Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour (MAN1)

Question 2

One of the key functions of health and safety professionals is to bring about fundamental changes
in the ways in which health and safety is perceived in organisations. This often involves the
development and implementation of new management systems and the introduction of new roles
and responsibilities. With reference to sound management theory, discuss how change can be
brought about with the minimum disruption and resistance.

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Assignment for Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour Question 2 final copy by S Johnson
PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
Contents

1. Introduction
2. Organisational Perceptions
3. Management
4. Development and Implementation
5. Change Management
6. Conclusion

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Assignment for Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour Question 2 final copy by S Johnson
PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
Introduction

Whatever stage or however good the organisation is at managing its health and safety,
improvement will always be necessary. The need for driving change forward may come
from within or from outside the organisation. New regulations and changing technology
always brings change that requires interpreting and managing. The aim of this assignment
is to examine a variety of management theories and their possible effectiveness when
applied to H&S Management.

Attempting to bring about fundamental change, in the way in which health and safety is
perceived, may provide numerous obstacles that have to be overcome. The subject of
‘managing organisational change’ and the different approaches that may be applied will
also be explored. The health and safety professional (H&SP) attempting to address this
fundamental area will require knowledge, understanding and insight in organisational
structures and systems, if they are to be successful. Especially if new management
systems, roles and responsibilities are to be introduced with minimum disruption and
resistance.

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Assignment for Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour Question 2 final copy by S Johnson
PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
Organisational Perceptions

The subject of health and safety to the H&S professional is understandably perceived as
being the organisations highest calling. However others in the organisation may not hold
to the same assumption. Other issues like business strategy, marketing, departmental
issues and profit are widely seen as being of equal or greater importance. The latter
usually being at the pinnacle.

Many often see profit and health and safety as being in conflict. The view has been
articulated by numerous spokesmen including Reamsbottom (03)1 when he stated “We
must not let safety be threatened by the pressure to make profits”. With many leading
organisations, including the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), claiming successful
H&S management can reduce costs and improve efficiency, does safety need to be
sacrificed to profit?

It is interesting to note here that Drucker (1974)2 suggests the ‘pursuit of profit’ as an end
in itself often blinkers an organisation and can lead to its demise. On the other hand many
successful organisations have succeeded financially by not having profit as their
overriding objective. This view may go some way to providing an answer to the profit
verses safety conflict. The H&SP can encourage the organisation to predominately focus
on the continuous improvement of health and safety standards. Profit then becomes the
by-product, as a result of a reduction in incidents, accidents, ill health and improved
worker efficiency. This may seem an illogical stance to management, but this is exactly
what British chocolate manufactures Fry, Cadbury and Rowntree did through the
eighteenth to the early twenty century, by setting up their businesses for the welfare of
employees. (RC) 3

In dealing with the issue of bringing fundamental changes to an organisation, the logical
starting point would be to determine its current position, before embarking on a journey

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Assignment for Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour Question 2 final copy by S Johnson
PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
of change. This initial starting point of attempting to understand an organisation and the
people, of whom they consist, could in turn enable the H&SP to discover the culture that
has evolved overtime, and possible areas in which to instigate change.

These initial steps however may need to be proceeded by a study of the reasons for
change and the motivation behind it. Without first clarifying the motivation behind the
change, success maybe hindered. Analysing ones own beliefs and motivation about
change may be beneficial in laying a solid foundation of inner conviction. Not just by the
application of superficial management techniques. This point is taken up by Anderson
(1998) 4 he claims that the leader/ manager must first look deeply at his/her own beliefs
and even try to find answers to the deeper `why` questions before attempting to answer
the ‘how’ questions. The why question in this context could mean why change. Why that
goal? The underlying factors will need to be more than ‘change for change sake’, or
change for external appearance. Reasons for why change is necessary may be driven by
external factors, (e.g. change in legislation) or internal ones (process changes or
accidents).

Organisational culture does not develop over-night, many of the predominant attitudes
will have developed over many years. Mintzberg and Quinn (1991) 5 succinctly noted this
when they stated, “Whether we realise it or not our behaviour is guided by the systems of
ideas that we have internalised over the years”. This thinking can be applied to both the
individual and the organisation as a whole. They also go on to state that much can be
learned by bringing these out into the open and examining them more carefully and
making comparisons with other alternatives.

Organisational culture can often be viewed negatively, while some assert that culture is
neither negative nor positive. Waring A. (1989) 6 stated that “organizational culture is not
a disease to be cured”. The beliefs of senior managers can have a very strong influence
on the organisational culture, and may provide the greatest opportunity or challenge when
attempting to bring about change. By exploring the systems and the thinking behind them

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Assignment for Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour Question 2 final copy by S Johnson
PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
with a variety of key people, the H&SP can gain a better understanding within a shorter
period, of the organisation as a whole.

Understanding organisational culture could be achieved by analysing a number of key

issues. Those being the “beliefs and values of those seen as guardians, the recruitment
and induction process of new employees, the effectiveness of responses to critical
incidents” Schein (1985)7. This process can assist in gauging a clear picture of the
organisations culture. But the H&SP will have to keep in mind widely differing views
amongst other commentators who have contrasting perceptions. Oakland (1993)8 for
example, believed that the behaviours based on peoples interactions, norms resulting
from working groups, dominant values adopted by the organisation, rules of the game for
getting on and the climate all forms the culture. He then goes on to claim a vivid
description of the organisations mission is required to initiate change.

With many potential methods available for ascertaining organisational culture, it is

suggested that the key issue is, observing the effect of identifiable features of the culture
upon H&S performance.

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Assignment for Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour Question 2 final copy by S Johnson
PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
Management

Are current systems being employed the result of ‘strategic management’ based on
known theories? Or has the structure and culture just evolved with little directional
planning? The management of an organisation may be a deliberate style chosen by senior
management, as a result of their education or experience. Contrastingly it may simply be
a result of ‘traditions’, with no deliberate attempt to follow a chosen path.

Organisational cultural roots may be derived from the early management theories like
‘scientific management’. This was an approach of increased efficiency by carefully
planning workers movements in an efficient way, and breaking down operations into
diminutive standardised tasks. Initially this appears to be logical. Critics soon pointed out
that as the work inevitably became tedious, it would necessitate the requirement for strict
discipline and vigilant supervision. Scientific management had failed to consider the
human element, and only considered financial rewards as an incentive to workers. This
dehumanisation possibly created the conditions of what many considered a more
favourable method of management, the ‘human relations’ approach.

The classical management theory that was also developed around the same time had
many similarities. Both theories not only pervaded early twentieth century manufacturing
industries they also further reinforced the strict authoritarian hierarchical structure needed
to maintain the system. What relevance has this to the H&SP attempting to bring about
change? Although the H&SP may not encounter the same work processes, the
management style may still have some striking similarities. It is suggested that this is an
archaic approach that is now considered outdated by many. Japanese management, who
many regard as world leaders in the field, tend see their role not as “steering from above
but responding to input from below”. Anderson (1998)9 The Japanese are also seen as
long-term thinkers as they invest heavily in both research development and their staff.

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Assignment for Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour Question 2 final copy by S Johnson
PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
The H&SP in this context could respond from input from below by listening to
employees. Often they are the ones who are better acquainted with work processes and
risks. Discussion and guidance can then be the manager’s tools, rather than a dictate with
little or no consultation.

Newer ‘risk based’ as opposed to ‘prescriptive’ regulations, have also given opportunity
for employee consultation. Risk based regulations however have proved difficult for
some managers to understand. This has lead to the need for educating in new legal
positions. Although ambiguity has set in with many who prefer a more black & white
approach, others have clearly seen this as a liberating opportunity for development and
innovation, that had been previously stifled. Allowing people within an organisation to
think and develop new ideas and systems has proved to be a very effective as latter
motivational theories suggest.

Rigid classical and scientific theories do not appear to meet the need of modern
organisations within a changing business environment. What other key organisational and
management theories are available to the H&SP. The main ones are, ‘bureaucracy’ with
its complex rules and systems, this is also reliant on an authoritarian hierarchical
structure, making it very inflexible. ‘Contingency theory’ which argues “leaders must
adjust their style in a manner consistent with aspects of the context, such as attributes of
followers and the nature of the work being done”, Huczynski Buchanan (2001)10.
‘Strategic choice’ the view that the management decisions dictate environment, markets
and technology. Probably the ‘human relations’ is the most important to the H&SP.

The ‘human relations’ theory emphasises human social processes at work and paved the
way for later empowerment theories. These allows “employees greater freedom,
autonomy, and self-control over their work, and responsibility for decision-making”
Mullins (1999)11. Although this may seem to be allowing employees too much freedom,
H&S standards can be improved when ownership and responsibility is transferred to
those carrying out the tasks. One approach that can incorporate the positive aspects of

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Assignment for Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour Question 2 final copy by S Johnson
PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
empowerment, and many other management theories, that is worth considering, is Total
Quality Management (TQM). TQM has also been implemented by numerous
organisations, and has gained recognition by H&S policy writers. Documents endorsing
this approach have been published by the Health and Safety Executive.

“TQM refers to a philosophy of management that is customer driven by customer needs

and exceptions, and which is committed to continuous improvement”. Huczynski
Buchanan (2001)12 The concept of ‘customer’ within TQM is not just external ones but
internal (this may be different departments within the organisation). The application of
TQM can have H&S benefits in changing attitudes & skills so that the culture of the
organisation becomes one of preventing failure. Small safety failings can be eliminated,
therefore having no opportunity to multiply their effect (concurring with some accident
causation theories like the domino effect).

It is suggest however that a theory like TQM should be viewed with some caution. Green
13
(03) claims that 80% of organisations that have attempted to implement TQM have
failed, (due to overlaying the existing management structure). Bishop (00), 14 also stated
those who initially succeed have “a history of fading away over time”. HSE funded
studies into several organisations attempting to implement TQM did not necessarily apply
the same thinking to health & safety as they did to quality of product or service. The
Entec (98)15 study found that H&S was “reactive in the extreme” in some organisations
that had even won industry awards, and concluded, “In a significant number of businesses
there was limited transfer of learning from TQM programmes into the management of
H&S”.

The positive side of TQM is when applied to heath and safety it can involve all areas of
the business and provide a vehicle for a cohesive continuous improvement of standards.

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Assignment for Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour Question 2 final copy by S Johnson
PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
Development and Implementation

As we have identified and recognised, new management systems often require

implementing. These result form both internal and external factors that demand a degree
of organisational preparation. Preparation should include moving away from strict
hierarchical control, to one of empowering individuals

“Empowerment is the corporations equivalence of the fountain of youth” Kizilos

(1990)16. Empowering individuals can reduce unnecessary vying for prominent positions
and topical or departmental rivalry. This can also alleviate individual and corporate
cognitive dissonance (going against firmly held beliefs). This view has gained greater
acceptance in recent years, but the real issue is the delegation of power. Management
must be willing to make the investment.

The H&SP must think through the implications of applying management theories on their
organisation. Inspirational board meeting addresses and sweeping statements like “zero
accident policy” may make for head line news, but what happens after the first accident?
By considering goals like this in the context of ‘expectancy theory’, which suggests
people will decide what goal to go for and how much effort to invest in it Huczynski
Buchanan (2001)17. If an ill-conceived goal like this is perceived as being unattainable or
its implementation and methods ambiguous, it may have little chance of success.

It is suggested that realistic goals can be useful providing they are set in the right context.
Applying ‘goal setting theory’ to H&S management could have desirable effects. The
theory suggested goals should be challenging but not impossible, be specific to allow
staff to identify with them. Employee participation in goal setting is also seen as essential
as is feed back on past performance. Goals setting however are usually related to a
financial incentive. If the goal is less or no accidents, this may lead to cover-ups to ensure
bonus payments. Goals alone may not be sufficient in maintaining the momentum of
change.

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Assignment for Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour Question 2 final copy by S Johnson
PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
Change Management

It is suggested that the business of change management should be viewed as a process

and not a one-off event. Leading management consultants and theorists agree
organisations need to be flexible and dynamic to be effective. The prime goal of
management then must be creating a climate where this can occur. One view of change
management suggests that for organisational or individual change to take place behaviour
or attitudes must be disconfirmed. This in turn suggests creating discomfort, leading to a
desire for change. Schein (1988)18 held to this view by categorising three stages of
change management being unfreezing, changing, and refreezing. This also could be
linked in with the work of Vandermerwe and Vandermerwe (1991)19, which was termed
“creating strategic discontent”. Basically, this involves creating dissatisfaction with the
current state of affairs and a desire to change.

This view seems to imply that change is a one off process. By definition refreezing leaves
the organisation in a static position. Also the process of discontentment has very negative
connotations; this approach will have an unsettling effect upon employees which may
result in them seeking employment elsewhere. The first stage of the model suggests that
previously learned patterns requires unlearning and the thought processes behind them
changing. Attempting to unlearn ingrained patterns may however be difficult. It is
therefore suggested that a better approach would be learning new patterns that could in
turn diminish the effect of the old. This theory appears to contradict itself as it argues for
creating a climate of safety whereby people feel “secure enough to give up the old and try
20
the new” Schein (1988) .This does not appear to fit in with making individuals feel
guilty or anxious to motivate significant change.

Any manager desiring to bring about significant change recognises that it cannot be done
alone. The desire should then be to apply the appropriate leadership style that can affect
others who in turn together can transform an organisation. One key to affecting others
within an organisation is to gain there professional respect. The benefits being obtained,

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Assignment for Quality Management and Organisational Behaviour Question 2 final copy by S Johnson
PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
by developing an understanding of other disciplines within the organisation, beyond a
superficial level. This in itself may go some way to decreasing hostility and resistance to
a new H&S management system. The down side of this has to be the investment (time
and effort) that will be required in gaining such knowledge.

Most employees will see commitment to the course of change by senior management as
essential. It’s surprising how easily the average person can see straight through a
passionate but hollow promise of change. “For effective leadership it is necessary for
management to get very close to the employees. They must develop effective
communications up, down and across the organisation and take action on what is
communicated; and they must encourage good communication between all suppliers and
customers” Oakland (1993)21. This approach will enable managers to gain greater
commitment to change initiatives.

The introduction of new roles and responsibilities can give rise to greater autonomy
giving greater job satisfaction and higher motivational levels. The H&SP can encourage
ownership of new roles by discussing objectives with staff and allowing as much freedom
as possible to carry out their tasks. Hagemann (1992)22 balances this with too much
freedom is “just as demoralising to staff as authoritarian leadership style”. The H&SP
will therefore need to maintain a degree of control but will need to recognise that they
cannot be omnipresent and staff must ultimately accept responsibility for given health
and safety roles.

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PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
Conclusion

In attempting to answer the question of bringing change with the minimum disruption and
resistance, we have seen that the objectives of an organisation may require re-focusing.
The strict hierarchal management may also stifle communication and hinder the success
of new systems by a lack of employee ownership. It has also been shown that the
hierarchical structure of many organisations means that information flows in one
direction (top down), leaving any potentially valuable contribution from the ‘shop floor’
unheard, which is detrimental to H&S standards.

The benefits of applying ‘empowerment theory’ to an organisation have been discussed.

These are greater employee involvement, commitment and ownership of health and
safety. This can also improved relationships, and provide a greater degree of harmony
between different departments.

The theory of TQM has been shown to be a significant management philosophy that has
affected many areas of modern business. The many potential benefits that have arisen
from its wide spread implementation must be considered, and used to effect H&S not just
product or service quality.

Encouraging communication has also been shown to be paramount to effective change

management. Enabling employees to think and develop new ideas and become part of the
change process, leads to greater ownership and wider acceptance. A key area in
communication is influencing the perception of H&S at senior management level to
enable a genuine commitment to the cause.

The application of the aforementioned theories will enable most organisations to apply
sound management theory to the application of health and safety.
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PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
References

1. Reamsbottom B (Public and Commercial Services Union), Retrieved 10th Feb

2004 http://www.tuc.org.uk/congress/tuc-2636-f27.cfm

2. Drucker, P F (1974) Management Tasks Responsibilities, Practices. Pg 86,

London. Butterworth Heinemann.

3. (RC) Religion in the Community

http://www.gillingham.dorset.sch.uk/Departments/ Subjects/psre/Year%208/ Rel
igion%20in%20the%20community/Religion%20in%20the%20community.htm.

4. Anderson T D (1998) Transforming Leadership, Pg 320, Dublin Ireland.

Blackhall Publishing.

5. Mintzberg, H and Quinn, J B. (1991) The Strategy Process Context, and Cases,
Concepts, xii, London. Prentice-Hall.

6. Waring A. (1989) Systems Methods for Managers, Pg 209, Oxford Blackwell

Scientific Publications West: St Paul, Minnesota, USA.

7. Schein, E H (1985) Organisational Culture and Leadership A dynamic view,

Jossey-Bass Sanfrancisco, USA.

8. Oakland J S. (1993) Total Quality Management 2nd edition Pg 28, Oxford,

Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.

9. Anderson T D (1998) Transforming Leadership Pg 42, 323 Dublin Ireland:

Blackhall Publishing.

10. Huczynski A. Buchanan D. (2001) Organizational Behavior, forth edition, Pg

719, Hertfordshire England: Prentice-Hall Europe (UK) Ltd.

11. Mullins L J (1999) Management and Organizational Behavior, fifth edition, Pg

652, Harlow England: Prentice-Hall.

12. Huczynski A. Buchanan D. (2001) Organizational Behavior, forth edition, Pg

391, Hertfordshire England: Prentice-Hall Europe (UK) Ltd.

13. Green (03) A Simplified TQM Diagnostic Model Retrieved 3rd Feb 2004 from
http://www.skyenet.net/~leg/tqm.htm.

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PgC Occupational Health and Safety Management Portsmouth University 2003/04
14. Bruce Bishop Why ISO 9000 Should Be A Company's Guidepost, And Not TQM
Retrieved 3rd Feb 2004 from http://www.manufacturingnews.com/news /editorials
/bishop.html

15. Entec Factors for motivating proactive health and safety management Pg 98,
Prepared by Entec UK Ltd for the Health and Safety Executive Contract Research
Report 179/1998.

16. Kizilos P. (1990). Crazy About Empowerment, Training Magazine 27 Pg 47

17. Huczynski A. Buchanan D. (2001) Organizational Behavior, forth edition, Pg

248, Hertfordshire England: Prentice-Hall Europe (UK) Ltd.

18. Schein E. H (1988) Organisational Psychology 3rd edition, Pg 244, Prentice-Hall

International (UK) Limited, London.

19. Vandermerwe S and Vandermerwe A (1991) Making Strategic Change Happen,

European Management Journal, 9, 2

20. Schein E. H (1988) Organisational Psychology 3rd edition, Pg 245 Prentice-Hall

International (UK) Limited, London.

21. Oakland J. S (1993) Total Quality Management 2nd edition, Pg 33, Oxford,
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.

22. Hagemann G. (1992) The Motivation Manuel, Pg 95, Aldershot England: Gower
Publishing.

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