HACKERS TOEFL ACTUAL TEST READING Sy mo CSE fees [os Stel ates ee eat pauls tate ee sos cnlag aR nc eee) aioe tc eae NatCea a» Reading Section Directions ‘The TOEFL iBT Reading Section tests your ability to comprehend English academic passages. You will have 36 minutes to read two passages and respond to questions about them. The amount of time you have for this assignment will be tracked by a clock at the top of the screen The majority of questions are worth one point. However, each passage's final question will be worth more than one point. It will include directions that specify the number of points it is worth. ‘Aword or phrase that requires additional explanation will be presented in blue, underlined font. To see a definition or an explanation, click on the word or phrase. You may skip a question and return to it later, provided there is time remaining. To move on to the next question, click Next. To return to a question, click Back. The review screen will show which questions have been answered and which have not been answered. You may go directly to any previous question from the review screen. To access this screen, click Review Questions. ‘The Reading section will now begin. Click Continue to proceed. Next HES O10} CHE SME O1SOT Back WES O1BSIO! OF BME OSE + VSLCL SHO TS oh Ice CS BNE OE + 2001, Review Questions HES O1GdI0| 2} Sxl We YS MAMET OE Selah + USLICH. Sout Sot X12 217 Bx Bs oS. 246 58 92 YHA) Hackersingang.comeet toa The Theory of Ecological Succession 15 The composition of any group of interacting organisms living together in a specific habitat is neither permanent nor rigid. The species structure of € particular ecological community changes over time, and the sequence in which it occurs is most apparent alter a disturbance, such as the movement of glaciers ‘or a voleanic eruption, strips away the soll. Transitions in species composition of a disturbed area represent a process called ecological succession. 29 The process is termed primary succession iit is intiated when pioneer species, namely moss and lichen, begin o colonize an area previously devoid of vegetation, such as the moraine left behind by glaciers or on newly formed voleanic islands. Some ‘opportunistic grasses and scrub also flourish in these austere conditions, and ifthe climate allows, larger shrubs and hardwood trees may gradually move in t= The vascular plants that first appear in the early stages of succession-otten as a result of seed deposited by animals—frequently sutfer from poor growth due to insufficient nitrogen in the sol, which ccauses their leaves to yellow. m Some plants, such as alder(Alnus) and locust(Robinia), have nitrogen- fixing bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen to earth-bound ammonium and nitrates. m The expansion of these populations of substratum microorganisms accelerates biotic growth and encourages more complex flora to invade by stimulating pedogenesis, the process of converting virtually lifeless substrate material into fertile soil containing decomposed matter. 18 As more plants take root in the improving habitat, they attract a range of organisms, such as pollinators ‘and herbivores, which then appeal toa host of ‘omnivorous and carnivorous creatures. ‘3. Biodiversity increases under these optimized Conditions, and in time, mixed forest ecosystems, complete with diverse flora and fauna, may develop. re | ko 01 According to paragraph 1, what can be inferred about the composition of organisms in a particular habitat? (A) It changes according to regular temporal sequences, (8) Itremains constant as long as the soll is not disturbed. (©) Itis directly influenced by the presence or absence of soil (0) Itis only affected by external geological disturbances. Paragraph 1 is marked with an arrow [=]. 02 In paragraph 2, what does the author say about the process of primary succession? (A) Itis marked by the presence of resilient species of grass and scrub, (8) Itis initiated by the movement of glaciers and volcanic activity. (C) It gradually slows when large shrubs and trees shade out the undergrowth. (0) It begins when organisms like moss and lichen start to grow on bare ground. Paragraph 2 is marked with an arrow [=]. ‘TESTOR PASSAGE 1 247 asa. 6 ‘Mov 1S24 Trudy 1401 SuaEcological communities may go through additional adjustments to correct for any instability due to, for example, an imbalance between predators and prey, cf excess compeiition for limited resources, These intermediate phases, called seres, allow biotic life in the region to adapt to the changing conaitions of the habitat, and those that cannot retreat or die out Therefore, biodiversity eventually decreases, but the robustness of the community increases. The culmination of these developmental stages occurs once the biological community of plants and animals has achieved equilibrium 4.09 This phase is known as ecological climax, and the term “climax community,” coined by botanist and ecological pioneer Frederic Clements in 1916, refers to the group of flora that successfully coexist within the boundaries of a designated habitat, Furthermore, in hs writings, Clements conceived of the climax as the idealized endpoint of the process of succession, in which not only are all species able to survive individually, but more importantly, they can function as a cohesive community. Clements assumed that observed population deviations in nature were representative of communities moving toward an ideal state. Another important aspect of Clements’ analysis was the simile that communities are ke organisms, and species within communities are bound tightly together in a relationship similar to that of organs, tissues, and cells within the body. Collectively, the species within a defined community were seen as working cooperatively to avoid the possibilty of deciine. 5 = A fundamentally opposing view of succession ‘was presented in 1926 by botanist Henry Gleason, who argued that communities could not be defined strictly in space and time. Instead, they were dynamic and random associations of individual species whose presence in a particular area was determined by ‘environmental conditions. That is, a climax community 03 06 05 Sy ea ee, 00:31:30 tie Time J) Which ofthe sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. {A) Due to limited resources, competition may develop when members of a community attempt to adjust to the instability (8) Communities within ecosystems may adjust to counter changes that result from imbalances. (C) Periodically, groups of organisms will undergo massive changes, which lead to imbalances related to community biodiversity (0) Ecological communities may become unbalanced when excessive competition occurs among predators and prey. ‘According to paragraph 3, what transition occurs during the seres? (A) The variety of organisms in the community is reduced. (8) The amount of food sources is radically diminished (©) The number of predatory animals is increased. (0) The diversity of vegetation is enhanced. Paragraph 3 is marked with an arrow (=. ‘What is the purpose of paragraph 4 in relation to the overall discussion of ecological succession? (A) To emphasize the biotic diversity of a particular region (8) To introduce an important stage in the evolution of species (C) To illustrate a theoretical model that was later abandoned (0) To demonstrate the longevity of a widely accepted hypothesis Paragraph 4 is marked with an arrow (»¥] ImgNaN NS goHackers.comis not the ultimate stage in the process, but one in a cyclical pattern of succession, degradation, and renewal. 6} In the middle of the twentieth century, ecologist Robert Whittaker witnessed this phenomenon while researching the effects of the 1883 Krakatoa eruption in Indonesia. His observations support the theory that the ecological community of the region was in a climax state, prior to its devastation by lava flow and had since undergone succession again to achieve equilibrium. Therefore, the species that dominate the site in a given period represent the pinnacle of succession that will continue to exist only untlit is interrupted again. Further, Whittaker applied empirical methods to analyze the variables, or environmental gradients, responsible forthe relative abundance of particular plant species within communities. He determined that species distributions were greatly influenced by temperature, availabilty of water, light, and nutrient content of the soil If any of these gradients shift significantly, it could severely impact the composition of species in a particular area. 7 Modern ecologists concur that the rate of disturbances, whether natural or human-made, is often too great to support equilibrium indefinitely. As such, the more appropriate model for understanding ecosystems stresses the role of contingencies in the evolution of a community and discounts the notion that climax is the ultimate condition. The shift has prompted many people, both scientists and laypeople, to seriously consider how human interference can contribute to the decline of ecosystem diversity. 6 According to paragraph 5, Gleason believed that species within communities were not defined strictly by space and time but that (A) their occurrence in a specific area was governed by environmental circumstances (B) they were able to form lasting associations during all stages of succession (C) they developed in stages according to cyclical reproductive patterns (O) their presence in a particular ecosystem was determined by competitive fitness Paragraph 5 is marked with an arrow [=]. 07 According to paragraph 6, Whittaker's research on the effects of the Krakatoa eruption supports which of the following statements? (A) The level of biodiversity that existed prior to the eruption is impossible to achieve again. (8) The composition of species during the climax stage lasts only until a disruption occurs. (C) The devastation caused by the eruption led to the extinction of once-dominant species. (0) The equilibrium in climax stages is made possible by periodic shifts in environmental gradients. Paragraph 6 is marked with an arrow [sb]. 08 The word “stresses” in the passage is closest in meaning to (A) emphasizes (8) includes (©) evaluates (0) legitimizes ‘TESTOR PASSAGE 1 249 ONIONS WV WOLSMOWH §=G6 8 £ 9 5 4% € ee salrere rs) visetme_J 002080 09 Look at the four squares [nm] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. In addition, fallen leaves from plants degrade and form a layer of nutritive compost, which can support an even greater variety of vegetation. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square (m] to add the sentence to the passage. 10 Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the ‘summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. ‘Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong, To remave an answer choice, click on it. To review the passage, click on View Text. Ecological succession is the process by which the structure of a biological community evolves over time. ce ° ‘Answer Choices (A) After a major disturbance like a volcanic eruption, _(D) At some point, the ecological community stabilizes, subsequent climax communities are less affected by resulting in what has been called a climax. environmental factors. (8) Some plants suffer from malnutrition during the early _(E) After the intial colonization, more complex stages of colorization following a major ecological ‘communities develop, and biodiversity increases disturbance. before eventually decreasing {(C) The climax stage was once viewed as permanent, _(F) Activites lke deforestation pose a potent threat to all but subsequent esearch suggests that itis ust one life forms in climax communities, part of an ongoing cyclical process. 250 58 22-990 Hackersingang.comPassage 2 Predicting Volcanic Eruptions 1 Prior to modern voleanology, people had an extremely limited understanding of geomorphic processes, Causal explanations for volcanic activity ranged from the work of gods to the rays of the sun penetrating the Earth, and the ability o foresee volcanic events was confined to directly witnessing warning signals such as the ground’s movement and smoke rising from a crater. m 2 Incontrast, modem geophysics has produced a vast storehouse of information related to volcanic formation and its causes, allowing scientists to better understand the interactions between the Earth's inner layers and surface. m Unfortunately, however, while some volcanoes seem to operate according to consistent ‘oycles, others do not follow a set pattern and may lie dormant for centuries before erupting violently and without notice, putting people's lives in danger. m In order to better understand the timing and intensity of eruptive processes, research in the field is now primarily focused on the characteristic indicators that signal an impending eruption. 3 In most cases, a volcanic eruption is heralded by a period of heightened seismic activity, with earthquakes becoming increasingly frequent, leading upto the actual event. The phenomenon is caused by the ascension of magma and volcanic gas through fissures in the Earth's crust, as pressure variances disturb underground rock formations, interfering with existing stress distributions. With the strategic placement of seismometers, geophysicists can trace the path of these earthquakes as they move along with molten rock and gas toward the surface. 4 During active periods, scientists monitor seismic waves around the clock to detect subtle yet significant differences in the type and intensity of seismic activity Vibrations are classified into three broad categories: cre HideTime J} EINGS Cone) 11 The word “limited” in the passage is closest in meaning to (A) fixed (©) narrow (C) locked (©) typical 12 The word "dormant" in the passage is closest in meaning to (A) ineffective (B) unnoticed (C) inactive (0) unprovoked 13 The word ‘they’ in the passage refers to (A) rock formations (B) seismometers (C) geophysicists (0) earthquakes 14 According to paragraph 4, an eruption is often immediately preceded by (A) a dramatic increase in the rate of flow and amount of rising magma (®) a blockage of the ventilation holes that allow {gas and magma to escape {(C) aise in the force exerted by volcanic gases in the chamber (0) a cyciical alternation between long: harmonic seismic events Paragraph 4 is marked with an arrow [=]. ‘TESTO2 PASSAGE 2 251 asan 6 ‘ontayau S31 Wwruay-Ua01 SuBNHshott-period, long-period, and harmonic. The first of these are high-frequency shocks similar to those found near faults along tectonic plates and represent the initial collapse of material in the bedrock. If these ‘weak signals amplify and begin to oscillate over ‘greater durations, they may be taken over by long- period waves, a reliable sign that seismic activity is generating energy within the volcanic conduit or along its walls. Harmonic tremors, continuous low-frequency vibrations that are sometimes audible on the surface, are generally associated with the sustained underground movement of magma. A dramatic proliferation of long-period or harmonic events represents the most worrisome scenario, as this can indicate increased gas pressure within the volcanic chamber, often a direct precursor to an eruption, ‘5 = One of the most obvious features of this upward movement of magma and gas, and voleanism in general, is the presence of heat. As molten rock and gas accumulate in the center of a volcano, some ofthe thermal energy generated is transferred to the surface. Scientists can therefore monitor fluctuations in temperatures to detect the presence of volcanic activity below the surface. The simplest way to accomplish this is to send researchers with thermometers to nearby lakes, oF to the rim of the volcano to measure air and water temperatures. Though effective, this method puts scientists in danger Cf exposure to poisonous gases lke sulfur dioxide, and also places them in the direct proximity of a potential explosive event. In addition, its a challenge {or field researchers to access volcanoes regularly, particularly those located in remote regions. 6 To overcome these obstacles, volcanologists have tured to remote-sensing equipment to help them monitor volcanic activity. Infrared thermometers can measure radiation in various wavelengths, making direct contact with the volcanos surface unnecessary. In addition, some sensors can represent thermal 18 According to paragraph 5, one of the disadvantages of direct temperature measurement is that (A) researchers lack the resources necessary for frequent travel to rural areas (8) physical proximity to noxious fumes can threaten the health of researchers (C) movement by researchers at the summit can. trigger volcanic explosions (0) conditions at the summit can distort the data collected by researchers Paragraph 5 is marked with an arrow [>] 16 In paragraph 6, what does the author say about the remote-sensing instrument ASTER? (A) Itis able to aid scientists in charting volcanic temperature gradients. (B) Itcan help prevent volcanic activities that threaten surrounding populations. (0) Itcan detect structural shifts occurring near a volcano’s summit with infrared imagery. (0) Itis able to determine the minimum temperatures necessary to create visible signals. Paragraph 6 is marked with an arrow [+9]. HELM goHackers.comradiation as images. One such imaging instrument, ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflector Radiometer), is capable of transmitting infrared images at regular intervals that can help scientists map changes in voleanic thermal patterns. |n 2003, for example, ASTER helped detect thermal anomalies and a small plume of steam emanating from the summit of Mt. Shishaldin in Alaska, precursors to an eruption more than two months later that shot ash thousands of meters into the air. 7 The measurement of ground deformation is another helpful tool for researchers, as the area around an active volcano often swells, detlates, or shifts as magma moves in and out of its underground plumbing system. The distribution and rate of ground deformation provide clues about processes occurring within the volcano. Swelling at the summit of Mauna Loa in Hawaii, for example, occurs as magma moves into and expands the summit magma chamber. ‘Such deformations are generally subtle and can only be detected with precise surveying techniques or sensitive tilt and strain meters. Ground movements of several meters can occur during a large earthquake cr when magma forces its way to the surtace along arift zone. An increased rate of swelling, especially if accompanied by an increase in sulfur dioxide emissions and seismic tremors, is a sign of the high probability of an impending event. 8 Stil, advances in predicting volcanic eruptions do ‘not always result in success. In 1999, local residents were forced to evacuate their homes repeatedly due to official alerts of a pending eruption of Ecuador's Tungurahua volcano. When no cataclysmic event occurred, the people lost faith in the predictions and returned to their homes. The forecasting failures also led to inconsistent monitoring, and when consecutive eruptions occurred in July and August of 2006, nearby residents fled the area with little or no advance: warning, 17 Which of the following can be inferred from Paragraph 7 about ground deformation in the area around a volcano? (A) It results in a reverse in the direction of flowing magma, (8) It cannot usually be seen with the naked eye. (C) Itoccurs most often in rift zones below the ‘summit, (0) It sometimes results in a collapse of the magma chamber. Paragraph 7 is marked with an arrow 18 Paragraph 8 suggests which of the following statements about Ecuador's Tungurahua volcano? (A) Itwould have caused much devastation in 1999 without official alerts, (8) It consistently ranks among the world’s most difficult volcanoes to predict. (©) Its eruptions are so infrequent that it was previously thought to be extinct. (0) It probably had no major eruptions between 1999 and 2006. Paragraph 8 is marked with an arrow [=] 19 Look atthe four squares [a] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage, Technological innovations have also helped pave the way for advanced measurement and monitoring. Where would the sentence best fit? Glick on a square (a) to add the sentence to the passage. TESTOR PASSAGE 2 253, san L 6 ‘DNIaYRY L531 Twhiby 14304 SeENOVHeT PC Oe Dome”) tideTine_}) 20 Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. ‘Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it. ‘To review the passage, click on View Text, The prediction of volcanic eruptions is based on the observation of associated natural phenomena. . Answer Choices (A) Along:period tremor isa clear indication that (0) Distortion of volcanic land isa sign that molten volcanic gases are pressurizing under the surtace. ‘material is beginning to push its way through the (8) The gaseous discharge near the rim of a volcano surface. directly reflects the relative dangers involved in {€) imprecision in volcanic monitoring has led to voleanic research. prediction failures, resulting in tremendous loss of (©) Scientists employ a variety of methods to keep human ite, track of surface temperature changes in and around _(F) Subterranean seismic pattems provide scientists volcanoes, with clues regarding pre-eruplive volcanic activity. 254 SB put ee!29t) Hackersingang.comReturn ] cao J oe | visting) 00:0:00 ‘You have viewed all of the Reading Section questions, and you have time lett for review. While there is time remaining, you may check your work. Click Return to continue working. Click Review to access the review screen. Click Continue to proceed to the next section, ‘Once you have exited the Reading Section, you CANNOT return to it. Oval ale! HHO] BLSLICE. Continue WES HSA CH] SX HER + Bes oIaHNIS, wate ott p67 ‘TESTOR PASSAGE 2 255 6 ‘ONIOYSH ASL TRU GO SeEIVH