LAW ON OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTACTS

Chapter 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Article 1156. An obligation is a juridical necessity to give, to do or not to do

Obligation – Obligation (tying or binding)

- A tie or bond recognized by law by virtue of which one is bound in favor of

another to render something
- May consist in giving a thing, doing a certain act or not doing a certain act

Civil Code Definition

- Gives the definition of an obligation in a passive(debtor/obligor) aspect

- Stresses duty under the law of the debtor or obligor when it speaks of
obligation as a juridical necessity
An obligation needs to be juridical in nature in order for it to have the force
of law. Through this, a court may be asked to order the performance of an
obligation.

Meaning of Juridical Necessity

- In case of noncompliance, the courts of justice may be called upon by the

aggrieved party to enforce its fulfillment, the economic value it represents.
- Debtor may be liable for damages – the sum of money given as a
compensation for the injury or harm suffered by the creditor or oblige for the
violation of his rights.
- Debtor must comply his obligation whether he likes it or not otherwise, he will
be face consequences
- If obligation were not made enforceable, then people can disregard them with
impunity (exemptions)
- Obligations cannot be enforceable if they are not recognized by the law as
binding.

Nature of Obligations under the Civil Code

Civil Obligation – Obligations that give right to the creditor under the law to enforce
their performance in courts of justice.
Natural Obligation – Based on equity and natural law; Does not grant a right of action
to enforce their performance although in case of voluntary fulfillment by the debtor, he
may not recover what has been delivered or rendered by reason thereof.

Essential Requisites of an Obligation

- Passive subject (debtor or obligor) – the person who is bound to the

fulfillment of the obligation; he who has a duty.

- Active subject (creditor or oblige) – the person who is entitled to demand

the fulfillment of the obligation; he who has a right

- Object of prestation (subject matter of the obligation) – the conduct

required to be observed by the debtor. May consist of giving, doing, or not
doing. Without prestation, there is nothing to perform. In bilateral obligations,
the parties are reciprocally debtors and creditors.

- Juridical or legal tie (efficient cause) – the thing that binds or connect the
parties of the obligation. Can be easily determined by knowing the source of
the obligation

Form of obligations

Form of obligations – refers to the manner in which an obligation is manifested or

incurred. May be in a form of oral, writing, partly oral or partly in writing

- General rule – the law does not require any form for obligations arising from
contracts for their validity or binding force.
- Obligations arising form other sources do not have any form at all

Obligation, right and wrong distinguished

Obligation – act or performance which the law will enforce

Right – The power which a person has under the law, to demand from another any
prestation
Wrong (cause of action) –act or omission of one party in violation of the legar right or
rights of another.

Injury – Used to refer to the wrongful violation of the legal right of another.

The essential elements of a legal wrong or injury are:

1. A legal right in favor of a person (creditor/ plaintiff)

2. A correlative legal obligation on the part of another (debtor/defendant); to
respect or not to violate said right
3. An act or omission by the debtor in violation of said right with resulting injury
or damage to the creditor.

An obligation on the part of a person cannot exist without a corresponding right in favor
of another, and vice versa. A wrong or cause of action only arises at the moment a right
has been transgressed or violated.

Kinds of obligation according to the subject matter (prestation)

From the viewpoint of the subject matter, obligation may either be real or personal.

Real obligation (Obligation to give) - the subject matter is a thing which the obligor
must deliver to the obligee

Personal Obligation (obligation to do or not to do) – the subject matter is an act to

be done or not to be done.

Positive Personal Obligation – Obligation to do or to render service

Negative Personal Obligation – Obligation not to do (includes obligation not to

give)
 Article 1157. Obligations arise from

1. Law
2. Contracts
3. Quasi-contracts
4. Acts or omissions punishable by law (delict)
5. Quasi-delict

Sources of obligation

1. Law- when they are imposed by law itself

2. Contracts – When they arise from the stipulation of parties or the joining of two
minds.

3. Quasi-contracts – When they arise from lawful voluntary and unilateral acts
which are enforceable to the end that no one shall be unjustly enriched or
benefited at the expense of another. These obligations may be considered
arising from law.

4. Crimes or acts or omissions punished by law – when they arise from civil
liability which is the consequence of a criminal offense.

5. Quasi-delicts or torts – When they arise from damage caused to another

through an act or omission, there being fault or negligence, but no contractual
relation exists between the parties.

Sources classified

1. Those emanating from law

2. Those emanating from private acts which may be further subdivided into
a. Those arising from legal acts, in the case of contracts and quasi-contracts
b. Those arising from illegal acts which may either be punishable in the case of
delicts or crimes, or not punishable on the case of quasi-delicts or torts.

There are only 2 sources: law and contracts since obligations arising from quasi-
contracts, delicts, and quasi-delicts are really imposed by law.
 Article. 1158 Obligations derived from law are not presumed. Only those
expressly determined in this Code or in special laws are demandable, and shall
be regulated by the precepts of the law which establishes them; and as to what
has not been foreseen, by the provisions of this Book.

Legal Obligations

Article 1158 refers to legal obligations or obligations arising from law. They are not presumed
because they are considered burden upon the obligor (debtor). They are the exception, not the
rule. To be demandable, they must clearly set forth in the law, like the Civil code or special law.

Special laws refer to all other laws not contained in the Civil Code. i.e., Corporation code,
negotiable Instruments Law, Insurance Code, National Revenue Code, Revised Penal Code,
Labor Code, etc.

Article 1159. Obligations arising from contracts have the force of law between the
contracting parties and should be complied with in good faith

Contractual obligations.

- Also referred to as voluntary agreements

- It presupposes that the contracts entered into are valid and enforceable.

Contract – meeting of minds between two or more persons whereby one binds himself, with
respect to the other, to give something or to render some service.

1. Binding force – Obligations arising from contracts have the force of law between
contracting parties. They have the same binding effects of obligations imposed by law.
However, this does not mean that contract is superior to law. As a source of enforceable
obligation, contract must be valid and it cannot be valid if it is against the law.

2. Requirement of a valid contract – A contract is valid if it is not contrary to the law,

morals, goods customs, public order, and public policy.

In the eyes of the law, a void contract does not exist. Consequently, no obligations will
arise. A contract may be valid but cannot be enforced (unenforceable contracts.

3. Breach of Contract – a contract may be breached or violated by a party in a whole or in

part. A breach of contract takes place when a party fails or refuses to comply, without
legal reason or justification, with his obligation under the contract as promised.
Compliance in good faith

Compliance in good faith – compliance or performance in accordance with the stipulations or

terms of the contract or agreement. Sincerity and honesty must be observes to prevent one
party from taking unfair advantage over the other.

Non-compliance by a party with his legitimate obligations after receiving the benefits of a
contract would constitute unjust enrichment on his part. Although a contract provides no penalty
for its violation, a party cannot breach it with impunity (exemption from punishment). The
oppressed party is afforded remedies to protect his rights,

Article 1160. Obligations derived from quasi-contracts shall be subject to the

provisions of Chapter 1, Title XVII of this Book

Quasi-contractual obligations,

Treats obligations arising form quasi-contracts or contracts implied in law.

Quasi-contract- Juridical relation resulting from lawful, voluntary and unilateral acts by virtue of
which the parties become bound to each other to the end that no one will be unjustly enriched or
benefited at the expense of another.

It is not, a contract at all.

Contract Quasi-contract
There is a meeting of the minds or consent There is no consent but the same is supplied
by fiction of law.
Parties must have deliberately entered into a
formal agreement. The law considers the parties as having
entered into a contract, although they have not
actually done so, and irrespective of their
intention, to prevent injustice or the unjust
enrichment of a person at the expense of
another.
Kinds of Quasi-contracts

1. Negotiorum gestio – the voluntary management of the property of affairs of another,

without the knowledge or consent of the latter.

2. Solutio indebiti – Juridical relation which is created when something is received when
there is no right to demand it and it was unduly delivered through mistake. It is based on
the principle that no one shall enrich himself unjustly at the expense of another.
REQUISITIES.

a. There is no right to receive the thing delivered

b. The thing was delivered through mistake.
 3. Other examples of quasi-contracts- cases classified as quasi-contracts are of infinite
variety, and when for some reason, recovery cannot be had on a true contract, recovery
may be allowed on the basis of a quasi-contract.

Article 1161. Civil obligations arising from criminal offenses shall be governed by
the penal laws, subject to the provisions of Article 2177, and of the pertinent
provisions of Chapter 2, Preliminary Title, on Human Regulations, and of the Title
XVIII of this Book, regulating damages.

Civil liability arising from crimes or delicts.

1. Civil liability in addition to criminal liability – The commission of a crime

causes not only moral evil but also material damage. From this principle, the rule
has been established that every person criminally liable for an act or omission is
also civilly liable for damages suffered by the aggrieved party.

2. Criminal liability without civil liability - In crimes which cause no material

damage, there is no civil liability to be enforced.

3. Civil liability without criminal liability – A person not criminally responsible,

may still be liable civilly.

Scope of civil liability

The extent of the civil liability for damages arising from crimes is governed by the
Revised Penal Code and the Civil Code. This Civil liability includes

1. Restitution or replacement
2. Reparation for the damage caused
3. Indemnification or compensation for consequential damage.

Article 1162. Obligations derived from quasi-delicts shall be governed by the

provisions of chapter 2, Title XVII of this Book, and special laws.

Obligations arising from quasi-delicts.

Quasi-delict – is an act or omission by a person which causes damage to another on

his person, property, or rights, giving rise to an obligation to pay for the damage done,
there being fault or negligence but there is no pre-existing contractual relation between
the parties.
Requisites of quasi-delict

Before a person can be held liable for quasi-delict, the following requisites must be
present:

1. There must be an act or omission

2. There must be fault or negligence
3. There must be damage caused
4. There must be a direct relation or connection of cause and effect between the act
or omission and the damage
5. There is no pre-existing contractual relation between the parties.

Crime distinguished from quasi-delict.

CRIME QUASI-DELICT
There is a criminal or malicious intent or There is only negligence
criminal negligence

Purpose is management Indemnification (compensation) of the

offended party

Affects public interest Concerns private interest

Two liabilities: Crime and Civil There is only civil liability
Criminal liability cannot be compromised Can be compromised as any other civil
or settled by the parties themselves liability

Guilt of the accused must be proved The fault or negligence of the defendant
beyond reasonable doubt need only be proved by majority of
evidence.
 Chapter 2
NATURE AND EFFECT OF OBLIGATIONS

Article 1163. Every person obliged to give something is also obliged to take care
of it with the proper diligence of a good father of a family, unless the law or
stipulation of the practice requires another standard of care.

Meaning of specific or determinate thing.

- The article refers to an obligation specific or determinate thing.

- A thing is said to be specific or determinate particularly designated or
physically segregated from others of the same class.

Meaning of generic or indeterminate thing.

- A thing is generic or indeterminate when it refers only to a class or genus to

which it pertains and cannot be pointed out with particularity.

Specific thing and determinate thing distinguished.

Specific Thing Generic thing

Identified by its individuality Identifies only by its specie.

debtor, without the consent of the creditor The debtor can give anything of the same
cannot substitute it with another although it class as long as it is of the same kind.
is of the same kind and quality

Duties of debtor in obligation to give a determinate thing.

1. Preserve or take care of the thing – the obligor has the incidental duty to take
care of the thing due, with diligence of a good father of a family pending delivery.

a. Diligence of a good father - ordinary care of that diligence which an

average person exercises over his own property.

b. Another Standard of Care – if the law or stipulation of the parties provides

for another standard of care, said law or stipulation must prevail.
*the parties may agree upon diligence which is more less than that of a good
father of a family but it is contrary to public policy to stipulate for absolute
exemption from liability of the obligor for any fault or negligence on his
part.
 c. Factors to be considered – the diligence required, necessarily depends
upon the nature of the obligation and corresponds with the circumstances of
the person, of the time, and of the place.
- It is not necessarily the standard of care one always uses in the protection of
his property.
- General rule – the debtor is not liable if his failure to preserve the thing is not
due to his fault or negligence, but to fortuitous events or force majeure.

d. Reason for debtor’s obligation – the debtor must exercise diligence to

insure that the thing to be delivered would subsists (survive) in the same
condition as it was when the obligation was contracted.
- Without the accessory duty to taking care of the thing, the debtor would
be able to afford being negligent and he would not be liable even if the
property is lost or destroyed, thus rendering illusory(imaginary or false) the
obligation to give.
-
2. Deliver the fruits of the thing
3. Deliver the accessions and accessories
4. Deliver the thing itself
5. Answer for damages in case of non-fulfillment or breach

Duties of debtor in obligation to deliver a generic thing

1. To deliver a thing which is of the quality intended by the parties, taking into
consideration the purpose of the obligation and other circumstances

2. To be liable for damages in case of fraud, negligence or delay in the

performance of his obligation, or contravention of the tenor thereof.

Article 1164. The creditor has a right to the fruits of the thing from the time the
obligation to deliver it arises. However, he shall acquire no real right over it until
the same has been delivered to him.

Different kinds of fruits.

Natural, industrial, civil fruits

1. Natural Fruits – the spontaneous products of the soil, and the young and other
products of animals.
 2. Industrial fruits – Those produced by lands of any kind through cultivation or
labor.
3. Civil fruits – Are those derived by virtue of a juridical relation

Right of creditor to the fruits

- The creditor is entitled to the fruits of the thing to be delivered from the time
the obligation to make delivery arises.
- The intention of the law is to protect the interest of the oblige should the
obligor commit delay, purposely or otherwise, in the fulfillment of his
obligation

When obligation to deliver fruits arises.

1. Generally, the obligation to deliver the thing due, and consequently, the fruits
thereof, if any, arises from the time of the “perfection of contract.
*Perfection refers to the birth of the contract or to the meeting of the minds
between parties.

2. If the obligation is subject to a suspensive condition or period, it arises upon the

fulfillment of the condition or arrival of the term. However, the parties may make a
stipulation to the contrary as regards the right of the creditor to the fruits of the
thing.

3. In contract of sale, the obligation arises from the perfection of the contract even if
the obligation is subject to a suspensive condition or a suspensive period where
the price has been paid.

4. In obligations to give arising from law, quasi-contracts, delicts, and quasi-delicts,

the time of performance is determined by the specific provisions of the law
applicable.

Meaning of personal right and real right.

1. Personal right - the right or power of a person (creditor) to demand from

another person (debtor), as a definite passive subject, to the fulfillment of the
latter’s (debtor) obligation to give, to do, or not to do.
2. Real right - the right or interest of a person over a specific thing (ownership or
possession), without a definite passive subject against whom the right may be
personally enforced.
Personal right and real right distinguished.

Personal Right Real right

There is a definite active subject and a There Is only a definite active subject
definite passive subject (debtor and (creditor) without any definite passive
creditor) subject

Binding or enforceable only against a Directly against the whole world.

particular person (debtor)

Ownership acquired by delivery

- Ownership and other real rights over property are acquired and transmitted in
consequence of certain contracts by tradition or delivery.
- The creditor does not become the owner until the specific thing has been
delivered to him.
- When there is no delivery yet, the proper court action of the creditor is NOT
one for recover of possession and ownership but one for Specific
Performance or rescission (cancellation) of the obligation.

Article 1165. When what is to be delivered is determinate thing, the creditor, in

addition to the right granted him by Article 1170, may compel (demand) the
debtor to make the delivery

If the thing is indeterminate or generic, he may ask that the obligation be

complied with, at the expense of the debtor.

If the obligor delays, or has promised to deliver the same thing to two or more
persons who do not have the same interest, he shall be responsible for fortuitous
event until he has effected the delivery.

Remedies of creditor in real obligation.

1. In a specific real obligation (obligation to deliver a determinate thing), the creditor

may exercise the following remedies or rights in case the debtor fails to comply
with his obligation:
a. Demand specific performance of fulfillment (if it is still possible) of the
obligation with a right to indemnity(insurance) for damages.
b. Demand rescission or cancelation (in certain cases) of the obligation also with
a right to recover damage
 c. Demand payment of damages ONLY, where it is the only feasible (practical)
remedy.

- The very thing itself must be delivered

- Only the debtor can comply with the obligation. <- Reason why the Creditor is
granted the right to compel the debtor to make the delivery.

Note: The right to demand fulfillment and rescission with damages are alternative, not
cumulative; the election of one is a waiver of the right to resort the other.

2. A generic real obligation (obligation to deliver a generic thing), can be performed

by a third person since the object is expressed only according to its family or
genus. It is, thus, NOT necessary for the creditor to compel (demand) the debtor
to make the delivery, although he may ask for a performance of the obligation.
- The creditor has the right to recover damages under Article 1170 in case
of breach or violation of the obligation.

Where debtor delays or has promised delivery to separate creditors

- Gives 2 instances when a fortuitous event does not exempt the debtor from
responsibility.
- Refers to a determinate thing
- Indeterminate thing cannot be the object of destruction by a fortuitous
event because genus never perishes (genus nunguam perit)

Article 1166. The obligation to give a determinate thing includes that of delivering
all its accessions and accessories, even though they may not have been
mentioned.

Meaning of accessions and accessories.

1. Accessions – fruits of a thing, or additions to, or improvements upon a thing (the

principal)
2. Accessories – things joined to or included with the principal thing for the latter’s
(creditor’s) embellishment (addition), better use, or completion.

Note: While accessions are not necessary to the principal thing, the accessory
and the principal must go together.

- Both can exist only in relation to the principal.

 - Accession is also used in the sense of a right, right to the fruits and/or
accessories of a thing

Right of creditor to accessions and accessories.

General Rule: All accessions and accessories are considered included in the obligation
to deliver a determinate thing although they may not have been mentioned. This rule is
based on the principle of law, that the accessory follows the principal.

- In order that they will be excluded, there must be a stipulation to that effect.\
- Unless otherwise stipulated, an obligation to deliver the accessions or
accessories of a thing does not include the latter.

Article 1167. If a person obliged to do something fails to do it, the same shall be
executed at his cost.

This same rule shall be observed if he does it in contravention (violation) of the

tenor of the obligation. Furthermore, it may be decreed (dictated) that what has
been poorly done be undone.

Situations contemplated in Article 1167

- Refers to an obligation to do (positive personal obligation) or to perform an

act or render a service.
1. The debtor fails to perform an obligation to do
2. The debtor performs an obligation to do but contrary to the terms thereof
3. The debtor performs an obligation to do but in a poor manner.

Remedies of creditor in positive personal obligation..

1. If the debtor fails to comply with his obligation to do, the creditor has the right
a. To have the obligation performed by himself, or by another, unless personal
considerations are involved, at the debtor’s expense.
b. To recover damages
2. In case the obligation is done in contravention (violation) of the terms of the
same or is poorly done, it may be ordered (by the court upon complaint) that it be
undone IF it is still possible to undo what was done,
Performance by a third person

1. Compelling performance by debtor prohibited – A personal obligation to do,

like a real obligation to deliver a generic thing, can be performed by a third
person. While the debtor can be compelled to make the delivery of a specific
thing, a specific performance cannot be ordered in a personal obligation to do
because this may amount to involuntary servitude, which as a rule, is prohibited
under our constitution. (Art. III, Sec 18 [2] thereof)

Involuntary servitude- a person laboring against that person's will to benefit another,
under some form of coercion, to which it may constitute slavery.

2. Indemnification of creditor for damages – When the personal qualifications of

the debtor are the determinate motive of the obligation contracted (like to sing in
a night club), the performance of the same by another would be impossible or
would result to be so different that the obligation could NOT be considered
performed.
- The only feasible obligation of the creditor is indemnification for damages.
- But where the obligation can still be performed at the expense of the debtor
notwithstanding his failure or refusal to do so, the court is not authorized to
merely grant damages to the creditor.

Article 1168. When the obligation consists in not doing, and the obligor does
what has been forbidden him, it shall also be undone at his expense.

Remedies of creditor in negative personal obligation.

- In an obligation not to do, the duty of the obligor is to abstain (choose not do)
from an act. Hence there is no specific performance.
- The very obligation is fulfilled in not doing what is forbidden. Hence in this
kind of obligation, the debtor cannot be guilty of delay.

- As a Rule The remedy of the oblige - is the undoing of the forbidden thing
plus damages. `
- If it is not possible to undo what was done, either physically or legally, or
because of the rights acquired by third persons who acted in good faith, or for
some other reason, his remedy is an action for damages caused by the
debtor’s violation of his obligation.
 Article 1169. Those obliged to deliver or to do something, incur in delay
from the time the obligee judicially or extrajudicially demands from them
the fulfillment of their obligation.

However, the demand by the creditor shall not be necessary in order that
delay may exist:

1. When the obligation or the law expressly declares

2. When from the nature and the circumstances of the obligation it
appears that the designation of the time when the thing is to be
delivered or the service is to be rendered, was a controlling motive for
the establishment of the contract
3. When demand would be useless, as when the obligor has rendered it
beyond his power to perform.

In reciprocal obligations, neither party incurs in delay if he other does not

comply or is not ready to comply in a proper manner with what is
incumbent upon him. From the moment one of the parties fulfills his
obligation, delay by the other begins.

Meaning of delay

Delay ( default or mora)

a. Ordinary delay –the failure to perform an obligation on time

b. Legal delay or default or more – the failure to perform an obligation on time
which failure constitutes a breach of the obligation.

Kinds of delay or default.

1. Mora solvendi – The delay on the part of the debtor to fulfill his obligation (to
give or to do)
2. Mora accipiendi – the delay on the part of the creditor to accept the
performance of the obligation
3. Compensatio morae – The delay of the obligors in reciprocal obligations.
The delay of the obligor, cancels the delay of the obligee and vice versa. The net
result is that there is no actionable default on the part of both parties.
No delay in negative personal obligation (obligation not to do)

- In an obligation not to do, non-fulfillment may take place but delay is

impossible for the debtor fulfills by not doing what has been forbidden him.

Requisites of delay or default by the debtor

3 conditions that must be present before mora solvendi exist or its effecs may
arise:

1. Failure of the debtor to perform his (positive) obligation on the date agreed upon
2. Demand made by the creditor upon the debtor to comply with his obligation,
which may be either judicial (complaint is filed in court) or extrajudicial (made
outside of court, orally or in writing)
3. Failure of the debtor to comply with such demand.

- Presupposed that the obligation is already due or demandable

- Creditor has the burden pf proving that demand has been made
- It is incumbent upon the debtor to prove that the delay was not cause by his
fault to relieve himself from liability.

Effects of delay.

1. Mora solvendi
a. The debtor is guilty of breach or violation of the obligation
b. He is liable to the creditor for interest or damages. In the absence of
extrajudicial demand, the interest shall commence from the filing of the
complaint.
c. He is liable even for a fortuitous event when obligation is to deliver a
determinate thing. However, if the debtor can prove that the loss would have
resulted just the same if he had not been in default, the court may equitably
mitigate or reduce the damages.
- In an obligation to deliver a generic thing, the debtor is not relieved from
liability for loss due to fortuitous event. He can still be compelled to deliver a
thing of the same kind, or held liable for damages

2. Mora accipiendi
a. The creditor is guilty of breach of obligation
b. He is liable for damages suffered, if any, by the debtor
 c. He bears he risk of loss of the thing due
d. Where the obligation is to pay money, the debtor is not liable for interest from
the time of the creditor’s delay
e. The debtor may release himself from the obligation by the consignation
(appeal) or deposit in court of the thing or sum due.

3. Compensatio morae- The delay of the obligor cancels the delay of the obligee
and vice versa. There is no default or delay on the part of both parties.
- If the delay of one party is followed by that of the other, the liability of the first
infractor shall be equitably tempered or balanced by the courts.
- If it cannot be determined which of the parties is guilty of delay, the contract
shall be deemed of extinguished and each shall bear his own damages.

When demand is not necessary to put debtor in delay

General rule: Delay by the debtor begins only from the moment a demand, judicial or
extrajudicial, for the fulfillment of the former’s obligation is made by the creditor. Without
such amount, the effect of default will not arise.

Exceptions

1. When the obligation so provides.

2. When the law so provides
3. When time is of the essence
4. When demand would be useless
5. When there is a performance by a party in reciprocal obligations.
- The performance of one is conditioned upon the simultaneous fulfillment on the
part of the other
- Neither party incurs delay if the other does not comply or is not ready to comply
in a proper manner with what is incumbent upon him. This is compensation
morae.
- From the moment, however, a party fulfills or is ready to fulfill his obligation,
delay by the other begins.
Article 1170. Those who in the performance of their obligations are guilty of fraud,
negligence, or delay and those who in any manner contravene the tenor (the
exact wording or an exact copy of a legal document.) thereof. Are liable for
damages.

Breach is voluntary

Grounds for liability.

1. Fraud (deceit or dolo) – It is the deliberate or intentional evasion of the normal

fulfillment of an obligation. (there is malice)
- As a ground for damages, it implies some kind of malice or dishonesty and it
cannot cover cases of mere mistake and errors of judgement made in good
faith
- Synonymous to bad faith
- Involves a design to mislead or deceive another.

a. Incidental fraud (dolo incidente) – Committed in the performance of an

obligation already existing because of contract (ask for damages)
b. Casual fraud (dolo causante) – Employed in the execution of a contract
which vitiates consent (annul the contract).

2. Negligence (fault or culpa) – Any voluntary act or omission, there being no bad
faith or malice, which prevents the normal fulfillment of an obligation. (there may
be no malice)
- The failure to exercise that degree of care required by the circumstance

3. Delay (mora)
4. Contravention of the terms of the obligation – This is the violation of the
terms and conditions stipulated in the obligation without justifiable excuse or
reason.
- The contravention must be NOT due to a fortuitous event of force majeure.
 FRAUD NEGLIGENCE
There is a deliberate intention to cause There is no such intention
damage or injury

Waiver of the liability for future fraud is Waiver MAY be allowed

void

Must be clearly proved Is presumed from the violation of a

contractual obligation

Liability cannot be mitigated or reduced Liability May be reduced according to

by the courts the circumstance

Both: are voluntary and are committed with violation

NOTE: IF the negligence is gross or there is failure to exercise even slight care
of entire absence of care that it shows bad or amounts to malice or wanton
attitude on the part of the defendant, the rules on fraud shall apply. In such case,
no more distinction exists between the two, at least as to effects.
NEGLIGENCE THAT IS GROSS OR SHOWS BAD FAITH = FRAUD

Article 1171. Responsibility arising from fraud is demandable in all obligations.

Any waiver of an action for future fraud is void.

Responsibility arising from fraud.

This provision refers to incidental fraud which is employed in the fulfillment of an
obligation.

- Responsibility arising from fraud can be demanded with respect to all kinds of
obligation
- In Fraud, the court is not given the power to mitigate or reduce the damages
to be awarded.
- Fraud id deemed serious and evil that its employment to avoid the fulfillment
of one’s obligation should be discouraged.
Waiver of action for future fraud void.

Time of commission – Fraud may be past or future

- Waiver of an action for future fraud is void (no effect, as if there is no waiver)
as being against the law and public policy.
- A contrary rule would encourage the perpetration (commit) of fraud because
the obligor knows that even if he should commit fraud, he would not be liable
for it, thus making the obligation illusory.

Waiver of action for past fraud valid.

- The law prohibits a waiver anterior to the fraud and to the knowledge thereof
by the aggrieved party.
- A past fraud can be the subject of a valid waiver because the waiver can be
considered as an act of generosity and magnanimity on the part of the party
who is the victim of the fraud.
- Effect of fraud – the right to indemnity of the party entitled thereto.
- The waiver must be expressed in clear language which leaves no doubt as to
the intention of the oblige to give up his right against the obligor

Article 1172. Responsibility arising from negligence in the performance of every

kind of obligation is also demandable, but such liability may be regulated by the
courts, according to the circumstances.

Responsibility arising from negligence demandable.

The debtor is also liable for damages resulting from his negligence.

1. Discretion of court to fix amount of damages. – The courts are given wide
discretion in fixing the measure of damages.
- Reason is, negligence is a question which must necessarily depend upon the
circumstances of each particular case
- Negligence is not a serious fraud because in the case of the former (debtor),
there is no deliberate intention to cause injury or damages.
- When justified by the circumstances, the court may increase or decrease the
damages recoverable.
 2. Damages where both parties mutually negligent. – When both parties to a
contract are mutually negligent in the performance of their respective obligations,
the fault of one may cancel or neutralize the negligence of the other.
- The rights and obligations of the parties may be determined under the
equitable principle that no one shall enrich himself at the expense of another.

Validity of waiver of action arising from negligence

1. An action for future negligence may be renounced except where the nature of
obligation requires the exercise of extraordinary diligence as in the case of
common carriers.
2. Where negligence is gross or shows bad faith, it is considered equivalent to
fraud. Any waiver of an action for future negligence of this kind is therefore, void.

Kinds of negligence according to source of obligation

1. Contractual negligence (culpa contractual) - negligence in contracts resulting

in their breach. (negligence is not a source of obligation)
- Article 1172 refers to culpa contractual.
- This kind of negligence is not a source of obligation.
- It merely makes the debtor liable for damages in view of his negligence in the
fulfillment of a pre-existing obligation.

2. Civil negligence (culpa aquiliana) – negligence which by itself is a source of an

obligation between the parties not related before any pre-existing contract.
- Also called a tort or quasi-delict (negligence itself is the source of liability)

3. Criminal negligence (culpa criminal) – Negligence resulting in the commission

of a crime.
- The same negligent act causing damages may produce civil liability arising
from a crime under Article 100 of the Revised Penal code, or create an action
for quasi delict under Article 215 of the civil code
- In the negligence cases, the aggrieved party may choose between a criminal
action or a civil action for damages.
- What is prohibited under the civil code is to recover twice for the same
negligent act. (pili among civil or revised penal code)
- Source obligation is existing contract
Effect of negligence on the part of the injured party

If the creditor is also guilty of negligence, he can or cannot recover damages.

Article 2179 of the new Civil Code provide:

“When the plaintiff’s own negligence was the immediate and proximate cause of his
injury, he cannot recover damages. But if his negligence was only contributory, the
immediate and proximate cause of the injury being the defendant’s lack of due care, the
plaintiff may recover damages, but the courts shall mitigate the damages to be
awarded.”

To be entitled to damages, it is not required that the negligence of the defendant should
be the sole cause of the damage, a part could also be the plaintiff’s.

Article 1173. The fault or negligence of the obligor consists in the omission of
that diligence which is required by the nature of the obligation and corresponds
with the circumstances of the person, of the time and of the place. When
negligence shows bad faith, the provisions of article 1171 and 2201, paragraph 2
shall apply.

If the law or contract does not state the diligence which is to be observed in the
performance, that which is expected of a good father of a family shall be required.

Meaning of fault or negligence

Fault of Negligence – it is the failure to observe for the protection of the interests of
another person, that degree of care, precaution and vigilance which the circumstances
justly demand, whereby such other person suffers injury. (Supreme Court)

Factors to be considered.
- Negligence is a question of fact, that is, its existence being dependent upon the
particular circumstances of each case.

- There is no hard and fast rule for measuring degree of care.

- Generally, the degree of care is graduated according to the danger or risk a
person or property may be subjected to.
FACTORS:

1. Nature of the obligation

2. Circumstances of the person
3. Circumstance of time
4. Circumstance of the place

Measure of liability for damages.

Damages – Signify the money compensation awarded to a party for loss or injury
resulting from breach of contract or obligation by the other.

- Rule – the purpose of awarding damages is to place the innocent party in the
same position he would have occupied if the contract or obligation had been
according to its terms.

Article 2201 of the Civil Code states:

“In contracts and quasi-contracts, the damages for which the obligor who acted in good
faith is liable, shall be those that are natural and probable consequences of the breach
of the obligation, and which the parties have foreseen or could have reasonable
foreseen at the time the obligation was constituted.”

“In case of fraud, bad faith, malice or wanton attitude, the obligor shall be responsible
for all damages which may be reasonably attributed to the non-performance of the
obligation. “

- Negligence is never presumed but must be proven by the party who alleges it

Kinds of Diligence required

Diligence- is the attention and care required of a person in a given situation. Whether
or not the negligence of the obligor is excusable will depend on the degree of diligence
required of them.

Under Article 1173, the following kinds of diligence are required:

1. That agreed upon by the parties, orally or in writing

2. In the absence of stipulation, that required by law in the particular case (like
extraordinary diligence required of common carriers)
3. If both the contract and law are silent, then the diligence expected of a good
father of a family.
Article 1174. Except in cases expressly specified by the law, or when the nature
of the obligation requires the assumption of risk, no person shall be responsible
for those events which could not be foreseen, or which though foreseen, were
inevitable.

Fortuitous event – event which cannot be foreseen, or which, though foreseen, is

inevitable. An event which is either impossible to foresee or impossible to avoid.

- Consists of being a happening independent of the will of the debtor and which
happening, makes the normal fulfillment of the obligation impossible.

Fortuitous event distinguished from force majeure.

- It may be an act of man or an act of God.

1. Acts of man. – Fortuitous event is an event independent of the will of the obligor
but not of other human wills.
2. Acts of God – They refer to what is called majeure or those events which are
totally independent of the will of every human being

In the law: Fortuitous events and force majeure are identical insofar as they exempt an
obligor from liability. Both are independent of the will of the obligor.

Kinds of fortuitous events

Contract of lease from the Civil Code distinguishes 2 kinds of fortuitous events.

1. Ordinary fortuitous events - those events which are common and which the
contracting parties could reasonably foresee.

2. Extra-ordinary fortuitous event - Those events which are uncommon and

which the contracting partied could NOT have reasonably foreseen.

Requisites of a fortuitous event.

1. The event must be independent of the human will or at least of the debtor’s will
2. The event could NOT be foreseen, or if foreseen, is inevitable
3. The event must be such a character as to render it impossible for the debtor to
comply with his obligation in a normal manner.
4. The debtor must be free from any participation in, or aggravation of. the injury to
the creditor, that is, there is no concurrent negligence on his part.
NOTE: The absence of any of the above requisites would prevent the obligor from being
exempt from liability.

- Mere pecuniary inability or poverty is NOT an excuse for the non-fulfillment of

an obligation. Neither is mere difficulty to foresee the happening of an event
- Difficulty and impossibility to foresee is different
- Fortuitous event must be impossible to avoid not difficult to avoid.

Rules as to liability in case of fortuitous event.

As a rule – a person is NOT responsible for loss or damage caused to another resulting
from the non-performance of his obligation due to fortuitous events.

- His obligation is extinguished except:

EXEPTIONS:

1. When expressly specified by law –

a. The debtor is guilty of fraud, negligence, or delay, or contravention of the

tenor of the obligation
b. The debtor has promised to deliver the same thing to 2 or more persons
who do not have the same interest.
c. The obligation to deliver a specific thing arises from a crime.
d. The thing to be delivered is generic

2. When declared by stipulation

- Basis of this exception rests upon the freedom of contract
- Such stipulation is usually intended to better protect the interest of the
creditor and procure greater diligence on the part of the debtor in the
fulfillment of his obligation.
- The intention is to make the debtor liable even in case of a fortuitous event
should be clearly expressed

3. When the nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk.

- Risk of loss or damage is an essential element in the obligation
 Article 1175. Usurious transactions shall be governed by special laws.

Meaning of simple loan or mutuum.

- A contract whereby one of the parties delivers to another, money or t=other

consumable thing, upon the condition that the same amount of the same kind
and quality shall be paid
- It may be gratuitous or with stipulation to pay interest.

Meaning of usury.

- Contracting for or receiving interest in excess of the amount allowed by law

for the load or use of money, goods, chattels or credits.

Requisites for recovery of interest.

1. The payment of interest must be expressly stipulated

2. The agreement must be in writing
3. The interest must be lawful

- A stipulation for the payment of usurious interest is VOID, that is, as if there is
no stipulation as to interest.
- The lender may still recover the principal of the loan and demand compliance
with other terms of the contract otherwise valid.

NOTE:
Central Bank Circular No. 905 issued by the Monetary Board under the authority
granted to it by the Usury Law – The rate of interest and other charged on a loan or
forbearance of money, goods, or credit, regardless of maturity and whether secured or
unsecured, that may be charged or collected shall NOT be subject to any ceiling
prescribed under the Usury Law.

- Usury is now legally non-existent.

- Parties are now free to stipulate any amount of interest
- However, it does not give absolute right to the creditor to charge the debtor
interest that is “iniquitous of unconscionable”
Article 1176. The receipt of the principal by the creditor, without reservation with
respect to the interest, shall give rise to the presumption that said interest have
been paid.

The receipt of a later installment of a debt without reservation with respect to the
interest, shall give rise to the presumption that said interest have been paid.

Meaning of presumption

- Is meant the inference of a fact not actually known arising from its usual
connection with another which is known or proved.

Two Kinds of presumption

1. Conclusive presumption – One which cannot be contradicted. Like the

presumption that everyone is conclusively presumed to know the law
2. Disputable (or rebuttable) presumption – one which can be contradicted or
rebutted by presenting proof to the contrary.

Interest precedes that of the principal

When presumptions in 1176 do not apply.

1. With reservation as the interest

- The presumption in 1176 do not arise where there is a reservation that no
payment has been made as to interest or prior installments.
- The reservation may be made in writing or verbally

2. Receipt without indication of particular installment paid.

- The presumption in paragraph 2 of article 1176 is not applicable if the receipt
does not recite that it was issued for a particular installment due as when the
receipt is only dated. (1176 will apply if full amount of principal is paid)

3. Receipt for a part of the principal

- Receipt without mentioning the interest, implies that the creditor waives his
right to apply the payment first to the interest and then to the principal as
permitted by Article 1253.
- It is only when the principal is fully receipted for, and there is failure by the
creditor to reserve the claim for interest, that the presumption that the said
interest had been paid will arise.
 4. Payment of taxes
- There is no presumption that previous taxes have been paid by the payment
of later ones.
5. Non-payment proven
- A presumption cannot prevail over proven fact.

Article 1177. The creditors, after having pursued the property in possession of
the debtor to satisfy their claims, may exercise all rights and bring all the actions
of the latter for the same purpose, save those which are inherent in his person;
they may also impugn( question) the acts which the debtor may have done to
defraud them.

Remedies available to creditors for the satisfaction of their claims.

In case the debtor does not comply with his obligation, the creditor may avail himself of
the following remedies to satisfy his claim: (in order of preference)

1. Exact fulfillment with the right to damages

2. Pursue the leviable (mabenta) property of the debtor.
(Leviable Property means any Erf or Unit, that has been registered in the name of a
Member, other than the Developer, but, however, includes a Completed Occupied
Residence.)
3. “after having pursued the property in possession of the debtor:, exercise all the
rights and bring all the actions of the debtor except those inherent in or personal
to the person of the latter.’ (third person is involved) (except: sakupin yung own
personal rights ng debtor)
4. Ask the court to rescind or impugn acts or contracts which the debtor may have
done to defraud him when he cannot in any other manner recover his claim.

The debtor is liable with all his property, present and future, for the fulfillment of his
obligations, subject to the exemptions provided by law.
 Article 1178. Subject to the laws, all rights acquired in virtue of an obligation are
transmissible, if there has been no stipulation to the contrary.

Transmissability of rights

General Rule: All rights acquired in virtue of an obligation are generally transmissible or
assignable.

The exceptions (unless with consent) to the rule are the following:

1. Prohibited by law - when prohibited by law, like rights in partnership, agency,

and commodatum which are purely personal in character.

a. By the contract of partnership – Two or more persons bind themselves to

contribute money, property, or industry to a common fund, with the intention
of dividing the profits among themselves. (highly fiducial in nature and purely
personal)

b. By the contract of agency - a person binds himself to render some service

or to do something in representation or on behalf of another, with the consent
or authority of the latter.

c. By the contract of commodatum – one of the parties delivers to another

something not consumable, so the latter may use the same for a certain time
and return it. Commodatum is essentially gratuitous.

2. Prohibited by stipulation of the parties – When prohibited by stipulation of the

parties, like the stipulation that upon the death of the creditor, the obligation shall
be extinguished, or that the creditor cannot assign his credit to another.

- Such stipulation, being contrary to the general rule, must be clearly provoked,
or, at the very least, clearly implied from the wordings or terms of the contract
itself.