Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy for Sustainable Development

Multi-attribute assessment of a river electromobility concept in the

Amazon region
Rosa Zuloeta Bonilla a,⁎, Ramchandra Bhandari a, Aldo Pérez Rodarte b
a
Institute for Technology and Resources Management in the Tropics and Subtropics, TH Köln - University of Applied Sciences, Betzdorfer Strasse 2, 50679 Cologne, Germany
b
City of Cologne, Cologne, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, a water electro-mobility concept has been analyzed in the Amazon using the case study of the native
Received 14 October 2020 communities in the Yarinacocha district in Peru. Multi-Attribute Tradespace Exploration (MATE) methodology is
Revised 21 January 2021 applied to identify the various stakeholders' objectives, generate the designs, and evaluate them. This methodol-
Accepted 29 January 2021
ogy captured the intention of assessing not only technical aspects but also environmental and economic sustain-
Available online xxxx
ability. Six monohull designs for each of the three navigation routes identified, plus an aluminum catamaran,
Keywords:
resulted from the combination of the three materials (wooden, fiber reinforced plastic, and aluminum) of
River electromobility canoe-type monohulls with two types of electric propulsion systems: outboard pod propeller and long-tail
Solar-powered boat shaft coupled with permanent magnet brushless DC motors. It was found that the Amazon canoe hulls studied
Electric propulsion system require propulsion units of 3 kW to navigate in calm waters and 10 kW in rivers. The silicon-based solar photo-
Multi-attribute analysis voltaic systems are equipped with lithium iron phosphate storage batteries. Each design is valued according to
Amazon the project's stakeholders' preferences, guiding the decision-maker to focus on those that offer higher value at
a lower expense. Most solar boats on the two long routes had higher internal rates of return than the current de-
sign. The best options generate rates of 29.62% versus 11% and 10.79% versus 5.26%. It could be demonstrated that
electric propulsion is competitive to fossil fuel-based propulsion for this case study.
© 2021 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction
Although the lack of land and air transport infrastructure in the Ama-
zon region makes it difficult to connect its scattered population, water
transport plays a crucial role in connecting the communities, usually set-
tled along the rivers. Ninety percent of transport is carried out via its wa-
terways (Wilmsmeier, Sánchez, & Bara Neto, 2006) through ships
propelled by internal combustion engines (ICE) powered by fossil fuels
such as gasoline, diesel, or fuel oil. This type of propulsion has allowed
better and faster interconnection between its cities; however, it affects
this fragile ecosystem due to greenhouse gas emissions generated by fos-
sil fuels, high noise levels emitted during combustion in engines, thrown
Abbreviations: BMZ, Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und
Entwicklung; DICAPI, Dirección General de Puertos y Guardacostas; DGTA, Dirección
General de Transporte Acuático; EPS, Electric propulsion system; EV, Electric vehicle;
FECONAU, Federation of Native Communities of the Ucayali and Tributaries; FRP, Fiber
Reinforced Plastic; ICE, Internal combustion engines; LTS, Long-tail shaft; MAE, Multi-
Attribute Expense; MATE, Multi-Attribute Tradespace Exploration; MAV, Multi-Attribute
Value; MAVT, Multiple Attribute Value Theory; MCDA, Multi-criteria decision analysis;
MPPT, Maximum Power Point Tracking; SDGs, Sustainable Development Goals; SPB,
Solar-powered boat.
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rzuloeta@pucp.edu.pe (R. Zuloeta Bonilla).
and leaks of engine oil in the rivers, etc. Furthermore, in remote areas, the
high costs and irregularity of fossil fuel supply limit river transportation.
An alternative to fossil fuel-based propulsion systems is electric pro-
pulsion systems (EPS), whose main components are electric motors and
batteries. Coupled with onboard renewable energy technologies such as
solar photovoltaic systems, EPS embodies a more sustainable transport
method to traditional ICEs (Kurniawan, 2016). Throughout the history
of solar-powered boats (SPBs), they were promoted as evidence of the
viability of the paradigm shift from fossil fuels to sustainable energy.
Nowadays, effective applications can be found for vessels such as rela-
tively slow-speed shuttle boats or small craft boats (Gürsu, 2014),
(Moya & Arroyo, 2015); mostly focused on inland navigation close to
harbors, bays, and waterways with permanent infrastructure equipped
to access electricity.
In the Amazon region, successful SPB projects are found as one-off
cases, such as Kara Solar (Ecuador) and Aurora Amazonica (Brazil).
They have strategically complemented electrification with renewable
energy and electromobility in isolated areas, where the lack of electrical
infrastructure restricts energy charging on-land. Notwithstanding their
proven applicability in the Amazon context, no scientific literature ad-
dresses the impact of coupling different structural components of SPBs
on technical, economic, and environmental aspects. To this extent, tak-
ing as a case study project of electromobility on water in the Peruvian

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2021.01.007
0973-0826/© 2021 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte
district of Yarinacocha, the aim of this study is to evaluate solar-
powered electric boat designs from the compliance of the stakeholders'
preferences. The following specific objectives lead to the answer to the
mentioned aim:
– Identifying the water transport needs of the target group
– Defining the attributes sought by the stakeholders involved in the
project
– Developing the SPB designs
– Evaluation of the SPB designs
There is a growing interest from actors such as North-South climate
partnerships, entrepreneurs in the tourism sector, and transporters in
the application of solar-powered boats. The information generated
herein would be a guide for the implementation of their river
electromobility projects. The positive impacts of the consolidation of
electromobility in the Amazon are not limited to the environment, but
it is a means of ensuring safe and accessible transportation for their
more remote populations.
Fig. 1. Yarinacocha district and their nine Shipibo-Konibo native communities. The inhabitants of Panaillo, Puerto Firmeza, San Francisco, Santa Teresita, and Nueva Belgica use water
transportation to travel to Puerto Callao, through three navigation routes. Map data: Basemap retrieved from Google Earth and cartographic maps provided by Secretaría de Gobierno
Digital de Perú (2020).
140
Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152
Case study site: Yarinacocha District
Yarinacocha (8°21′S, 74°34′W) covers 596.2 km2 at an altitude of 152
masl. Its administrative and economic center is the inland port of Puerto
Callao, the central public entity's headquarter. Puerto Callao and the
main towns are on the Yarinacocha Lagoon banks, an oxbow lake just
off the Ucayali River. Both, together with the Cashibococha Lagoon, consti-
tute the three main bodies of water in the district. While the two lagoons
are means of local transport between nearby towns for domestic or small
business activities, the Ucayali River is the main route for larger vessels to
transport people and cargo. At the Yarinacocha Lagoon alone, about 100
canoe-type boats provide service for local transportation.
Ten percent of its nearly 104,000 inhabitants is indigenous (Quechua,
Aymara, or Amazonian natives), and more than 3000 people of the
Shipibo-Konibo ethnic group live in the nine indigenous communities
(Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, 2018). Fig. 1 shows the
district of Yarinacocha, the capital Puerto Callao and the Shipibo-Konibo
communities under study. The red dots refer to the six communities
that make active water transportation use through three navigation
routes.
R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte
Yarinacocha's climate is Tropical monsoon (Beck et al., 2018). Al-
though the average annual temperature (26.3 °C) varies slightly and it
rains throughout the year, the rainfall shows a constant seasonal pat-
tern: the dry season lasts from May to September, and the rainy season
is between October and April (NASA, 2018). This seasonal variation
causes an annual cycle of floods that significantly influences the socio-
economic activities along the Ucayali River and lagoons, such as agricul-
ture, fishing, hunting, and harvesting forest products on the floodplains
(Labarta, White, Leguía, Guzmán, & Soto, 2007). When the rains and the
rising waters flood the departmental road, communities on the banks of
water bodies are highly dependent on water transport. Yarinacocha La-
goon is also vital for the district economy as a tourist attraction that gen-
erates income for guides, restaurants, and hotels along Yarinacocha.
Yarinacocha strongly dependent on water transport for the develop-
ment of its socio-economic activities. As Wilmsmeier et al. (2006) state,
its importance goes even beyond mere transportation of people and
cargo: it is a central attribute of Amazonian identity.
Solar-powered electric boat
SPBs are hulls equipped with EPS powered by electricity from photo-
voltaic modules on-board, and alternatively from the grid. The advan-
tages of electric propulsion include emission-free operation, low noise
level, and increased maneuverability (Symington, Belle, Nguyen, &
Binns, 2016) — for example, electric motors that allow instant reverse,
and enable the use of renewable energy sources. Fig. 2 shows the pro-
posed EPS' main components for the SPB project: PV array, battery
bank, motor controller, and electric motor as the main load. Addition-
ally, the design also includes an inverter/charger and charge controller
integrated into one device (dotted line).
Photovoltaic cells convert solar irradiance directly into electrical en-
ergy. Connected to the PV array, the Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) controller modifies voltage to charge batteries from the PV sys-
tem effectively. The most common energy storage system for powering
electric vehicles (EVs) are rechargeable traction batteries. It is equipped
with a Battery Management System (BMS) to balance the battery pack
and protect it from malfunctions.
The electric motor converts electrical energy from the battery into
mechanical energy transmitted to a propeller to tow the ship. This
study works with permanent magnet brushless DC Motors because of
its suitability for direct drive traction application of small EVs. To control
the propulsion unit's speed and acceleration, the motor controller
operates between the battery bank and the DC motor by regulating
the current flow. Using a microprocessor, it also performs safety work,
as the controller can limit the motor's output power when it receives
Fig. 2. Block diagram of the electrical solar boat EPS.
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Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152
a signal back, indicating that the temperature of the motor windings is
too high (Gieras & Bianchi, 2003).
As a backup, when the PV array cannot produce enough energy to
perform the mission, the inverter/charger converts AC power from the
grid onshore into DC energy that can charge deep cycle batteries. Addi-
tionally, it converts DC power from the batteries into AC that can power
auxiliary loads. The charger/inverter controller, depending on the user's
configuration through the interface, sends the energy that comes from
the PV array to the discharged battery bank; or when the battery bank
is fully charged, it delivers the energy flow to the auxiliary loads. The in-
terface also provides information on system performance and available
energy.
Method
The intricate process of designing a product aims to capture the
stakeholder's needs and requirements involved during its life cycle.
For this purpose, it is imperative to identify the value attributes that
lead to achieving the stakeholders' objectives. As a result, the design
space may result in more than one option that satisfies the desired attri-
butes on different levels. Moreover, among the available alternatives,
the decision-maker must consider multiple attributes to proceed with
the choice. The application of a cost-benefit analysis falls short since it
only addresses the financial dimension relevant to the investor. It does
not provide a framework to integrate other stakeholders' preferences
(e.g., performance attributes).
An appropriate approach is the application of multi-criteria decision
analysis (MCDA). Among the various MCDA methodologies, the Multi-
ple Attribute Value Theory (MAVT) is a commonly utilized procedure
for contexts under certainty (Velasquez & Hester, 2013). This method
is applied to represent the stakeholders' preference in a static context
in the methodological framework of Multi-Attribute Tradespace Explo-
ration (MATE), which is supported by Tradespace exploration for the
design solutions evaluation.
Multi-attribute value theory (MAVT)
The basis for utility theory was first introduced in 1947 by Von
Neumann and Morgenstern. They proved that the choice of a rational
individual, whose preferences satisfy four axioms — completeness,
transitivity, continuity, and independence — can be represented by
the maximization of the expected value of a utility function (Von
Neumann & Morgenstern, 1947). In the utility function, the action rep-
resents an attribute, and the value is the utility.
R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152

improved in a particular objective score without making other objective

scores worse.” (A.M. Ross, Rhodes, & Hastings, 2009).
The Value-Cost plot, where the tradeoff is represented, is called
tradespace (A.M. Ross & Hastings, 2005). As seen in Fig. 3, the
tradespace offers a concise visualization of the two main decision-
driving features of the design process and the multiple solution designs
that are compared. As described in A.M. Ross, Rhodes, et al. (2009), the
concept of Pareto Optimality can be applied to the various non-
dominanted solutions resulting from the MAVT. The Pareto Frontier,
marked with a blue line, represents the boundary of the most design ef-
ficient solutions. This selection benefits the decision-maker by guiding
her or him to focus on these solutions.

Multi-Attribute Tradespace Exploration (MATE)

Fig. 3. Types of trades: 1) local points, 2) frontier points, 3) Pareto frontier sets, 4) full
tradespace exploration. Retrieved from A.M. Ross and Hastings (2005).
Based on their work, Fishburn (1967) and Keeney and Raiffa (1976)
expanded the utility theory to address cases of multiple attributes that
contributes simultaneously to value by aggregating single value func-
tions that describe the preferences for sure attribute outcomes into a
single multi-attribute value function. As a result, this approach became
the foundation of the MAVT. For its application, the set of attributes
must comply with the following criteria: i) completeness, all important
aspects of the decision problem have to be covered; ii) operational,
possible to measure; iii) decomposable, to be broken down into parts
for easier evaluation; iv) non-redundant, no double counting of the
aspects; and, v) minimal, the problem's dimension is kept as small as
possible (Keeney & Raiffa, 1976).
The multi-attribute value function can be expressed in a variety of
ways, and the simplest, applied in this case study, is the linear-
additive form (Eq. (1)) when mutual preferential independence condi-
tion is satisfied.
A.M. Ross, Hastings, Warmkessel, and Diller (2004) describe this
front to end process to develop and explore the tradespace, from prob-
lem identification to the generation of value according to stakeholders'
preferences. Normally, this process is supported by parametric or
other computerized numerical models that enable the evaluation of a
large number of designs while providing the attribute metrics that are
ultimately plotted to create a fully tradespace (A.M. Ross et al., 2004).
Since its conceptualization, it has evolved to also address complex
system cases over its lifetime in changing scenarios (A.M. Ross,
McManus, Rhodes, Hastings, & Long, 2009), (M.A. Schaffner, Ross, &
Rhodes, 2014). However, this study only analyses a non-changing sce-
nario, as MATE was initially used, but with the innovations introduced
by M.A. Schaffner et al. (2014) for the normalization of not only value at-
tributes but also expense attributes. Fig. 4 presents the different steps
related to MATE and the key concepts applied in this methodology,
such as MAVT and tradespace. At a high level, MATE consists of three
general phases: mission definition, concept generation, and design eval-
uation (MIT SEAri, 2016).

n
V ðAÞ ¼ ∑ wi vi ðai Þ ð1Þ
i¼1

where, V(A) refers to the multi-attribute value score, vi(ai) is the single-
attribute function, and wi are scaling factors for each attribute i. The n
values w sum to one and v ranges from zero (worst) to one (best),
resulting in V, ranging from zero (worst) to one (best).
There are many methods to define a value function, such as visual
representation or by indirect questioning (bisection method) (Belton,
1999) or in details by studies from Keeney and Raiffa (1976) or
Watson and Buede (1987). In this study, linear value functions are cho-
sen to interpret stakeholder preferences. The scale values are obtained
by applying the widely used swing weight procedure (Belton, 1999).
While MAVT creates a single value for multi-criteria decision-making
situations, it does not provide a procedure for determining how to choose
a system based on their respective values. In this respect, Pareto Optimal-
ity is a suitable mechanism that provides solutions to this problem.

Pareto Optimality in tradespace exploration

To express that one design is better than another, the evaluation is

based on a specific set of value judgments. As in MAVT, the usefulness
of a design or system is compared to its cost. Conceptually, this compari-
son is a tradeoff: “How much achievement on objective 1 is the decision-
maker willing to give up in order to improve achievement on objective 2 by
some fixed amount?” (Keeney & Raiffa, 1976, p. 117). A common approach
that is applied in multi-objective analysis to determine the “best” solution,
the one that maximizes value delivery at an efficient level of expenditure,
is the concept of Pareto Optimality. In other words, “Pareto Optimality is Fig. 4. A graphical overview of the key concepts and their relations in MATE. Retrieved
achieved when a solution is non-dominated, that is, a solution cannot be from: MIT SEAri (2016).

142
R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte
Fig. 5. Calculation process of the main solar-powered boat components.
Mission definition
The objective is to identify the overall problem statement and the
components of the system context in which the system is involved. As
suggested by A.M. Ross, McManus, et al. (2009), this process is sup-
ported by interviews with the project stakeholders. Fieldwork was car-
ried out in the district of Yarinacocha to collect information from key
stakeholders such as users, suppliers, facilitators, and regulators.
A total of 184 household surveys were carried out to identify and an-
alyze the transportation needs and demands of the 589 households in
the nine native communities. The information was collected employing
a 35-question survey. Dimensions explored were demographic features,
socio-economic profiles (level of education, economic activities, and
sources of income), and transport characteristics. The focus was on the
latter dimension. The topics addressed were ownership of means of
transport, means of transport used, journey frequency, departure
times, availability and affordability of fuels, the importance of water
transport for their socio-economic activities, limitations generated by
the transport service, concerns about environmental degradation, satis-
faction level of the current service, and expectations concerning the SPB
project. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore the sus-
tainability and adaptability of technology transfer with representatives
of the Federation of Native Communities of the Ucayali and Tributaries
(FECONAU),1 the Municipality of Yarinacocha, equipment supplier com-
panies, and regulators.
The information gathered from these stakeholders is interpreted
into the factors that matter to them. They are the basis for building
the attributes. The outcome is a value proposition that links the system
design process's scope and stakeholders' perceptions of value. A set of
attributes is then extracted, with which a group of designs that meet
stakeholders' requirements can be proposed. The physical context con-
straints were identified through field visits and the exploration of the
navigation routes.
Concept generation
The second phase consists of two main parts. The first part is the elic-
itation of attribute functions. As stated by M.A. Schaffner, Shihong, Ross,
and Rhodes (2013), the MATE approach is capable of capturing both
monetary and non-monetary utilities and expenses while keeping
each attribute separate. While an expense attribute is a cost or conse-
quence of the system, a value attribute is a system benefit. They are
assigned an acceptance range in which the worst values correspond to
“0” and the best values correspond to “1” for value attributes. The oppo-
site applies for expense attributes: the worst values correspond to “1”
and the best values correspond to “0”. The second part is in charge of
the designer, who proposes a series of concepts associated with a set
of design variables to meet the attributes.
1
FECONAU is the representative indigenous organization of more than 30 native com-
munities belonging to the Shipibo-Konibo, Asháninka, Isconahua, and Aguajum indige-
nous peoples settled in the Callería, Utuquinía, Aguaytía, and Ucayali river basins in the
Ucayali Region.
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Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152
Designs evaluation
The Multi-Attribute Value (MAV) and the Multi-Attribute Expense
(MAE) are defined. The various types of expenses are aggregated in a
single metric with Eq. (2), just as is done with value attributes in Eq.
(3) (M.A. Schaffner et al., 2013). Subsequently, the evaluation is com-
monly developed under Pareto Optimality. As a result, the full, front-
end evaluation of multiple design alternatives on a normalized quanti-
tative basis provides decision-makers with a framework for choosing
designs to carry forward a more detailed analysis.
n
MAE ¼ ∑ wi ei ðai Þ ð2Þ
i¼1
n
MAV ¼ ∑ wi vi ðai Þ ð3Þ
i¼1
Solar-powered boat design process
Once the attributes have been defined, a set of designs to meet those
attributes are designed. Fig. 5 depicts the process of achieving the tech-
nical characteristics of the SPB designs.
Hull selection
Since the speed is relatively low in the case of passenger transport,
this study only focuses on displacement crafts. In this category, there
are two types: monohulls and multihulls. The range of choice of dimen-
sions, in both cases, is constrained by operational requirements and
physical limits. For instance, the operational water depth limits the
draught, and the breadth of the river or lagoon restricts the width.
Propulsion power calculation
The hull form design and its dimensions define to a large extent the
ship's resistance to moving through the water. This resistance estimate
is subsequently used in calculating the power required to tow the ship
at a required speed (effective power, PE). Moraes et al. (2014) explored
the application of statistical methods based on standard series data (Van
Oortmerssen, WUMTIA, and NPL series), and Shipflow software (CFD)
for calculating the effective power to propel typical designs of Amazo-
nian monohulls and contrasts them with the results obtained from
tests with scaled models in a towing tank. They highlight the Van
Oortmerssen's (1971) procedure because of its accuracy in calculating
the effective power of typical Amazonian crafts with speeds up to 5
m/s and 25 m long, which provides a consistent reference for its appli-
cation in monohulls throughout this study. In the case of multihulls,
this research applies the systematic series of catamaran hull forms de-
veloped by the University of Southampton and whose results are re-
ported in A.F. Molland, Wellicome, and Couser (1996).
An estimation of the effective power to different displacement is
made by correcting the full-load draught with Δ2/3ratios in Eq. (4)
(Anthony F. Molland, Turnock, & Hudson, 2017, p. 325).
R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152

Fig. 6. Context of the solar-powered boat project for the Shipibo-Konibo communities of the Yarinacocha district.

P 2 ¼ ðΔ2 =Δ1 Þ2=3 P 1 ð4Þ by increasing the breadth (Anthony F. Molland et al., 2017, p. 334).
Therefore, in this first design phase, it is proposed to equip the catama-
ran with conventional PV modules and the monohulls with lightweight
Then, the power required to be delivered to the propulsion unit (PD) modules.
is calculated by including the efficiency of the selected propulsion unit Eq. (7) defines the total energy demand (ET), which also includes en-
(ηPU), which is given by Eq. (5). ergy demand for auxiliary loads (Eaux) such as lighting or communica-
tion.
P D ¼ P E =ηPU ð5Þ
ET ¼ ED þ Eaux ð7Þ
Finally, the energy required by the propulsion unit (ED) is in function
of the delivered power and the time the mission lasts, as expressed by Eq. (8) calculates the number of modules (x1), which is constrained
Eq. (6). to the length and width of the available roof. Solar irradiation incident
Z t
on the PV array (IT) is obtained from ©2019 Solargis tool for the project
ED ¼ P D ðt Þdt ð6Þ location. The incident radiation at standard test conditions (GT, STC) is 1
0 kW.m-2, and YPV is the rated capacity of the PV module under STC. Fac-
tors that prevent the PV system from reaching its maximum efficiency
Unlike navigation in calm waters, in rivers, the water speed impacts accounts for through a de-rating process. Their influences are aggre-
the speed over-ground. For instance, when sailing upstream in the Uca- gated into the de-rating factor (ƒPV) in Eq. (9).
yali River (average annual water speed is 2 m/s) at a speed over-water
of 3.7 m/s results in 1.7 m/s of speed over-ground or cruising speed. In x1 ¼ ET :GT,STC =ðƒPV :IT :Y PV Þ ð8Þ
this scenario, the propulsion unit's nominal continuous rating should
deal with operating at the average water speed of 2.5 m/s during the where,
rainy season. While the brushless DC motor's continuous torque zone
is used for cruising at a constant speed, its intermittent torque zone is ƒ PV ¼ ƒ d :ƒtol :ηMPPT :ηw ½1 þ α P ðT C −T C,STC Þ ð9Þ
reserved for specific events such as starting, reversing gear, or unstuck
on sandbanks or sticks. The de-rating factor due to soiling (ƒd) is only estimated, for very
dirty areas it is commonly estimated as 0.9 and for relatively clean
Sizing the photovoltaic system sites with regular rainfall it is 0.95 (Stapleton & Neill, 2011, p. 139).
The widely used de-rating methodology is used to size the PV sys- Manufacturer's tolerance (ƒtol) represents small variations in output
tem. Even though there might be an attempt to install the maximum power between each module produced by the same manufacturer.
number of PV modules to generate as much energy as possible from MPPT losses (ηMPPT), due to heat losses from the electronics compo-
on-board generation, it should be noted that the array's weight has an nents, is given in the manufacturer's datasheet. Power losses due to
impact on stability (Nasirudin, Chao, & Utama, 2017), which improves the conductor's internal resistance (wiring) are indicated by efficiency
due to wiring losses (ηw). The operating cell temperature affects the
power output to a different extent depending on the type of PV module.
Table 1
Potential SPB operation parameters on each navigation route.
This decrease in the power output is expressed by the PV temperature
coefficient of power (αP). The operating cell temperature (TC) is esti-
Parameter Units Route 1 Route 2 Route 3 mated to be 25 °C higher than the average ambient temperature
Site of operations – Lagoon Lagoon River and lagoon (Stapleton & Neill, 2011, p. 128).
a
Water speed m/s 0 0 S1: 2; S2: 1; S3: 0
a
One-way trip km 12 3 S1: 13; S2: 13; S3:
Battery bank dimensioning
12
Daily round trips – 2 2 1 The battery bank shall be available to meet the total energy demand
Daily travel distance km/day 48 12 76 of a full journey, without the power supply provided by the PV array.
Average demand Passengers 4 7 6 This scheme ensures that the SPB can operate until it reaches a charging
Transportation fare EUR/passenger-km 0.14 0.22 0.09 station, in case of low radiation or technical problems with the PV array.
a
S1: Ucayali River; S2: La Garganta Ravine; S3: Yarinacocha Lagoon. Eq. (10) calculates the number of batteries (x2).

144
R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152

Fig. 7. The current design consists of a 12-m long wooden canoe type monohull equipped with 13 HP ICE coupled to a long-tail shaft (LTS). The ICE consumes 4 l of gasoline per hour,
resulting in 3.18 EUR/h of operation costs and 9.5 kg of CO2/h emitted into the atmosphere. The ICE engine is replaced every 3 years and the wooden hull every 6 years.

 
x2 ¼ ET = V batt :C batt :ηd :DoD
Results and discussion
This section addresses the MATE application as a framework meth-
odology to generate the SPB designs and evaluate them under the pref-
erences of the stakeholders involved in the SPB project.
SPB project mission definition
EPS was proposed as a solution to the problem of providing sustain-
able water transport for the Shipibo-Konibo native communities of
Yarinacocha district. The study aims to assess the ability of potential
SPB designs to satisfy stakeholders' requirements, discussed as follows.
SPB Project context and stakeholders
The overall context of the SPB Project depicted in Fig. 6 is not
intended to describe hierarchies of authority or strict lines of communi-
cation but to provide a means to identify the stakeholders and introduce
insight into the influences of internal and external factors to the
decision-maker.
Environmental effect
1.0
0.8
Expense
ð10Þ Internal actors
Internal actors of the SPB project are within the boundary in dotted
lines in Fig. 6. The Climate Partnership belongs to the 6th phase program
of the non-profit organization Engagement Global and is formed by the
City of Cologne and the Municipality of Yarinacocha. Additionally, the
FECONAU is a crucial ally that acts as a facilitator vis-à-vis the native
communities, the final users. The Municipality of Yarinacocha receives
funds from the Climate Partnership for the initial investment and
project's execution. Then, during the SPB's operation, it assumes the
role of the Service Manager. The SPB performs the commissions
assigned by the Municipality of Yarinacocha and charges a transport
fare for this service.
External actors
External actors are outside the boundary in Fig. 6 and arrows con-
nect their interactions with internal actors. Engagement Global finances
the SPB project through funds allocated by Federal Ministry for Eco-
nomic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) for projects that promote
German sustainability policies, which in turn are aligned with the
United Nations' 2030 Agenda and its 17 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs).
Peruvian regulations are guidelines that outline the technical and
Internal rate of return administrative requirements the SPB must meet to obtain an operating
1.0 permit. The Directorate General of Captaincies and Coast Guard
0.8 (DICAPI) carries out technical and administrative inspections to corrob-
orate the proper operation of the vessel and thus ensure the safety of

Value

0.6 0.6
crew and passengers. Finally, the Directorate General of Water Trans-
0.4 0.4 port (DGTA) authorizes the operating permit of the ship.
0.2 0.2 When the SPB charges the battery bank on the local electric
company's facility, the Service Manager pays an active energy charge
0.0 0.0
of 0.18 EUR/kWh. Route 3 from Fig. 1 lacks this service; hence an off-
a max
0
a1
a2
a3
a4
a5
…
0

1.9

3.8

5.7

7.6

9.5

grid PV system should be installed in Panaillo, whose cost is added to

kg CO2 eq/ hour % the initial investment. Companies that provide the EPS equipment and
hull are the suppliers, all of them found in the national market.
Cruising speed Carrying capacity
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
Table 2
Value

0.6
Value

0.6 Description of the hulls according to local manufacturers.

0.4 0.4 Parameter Unit Canoe monohulls Catamaran
0.2 0.2 Length m 12 12 12 10
Breadth m 1.6 1.6 1.6 3.0
0.0 0.0
Draught m 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
0.84

1.27

1.70

2.14

2.57

3.00
2.50
2.72
2.94
3.17
3.39
3.61
3.83

Block coefficient – 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.4

Ton Passenger capacity – 12 12 12 20
m/s Hull material – Wood FRP Aluminum Aluminum
Route 1 and 2 Hull lightweight kg 1700 700 550 900
Route 3 Carrying capacity kg 3000 1300 1650 2300
Lifetime years 6 20 20 20
Acquisition cost EUR 1000 2500 8070 65,000
Fig. 8. Value and expense attribute functions.

145
R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte
Fig. 9. Typical canoe monohull form in the study area made of different materials (wood, fiber reinforced plastic, and aluminum) and aluminum catamaran Model 5c of Southampton
Round-Bilge Catamaran Series.
Maintenance personnel provides technical services, and the Service
Manager assigns a budget for maintaining the SPB and ensuring service
provision.
The users are mainly the Shipibo-Konibo communities and tourists.
In return, the users pay a transportation fare, which varies according
to the navigation route. As a general rule, the current transport service
does not obey itineraries and acts according to economic motivations
bound up with fuel price and available transport offer. Notice that fuel
price becomes more expensive as it moves away from urban centers.
The findings from the fieldwork indicate that daily missions could be
programmed at the highest demand times. The proposed operating pa-
rameters are in Table 1.
SPB concept generation
This process is built upon the system context's initial definition by
expressing the stakeholder requirements as objectives. Because the ma-
jority of statements are based on the current transportation means
shown in Fig. 7, the attributes offered by this set represents, to a large
extent, the baseline for the elicitation of the attribute ranges.
Attributes definitions
In the interviews, the Climate Cooperation members highlighted the
interest in the reduction of the environmental effects and the economic
sustainability of the SPB project. Energy consumed from the grid by the
SPB is associated with GHG emissions generated from primary sources
in power plants —about 350 g CO2 eq kWh−1 in Peru (Gallice, Larrea-
Fig. 10. Locally assembled long-tail shaft coupled to a brushless DC motor from the Peruvian company Senatinos Diesel Laboratory. This propulsion unit resulted from the substitution of
stationary engines by brushless DC motors.
146
Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152
Gallegos, & Vázquez-Rowe, 2019). Therefore, the consumption of
clean energy (generated on-board or on-land) is preferable to the con-
sumption from the grid.
The agreed parameter to measure the profitability of each SPB pro-
ject is the internal rate of return (IRR) in Eq. (10). Then, considering a
minimum IRR, investors can select the project in which they wish to in-
vest.
CF n
0 ¼ NPV ¼ ∑k¼0
n
ð10Þ
ð1 þ IRRÞn
where over a period N, n represents each period, CFo is the initial invest-
ment, and CF1, CF2, CF3…CFn are the cash flows. The IRR is the discount
rate that makes the net present value (NPV) of the future cash flows
equal to zero.
On the users' side, in the surveys and open questions, the users made
their position that the cruising speed should be equal or better than the
current service. On the other hand, the carrying capacity may enable
transporting at least 12 passengers with light cargo (0.84 tons). They
also wish the transportation fare to be the same or lower than the cur-
rent one. For the IRR calculation, the current tariff charges are the refer-
ence since the inhabitants are willing to pay it, and it has been defined in
the market.
In conclusion, one expense attribute and three value attributes are
interpreted as the factors that matter to the stakeholders. Following
are their definitions and ranges.
R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte
Fig. 11. Effective power curves for different displacements (in tons) in calm water. In this
graphic, the effective power to tow the hulls is a function of both the cruising speed and
displacement. The solid curves correspond to the catamaran and the dashed lines to the
monohull. The expected cruising speed operating in lagoons is within the yellow area,
and the purple arrows indicate the effective power range to obtain a speed over water
comparable to the current service in the rainy season. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
– Environmental effect is carbon dioxide per hour emitted to the at-
mosphere due to operations and has a scale of 0 to 9.5 kg CO2/h.
– Internal rate of return is the discount rate that makes the NPV of
the cash flows equal to zero. While the minimum admissible value
is zero for this project, the maximum value is the highest IRR
found in each SPB set.
– Average cruising speed is the ratio of the SPB's distance and time to
perform a round trip. Their acceptance ranges vary as follows:
Route 1 and Route 2: 2.8 m/s to 3.9 m/s
Route 3: 2.5 m/s to 3 m/s
– Carrying capacity is the ability to carry cargo, passenger, and crew,
ranging from 0.84 t to 3 t.
Single attribute and expense utility functions are elicited to generate
the performance curves that correlates the stakeholder attributes in
Fig. 8. They enable to normalize any performance metric. In the single-
attribute value curves, the worst values correspond to “0” while the
best values to “1”. Conversely, in the single- attribute expense curve,
the worst value corresponds to “1” while the best value corresponds
to “0”. The authors decided to opt for linear equations that would inter-
pret stakeholder preferences; however, more comprehensive surveys
conducted among stakeholders could result in more accurate equations.
SPB designs
This section discusses the generation of technical design solutions
and associated design variables. In this process, the chosen equipment's
structure and behavioral characteristics converge with missions and the
ability to perform in the given contexts.
The research in the local market resulted in the selection of two
types of hull models: an aluminum catamaran, and a canoe type mono-
hull manufactured with wood, Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP), and alu-
minum. They are described in Table 2. While the wooden monohull is
the most affordable and most widely found, it also has the shortest
lifespan, only six years. Besides its low cost, its advantage is the higher
147
Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152
carrying capacity, twice as much as the other two. A disadvantage is
its lightweight, more than double versus FRP, and more than triple ver-
sus aluminum. More energy is required to move the weight of the boat
compared to the other two. Features of FRP and aluminum boats are
quite similar, but other characteristics result in different prices. The alu-
minum boat is preferred for navigating the Amazon rivers because it re-
sists impacts much better than the FRP. On the other hand, the FRP
reparation requires the assistance of an experience fiberglass repairer,
a service that is still not very widespread in the Amazon region.
Monohulls shown in Fig. 9 can operate in all scenarios, but the cata-
maran navigates only on Route 1 due to the water bodies' physical
restrictions.
Propulsion units whose propellers dive to shallow depth reduce the
likelihood of hitting sandbanks and sticks, the norm in Amazonian
rivers. This characteristic is found in outboard pod propellers and a
long-tail shaft coupled with brushless DC motors displayed in Fig. 10.
Monohulls can be driven indifferently by outboard pod propellers or
long-tail shaft propulsion units. Nevertheless, catamarans only admit
the installation of two outboard pod propellers due to the hull breadth,
and the functionality of the outboard propulsion units enables the
maneuverability.
The selection of the EPS' rated power is strongly influenced by the
environment where they operate. The water speed is almost negligible
in lagoons, but they should be able to operate even under intense cur-
rent discharges in rivers. Fig. 11 shows the effective power of the two
types of hulls as a function of speed in calm water for different displace-
ments according to the statistical methods proposed. To operate on la-
goons within 2.8 m/s and 3.9 m/s, the catamaran, in solid line,
requires between 1.4 kW and 5.4 kW. The monohulls, in dashed line, re-
quire between 0.4 kW and 2.6 kW. To reach the current service cruising
speed of about 1.7 m/s in the rainy season, when the water speed is 2.5
m/s, the speed over water should be around 4.2 m/s. Therefore, the ef-
fective power for towing the boat is within the range of 2.8 kW and
4.4 kW. The propulsive power in Table 3 is the reference to meet the
EPS' effective power demand from Fig. 11.
Fig. 12 illustrates the propulsion units installed on the selected hulls.
EPS equipment is complemented by lithium iron phosphate batteries
and silicon PV modules. The hybrid inverter/charger and charge control-
ler is on board, simplifying charging the battery bank at the docks with
access to electric power. The set of SPB designs generated for each nav-
igation route are coded and characterized by design variables in Table 4.
SPB designs' attributes
SPB and current designs are analyzed to estimate their single-value
and single- expense attributes in this section. Table 5 lists the results
for each design. An attribute value outside the range required by the
stakeholders excludes the design from the evaluation.
Environmental effect
When the hours of operation exceed the emission-free operating
time shown in Fig. 13, battery banks have to be recharged onshore,
which is associated with environmental effects from the consumption
of non-renewable energy. To match the measurement unit of the cur-
rent design, they were distributed equally during the hours of operation
Table 3
Characteristics of propulsion units according to suppliers.
Parameter Unit Outboard Outboard LTS LTS
Torqeedo Torqeedo
Rated power kW 4 10 3 10
Propulsive kW 2.24 5.6 1 3.5
power
Weight kg 17 63 20 25
Lifetime years 10 10 6 6
Cost + IGV EUR 4350 12,950 1300 2800
R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152

per day. Monohulls from Route 1 would be contributing on average to

the generation of 0.5 kg CO2 eq hour−1, minimal value compared to
the emissions generated by the current design (CD). SPBs designed for
Route 2 can supply practically all the energy required. Similarly, in
Route 3, the SPB designs' consumption is supplied by solar energy
both generated onboard and on-land, thus there is no direct generation
of emissions.

Cruising speed
The cruising speed is proportional to the effective power and energy
consumed when sailing in calm waters. This trend is illustrated in
Fig. 14.a. The SPB 1132, whose design cruising speed is 3 m/s, performs
a 24 km round trip in 2 h 13 min, with an energy consumption of 7.2
kWh. If the cruising speed was to be increased, a propulsion unit bigger
than 3 kW would be required, resulting in higher energy consumption.
In this scenario, a trade-off is made between obtaining the cruising
speed requested and not oversize the propulsion unit, which would
lead to a larger battery bank.
There is a different logic to navigation upstream in rivers. The driver
can influence energy management through optimal speed selection.
This value is 1.7 m/s when the SPB 3132 is traveling upstream on the
Ucayali River in Fig. 14.b. If the speed increases or decreases, the journey
lasts less or more time at the expense of more energy in both cases.
Therefore, the principle is to obtain an acceptable average cruising
speed while making efficient energy use.
Fig. 11 shows another factor that influences the cruising speed: dis-
Fig. 12. Electric propulsion units installed on hulls.

placement. The greater the displacement generated by the boat and

cargo weight, the lower the speed at the same propulsion power. The
hulls' deadweight influence on the cruising speed is notorious in
Table 5. Lighter ones like FRP and aluminum are faster than the heavy
wooden ones.

Carrying capacity
Besides impacting the cruising speed, the equipment weight also af-
fects the carrying capacity because it permanently reduces this attri-
bute. As seen in Fig. 15, the propulsion and energy storage systems
equipment's weight are not significant in the SPB designs for Route 2.
However, the SPB designs' battery bank weight in Route 3 is appreciably
comparing to the other two scenarios. SPB designs with lower carrying
capacity, Aluminum and FRP monohulls, are the most affected.

Internal rate of return

The agreed period with Climate Cooperation for the cash flow anal-
ysis is 12 years. This time horizon is meaningful since many major
equipment replacements take place every 6 years. Table 6 provides an
insight into the potential return on SPB designs and the current design
performing under the operating conditions from Table 1.
The initial cost includes the equipment's acquisition cost and admin-
istrative expenses (100 EUR) to obtain the operating permits. Addition-
ally, Route 3 consists of installing a 5kWp-20kWh Off-grid system
(20,290 EUR), which significantly increased this feature. All the SPB de-
sign investment costs exceed the 1630 EUR of the current design. Re-
placement costs impact the cash flow every 6 years when the
batteries, LTS propulsion units and wooden hulls would be replaced,
but are even higher in the year 10 when the outboard motors are
substituted. Although at a low cost (530 EUR), the ICE replacement fre-
quency is 3 years. Annual maintenance costs listed in Table 7 are
projected expenses according to national suppliers. Additionally, annual
contingencies are reserved for eventualities. These cash flow compo-
nents are lower for the ICE case compared to costs associated with the
SPB designs. Nevertheless, the key to the fact that many of the Route 1
and Route 3 SPB designs in Table 6 resulted in higher IRRs than the cur-
rent design (CD) is the operational costs.
The operational costs include the ship operator's payment, which
amounts to 3000 EUR per year with an annual increase factor of 3%,
and the charge for electricity consumed from the grid (0.18 EUR/

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R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152

Table 4
SPB design variables.

Route SPB code Length (m) Breadth (m) Hull material Propulsion type Motor power (kW) Battery capacity (kWh) PV array size
(kWp)

1016 10 3.0 Aluminum Outboard 2×4 19.2 4.0

1116 12 1.6 Aluminum Outboard 4 9.6 2.2
1136 12 1.6 Aluminum LTS 3 9.6 2.2
Route 1 1114 12 1.6 FRP Outboard 4 9.6 2.2
1134 12 1.6 FRP LTS 3 9.6 2.2
1112 12 1.6 Wood Outboard 4 9.6 2.2
1132 12 1.6 Wood LTS 3 9.6 2.2
2116 12 1.6 Aluminum Outboard 4 2.4 0.8
2136 12 1.6 Aluminum LTS 3 2.4 1.0
2114 12 1.6 FRP Outboard 4 2.4 0.8
Route 2
2134 12 1.6 FRP LTS 3 2.4 1.0
2112 12 1.6 Wood Outboard 4 2.4 1.0
2132 12 1.6 Wood LTS 3 2.4 1.0
3116 12 1.6 Aluminum Outboard 10 19.2 2.2
3136 12 1.6 Aluminum LTS 10 28.8 2.2
3114 12 1.6 FRP Outboard 10 24.0 2.2
Route 3
3134 12 1.6 FRP LTS 10 28.8 2.2
3112 12 1.6 Wood Outboard 10 28.8 2.2
3132 12 1.6 Wood LTS 10 33.6 2.2

kWh). Every year energy charges increase as the PV Annual degradation 18.24%, 3132: 10.79%, and 3134: 11.85%). On the other hand, ICE propul-
rate factor is assumed to be 0.5%. Additionally, having observed an an- sion units have low IRR compared to SPBs on Route 1 and Route 3: CD1:
nual electrical charge upward trend of 2.5% in Yarinacocha, this electric- 11.00% and CD3: 5.26%. Only better than 1136, whose IRR is 9.95%, all
ity cost rate increase is applied. The cost of operation of the current other designs have a more attractive IRR than the current design. Re-
design is 3.18 EUR/h, to which a fuel cost variation rate of −3.10% in garding Route 3, all SPB designs are positioned as more profitable than
Peru in the last 10 years is applied (Banco Central de Reserva del Perú, the current design. The notable exception is Route 2, where the current
2020). These factors benefit the current design and are unfavorable con- design has an IRR of 59.51%, much higher than all SPBs. In the shorter
ditions for SPB designs. route scenario, revenues from operations are low despite having the
Note in Fig. 13 that the utility charges for energy consumption are highest fare per kilometer traveled, which does not compensate for
minimal, however, operational costs are considerable when gasoline is the high investment cost of SPBs.
consumed. Despite this fact, due to the very high investment costs of Fuel costs generate low IRRs on long routes. On the other hand, SPBs
the SPB 1016 catamaran and the SPB 2116 aluminum monohull in com- would generate more profitability and could be functional for working
parison with the income from service payments, they do not achieve a on fixed schedules as public transportation.
positive IRR, therefore they are disqualified from the evaluation.
Since the operational costs of SPBs are similar in each scenario, what
makes the difference is the investment costs. Accordingly, designs Single attribute's normalized values
consisting of wooden and FRP hulls and an LTS propulsion unit rank The results of single attributes normalization are listed in Table 8.
highest in IRR (1132: 29.62%, 1134: 25.00%, 2232: 23.70%, 2234: The importance of each attribute for the project's decision-maker was
captured in the multidimensional weighting factors from Table 9 that
modifies every single attribute's normalized values, and whose aggrega-
Table 5 tion results in the MAV and MAE. Since environmental effects are the
SPB design variables. only attribute that represents an expense for the system, it is the MAE
itself. The decision-maker rated the IRR, the cruising speed, and the car-
Code Internal Rate of Cruising speed Carrying Env Effect. kg
Return (%) (m/s) capacity (t) CO2 eq/h
rying capacity at 50%, 30%, and 20%, respectively. In this way, the
decision-maker prioritizes economic profitability without excluding
CD1 11.00 3.3 2.9 9.5
the users' requests regarding boat performance.
1016 −20.21 3.5 1.8 1.18
1112 20.05 3.3 2.8 0.53
1114 18.82 3.9 1.1 0.59
1116 11.19 3.9 1.5 0.52 5 10.0
Emissions (kg CO2 eq/ hour)

1132 30.14 3.0 2.8 0.46

1134 25.48 3.2 1.1 0.60 4 8.0
1136 10.42 3.2 1.5 0.53
CD2 59.51 3.3 2.9 9.5 3 6.0
Hours

2112 9.35 3.3 2.9 0.04

2114 7.50 3.9 1.2 0.12 2 4.0
2116 −2.20 3.9 1.6 0.05
2132 24.75 3.0 2.9 0.00 1 2.0
2134 19.13 3.2 1.2 0.00
2136 5.94 3.2 1.6 0.00 0 0.0
CD 1

CD 2

2136
1016
1112
1114
1116
1132
1134
1136

2112
2114
2116
2132
2134

CD3 5.26 2.5 2.9 9.5

3112 7.29 3.0 2.6 0.0
3114 8.31 3.0 0.9 0.0
3116 7.34 3.0 1.3 0.0 Emission-free operating time Operating hours per day CO2 emissions
3132 12.28 2.7 2.6 0.0
3134 13.32 2.9 0.9 0.0
Fig. 13. Environmental effects related to emissions generated by energy consumed from
3136 10.55 3.0 1.3 0.0
the grid.

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R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152

Fig. 14. Environmental effects related to emissions generated by energy consumed from the grid.

3000
2500
Displacement (kg)

2000
1500
1000
500
0
CD1
1016
1112
1114
1116
1132
1134
1136

CD2
2112
2114
2116
2132
2134
2136

CD3
3112
3114
3116
3132
3134
3136
Equipment weight (kg) Carrying capacity (kg)

Fig. 15. The hull carrying capacity is affected by the propulsion equipment weight, reducing the SPB carrying capacity.

Evaluation of SPB designs because the environmental effects are minimal compared to those of
the current design (CD), which are located at the end right. Neverthe-
Fig. 16 displays the results of the MAE and MAV calculations for each less, on the MAV axis, the difference in the value contribution of each
navigation route. The designs are located at the left end of the MAE axis design is more visible. SPBs placed on the MAV axis above CDs dominate

Table 6
Cash flow of SPB and current designs.

Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 IRR

CD1 −1630 321 327 −64 313 297 −540 256 233 2 185 162 139 11.00%
1016 −84,873 4941 6030 7343 8922 10,812 −18,624 15,738 18,888 22,575 −60,878 31,774 37,353 −20.63%
1112 −14,970 3577 2914 2371 1925 1561 −434 1020 821 659 −200 421 335 19.57%
1114 −16,470 3703 3051 2511 2063 1693 −53 1133 923 751 −195 493 397 18.38%
1116 −22,040 3996 3520 3096 2719 2385 −50 1824 1590 1383 −357 1038 895 10.82%
1132 −11,920 3416 2572 1934 1451 1088 −506 608 453 336 249 184 136 29.62%
1134 −13,420 3473 2708 2109 1639 1272 −394 761 587 451 346 265 201 25.00%
1136 −18,990 3911 3386 2916 2494 2116 −1199 1476 1207 967 754 565 397 9.95%
CD2 −1630 763 455 140 159 93 −39 31 17 2 5 3 1 59.51%
2112 −9720 2063 1825 1610 1414 1237 −334 932 802 684 −1392 482 396 8.24%
2114 −10,900 2084 1874 1679 1499 1332 308 1036 905 784 −1646 569 475 6.50%
2116 −16,470 2303 2277 2243 2202 2152 558 2024 1944 1853 −4216 1631 1499 −3.11%
2132 −6670 1852 1437 1111 856 657 −494 382 288 216 161 118 86 23.70%
2134 −8170 1936 1570 1269 1022 820 −286 520 410 321 250 192 145 18.24%
2136 −13,740 2176 1983 1802 1631 1471 −566 1179 1047 923 805 695 593 5.29%
CD3 −1630 −384 −183 −465 135 257 −767 441 507 225 598 625 643 5.26%
3112 −51,780 8044 7535 7055 6602 6176 −3521 5395 5037 4701 −3134 4085 3804 5.59%
3114 −51,300 7964 7386 6847 6344 5875 −1291 5030 4650 4297 −2836 3660 3374 6.65%
3116 −54,890 8030 7510 7020 6558 6124 58 5332 4970 4631 −3082 4011 3729 5.77%
3132 −43,610 7711 6885 6144 5480 4886 −5196 3877 3451 3069 2728 2423 2151 10.79%
3134 −43,130 7638 6754 5970 5275 4658 −3385 3626 3197 2817 2480 2182 1918 11.85%
3136 −48,700 7824 7087 6417 5808 5253 −3910 4292 3875 3497 3154 2843 2560 9.19%

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R. Zuloeta Bonilla, R. Bhandari and A. Pérez Rodarte Energy for Sustainable Development 61 (2021) 139–152

Table 7 Conclusion
Maintenance costs and contingencies per equipment.

Component Units ICE Outboard LTS PV system This research is supported by an exhaustive study of the Amazonian
Maintenance cost EUR 50 100 50 400
context. The application of the MATE methodology generated a set of
Contingencies EUR 50 100 100 100 SPB designs according to the stakeholders' preferences. Then, the SPB
designs that contribute the most value to cost efficiency were identified.
Insights into the attributes of the various coupling options have
disclosed that SPBs are competitive not only technically but also eco-
Table 8 nomically. EPS installed in typical Amazonian canoe-type hulls meet
Single attribute's normalized values. the requested cruising speed and carrying capacity ranges at a minimal
Code IRR Cruising speed Carrying capacity MAV Env Effect. MAE environmental impact. Despite the significant investment costs of
CD1 0.371 0.500 0.954 0.526 1.000 1.000
equipping a solar boat, including installing an off-grid PV system in a re-
1112 0.661 0.475 0.920 0.657 0.056 0.056 mote indigenous community, high fossil fuel costs make solar boats
1114 0.621 1.000 0.133 0.637 0.062 0.062 more profitable in long navigation routes in the long term.
1116 0.365 1.000 0.295 0.542 0.054 0.054 It is true that internal combustion engines played an integrating role
1132 1.000 0.200 0.919 0.744 0.049 0.049
and brought the population of the Amazon region closer together, but it
1134 0.844 0.375 0.132 0.561 0.063 0.063
1136 0.336 0.375 0.294 0.339 0.056 0.056 has also been demonstrated that they have not been able to reach
CD2 1.000 0.500 0.954 0.841 1.000 1.000 the most vulnerable populations. Even more, they can no longer be
2112 0.139 0.475 0.965 0.405 0.004 0.004 sustained in times when the impact of emissions generated by the burn-
2114 0.109 1.000 0.180 0.391 0.013 0.013 ing of fossil fuels is damaging this fragile ecosystem. Given this prospect,
2132 0.398 0.200 0.964 0.452 0.000 0.000
the Amazon region cannot be separated from the world community's ef-
2134 0.307 0.375 0.177 0.301 0.000 0.000
2136 0.089 0.375 0.339 0.225 0.000 0.000 forts to define a new energy paradigm based on fossil-energy substi-
CD3 0.457 0.000 0.981 0.425 1.000 1.000 tutes. Solar-powered boats are an alternative to fossil fuel dependency
3112 0.485 0.900 0.827 0.678 0.000 0.000 disadvantages and would be a new integrative force for the Amazon
3114 0.577 0.900 0.041 0.567 0.000 0.000
region.
3116 0.500 0.900 0.233 0.567 0.000 0.000
3132 0.937 0.350 0.820 0.737 0.000 0.000
3134 1.029 0.700 0.035 0.732 0.000 0.000 Declaration of competing interest
3136 0.798 0.900 0.202 0.709 0.000 0.000
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
Table 9 ence the work reported in this paper.
Multidimensional weighting factors.

Attributes
Environmental effect
Internal rate of return
Average cruising speed
Carrying capacity
the CDs as they offer higher value at a lower expense. In the Route 1 sce-
nario, the SPBs that dominate CD1 are 1132, 1112, 1114, and 1116.
Among all of them, 1132 conforms to the Pareto Optimal set because
none offers a lower MAV to a lower MAE. All the SPBs from Route 3
dominate CD3 and 3132 makes up the Pareto Optimal set. Route 2
SPBs contribute a low MAV compared to CD2; however, 2132 is not
dominated by CD2 because the decision-maker can trade off the differ-
ence in their respective MAVs at the expense of the difference in MAEs.
Therefore, 2132 and CD2 make up the Pareto Optimal set.
ki Acknowledgements
1.0
0.5 We thank the members of the Shipibo-Konibo communities who
0.3 participated in this research, especially to FECONAU. Our gratitude ex-
0.2
tends to the Peruvian Government organizations that collaborated with
information related to the characterization of the case study: ANA,
DICAPI, DREM, and foremost, the Municipality of Yarinacocha. We are
grateful to Engagement Global and the City of Cologne, which provided
financial support for the fieldwork in Yarinacocha. Rosa Zuloeta is
thankful for the funding received through the DAAD Scholarship for Stu-
dents and Doctoral Candidates when writing her master's thesis.
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