a new type of welding, was discovered in 199] by The Welding Institute (TW1). The innovative steady state (non-fusion) welding technique joins materials previously un-weldable, including several aluminum alloys. It plays an important role in to date include welding the Boeing Delta II and Delta ie future construction of airplanes, potentially replacing rivets. Current uses of this technology seams of the aluminum main Space Shuttle external tank, Orion Crew Vehicle test article, Expendable Launch Vehicles and the SpaceX Falcon 1 rocket, armor plating for amphibious assault ships, and welding Fhe wings and fuselage panels of the new Eolipse 500 aircraft from Eclipse Aviation among an increasingly growing pool| ‘Composites Composite cloth consisting f uses.(39][40]f41) ‘of woven carbon fiber Main article: Composite nfaterial Composites or composite materials are a combination of materials which provide different physical characteristics than either material separately. mposite material research within mechanical engineering typically focuses on designing{end, subsequently, finding epplieations for) stronger OF more rigid materia ‘aepebatey s corrosion and other undesirable factors. Carbon fiber in such diverse applicatio} Mechatronics The discipline of mechat concepts are used in the Mechatronics is the Sti combisation of mechanical engineering, ‘mechatronics are strain g4uges, thermocouples, and pressure transducers, ‘Nanotechnology rials while attempting to reduce weight, nc ening od, reinforced composites, for instance, have been used clectronic engineering, and software engineering, les with electrical engineering. Mechatronic lectro-mechanical sensors used in nics began as a way to combine mechanical p ajority of eleetro-mechanical systems.(42] Typical e Main article: Nanotechnology a At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes nanctechnology—one speculative goal of which is to create a molecular assembler to bu exploratory engineering. nanofilms,[44) and nanos(ructures,(45] among others. . See also: Picotechnology Finite element analysis Main article: Finite elem: Finite Blement Analysis i mesh setup with user-defined sizes to measure physical quant precision.[46] This field ig back to 1941, But the evol ld molecules and materials via mechanosynthesis. For now that goal remains within as of current mechanical engineering research in nanotechnology inelude nanofilters,{43] t analysis, @ computational tool used to estimate siress, strain, and deflection of solid bodies. It uses a : physical ata node, The more nodes there are, the higher the snot new, as the basis of Finite Element Analysis (FEA) or Finite Element Method (FEM) dates {ution of computers has made FEA/FEM a viable option for analysis of structural problems, Many commercial codes such as NASTRAN, ANSYS, and ABAQUS are widely used in industry for research and the design of components. Soine 3D modeling and CAD software packages have added FEA modules. Inthe recent times, loud simulation platforms like SimScale are becoming more common, Other techniques such as problems relating heat an Biomechanics ‘Main article: Biomechanigs finite difference method (FDM) and finite-volume method (FVM) are employed to solve mass transfer, fluid flows, fluid surface intersection, ete. Biomechanics is the applidation of mechenical principles to biological systems, such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells.[47] Biomechani closely related to engine simple applications of Ne mechanics of many biolo; In the past decade, rev also aids in creating prosthetic limbs and artificial organs for humans. Biomechanics is ig, because it often uses traditional engineering sciences to analyze biological systems. Some ‘onian mechanics and/or materials seiences can supply correct approximations to the cal systems. - engineering of materials found in nature such as bone matter has gained funding in academia. The structure of bone matter is optimized for its purpose of bearing a large amount of compressive stress per unit weight. [48] The goal is to replace|crude steel with bio-material for structural design. ‘Over the past decade the Finite element method (FEM) has also entered the Biomedical sector highlighting further engineering aspects of Biomechanics. FEM has since then established itself as an alternetive to in vivo surgical assessment and gained the| ability to determine the ent thas led FE modelling to th Computational fluid ¢ Maia article: Computatio lwide acceptance of academia, The main advantage of Computational Biomechanics lies in its jo-anatomical response of an anatomy, without being subject to ethical restrietions.[49) This point of becoming ubiquitous in several fields of Biomechanics while several projects have ios fluid dynamics even adopted an open sou : philosophy (e.g. BioSpine). Computational fluid dyn: and algorithms to solve required to simulate the i speed supercomputers, be speed of complex simulati ‘wind tunnel with the final Acoustical engineering Main article: Acoustical ics, usually abbreviated as CFD, is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods analyze problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the ealeulations action of liquids and gases with surfaces defined by boundary coaditions.{50) With high- solutions can be achieved. Ongoing research yields software that improves the accuracy and scenarios such as turbuleat flows. Initil validation of such software is performed using a palidation coming in full-scale testing, e.g, flight tests. neering Acoustical engineering is qne of many other sub-disciplines of mechanical engineering and is the application of acoustics. Acoustical engineering is mechanical devices and in reage from designing a m quality of an orchestra hall study of Sound and Vibration. These engineers work effectively to reduce noise pollution in uildings by soundproofing or removing sources of unwanted noise. The study of acoustics can fe efficient hearing aid, microphone, headphone, or recording studio to enhancing the sound Acoustical engineering also deals with the vibration of different mechanioal systems.[51]ENGLISN Lpnony _ we understand the. comespondence between the formof fii, By tin hastwo simple tenses:the present simple and! hope m jour,coscept English has two marked aspects ‘Progressive aspect and the aspects: ‘The present and past tenses can: form combinations withthe progressive aad pet perfective aspects. EE. Present ‘He Speaks eee vgn + Youare speaking too quickly. ‘spoke to im yesterday. She was making some cakes wien Tcame in. Thave already had tanch.°* - ‘He has been reading since £,00..m-. he copies you cany—» she carries they study ——» it studicg, ‘However, verbs ending in “y” following a vowel obey the usual form (add.s") Ibuy ——»-he buys they obey —» she obeys Use: A/ The commonest use of the present simple is to refer to “general time”. That is to talk about ‘actions or situations that happen repeatedly, or all the time, or at any time: « +--She likes mutton but she doesn’t like fist: They live in a very small house. Water freezes at o°Celsius (32° Fahrenheit ) B/ The present simple is uséd with adverbs.or adverb phrases-such a often, usually, sometimes, never, always, occasionally, on +day (Sunday(s)) , once /-twice a:dey, week, month, year ,-every day ‘month ... in winter... At rains i winier. -ahe never goes fo the cinema, -They visit their grand parents once a month. C/ The present simple is used sometimes totic about the future particularly after “if, time conjunctions, and discussions about programmes and.time tables or calendars. - tit rains tomorrow the baller pron't come, -We'll start as soon as he arrives. < -The train leaves at 6.00. ~Tomorrow isD/Itis used mainly with the verb “say” when we ask about or quote from books, notices or Very recenlyroceived leis, steer, “wo What does the notice -Itsays, . . , 5 ‘Shakespeare says, “to be or not to be that's the: question,” saa es tat = P/It is cominon in stories told inthe present and in.commentaries.on, for example, football / F/It can be used for a planned future action or scries of actions, particularly when they refer-to-a. Joumey. Travel agents.use ita lot. "-We leave Londan at 10.00 next Monday and arrive in. Madrid at 12.00. We spend two:hours there and leave again:at 15.00. We arrive.in Paris at 17.30 and'spend 4 hours there... ~ G/I1 must be used instead of the present progressive with those verbs that cannot be-used.in-the- continuous form (stative verbs) G1/ verbs of senses : (feel , hear, smell , see) when they are used in their. initial meanings. _ But if they express a deliberate action or have another meaning they cain’be used in the progressive form: “Tsmell gas. But : wity are you smelling that fish? “Issee that you are tired. But: they ae seelng the town (visiting) G2/ Verbs of mental activity: agree, appreciate (= understand), believe , expect (=think) , fel (think), forget, know, realize, remember, perosive ,see (=understand), think (=have an opinion) ,trust (=beliove) , understand , doubt G3/ Verbs of possession : belong, own ,owe ,have ,possess ig feelings and emotions: adore , appreciate(=valuc), care (like), desire, detest, G4/ Verbs expres ish, prefer, dislike. ‘fom, hate, loatiie, fove, mind, value, want, GS5/ appear (seem), concer, consist, hold, (=contain), keep (=continue), matter, seem, signify, lack, need, resemble ... “Form : (to be :am/ is/are) + stem +ing ‘Use : A/ For an action happening now or about this time but not necessarily at the moment of speaking. ~ Tam not wearing a coat as itis not cold. = The are reading 2 play by Shaw.( This may mean at the moment of speaking but may also mean “now” in a larger sense, ~ He is teaching French and leaming Grook. He may not be doing either at the moment of speaking. B/ For a definite arrangement in the near future ( and is the most usual way of expressing one’s inamediate plans. - I'm meeting my friend tonight. He is taking me to the theatre. - Are you doing anything tomorrow afternoon ? Note that the time of the action must always be mentioned, as otherwise, there might be a confusion between present and future meanings. Form ‘has / have + past participle of the verb se : Four related uses of the present perfect may be noted : 1, State leading up to the present time ~That house has been empty for ages.___Word-formation ‘A form to which a rule of word formation is applied is called a base (as distinct from stem). The base may be modified by using: satay i . , 2) ding a prefix to the base, with 6 without a change of wordsclass (eg: author co-author) { adding a suffix to the’ base; with or withouta change of Wordeclass (eg dive. drives) 1) Affixation -[b) 2) compounding, ie adding one base to another (eg: teapot, _.. teapot) ) orobce a base has undergone 4 rule of word-formation, the desived nord itself may become the base for another derivation: 5 (1) friend aoe dacit (2) friend-ly noun | adjective (3) un-friend-ly adjective adjective (4) un-friend-li-ness adjective noun Prefixation , \ ve ‘ Negative prefixes [prefie meaning ‘added to, examples we “the opposite oP” “not” _| adjectives - participles | unfair - unexpected various class non-smoker =SaSae adjectives ™= Ta nie finite adjectives illogical. - irrelevant - adjectives disloyal verbs dislike nouns dishonour _Peforative prefixes” ~~ 1 ordinate ae [prefix | meaning ‘added to examples ‘mis- | “wrongly” verbs ‘misinform abstractnouns —_| misconduct participles misleading mal- | “badly” ‘verbs maltreat abstract nouns’ °’ | malformation participles malformed adjectives malodorous Prefixes of degree or size & [prefix | meaning ‘added to examples sur “over and above” nouns surtax Fsub- “ower than, adjectives : Jess than” substandard over | “too much” verbs, overeat participles. overdressed A adjectives overconfident under- | “too little” ‘verbs ‘undereook ultra: | Sextremely, adjectives ‘ultra-violet beyond” ultrasmodem. mini | “little” nouns ‘miniskirt‘Prefixes of time and order s [prefix — | meaning added to. [examples fore- “before” mainly verbs foretell abstrct nouns _| foreknowledge pre- “pefore” ~~ nouns Teaver (CNG SST INSTT agjentves ems used before @ houin)) post- “after” nouns ‘post-war ex “former” human Nouns exchusband ~ Te “again, verbs rebuild SNoterPrivand poy involve conversion fro Wout io adjestive> Number prefixes prefix: meaning examples ‘uni-, mono- “one” ‘unilateral, bi-, di- “two” bilingual, ie “three” ‘tripartite multi-, poly- “many”. multi-meial, polysyllabic »Other,prefixes +=. ensure de [prefix meaning ‘examples Auto- __| “self” _ | Autobiograohy __ Pan- “All, worldwide” | Pan-African Proto- “First, original” | Prototype ‘Semi. “half” Semicirele = : ‘Vice= “deputy” ‘Vice-president - “ Conversion prefixes prefix | added to 10 form nouns verbs Suffixation: Unlike prefixes, suffixes frequently alter the word-class of the base; for example, the adjective kind, by the addition of the suffix —ness, is changed into an abstract noun kindness. € Noun / adjective ——> Noun / adjective suffixes si added to = [to form : ‘meaning examples ~Gan | nouns (chiefly proper) | personal nouns, adjectives | connected with Indonesian a — republican “ese _| as for (an as for (an ‘nationality Chinese Tist | nouns (chiefly proper) | personal nouns/ adjectives | membor ofa party | socialist occupation violinist -ism | nouns / adjectives abstract nouns attitude idealism litical movement _| communism. Many nouns in sm correspond to @ noun in —Isf which denotes an adherent of the principle: communist /* communismVerb ——> _ noun suffixes added to = earn [si verbs (mainly dynamic) | nouns (tainly personaly [examples receiver, actor pane] mous “inhabitant... te disinfectant ee. sonal Nouns employee ation (a) abstract nouns’ (@ exploration (b) collective nouns Le (b) organization sment__| verbs sous Cet abstract) “| state, action ‘amazement verbs ‘Nol (chiefly count i if aoe abstract) sai Sree ” sel “ing | verbs (@) abstract Nouns | (a) activity driving (b) concrete nouns _| (b) result of activity building Adjective ——*_noun suffixes ‘suffix added to To form meaning examples ness adjectives abstract nouns state, quality happiness =ity as for -ness 1s for -ness state, quality sanity Verb suffixes (forming verbs) [suffix added te to form * = [meaning =" examples -ify nouns /adjectives | verbs (chiefly transitive) | causative simplify ~ize (Br.E/also—ise) | nouns /adjectives | verbs (chiefly transitive) _| causative popularize -en adjectives ‘verbs a) transitive 8) causative a) deafen b) sadden ‘Noun —> adjective suffixes’ b)intransitive _| b) become X suffix | added to to form ‘meaning ‘examples | ful” | nouns (chiefly abstract) it ‘useful helpful nouns childless nouns (chiefly concrete) cowardly nouns (chiefly concrete) childlike. ‘nouns (chiefly conerete non-count) ~ish | nouns (Ghiefly proper and count) a)Turkish b)foolish Some adjective suffixes common in borrowed and non-classical words afl + ‘used to form examples -al (also —ial, -ical) adjectives criminal, editorial, musical ic adjectives [heroic Tn ive (also —afive, -Itive) | adjectives attractive, affimative, sensitive ~ous (@lso—eous, fous) | adjectives -[ virtuous, courteous, «=Other adjective suffixes ‘ Suffix ‘added 10 toform -able ‘verbs (chiefly transitive) | adjéctives Sa adjectives ~ adjectives pouns adjectives | _Adverb suffixes | 2 suffix | added to to form examples ay adjectives. adverbs of manner Ses happily, strangel; cward(s) _| adverbs, nouns || adverbs of manner, direction i ‘backward(s) Conversion a: Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word class without the additio’ of an affix: eg. (release) * They released the man | They ordered his release. Verbs ———> nouns... “ hanes _— state (from stative verbs to nouns): doubt, iove 5 | seven / activity (rom dynamic verbs): laugh, walk { _~object of verb: answer: ‘catch - cadet adore fe 8 , 2 Pat utctelnning Lie -manner of verb + ing: throw, walk “place of verb: retreat, tum ——~-———~— vrs eget) .‘A linking verb connects a subject to a subject complement whi following sentences: ch identifies or describes the subject, as in the 2 for Godot i Some of us thought that the pla was very good. yoones wm ek ee ep \ t Others thought it became tedious (dull) after the first fifteen'minutes. a ee . Fae 1 ' ft. . “ -| mo, is ‘The cast appears d Sorganized and teofoses perhaps Beckett intended this. oe emai ‘The play seems absurd to me, y , ‘Linking verbs are either verbs of sensation (feel, " “taste") or verbs of existence Caci,""appea," "be," "become," "continue," "grow" trove," "remain," soem,” "st, "umn") Many linking verbs (with the sie-ificant exception of "be") cari also be used as transitive or intransitive verbs. In the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence uses the highlighted verb as a linking verb and the second“ uses the same verb as either a transitive or an intransitive verb: Griffin insists that the water tastes terrible, I tasted the soup before adding mor¢ salt. The customer carefully f Teele the fabric (clot) oF the coat, wet suFomer £3,Review: v: Linking Verbs g Wentify whether the underlined verb is used as oking venbs ; Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the mon; me are Las « | Francine's uncle grows prize winning dtlias (Mexican plant.” *yes + The cheesecake tastes delicious, Ha * After smoking three cigais, Flannery fumed green: «No ‘The cat smelled the dish of food placed before it. Yiss ‘The flowers shvays grow quickly during'a sunny ‘summer, : Yes The stew thst Gordon made smells too spicy to me. No Weber was snnoyed because Ross turned pages too quickly. Yes David Garrick was e very prominent eighteenth-century actor, . No ‘Transitive and Intransitive Verbs ‘spending on the type of object they take, verbs imay be transitive; intransitive, or linking: ‘gmoningofa transitive verb is incomplete without a direst object, as in the fllowing examples: ‘The shelf holds. ‘The committee named. — ‘The committee named a new chairperson. . ‘The child broke. . -L ‘The child broke the plate, z Sime the oxmpuny wes pleasent end thé cofite both plentiful and good, we lingered (be slow, reluctant to core) in the reste fir severe] hours. “he puting was Inmng on the south wall ofthe reception room, TasTovcling ‘To come To cost To creep. To cut_s ‘To deal To dig To do To draw ‘To dream To drink To drive 1 To dwell || To cat, To fall To feed To feet To fight To find ‘s |Leut |drawn |drearat driven dwelt fallen Heft Lost [meant Tmet paid I pat Tread faire vouloir dire| rencontretI swelled. Iswam T swung K osliog "HT sft ‘ i peel Vy ofl K 58 Tsowed fswoott To spedk °: PHRASES ‘A Phrage is a group of related words, wij} . E S, with é i - functioning asa verb, a noun, an adjective, or a, ag sabivet and predicate, NOUN PHRASES e Anoun phrase consists of a noun and its modifiers, Thi x show how noun phrases can function as subjects, objects, ae EXAMPLES “ Noun phrase as@igies ok The misty, eerie night cast a spell on us all. : Noun pl the misty, eerie night. Noun phrasea I nice, cold, vanilla shake right about now. . rase: a nice, cold, vanilla shake Noun phrase asi ikon Calgii Psiginy location. een a —. asunny-locati < Fs For VERE P| ASES Averb phrase is maie up of a verb and its.auxiliariés. It functions‘only asa predicate. EXAMPLES -I have been reading about Verb phrasi -There: may Freud’s theories in psychology class. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES A preposition is.a word which relate s a noun phrase to another word or phrase in a sentence (examples: above, below, in, among (st), over, with, until, from, on). A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by its object and its object’s modifiers. The object of a preposition is the noun phrase which tlie preposition relates to another part of the sentence: ° EXAMPLES” + We played:volley ball on the-beach. - A special program on the growth of flowers fascinated the audience. 4 tena voyAn fact, the timed photoapny . 1 Photogtaphy was spectacular. oe * Seeking my grade, I tried calling the Registrar's office eee tionist'told me to check the office doors in the Capron een aes e but the recep! Thathe sentence above, in the appropriate buildings”, is an example of @ prepositional phrase. It begins with the preposition “IN” followed by its object “buildings”. “Buildings” is modified by the adjective “appropriate”. VERBAL PHRASES A verbal phrase consists of a verbal and any objects or modifiers. A verbal is a verb form that does not serve as a verb in the sentence. Instead it functions as a noun, adjective or adverb. There are three typesof ‘verbal: infinitive, participial, and gerund. ,_ ‘A modifier is usually an adjective or an adverb that limits, clarifies, or qualifies another element of the sentence. jag ‘As there are three types of verbal, there are three types of verbal rases: 1- Infinitive phrases start with an infinitive whichtisfellowed by any object and/ or modifier: é 4 . EXAMPLES ‘ . - To tour Australia slowly is my dream. Infinitive: to tour - Object: Australia (direct-object vf the int os Modifier: slowly (an adverb modifying the infinitive), _ Infinitive phrase: to tour Australia slowly (asa subject). ~ - [must study to pass my winter exams with good marks: Infinitive: to pass - Object: my winter exams (D.0 of the infinitive).iien 2 shen Modifier: with good marks (prepositional phrase modifying the infinitive). Infinitive phrase: to pass my winter exams with good-marks.... vs... 4 o- Participial phrases consist of either apast.ora. presaut pal any objects and/ or modifiers. Participial phrases always function as adjectives within a sentence. ‘ ilbey taut Example z - Hidden by the trees, Jerry waited to scare Mark. : Participial: hidden ~ Modifier: by.the trees (prepositional phrase modifying hidden). Participial phrase: hidden by the trees (adjective phrase modifying Jerry). 3- Gerund phrase consist of a gerund and any object and/ or modifiers. A gerund phrase can look similar to participial phrase because the gerund has the same form as the present participle. The main difference js that the gerund (phrase) functions as a noun (i.c. subject, object, subject complement, appositive) and the participial phrase as an adjective. : s ys \syamples I. 8 Exal _ Lenjoy riding my bike in the exiiig Gerund: riding | Direct abject: my bike Modifier: in the rening ’ ‘i Gerund phrase: riding my bike in the ea . - Riding a horse takes skills. (subject), (object). a APPOSITIVE PHRASES Appositives rename noun phrases and are usually placed beside what they rename. The following example shows a noun phrase in appositive to another. ‘The lady, ow? president, spoke out against racism. “Qur president” renames the subject “lady” and so is in apposition to it. The best exercise, walking briskly, is also the least expensive. (Gerund phrase as appositive) Tashonde’s geal:in-life, to become an occupational therapist, is within her grasp this year, atlast. (Infinitive'as appositive). We distinguish two'types i 1- NON-RESTRICTIVE Apposiuives are sentence. ci apie E.g. The firm chose Mary, vice president of ‘public Gffairs, as'its chief executive ial tothe meaning.of the officer. : * Because we have identified the person by name, lier title is additional information. It can be set off by commas. In other words, we could take’it out and the meaning will not change. ee : RESTRICTIVE Appositives are essential to the meaning of the sentence. We 2-1 gE ’e students are hiappy with good grades. - STUDENTS identify who “WE” (subject) are. If we remove it, “WE” does not have the same meaning. , ABSOLUTEPHRASES Absolute phrases are made of nowns or pronouns followed by a participle'and any modifiers of the noun and the pronoun, Absolute phrases contain a subject (imlike participial phrases), and no predicate. They serve to modify an entire sentence, EXAMPLE Jane looked nervous her fears creeping up on her.PHRASES USED AS NOUNS: - Gerund pbras¢ are always Aas nouns. . itive se ure often used ag = i Infinitive phrase ‘ S uouns (though théy may also function as modifiers) ' ional! * + Prep yositional phrase occasionally functions as nouns, NOUNS | PHRASE USED AS NOUNS” ‘The decision is important. Sandra likes the job. | His action prompted s change. ‘That hour is too late. Choosing a major is imp< Se | ae cue isimportant (gerund phrase | | Sandra likes to do the job’ (infinitive phrase used as object). His leaving the firm caused her.to seek a job in the town. (1- gerund phrase as a subject. ¢ 2-infinitive phrase as an object). After. supper is too late. ( prepositional phrase | | | used as subject). “PHRASES USED.AS MODIFIERS: - Prepositional phrases nearly alw Infinitive phrases are aiso-ased 4 - ~Farticipial. phrases used as adj “ADJECTIVE: ays function as adjectives.or adverbs. s adjectives or adverbs. _ ivess 3 (RASES USED AS ADJECTIVES confidence. itis a significant discovery. [It is a discovery of significance. (prepositional 7 phrase) : e Appropriate languages ‘Language to suit the occasion is important. _|important. (infinitive phrase). oy Storms, de ing mi corn, lashed Destructive storm lashed the the Midwest. (participial phrase- containing Midwest. prepositional- used as adjective). . © ADVERBS | ~ PHRASES USED AS ADVERBS = nes Hi seas ess Drive carefully. Drive with care. (prepositional phrase). inly, Mary Ann lacks self- To be sure, Mary Ann lacks self-conficence, 7 (infinitive phrase) :DEFINITIONS OF BASIC SENTENCE Paris | parts of speech — verbs, now 2 eight a conjunctions, and interjections propositions: Ins, pronouns, adverts, ‘adjectives, Here's a litle rhyme — by David B. Tower & Benjamin F, Tweed —that teachers used in gays gone py to help students learn the parts of speech. Three little words you often see Are ARTICLES: a, an, and the. A NOUN is the name of anything, As: school or garden, toy, or swing. ' ADJECTIVES tell the kind of noun, As: great, small, pretty, white, or brown. VERBS tell of something being done: To read, write, count, sing, jump, or run. “How things are done the ADVERBS tell, As: slowly, quickly, badly, well. | CONJUNCTIONS join the words together, | As: men and women, wind or weather. ' The PREPOSITION stands before A noun as: in or through a door. j | The INTERJECTION shows surprise | As: Oh, how pretty! Ah! how wise! | The whole are called the PARTS of SPEECH, Which reading; writing, speaking teach. |es .