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CHAPTER I: A Sustainable Way to Generate Energy from olive pits via CFD
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CHAPTER I: A Sustainable Way to
Generate Energy from olive pits via
CFD application.

Mohamed Ali Mami1, Marzouk Lajili1*

1
University of Monastir, Preparatory Institute of Engineering Studies of Monastir
(IPEIM), Ionized and Reactive Media Studies Research Laboratory (EMIR), 15
Avenue Ibn El Jazzar Monastir 5019, Tunisia.
* Corresponding author: marzouk.lajili@ipeim.rnu.tn
hama.mami@yahoo.com;

Abstract

Biomass combustion has become a crucial conversion process for producing a clean energy
in the form of heat in domestic stoves and/or electricity in power plants. Currently, olive
pits/stones are attractive solid biofuels due to their physic-chemical characteristics.
However, the complexity of the combustion process and the heavy and high cost
experimental tests have made the use of CFD calculations a strong necessity. Indeed, CFD
based on modelling and simulation has proved the capability of optimising various
combustion parameters up reaching the best solution. Hence, the present chapter gives a
comprehensive review of the characteristics of olive pits in its raw and densified form and
the performance of the combustion technologies. It explores, in another way, the
mathematical equations governing the heat and mass transfer with a detail sub-model. It
gives a detailed description of the heterogeneous and homogeneous chemical reactions
phenomenon and the gas flow in the case of a fixed bed combustor fed by olive pits using
COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS.

Keywords: Combustion, fixed bed reactor, olive pits, pellets, COMSOL

MULTIPHYSICS

1
1. Introduction

In recent decades, agro-industrial by-products are investigated environment-friendly

renewable energy sources. The predictions provide that this sector occupying currently the
third place in terms of energy potential could reach almost 1548 1018J by the year 2050 [1-
3]. Among these by-products, olive mill solid residues are yielded in a huge quantity
mainly in the Mediterranean area. These lignocellulosic wastes is a mixture of olive
pomace and olive pits. This energy source could be exploited either traditionally to feed
domestic animals, to produce fire for the poor populations [4], or densified in the form of
logs, pellets or briquettes for a longer domestic utilisation when feeding different devices
such as furnaces, stoves and boilers [2]. Indeed, olive pits obtained after filtration of olive
pomace is an attractive and a widespread biofuels rich by valuable components due to
important physical and chemical properties [5]. Hence, thermochemical conversion
processes of olive pits/stones into energy for heat and/or electricity production is becoming
a promising alternative way established based on efficient technologies including
combustion process. This process is the easiest technique and the most proven method for
biomass conversion in various industrial and domestic plants [6, 7]. In addition, such
process when used while well-chosen of biofuels is qualified by high heat transfer, neutral
CO2, fuel flexibility and its low emissions of NOx and Sox [8, 3]. Furthermore, combustion
allows the use of feedstock with initial humidity going up to 60% [9]. Many types of
devices can be used for combustion process such as different types of fixed/fluidized beds,
furnaces, stoves and boilers [9, 10]. Nevertheless, the fixed bed reactor remains the
relatively simple method and a useful technic for realizing the combustion of solid biofuels
due to its facility, to its relatively high automation and to its low cost investment when fed
with solid biofuels [11-13]. However, the complexity of the solid biomass structure, the
different parameters and mechanisms governing the whole phenomena such as the heat and
mass transfer, the gas flow, the drying phase, the pyrolysis, the combustion and the
gasification make the collection of the experimental data in a fixed bed combustor a
delicate controlled manoeuvre [14]. Hence, the numerical simulation based on
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) in the case of biomass combustion can provide
many advantages, when developing a model for this target. Indeed, it will be easy to change
all parameters characterizing the phenomena and the models of the flow and the kinetic
mechanisms [15, 17]. Thereby, we present in this chapter, an overview detailing the
biomass (in particular oleic by-products such as olive pits) and the combustion
technologies. A numerical simulation of the olive pits pellets during the combustion in a

2
counter-current fixed bed reactor is a case study. This model is performed for transient
analysis of a two-dimensional CFD modelling by implementing a various sub-model in
COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS code [14].

2. Biomass combustion characteristics

2.1 characterization of the biomass:
According to the European directive 2003/30/EC, biomass is the general term for all
organic materials derived from wastes and by-products of the agriculture, forests, wood,
municipal solid waste and food conversion industries such as oleic by-products, sawdust
and bagasse etc. [18]. Indeed, biomass and in particular, lignocellulosic biomass in its dry
or wet form is mainly composed of three mainly components; hemicelluloses, cellulose
and lignin and their compositions vary from a biomass type to another as it is illustrated in
table 1 [18, 19]. In this table we observe that cellulose’s prevails over that of lignin and
hemicelluloses [21, 22]. It is to be highlighted that characteristics and compositions of
biomass vary significantly with the geography position, the climate conditions, the type
and the storage technique [13]. Before biomass densification and conversion to biofuels, it
is usually recommended to characterize them via ultimate and proximate analyses [23].
Ultimate analysis included the determination of percentages of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen and sulfur respectively via CHONS technique. Proximate analysis consists at
determining the contents of moisture using an oven at 105°C for 24h, volatiles, fixed
carbon, ash using ATG technique and high heating (HHV)/low heating value (LHV) using
calorimetric bomb [23, 24]. Others characteristics such as bulk density, shape and particle
size are associated to the fuel preparation techniques while porosity and density are
associated to the biomass species [24].

Table 1: Composition of some biomasses.

Biomass Lignin (%) Hemi-cellulose Cellulose (%)
(%)
Olive pomace 20.1 24.6 25.0
Beechwood 22.1 32.7 45.2
Pin sawdust 27.7 26.4 45.9
Rice 14.9 23.8 52.3

2.2 Oleic solid by-products

3
Mediterranean countries as Spain, Italy, Greece and particularly Tunisia generate each year
a huge quantity of agro-industrial by-products obtained mainly by various olive oil
manufactures such as Olive Mill industry. By-products in both solid and liquid states.
About 1200kilotons of Olive Mill Wastewater (OMWW) called olive mill effluent and a
varied quantity between 350.000-450.000 tons of Olive Mill Solid Waste (OMSW) called
olive pomace are generated each year in Tunisia (figure 1(a-b)). These residues are
available outdoors and can cause a threat to the environment [25, 26].

Figure 1: Olive by-products: (a) Olive pomace; (b) Olive mill wastewater.

OMSW derived from the two-phase process (no water is added as the three-phase method),
is characterized by a combination of 21 % olive pulp, 41.5 % olive pits (stones), 8.5 %
residual oil and 28.5 % water [27-29]. Currently, this biomass is considered as a promising
source of renewable energy for producing heat/or electricity or in cogeneration and a
valuable by-products used for producing several compounds used in cosmetic, in health or
in composting etc. [30-32]. Indeed, what gives this biomass all its importance is its richness
in several constituents like minerals, phenolic, fibres and high calorific power [32, 33-35].
Moreover, OMSW can be separated into olive pomace (OP) and olive pits (OPi) by a
specific process. OPi called olive kernels (OPi) as shown in figure 2 represents the most
important biofuels with a production up to 6.800.000 tons per year [36, 37]. It can be used
in combustion processes for producing heat or electricity in both rural and urban area owing
to its high energy content, high bulk density, low moisture content and uniform size [38,
39]. In addition, it can be used as animal feed, bio-sorbent, activated carbon, cosmetic,
resin, liquid and gas formation and so many other uses [40]. Hence, using this material as
a biofuel could be observed as a viable source of energy and environment friendly [31].

4
 Figure 2: Olive pits.

Nevertheless, solid residues exhibit in general low bulk densities and high humidity
content, which negatively influences their thermochemical conversion processes. For that,
adequate pre-treatments such as drying, densification and torrefaction should be
undertaken in order to improve their characteristics before investigation one of thermal
processes used during conversion such as pyrolysis, gasification or combustion [31].
Mechanical densification as pelletization is a suitable path for solid biofuels production
thanks to high energy density, more or less homogeneity and economic viability at
competitive costs of the produced pellets [42-44]. Obtained pellets as shown on figure 3
takes a cylindrical shape with 15-30 mm length and a 5-6 mm diameter. Once prepared,
these pellets are perennial and environmental friendly energy source allowing the
production of heat and/or electricity separately or in a cogeneration concept [32, 45-46].

5
 Figure.3: prepared pellets from different blends of OMSW and pine sawdust.
Crucibles contain ash of one pellet after combustion

2.3 Combustion characteristics

Combustion is the easiest and thereby the most used process among other thermochemical
conversion techniques. It represents 97% of the world’s biofuels generation and it is
strongly influenced by many factors; the type of reactors, the air supply (primary/secondary
and their flow rates), the equivalence ratio, the flow type (laminar/turbulent), the fuel type,
the particle size and the residence time [20, 26, 47]. Hence, biomass combustion is a
complex phenomenon involved simultaneously coupled heat and mass transfer through the
fluid flow including a successive series of homogenous and heterogeneous chemical
reactions [9]. However, combustion is not the final target. Indeed, the heat released by
combustion could be used through a steam cycle in order to produce by a steam turbine or
using burned gas for a direct operation of a gas turbine. The whole process of combustion
could be modelled by 5 steps as it is illustrated in figure 4; drying, devolatilization, char
(bio-char/carbon residual) combustion and finally gasification and volatiles oxidation (H2,
CH4, CO, CxHy) [20].

6
 Figure 4: Global mechanism of the combustion process.

3.3 Combustion technologies

Biomass combustion uses different plants which could be divided into domestic and
industrial use. Indeed, for household use stoves, boilers and pellet burners could be used,
whereas powered, furnaces, fixed/fluidized beds, engines (fed by syngas), turbines could
investigated for industrial exploitation[9]. However, whatever the type of plant the
combustion medium is always decomposed into two zones: the first zone which can be a
fluidized bed (circulating or dense or rotating) or a fixed bed (mobile or vibrating or
rotating) and the second zone called freeboard zone [9, 10]. Moreover, the choice of the
suitable combustion system depends on several factors such as the nominal reactor power,
shape and size of the biofuels with which the reactor is alimented and the
primary/secondary air supply [9].

7
 Figure 4: Structure of grate incinerator of biomass: (a) Grate incinerator; (b) Fixed bed
reactor.
3.3.1 Fluidized incinerator furnace
This type of furnace is characterized by relatively high combustion efficiency up to 99%.
In addition, fluidized bed incineration furnaces (figure 5) have the advantage of ensuring
better combustion of solid biofuels of different natures and of small sizes (from 0.1 to 0.6
mm) when they are mixed with inert materials often silica sand or dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)).
The mixture is suspended by a flow of hot air, which allows good heat recovery and
minimizes unburnt emissions; NOx and SOx respectively.
3.3.2 Grate incinerator furnace
Currently, grate incinerators based on fixed bed are generally the most widespread in
comparison to the mobile, vibrating and rotating beds because they can treat various
heterogeneous wastes with high humidity levels [48]. These fixed beds take two types of
configurations: counter-current and a co-current fixed beds.

8
 Figure 5: An example of fluidized bed reactor.

3.3.2.1 Counter-current fixed bed reactor

In this type of configuration as it is shown in figure 6, biomass is fed in the upper part while
air is introduced from the bottom of the bed [12, 49]. The propagation of the flame front
takes place in opposition to the primary air injection as soon as the combustion
phenomenon begins (Figure 6b).
3.3.2.1 Co-current fixed bed reactor
In the co-current fixed bed reactor, biomass feed is done at the top of the reactor while the
air is injected at mid-height in order to initiate the combustion phenomenon and increase
the enthalpy of the reaction as illustrated in figure 7. Thus, the flame front propagates in
the same direction as that of the air flow as soon as the combustion process is triggered,
thus feeding the same phases that appeared during combustion in a fixed bed against the
current, but in a different order [50]. Indeed, many previous researchers [2, 3, 12, 50] have
shown that the grate incinerator with counter-current fixed bed as shown in figure 6,
presented the most widespread and attractive solution to be adopted for biomass conversion
process because it can treat various wastes with high humidity content and due to its
relative simplicity and robustness, as well as their ability to produce low levels of gaseous
and particulate emissions.

9
 Figure 6: A counter-current fixed bed structure.

Figure 7: A co-current fixed bed structure.

3. CFD modeling: A case study

Due to the complexity of the solid biomass conversion process respectively in the fixed
bed and freeboard zone, mathematical simulation such as Computational Fluid Dynamic
(CFD) of all the aspects of combustion biofuels in fixed bed reactor is became a widespread
tool for analyzing and studying the performance of the burning biomass systems [51].
Indeed, CFD model can predict not only the behavior of the reactive and inert flows of
fluid during laminar and turbulent flow but it describes most the various physico-chemical
and thermal phenomenon appeared during the biomass combustion such as drying,

10
pyrolysis, oxidation of pyrolysis gas, combustion and gasification of the residual char, heat
and mass transfer and the kinetics of the chemical reactions [10, 52].
3.1 Relation between fixed bed and the freeboard zone:
The modelling for CFD application of a reactor composed by two mainly components: the
fixed bed and freeboard can be modeled separately or coupled as shown in figure 8.

Figure 8: (a) separated zones; (b) coupled zones.

However, a continuity of the variables values should be assured between the interfaces of
the coupled zones. Obtained values in the fixed bed will be considered as an initial
conditions to the freeboard zone while a prevision initial conditions of the obtained values
from the fixed bed will be estimated to the freeboard zone in case of separated zones [53].
Indeed, the behavior of the various phenomena will be performed in CFD software
(COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS) by using a transient 2D configuration as shown below
during the combustion of the pellets olive pits. Details modeling were reported in reference
[14].
3.1 Model description
3.1.1 Computational configuration
The two-dimensional (2D) model used in our CFD model is a cylindrical geometry with
400 mm height (H) and 115 mm diameter (d). It can be decomposed into two main zones:
the first zone is denoted the fixed bed (D1) and the second zone which is the freeboard
zone (D2) as it is shown in figure 9.

11
 Figure 9: A 2D geometry model.

3.1.2 Governing equations in the two reactor’s zones

The overall combustion process can be separated into four different sub-processes: drying,
pyrolysis and combustion of VOC, combustion and gasification of the residual char. Each
step of these four steps should be modeled in the entire CFD code as it was reported in our
previous work [14]. However, in this chapter, we restrict the study only to the 2D of the
governing equations for both solid and gas phases.
3.1.2.1 Inner the fixed bed
o The gas phase modelling
The continuity, the energy, the species and momentum conservation equations respectively
in the gas phase in two-dimensional (2D) can be written as below:
 Continuity conservation

t

 g g  
1 
r r

r  g u g ,r 

  
 u g , z  R moist  R pyr  Rchar
z g (1)
 Energy conservation

12
 
t

 g C pg  g T g   1 
r r

r  g C pg u g , r T g 

z
  
 g C pg u g , z T g 

1   T g  1   T g    T g 
 r  g  eff , g    r eff , g     eff , g 
r r  r  r   r  z  z 
A p h gs T s  T g    R i H i  
i (2)
Where,

Φ=∑ 𝑟 , ∫ 𝑐 , 𝑑𝑇 (3)

Where, the index i represents CO2, CH4, H2, CO, O2 and H2Og respectively.
 Both projections of momentum radial equation read as:

t 

 g  g u g, r   ur


r

 g u g, r  u z

z
 

 g u g, r    p 
r

1   
 g 
r r  r
 2
 r u g, r  
 z ²
u g, r  
u g, r 
r ²

  g  f
 g g r r
 
(4)
With,

180  g u g , r (1   s ) 1.75  g u ² g , r
fr 
d ² p ²s d ² p ²s
(5)
and orthoradial equation is expressed as:

t 

 g  g u g, z   ur


r

 g ug , z  u z

z
 

 g u g, z    p 
z

1   
 g 
 2
 r u g, z  

 
u g , z    g  g g z  f z
 r r  r  z ² 
(6)
with,

180  g u g , z (1   s ) 1.75  g u ² g , z
fr 
d ² p ²s d ² p ²s
 The conservation species is given by:


t

  g X i,g  1 
r r

r g u g , z X i , g 

t
 
 g u g , z X i, g  
1      
 rDeff , g  g  X i , g    Deff , g  g  X i , g   S i
r  r  z  z  (7)

13
 o The solid phase modeling
The continuity, the energy and the species conservation equations respectively in the gas
phase in two-dimensional (2D) can be expressed as below:
 Continuity equation:
 s  m 
  Rmoist  s
t (8)
and that of is:

  s  dry ,olive 
R pyr  s
t (9)
  s  c 
 R pyr  RcH 2O  RCO
C
2
 ROc2  s
t (10)
The solid fraction conservation is as follows:

  s   RcH 2O  RCO 2
 ROc 2 
 c

t  s  s
 (11)
In order to take into account the bed shrinkage phenomena, the following expression
was considered:

 d 3p   RcH 2O  RCO 2
 ROc 2  3
  c
dp

t   s  (12)
While supposing that the ash component is inert:
  s  a 
0
t (13)
Where, Rmoist, Rpyro, 𝑅 ,𝑅 and 𝑅 are the reaction rates of evaporation,
pyrolysis, gasification and combustion of the char respectively. Hence, the total density
can be calculated as:
 s  Y moist  moist  Y Olive  olive  Y c  c (14)
The used energy conservation equation is:


 s C p ,s  s T s      eff ,s  T s   1   r eff ,s  T s 
t z  z  r r  r 
 A p hsg (T g  T s )  S s  Qrad
(15)
and, the species conservation is insured by:

  s Y i, s   S i, s
t (16)

14
 3.1.2.2 In the Freeboard zone:
The turbulent flow in the freeboard zone is modelled by 𝐾 − 𝜀 low Reynolds number
given by the following momentum equations as shown below which are expressed in 2D:
 Turbulent kinetic energy 𝑘 :

1    e    

t

(  ) g  
1 
r r
 
r  g u g ,r  

z

 g u g,z   r  
 
r r     r  

t 
 u z  ur
r

z
2


 r z
  
  2  2 u ²
 2 t  ur  uz  r  
r 
2 1 
3

 e
r r
 r ur  

z
2

u z    
1 
 r r
  
z 

ru r   u z   (  ) g  2
c
(17)
 Turbulent dissipated kinetic energy ∈:


t
     1r r r  u   z  u
g g g, r g g,z  
1   e    
r    
r       r  
  e 
   
z    z 
  


u g ,z   2
 

 
    
   
2
 z 
C1  (u )   u g , r   2  t   (  ) g 
 
2  C2
   t r g , z z 
2 
 
 


u
r g , r
 
u g ,r  
r  
 

(18)
with, C1=1.44, C2= 1.92, σ =1 et 𝜎 =1.3

3.1.2 Fuel properties

All the characteristics and compositions of the biofuels as in ultimate and in proximate
analysis and their physical and energetic properties used in our CFD modeling are
mentioned in our previous work [14].
3.1.3 Mesh and numerical resolution
The finite element method was chosen for equations discretization in a transient regime.
An implicit scheme in the COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS was considered. However, a finer
mesh was selected in our CFD due to his short computational time (only 24 hours). A mesh
grid with 7305 elements is considered. Moreover, a moving mesh was adapted in order to
refine our calculations in the interface zone as it is shown on figure 10. The calculation
15
area was meshed with a space step of 1.5mm, whereas the calculation time was
automatically defined by the solver.

Figure 10: Mesh grid structure.

4. Simulation results and discussions

4.1 Gas and solid temperature distribution
The temperature distribution inside the reactor in both fixed bed and freeboard zones is
illustrated on figure 5 at different instants.

Figure 11: Gas and solid temperature distribution inside the reactor

16
Figure 11 shows the distribution of the temperature from the freeboard (D1) to the fixed
bed zone (D2) at various times. Once, the ignition phase started from the top of the
freeboard by a radiation heat at t = 0 s, the flame propagates rapidly in the gas phase at t=
1500 s, and then slowly in the solid phase until reaching the bed bottom at t = 3600 s. The
propagation of the flame front occurs in opposite direction to the gas flow, as shown in this
figure, justifying hence the counter-current nature of the reactor [50]. Indeed, the evolution
of the solid and gas temperature inside the fixed bed (zone D1) considered as a porous
medium can lead to a perfect thermal equilibrium between these temperature phases.
Hence, it is possible to consider a single energy conservation equation and to exclude the
convective term between the gas phase and the solid phase which make calculations easier.
4.2 Gaseous emissions in the freeboard zone
Figure 12 shows a comparison between the simulation and experimental measurement of
the distribution of CO, CO2, CH4 and H2Og at different instants from their releasing at the
fixed bed to the freeboard zone during the combustion of olive pits pellets. Details of the
numerical simulation obtained from these emissions are shown in [14].

Figure.12 Gaseous emissions calculated.

Acronyms and Abbreviations

eff effective
t turbulent
rad radiation
Pyr Pyrolysis
moist moisture
g gas

17
 s solid
i,j Relating to component i or j
p particle
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamic

Appendices and Nomenclature

u Velocity m.s-1
D Diffusion Coefficient m².s-1
Y Mass fraction -
S Source term Kg.m-3.s-1
p Pression Pa
g Gravity field m.s-2
Cp Specific heat capacity J.Kg-1.K-1
S Specific surface m-1
h Convective heat transfer W.m-2.K-1
coefficient
∆𝐻 R Enthalpy of reaction J.Kg-1
Qrad Radiative source W.m-3
d Diameter m
Sk Term source of turbulent kg.m-1.s-3
energy production
𝑆∈ Term source of turbulent kg.m-1.s-4
dissipated energy
T Temperature K
X Molar fraction -
R Reaction rate Kg.m-3.s-1
t Time s
H Reactor height m
Re Reynolds Number -
k Kinetic turbulent energy m2.s-2

Greek
ε Porosity -

18
 λ Thermal conductivity W.m-1.K-1
𝜇 Dynamic viscosity Pa.s
𝜌 Density Kg.m-3
𝜎 Stephan_Boltzman W.m-2.K-4
Constant
∈ Turbulent energy m².s-3
dissipation velocity
τ Stress tensor

Conclusion(s)

In this chapter, an overview of the characterization of oleic by-products particularly olive

pits, combustion technologies and its conversion into energy was explored. A transient
CFD two-dimensional (2D) mathematical model has been taken from our previous work
[14] describing the different physico-chemical and thermal phenomenon occurring inside
the fixed bed was developed and simulated during the combustion of olive pits pellets. This
simulation was carried out using COMSOL Multiphysics. However, the turbulent flow was
modelled by K-ε model at the freeboard zone. Temperature and gaseous emission inside
the reactor in both the fixed bed and the freeboard zone was modeled and calculated.

Conflict of Interest

We declare that there aren’t any conflicts between authors whose agree to submit this
work to Computational Fluid Dynamics - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and
Applications books.

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