International Journal of

Geo-Information

Article
3D Cadastral Data Model Based on Conformal
Geometry Algebra
Ji-yi Zhang 1 , Peng-cheng Yin 2 , Gang Li 1, *, He-he Gu 1 , Hua Zhao 1 and Jian-chun Fu 1
1 School of Environmental Science and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology,
Xuzhou 221008, China; cumtzjy@126.com (J.-Y.Z.); guhh@263.net (H.-H.G.); zhhcumt@163.com (H.Z.);
fjc@hpu.edu.cn (J.-C.F.)
2 Bureau of Land and Resources of Xuzhou, Xuzhou 221006, China; cumtyinpc@163.com
* Correspondence: cumtlig@263.net; Tel.: +86-136-0520-5938; Fax: +86-516-8359-1333

Academic Editors: François Anton and Wolfgang Kainz

Received: 3 October 2015; Accepted: 5 February 2016; Published: 19 February 2016

Abstract: Three-dimensional (3D) cadastral data models that are based on Euclidean geometry
(EG) are incapable of providing a unified representation of geometry and topological relations
for 3D spatial units in a cadastral database. This lack of unification causes problems such as
complex expression structure and inefficiency in the updating of 3D cadastral objects. The inability
of current cadastral data models to express cadastral objects in a unified manner can be attributed
to the different expressions of dimensional objects. Because the hierarchical Grassmann structure
corresponds to the hierarchical structure of dimensions in conformal geometric algebra (CGA),
geometric objects in different dimensions can be constructed by outer products in a unified expression
form, which enables the direct extension of two-dimensional (2D) spatial representations to 3D spatial
representations. The multivector structure in CGA can be employed to organize and store different
dimensional objects in a multidimensional and unified manner. With the advantages of CGA in
multidimensional expressions, a new 3D cadastral data model that is based on CGA is proposed in
this paper. The geometries and topological relations of 3D spatial units can be represented in a unified
form within the multivector structure. Detailed methods for 3D cadastral data model design based
on CGA and data organization in CGA are introduced. The new cadastral data model is tested and
analyzed with experimental data. The results indicate that the geometry and topological relations of
3D cadastral objects can be represented in a multidimensional manner with an intuitive topological
structure and a unified dimensional expression.

Keywords: data model; CGA; 3D cadastre; outer production; topological relation

1. Introduction
Due to an increasing demand for land use in urban areas, the future direction of urban
development involves extending the current land use to higher spaces and the underground.
With increasingly complex three-dimensional (3D) structures, the traditional two-dimensional (2D)
cadastre is becoming more limited for handling complex 3D cadastral objects in urban areas. A 3D
cadastre is needed to address these limitations. Several countries and regions have begun to register
and manage complex 3D cadastral objects via urban cadastral management [1–6]. Relative theories
and technologies, including organization, storage and query of 3D spatial units, have recently
gained attention.
A 3D cadastral data model focuses on methods to organize, store and represent spatial
representations for 3D cadastral objects in a cadastral database. Because land ownership boundaries
and rights should be accurately defined in a cadastral registration, a large percentage of cadastral

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20; doi:10.3390/ijgi5020020 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 2 of 16

data models represent the structures of 3D spatial units by describing topological relations among
composed elements [7–9]. The majority of existing data representation models of traditional 3D
cadastres are topological-based [7]. Several topological-based 3D cadastral data models, which are
based on Euclidean Geometry (EG), have been developed for 3D cadastral management [7–13]. Because
EG space lacks a unified form in dimensional expansion, the extension from a classical 2D cadastre
to a 3D cadastre that is based on EG is not direct or simple. Representations of 3D spatial units
are more complicated than representations of 2D spatial units in EG space [14], which is one of the
main obstacles in 3D cadastre implementation. EG-based cadastral data models organize, store and
represent geometry according to their topological relations, which are contained in 3D cadastral objects
in a cadastral database. The topological structures and relations are logged and maintained during
the entire procedure of data storage, relationship representation, operation, division of rights, and
validation [13]. Universally accepted 3D cadastral data models have not been constructed for efficient
complex spatial representations. How to store and represent spatial representations efficiently for 3D
cadastral objects in a database remains a challenge in 3D cadastre development [15].
One of the main issues caused by the division of multidimensionality in EG space is the
separation between the representation of geometry and the representation of algebra. Geometric
elements with higher dimensions in EG space cannot be expressed directly and algebraically by their
geometric components, which have lower dimensions. A separation exists between the expression
of geometry and the expression of algebra [16], which produces the diversity of distinct expressions
and computational structures in objects of different dimensions. EG-based 3D data models focus
on the description of topological relations among different dimensional construction elements of
3D objects [7]. These methods for spatial representations are not intuitive. They cannot handle a
complex hierarchical structure, especially the dimensional hierarchical structure in a 3D cadastre as an
entity. Topological relations among different dimensions, such as points, boundary lines, boundary
faces and spatial units, are commonly employed to indirectly realize the spatial representations of
3D objects [17–20]. For instance, lines and surfaces are expressed by the descriptions of construction
points and lines, respectively, whereas a 3D spatial unit is represented by recording of relative surfaces.
The principle of EG-based data models is a 3D extension of the topological relations among points,
lines and planes in 2D space. In these data models, the geometries only comprise symbols that are
logged or described in the database instead of the real computational primitives that are represented
algebraically. The topological relations in EG-based data models resemble the connection structures
between these symbolized geometries [21–23]. Due to the complexity of 3D objects and the limitations
of EG in complex 3D object representation, EG-based data models cannot realize the integration of
geometry and topology as an entity. Although several studies have attempted to integrate geometry
and topology [24–26], none have achieved this goal due to the limitation of EG. New mathematical
theories are needed to integrate geometric and algebraic representations as an entity.
In this paper, conformal geometric algebra (CGA) is introduced as the theoretical foundation of
3D cadastral spatial representations to solve problems in cadastral development from a 2D structure to
a 3D structure. As a branch of Clifford algebra [27,28], CGA can integrate the geometric and algebraic
representations of spatial objects. CGA can also solve geometric problems directly in an algebraic
way [29]. Compared with EG, different dimensional elements in CGA can be expressed in a unified
form by outer products consistent with the Grassmann structure, as shown in Figure 1, which indicates
that the geometric structure of spatial units is consistent with the Grassmann dimensional structure.
Several achievements that introduce CGA into geographic information systems (GISs) research are
as follows: a multi-dimensional integrated GIS model [23,30], a spatial analysis computation [31–33],
and an expression of topological relations and operations integration [34,35]. Yuan et al (2014) suggest
that CGA has the potential to become the fundamental theory and technology for constructing a
multidimensional unified GIS [35]. Therefore, it has high potential to serve as a solid foundation for
3D cadastral data modeling.
 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 3 of 16
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 3 of 16


Grade 2

Grade 3 e  
Grade 3

Grade 4 e  
Grade 4

HyperSphere Grade 5 e 

e
Infinite Point
Point Line Cirle Plane Sphere
Point Pair

Figure
Figure 1. Grassmann
1. Grassmann structure
structure that
that contains
contains dimensional
dimensional elements,
elements, where
where ˆ denotes
^ denotes anan outer
outer product.
product.

This
This paper
paper is is organizedasasfollows:
organized follows:InInSection
Section2,2,we
wereview
reviewthe
thefundamental
fundamentalidea
ideaof
ofconstructing
constructing a
3D cadastral data model with CGA. The construction and development of the
a 3D cadastral data model with CGA. The construction and development of the 3D cadastral 3D cadastral data data
model
are presented in Section 3. Both the theoretical and the technological implementations
model are presented in Section 3. Both the theoretical and the technological implementations of the of the data
model
data are discussed.
model are discussed.In Section 4, we 4,
In Section testwethetest
CGA-based 3D cadastral
the CGA-based data model
3D cadastral datausing real-world
model using
case studies. The characteristics, improvements and future directions of the 3D cadastral
real-world case studies. The characteristics, improvements and future directions of the 3D cadastral data model
aremodel
data discussed in Section in
are discussed 5. Section
We state5.our
Weconclusions in Section in
state our conclusions 6. Section 6.

2. 2.
BasicBasic
IdeaIdea

TheThe unification
unification ofof geometric
geometric andand topological
topological representations
representations is is
oneoneofof the
the objectives
objectives inin cadastral
cadastral
data
data modeling.
modeling. TheThe keykey to integrating
to integrating geometry
geometry and and topology
topology is theisintegrated
the integrated representation
representation of theof
the geometric structure and the dimensional structure of geometric
geometric structure and the dimensional structure of geometric elements of different dimensions.elements of different dimensions.
This
This representation
representation is not
is not possible
possible in EG
in EG because
because traditional
traditional Euclidean
Euclidean spacespace
lackslacks consistency
consistency in thein
the representation
representation of geometries
of geometries of different
of different dimensions
dimensions [14].[14].
To To achieve
achieve synchronization
synchronization between
between
geometry and topology at different dimensions, a distinct and unified
geometry and topology at different dimensions, a distinct and unified mathematical representation mathematical representation
andand data
data organization
organization structure
structure are arenecessary.
necessary.
CGACGAisisone
one of
of the
themost
most powerful
powerful geometric
geometric algebra (GA) (GA)
algebra systems. Compared
systems. with other
Compared with geometric
other
geometric systems, such as Euclidean geometry and projective geometry, CGA has the uniqueof
systems, such as Euclidean geometry and projective geometry, CGA has the unique advantages
simple andofintuitive
advantages simple and structure,
intuitivedistinct geometric
structure, meaning
distinct geometric andmeaning
unified characteristics with regard to
and unified characteristics
the expression of the geometry [35–38]. Because dimensional and
with regard to the expression of the geometry [35–38]. Because dimensional and topological topological structures in CGA are
consistent with the Grassmann dimensional structure, different dimensional
structures in CGA are consistent with the Grassmann dimensional structure, different dimensional elements can be expressed
directly can
elements via outer productsdirectly
be expressed with conformal
via outerpoints.
productsThe with
structure of the Grassmann
conformal points. Thehierarchy
structureisofsimilar
the
to the topological structures of different dimensional objects
Grassmann hierarchy is similar to the topological structures of different dimensional[39], which enables the construction
objects [39], of a
which enables the construction of a unified representation for different dimensional geometries inof
unified representation for different dimensional geometries in CGA [40]. The unified representation
CGAthe geometric
[40]. The construction is purely algebraic,
unified representation of the which
geometric indicates that geometric
construction objects
is purely can be expressed
algebraic, which
as an algebraic entity [41]. With the expression of the structure of the
indicates that geometric objects can be expressed as an algebraic entity [41]. With the expression geometric objects in CGA,of the
thetopological
structure ofrelations are implicitly
the geometric objectscontained
in CGA, the in their algebraic
topological expression
relations [42]. In this
are implicitly manner,in
contained the
unified representation of geometries and topological relations can
their algebraic expression [42]. In this manner, the unified representation of geometries and be achieved.
Fundamental
topological primitives
relations can (e.g., points, point pairs, lines, circles, planes and spheres) in CGA
be achieved.
canFundamental
be represented consistently
primitives using the
(e.g., points, pointouter
pairs,product with the
lines, circles, integration
planes of geometries
and spheres) in CGA can and
topological relations. However, the representation of arbitrary
be represented consistently using the outer product with the integration of geometries and geometries may not fit a hierarchal
Grassmann
topological structure.
relations. To ensure
However, compatibility with
the representation an existing
of arbitrary GIS data
geometries may model,
not fitaa3D cadastral
hierarchal
Grassmann structure. To ensure compatibility with an existing GIS data model, a 3D cadastral data
model with a complex-simplex structure is formed. For example, complex geometries should be
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 4 of 16
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 4 of 16

composed
data modelof elementary
with geometries.
a complex-simplex In thisiscombination,
structure topological
formed. For example, structures
complex should
geometries also be
should
encoded
composedand represented
of elementary in the expression
geometries. of geometric
In this combination, structures.
topological Although
structures shouldCGA alsoincludes
be encodedsix
primitives,
and represented only in points, lines and of
the expression planes are employed
geometric structures.inAlthough
the spatial CGA representations to fit the
includes six primitives,
characteristics
only points, lines of and
accurate
planescadastral boundary
are employed in therepresentation. Because to
spatial representations thefit elemental geometric
the characteristics of
objects
accurate incadastral
CGA have different representation.
boundary dimensions, a unified
Because representation
the elemental structure
geometric thatobjects
represents
in CGA different
have
dimensional objects isapreferable.
different dimensions, unified representation structure that represents different dimensional objects
The multivector structure, which is the fundamental algebraic structure in CGA, combines
is preferable.
different
The dimensional objects. In which
multivector structure, a multivector structure, different
is the fundamental algebraic dimensional
structure geometric elements
in CGA, combines
that comprise
different the complete
dimensional objects.object
In a are represented
multivector as blade
structure, subspaces
different of the CGA
dimensional according
geometric to the
elements
grades (i.e., dimensions)
that comprise the complete ofobject
the objects. The structures
are represented as blade ofsubspaces
the objects of are codedaccording
the CGA in the weight,
to the
amplitude and orientation
grades (i.e., dimensions) of theof the components
objects. The structuresofofthe multivectors
the objects are coded [33]. In weight,
in the this manner,
amplitudethe
representation
and orientationofofgeometries
the componentsin a multivector structure [33].
of the multivectors can be Inexpressed
this manner, algebraically. With well-
the representation of
defined
geometries data in structures
a multivector(e.g., the hierarchal
structure structure algebraically.
can be expressed according to With the dimensions
well-defined[35]), data consistent
structures
topological
(e.g., relationsstructure
the hierarchal can be maintained
accordingevento theif dimensions
complex geometries are represented.
[35]), consistent topological For relations
example,can we
can represent complex
be maintained 3D cadastral
even if complex spatialare
geometries units according For
represented. to the combination
example, we canofrepresent
points, lines and
complex
planes. In a spatial
3D cadastral multivector structure, to
units according thethetopological
combination relations
of points,among
lines these different
and planes. In adimensional
multivector
elements
structure,can thebe formulated
topological using the
relations coefficients
among of the blades
these different in the multivectors,
dimensional elements can andbe theformulated
geometric
construction relations can
using the coefficients be blades
of the completely
in theinvestigated
multivectors, using
andthe thestructures
geometric of construction
the multidimensional
relations
organization
can be completely structures. The multivector
investigated using the structure
structuresprovides a unified and ideal
of the multidimensional structure for
organization storing
structures.
different
The dimensional
multivector objects
structure by integrating
provides a unified geometric and topological
and ideal structure structures
for storing differentin dimensional
an algebraic
manner.
objects by integrating geometric and topological structures in an algebraic manner.
We developed a multidimensional-unified 3D cadastral data model using CGA. The premise of
the construction of the data model is illustrated in Figure 2. In the first phase, 3D cadastral objects are
decomposed into geometric and topological components from which we can obtain simplex elements
that are composed of complex objects. Conformal Conformal pointspoints can be obtained from original Euclidean
sets via
point sets via expression
expressionin inCGA
CGAininthethesecond
secondphase.
phase.These
Thesesimplex
simplexelements,
elements, which
which areare employed
employed to
to construct
construct 3D3D cadastral
cadastral spatial
spatial units,
units, cancan be consistently
be consistently represented
represented by conformal
by conformal pointpoint
setssets
usingusing
the
the
outerouter product
product operation
operation in CGA in in
CGA in thephase.
the third third Complex
phase. Complex
3D cadastral 3D cadastral
spatial unitsspatial units are
are expressed
expressed
via via the multivector
the multivector structure, instructure, in which
which different different dimensional
dimensional construction construction
simplexes aresimplexes
integratedare to
integrated to realize
realize a unified a unified
expression forexpression
geometric for geometricand
information information
topological and topological relations.
relations.

3D Cadastral Objects Geometry and

Topology Unified Representation in
3D Cadastral Object
CGA
(MultiVector)

CGA Geometric Primitives

Geometry Topology
Representation
Division Relations
(GeoPrim)

Geometric
embedding
Geometric Primitives CGA Point Sets and Outer Product

Figure 2. Processing flow of the CGA (conformal geometric algebra) -based 3D (three-dimensional)
(three-dimensional)
cadastral data model.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 5 of 16

3. Methods

3.1. Geometrically and Topologically Unified Representation in CGA

Using nonlinear spherical projection, the Euclidean space is embedded in a high-dimensional
space, which is subject to a homogeneous projection transformation to obtain the conformal model of
Euclidean geometry [33,43], where e1 , e2 , e3 , e0 , e8 are the five vectors that support the space R4,1 and
the x, y, z coordinates of the Euclidean space are the coefficients of the e1 , e2 , e3 vectors, respectively. In
this paper, e0 denotes the basic coordinate origin, whose coefficient is normally kept constant in CGA,
and e8 is the infinity point, whose coefficients can be calculated by Euclidean coordinates. The outer
product of two arbitrary vectors in CGA is defined as follows:
Definition 1: If a and b are two vectors in the conformal space R4,1 , the outer product is defined as
1
a^b “ pab ´ baq
2
where both ab and ba are the geometric products of vectors a and b [41], which produce scalars and
bivectors. This definition indicates that the dimensions of geometric objects can be encoded based on
the outer product operation.
The geometric objects of different dimensions in the conformal space are constructed by the outer
product, which can realize the uniform expression form for the different dimensional geometric objects.
By introducing the two additional dimensions of the origin and the infinity point, the geometric object
dimensional structure completely corresponds to the Grassmann structure in the conformal space [30].
The expression ability of geometric entities in CGA has been significantly expanded. These features
enable the geometric objects of different dimensions in CGA to be directly constructed via the outer
product of conformal point sets, which is shown in Table 1. For example, the outer product of two
conformal points, which comprises a one-dimensional (1D) subspace in CGA, can directly express
2D subspace point pairs. Conformal lines, which comprise a 3D subspace, can be represented by
a 2D subspace outer product with the infinity point e8 , whereas a plane is expressed by the outer
product of three conformal points and the infinity point e8 . Table 1 lists the basic geometric objects,
which are expressed by the outer product of the conformal points in CGA. As shown in the table,
different dimensional geometric objects follow a uniform manner of expression in CGA. The line and
circle and the plane and sphere in CGA achieve a unified expression form and geometric meaning,
respectively [34,44].
A multivector is a basic mathematical element that can simultaneously integrate multiple
dimensional objects in CGA. The multidimensional unified expression of a common geometric object
by a multivector in conformal space is defined as follows:
Definition 2: If Pi are points in conformal space R4,1 , then the multivector A, which is composed
of points, lines and planes in Cl4,1 , is expressed as
n
ÿ n
ÿ ( n
ÿ (
A“ tPi u ` Pi ^ Pj ^ e8 ` Pi ^ Pj ^ Pk ^ e8
i “1
i“1,j“1 i“1,j“1,k“1
i‰ j i ‰ j‰k

where n is the number of points and {} represents the sets of geometric elements with the same
dimensions. The multivector definition indicates that the geometric elements in different dimensions
are connected by addition.
According to Definition 2, the integration and unification of different geometric dimensions
can be realized via the multivector structure in CGA. Simplex objects, such as points, lines and
surfaces, can be integrated within a multivector to express complex 3D geometric objects. Elements
of different dimensions are independent in the multivector structure. With the multivector structure,
multidimensional fusion expression for 3D complex geometric objects can be realized and topological
 ISPRS
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relations among
relations among different
different dimensional
dimensional construction
construction elements
elements areare distinctly
distinctly expressed
expressed byby the
the
relations
relations
relations among
among
among different
different
different dimensional
dimensional
dimensional construction
construction
construction elements
elements
elements are distinctly
aredistinctly
are expressed
distinctlyexpressed
expressed byby the
bythethe
relations among
topological
relations among
topological different
hierarchy dimensional
that
different
hierarchy is
that is construction
constructed
is constructed
constructed from
dimensionalfrom
from elements are
multidimensional
construction
multidimensional distinctly expressed
components.
elementscomponents. by the topological
are distinctly expressed by the
components.
topological
topological
topological hierarchy
hierarchy
hierarchy that
that
that is is constructed
constructed from
from multidimensional
multidimensional
multidimensional components.
hierarchy that
topological is constructed
hierarchy that isfrom multidimensional
constructed components.components.
from multidimensional components.
Table 1.
Table 1. Outer
Outer product
product expression
expression of
of geometric
geometric objects
objects in in CGA
CGA
Table
Table
Table 1. 1.
Table
Table
1. 1. Outer
1. Outer
Outer
Outer
Outer
product
product
product
product
product
expression
ofof
expression
expression
expression
expression of of
of geometric
geometric
geometric
geometric
geometric
objects
objects
objects
objects
objects inin
in in
in
CGA
CGA.
CGA
CGA
CGA
Table 1. Outer product expression of geometric objects in CGA
Object
Object Drawing
Drawing Outer production
Outer production Grade
Grade
Object
Object
Object
Object Drawing
Drawing
Drawing
Drawing Outer
Outer
Outer
Outer production
production
production
production Grade
Grade
Grade
Grade
Object
Object Drawing Outer
Outer production Grade Grade
Production
Point
Point Null
Null 11
Point
Point
Point
Point Null
Null
Null
Null 1 111
Point
Point Null
Null 1 1
Point pair
Point pair 𝑃𝑃 =
𝑃𝑃 =𝑃 𝑃11^𝑃 ^𝑃22 22
Point
Point
Point
Point
Point pair
pair
pair
pair
pair PP 𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
“=P=𝑃11𝑃
= ^𝑃
^𝑃 ^𝑃
𝑃11P^𝑃
^𝑃2 2 2
2 22
2 22
Point pair 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃11^𝑃 2 2
Line
Line
Line L “ 𝐿𝐿P=
𝐿
=^𝑃
= 𝑃P
𝑃 1
^𝑃
1^𝑃
^𝑃
^2e^𝑒
2
^𝑒
^𝑒 ∞∞ 3 33
Line
Line
Line
Line 𝐿=𝐿𝐿 =
1
𝑃𝑃
= 𝑃1 ^𝑃
^𝑃1 2
^𝑃
2 ^𝑒 22^𝑒
2 ^𝑒
8
∞∞
∞ 3
3 33
Line 𝐿 =1 𝑃11^𝑃 2 ^𝑒∞
∞
3
Circle
Circle
Circle 𝐶P=
𝐶
C “𝐶 = 𝑃P
^𝑃 ^𝑃
1^𝑃
^ ^𝑃^𝑃
2 222P3 333 3 33
Circle
Circle
Circle
Circle 𝐶𝐶𝐶=
= 1 𝑃
=
= 𝑃1111^𝑃
𝑃1𝑃
^𝑃 ^𝑃
^𝑃
2 ^𝑃
^𝑃
2 ^𝑃
^𝑃
3 33 3 333
Circle 𝐶 = 𝑃1 ^𝑃22^𝑃 3 3

Plane
Plane 𝑃=
𝑃 =^𝑃
𝑃11^𝑃 ^𝑃 ^𝑃^33^𝑒
^𝑃
^222P^𝑃
^𝑒∞∞ 44
Plane
Plane
Plane
Plane
Plane “𝑃
P𝑃 𝑃P1=
𝑃
= 𝑃1𝑃
=
= 𝑃P1112^𝑃
𝑃
^𝑃 ^𝑃
^𝑃 22^𝑃
2 ^𝑃 ^𝑃
3 ^𝑒
3 ^𝑒
33^𝑒
e^𝑒
∞8∞
∞
∞ 4 4 444
Plane 𝑃 = 𝑃1 ^𝑃2 ^𝑃3 ^𝑒 ∞ 4

Sphere
Sphere 𝑆𝑆 ==^𝑃
𝑃11^𝑃^𝑃 ^𝑃^33^𝑃
^𝑃
^222P^𝑃
^𝑃44 44
Sphere
Sphere
Sphere
Sphere
Sphere 𝑆𝑆
S“ 𝑆𝑆P1=
= 𝑃1𝑃
=
= P1112^𝑃
𝑃
𝑃
^𝑃 ^𝑃
^𝑃 22^𝑃
2 ^𝑃 ^𝑃
3 ^𝑃
3 ^𝑃
33^𝑃
^𝑃
P 4
44 44 4 4 444
Sphere 𝑆 = 𝑃1 ^𝑃2 ^𝑃3 ^𝑃 4 4

3.2. 3D
3.2. 3D Cadastral
Cadastral Object
Object DataData Model
Model Based Based on on CGA
CGA
3.2.
3.2.3.2.
3D3D
3D Cadastral
Cadastral
Cadastral Object
Object
Object Data
Data
Data Model
Model
Model Based
Based
Based ononCGA
on CGA
CGA
3.2. 3D Cadastral Object Data Model Based on CGA
This section
This section introduces
introduces aa detaileddetailed description
description of of the
the expression
expression method
method of of 3D 3D cadastral
cadastral objects
objects
This
This
This section
section
section
section introduces
introduces
introduces
introduces adetailed
a detailed
aadetailed
detailed description
description
description
description of
ofofthe
of
the the
the expression
expression
expression
expression method
method
method
method ofof 3Dof
of3D 3D cadastral
cadastral
3D cadastral
cadastral objects
objects in
objects
objects
in CGA.
in CGA. This First,
section
CGA. First,
First, the the relationship
introduces
the relationship a
relationship between between
detailed
between the the
descriptionmain
the main ofresearch
main research the contents
expression
research contents and
method
contents and and the theof
the landland
3D administration
cadastral
land administration objects
administration
inin
CGA.in First,
CGA.
CGA.
domain
the relationship
First,
First,
model the the relationship
(LADM)
between
relationship
[45] is between
is discussed.
the main
between
discussed. thethe research
main
main
Second,
contents
research
research
theresearch
concept and
and theand
contents
contents
and
land
scopeandand theadministration
of aa thethe landland
3D cadastral
domain
administration
administration
cadastral spatial unit
unit
in
domainCGA.model
domain First, (LADM)
model the relationship
(LADM) [45]
[45] is betweenSecond,
discussed. the main
Second, the
the concept
concept contents
and scope
scope of
of 3D
aa 3D land administration
cadastral spatial
spatial unit
model
domain
domain (LADM)
model
model [45]
(LADM)
(LADM) is discussed.
[45]
[45] is is Second,
discussed.
discussed. the concept
Second,
Second, the the and scope
concept
concept andand of a 3D
scope
scope of cadastral
of
a 3D 3D spatial
cadastral
cadastral unitunit
spatial
spatial are
unit
are defined
defined
domain
are model as(LADM)
as semantics.
semantics. Third,
[45]Third,
is discussed.
Third, a method
methodSecond,to realize
realize
the concept a unified
unified
and scopemultidimensional
of a 3D cadastral expression
spatial unit of
are
defined
are are defined
defined
defined asas
as semantics.
as semantics.
Third, Third,
semantics.
semantics. a method
Third, a aaamethod
tomethod
realizeto
method
to
a to
to realize
unified
realize
realize aaaunified
unified
multidimensional
a unified
multidimensional
multidimensional
expression of expression
multidimensional
multidimensional
expression
expression
geometry
expression and
of
ofof
of
geometry
are defined
geometry and and astopology
semantics.
and topology
topology for for
for 3D3D
Third, cadastral
3D cadastral a
cadastral objects,objects,
method to which
objects, whichrealize
which is is abased
is basedunified
based on on CGA, is introduced.
multidimensional
on CGA,
CGA, is is introduced.
introduced. We We obtained
expression
We obtained
obtained of
geometry
geometry
topology
geometry for
andand
3D topology
cadastral
topology forfor
3D 3D
objects, cadastral is objects,
which objects,
cadastral basedwhichonwhich
CGA, is isisbased
based on
introduced.
on CGA,
CGA, We
is is introduced.
obtained
introduced. 3DWe
a We obtained
cadastral
obtained
a 3D
3D cadastral
cadastral spatial unit from the abstraction
abstraction of which
both the the legal and physical levels of of the
the We3D cadastral
cadastral
aageometry
a 3D
3D
spatial
a 3D
and spatial
cadastral
cadastral
unit from
cadastral
topology
spatial
spatial
spatialthe unit
unit
unitfor
unit
3D cadastral
from
from
from
abstraction
from the
the
the
the
of abstraction objects,
abstraction
both the legal
abstraction
of
ofof
of
both
both
both
both andthetheis legal
the
basedand
legal
legal
physical
legal and
on physical
and
and
CGA, is introduced.
physical
physical
levels
physical of the
levels
levels
levels
levels of
of
3Dofcadastral
thethe
the
3D
3D
3D
3D
obtained
cadastral
cadastral
objects.
cadastral
objects.
a 3D
objects. TheThe
cadastral
The 3D3D cadastral
spatial
3D cadastral unit spatial
cadastral spatialfrom the
spatial unit unit
unit is is decomposed
abstraction
is decomposed of
decomposed to both to obtain
the
to obtain legal a series
and
obtain aa series of
physical
series of geometric
levels
of geometric of
geometric simplexes, simplexes,
the 3D which
cadastral
simplexes, which which
objects.
The objects.
objects. TheThe
3D cadastral3D3D cadastral
spatial
cadastral unitspatial
spatial unit
is decomposed
unit is is decomposed
to obtain
decomposed toato obtain
series
obtain ageometric
series
aofseries of geometric
ofachieve simplexes,
geometric simplexes,
which can
simplexes, which
whichbe
can
can be be
objects. represented
The 3D
be represented cadastral
represented by by different
spatial
by different dimensional
unit
different dimensional is decomposed
dimensional blades blades to
blades in in
obtain
in CGA.CGA. a
CGA. To To
series of
To achievegeometric
achieve the the multidimensional
simplexes,
the multidimensional
multidimensional which
can
can can
represented
be be represented
by different
represented by by different
dimensional
different dimensional
blades in CGA.
dimensional blades
blades To in in
achieve CGA.
CGA. the
To To achieve
multidimensional
achieve the the multidimensional
expression for
multidimensional
expression
can
expression for the
be represented
for the complex
complex 3D cadastral
by different
3D cadastral
dimensionalspatial unit,
spatial unit,
blades thein
the multivector,
CGA. To which
multivector, which
achieve
which is aathe
is spatial mathematical
multidimensional
spatial mathematical
expression
the expression
complex
expression forfor
for
3Dthethe
the complex
complex
cadastral
complex 3D
3D
spatial
3D cadastral
cadastral
unit, the
cadastral spatial
spatial unit,
unit,
multivector,
spatial unit, thethe
the multivector,
whichmultivector,
multivector,is a spatialwhich
which isisis aa spatial
mathematical spatial
a spatial mathematical
mathematical
structure
mathematical in
structure
expression
structure in in CGA,
for
in CGA, the
CGA, is is employed.
complex
is employed. 3D
employed. The The
cadastral
The 3D 3D cadastral
spatial
3D cadastral unit,
cadastral data data
the model,
data model,multivector,
model, which which
which is is
which based
is based is
based on a on CGA,
spatial
on CGA,
CGA, is is shown
shown in
mathematical
is in
structure
CGA,structure
structure in in
is employed.CGA,
CGA, is is
The employed.
3D cadastral
employed. The The 3D 3D
data cadastral
model,
cadastral which
datadata ismodel,
model,based which
on
which CGA,
is is based
is
based shown
on on CGA,
in
CGA, Figure
is is shown
shown
3. Last,
shown inin
in
Figure
structure
Figure 3. Last,
in CGA,
3. Last,
Last, the structure
is employed.
the structure
structure of
of 3D3D
3DThe cadastral spatial
3D cadastral
cadastral spatial unitunit
datadata
unit data
model,
data storage
which
storage organization
is based on
organization in CGA
inCGA,
CGA is is designed.
shown in
is designed.
designed.
Figure
the Figure
Figure 3.
3. 3.
structure Last,
Last, ofthethe
3Dthe structure
cadastral
structure of
of
3D3D
ofspatial cadastral
cadastral
unit data
cadastral spatial
spatial
storage
spatial unitunit data
organization
data storage
storage
storage in organization
organization
CGA is designed.
organization in
in in CGA
CGACGA is is designed.
designed.
Figure 3. Last, the structure of 3D cadastral spatial unit data storage organization in CGA is designed.
LegalSpatialUnit
LegalSpatialUnit PhysicalSpatialUnit
PhysicalSpatialUnit
LegalSpatialUnit
LegalSpatialUnit
LegalSpatialUnit
LegalSpatialUnit PhysicalSpatialUnit
PhysicalSpatialUnit
PhysicalSpatialUnit
PhysicalSpatialUnit
LegalSpatialUnit PhysicalSpatialUnit

SpatialUnit
SpatialUnit
SpatialUnit
SpatialUnit
SpatialUnit
SpatialUnit
decomposition
SpatialUnit
decomposition
decomposition
decomposition
decomposition
decomposition
decomposition
BoundaryFace
BoundaryFace BoundaryLines
BoundaryLines Points
Points EuclideanPointSets
EuclideanPointSets
BoundaryFace
BoundaryFace
BoundaryFace
BoundaryFace BoundaryLines
BoundaryLines
BoundaryLines
BoundaryLines Points
Points
Points
Points EuclideanPointSets
EuclideanPointSets
EuclideanPointSets
EuclideanPointSets
BoundaryFace BoundaryLines Points EuclideanPointSets
CGA Expression
CGA Expression CGA Expression
CGA Expression CGA Expression
CGA Expression CGA Expression
CGA Expression
CGA
CGA
CGA
CGA Expression
Expression
Expression
Expression CGA
CGA
CGA
CGA Expression
Expression
Expression
Expression CGA
CGA
CGA
CGA Expression
Expression
Expression
Expression CGACGA
CGA
CGA Expression
Expression
Expression
Expression
CGA Expression outer CGA Expression outer CGA Expression CGA Expression
Quadvector outer
outer Bivector outer
outer Vector CGAPointSets
Quadvector
Quadvector outer
outer
outer
product Bivector
Bivector outer
outer
outer
product Vector
Vector CGAPointSets
CGAPointSets
Quadvector
Quadvector
Quadvector product
product
outer Bivector
Bivector
Bivector product
product
outer Vector
Vector
Vector CGAPointSets
CGAPointSets
CGAPointSets
Quadvector product
product
product Bivector product
product
product Vector CGAPointSets
product product

Multivector
Multivector
Multivector
Multivector
Multivector
Multivector
Multivector
reconstruction
reconstruction
reconstruction
reconstruction
reconstruction
reconstruction
reconstruction
CGASpatialUnit
CGASpatialUnit
CGASpatialUnit
CGASpatialUnit
CGASpatialUnit
CGASpatialUnit
CGASpatialUnit
Figure 3.
Figure 3. 3D
3D cadastral
cadastral data
data model
model based
based on
on CGA.
CGA.
Figure
Figure 3. 3.
3.
Figure
Figure
Figure 3D3D
3.
3.
3D 3D
3D cadastral
cadastral
cadastral
cadastral data
data
cadastral data
data
data model
model
model
model
model based
based onon
on
based
based
based on
on CGA.
CGA.
CGA.
CGA.
CGA.
Figure 3. 3D cadastral data model based on CGA.
3.2.1. Initial
3.2.1. Initial Conditions
Conditions
3.2.1.
3.2.1.
3.2.1. Initial
Initial
Initial Conditions
Conditions
Conditions
3.2.1. Initial Conditions
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 7 of 16

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 7 of 16

3.2.1. Initial Conditions
The Land Administration Domain Model (LADM), which includes a 3D cadastre, is a conceptual
model for cadastral management [46]. The LADM has obtained the certification of the International
Organization for Standardization
Standardization (ISO).
(ISO). The
The LADM
LADM contains
contains four
four parts,
parts, as shown in Figure 4: a party
(LA_Party); rights, restrictions, responsibilities (LA_RRR); a basic administrative unit (LA_BAUnit);
(LA_BAUnit);
and a spatial unit (LA_SpatialUnit). The main research contents of this paper belongs to the spatial
unit in the LADM. It is primarily based on CGA theory to investigate data organization and the
relationship between
relationship betweengeometry
geometryandandtopology,
topology, which
which is integrated
is integrated in expression
in the the expression
for 3Dforspatial
3D spatial
units.
units.
The The construction
construction of a 3D of a 3D cadastral
cadastral data
data model model
that thatonisCGA
is based basedis on CGA is anofextension
an extension the spatialofunits
the
spatial
in units inThe
the LADM. the relationship
LADM. The between
relationship
the between
CGA-based the data
CGA-based datathe
model and model
LADMandisthe LADM in
depicted is
depicted
Figure 4. in Figure 4.

LA_Party

LA_RRR

LA_BAUnit

LA_SpatialUnit

Spatial Unit:: Spatial Unit::

LA_LegalSpaceUtilityNetwork LA_LegalSpaceBuildingUnit

CGA-based spatial data

representations

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Relationship between
Relationship a CGA-based
between data model
a CGA-based and LADM
data model (Land Administration
and LADM Domain
(Land Administration
Model) Model).
Domain

Prior to building a 3D cadastral data model, a description of the concept of a basic unit in a 3D
cadastre—the 3D cadastral spatial unit—is needed. A 3D cadastral spatial unit is a combined object
that is abstracted from a legal object and a 3D physical object in the real world. It is the smallest unit
in 3D
3D cadastral
cadastralmanagement.
management.From From a legal perspective,
a legal a 3D
perspective, a cadastral spatial
3D cadastral unit is
spatial a closed
unit 3D space
is a closed 3D
with legally
space binding
with legally and distinct
binding 3D boundaries.
and distinct The difference
3D boundaries. among
The difference ownership
among rightsrights
ownership is the is
main
the
criterion
main for distinguishing
criterion for distinguishingthe boundary
the boundaryof a of
cadastral spatial
a cadastral unit.
spatial TheThe
unit. internal consistency
internal consistency of
ownership
of ownership rights is the
rights is premise
the premiseof 3Dofcadastral management.
3D cadastral From the
management. point
From theofpoint
view of real
viewphysical
of real
objects, 3D
physical cadastral
objects, spatial spatial
3D cadastral units units
comprise the abstract
comprise expression
the abstract expressionof of
a arealistic
realistic3D
3D cadastral
management object according to the needs of cadastral cadastral management.
management. 3D spatial units of physical
objects can be an independent building that is located on, below, or above ground. It can also be a
semi-enclosed building
semi-enclosed building (e.g.,
(e.g., a sports stadium) that needs to be abstracted to obtain the 3D ownership ownership
boundary according to relative cadastral laws. 3D spatial units may simultaneously contain many
buildings withwith identical
identicalownership,
ownership,such suchasasaafactory
factoryspatial
spatialunit
unit that
that contains
contains multiple
multiple workshops
workshops or
aorvilla
a villa that
that contains
contains houses,
houses, courtyards
courtyards andand
an an underground
underground garage.
garage.

3.2.2. 3D Cadastral
3.2.2. 3D Cadastral Object
Object Reconstruction
Reconstruction in
in CGA
CGA
The
The premise
premise of ofaa3D
3Dcadastral
cadastraldata
datamodel
modelis is
the abstract
the expression
abstract of 3D
expression cadastral
of 3D entities
cadastral in the
entities in
real world. The geometric decomposition of complex 3D cadastral objects is needed to
the real world. The geometric decomposition of complex 3D cadastral objects is needed to organize organize and
store these these
and store objectsobjects
in a cadastral database.
in a cadastral The representation
database. of a current
The representation of a3Dcurrent
cadastral
3Ddata modeldata
cadastral and
cadastral
model and requirements for distinct boundary
cadastral requirements ownership
for distinct boundary areownership
both considered in 3D
are both cadastral in
considered object
3D
cadastral object decomposition. In this paper, 3D cadastral objects can be decomposed into four
geometric objects as follows: points, lines, surfaces, and spatial units. By further decomposition of
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 8 of 16

decomposition. In this paper, 3D cadastral objects can be decomposed into four geometric objects as
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 8 of 16
follows: points, lines, surfaces, and spatial units. By further decomposition of these geometric objects,
we obtain
these three
geometrictypes of basic
objects, we geometric
obtain threeprimitives:
types of basicnodes, boundary
geometric lines,nodes,
primitives: and boundary
boundaryfaces.
lines,
The complex
and boundary faces. 3D cadastral objects are represented by these different dimensional basic primitives,
which should be expressed
The complex in CGA
3D cadastral to realize
objects a consistent
are represented representation
by these form. Different
different dimensional dimensional
basic primitives,
basicwhich shouldsimplexes
geometric be expressed in in CGAcan
CGA to realize a consistent
be directly representation
constructed by theform.
outer Different dimensional
product of conformal
pointbasic
sets,geometric
which is simplexes
illustrated inin
CGA can1.
Table beHowever,
directly constructed by the outer
these simplexes product
in Table of conformal
1 do point
not have boundary
sets, which is illustrated in Table 1. However, these simplexes in Table
constraints, which are very important in cadastral registration and management. Boundary limitations 1 do not have boundary
constraints, which are very important in cadastral registration and management. Boundary
for these basic simplexes, which are expressed by conformal point sets, are needed to accurately
limitations for these basic simplexes, which are expressed by conformal point sets, are needed to
describe the boundaries of 3D cadastral objects. The coordinates of these point sets can be employed to
accurately describe the boundaries of 3D cadastral objects. The coordinates of these point sets can be
limit employed
the boundaries to limitofthecorresponding geometric objects,
boundaries of corresponding which
geometric is defined
objects, whichas follows:as follows:
is defined
Definition 3: If GeoPrimxky is a basic geometric primitive of the k-dimensional subspace in Cl4,1
Definition 3: If 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚<𝑘> is a basic geometric primitive of the k-dimensional subspace in
and tPi u denotes the conformal point sets that compose GeoPrim y , then the geometric representation
𝐶𝑙4,1 and {𝑃𝑖 } denotes the conformal point sets that composexk𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚 <𝑘> , then the geometric
of GeoPrimxky by the outer product can be defined as follows:
representation of 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚<𝑘> by the outer product can be defined as follows:
¨ ˛
P k“1
˚ P k  1 ‹
˚ P
P1  P2
^ P k k“2 2 ‹
‹
1 2

˚
GeoPrim
GeoPrim “
ăką  k ˚
˚
=
‹ 1 , P2 , ..., Pn u
{P‹,tP
P ,..., Pn }
˚  P11  ^PP22^ee8 k k“ 3 3 ‹1 2
 
˝ ‚
 PP11 
^PP22 ^PP33^ee8 k k“ 4 4
wherewhere
n is the
n isnumber of points
the number that
of points composeGeoPrim
compose
that 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚xky . . <𝑘>

Plane : P1  P2  P3  e P1

P5 P2
Facet

P4 P3

GeoPrim4  ( P1  P2  P3  e ){P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 , P5}

Figure5.5.Primitive
Figure Primitive facet representedinin𝐶𝑙Cl
facet represented 4,1 . .
4,1

Consider
Consider a primitive
a primitive facet
facet thatisiscomposed
that composed of of five
five points,
points,asasshown
shown in in
Figure 5. The
Figure plane
5. The that that
plane
contains the facet in 𝐶𝑙4,1 can be represented by 𝑃1^ ^𝑃2 ^𝑃^3 ^𝑒^
∞ , whereas the boundary of the facet is
contains the facet in Cl4,1 can be represented by P1 P2 P3 e8 , whereas the boundary of the facet
restricted by the five composing points. Figure 5 and the definition of 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚<𝑘> indicate that the
is restricted by the five composing points. Figure 5 and the definition of GeoPrim xky indicate that
basic geometric simplexes are directly represented by the outer product of conformal point sets. The
the basic geometric simplexes are directly represented by the outer product of conformal
geometric ranges of these simplexes are restricted by the sequence of point sets that compose the
point sets.
The geometric ranges
corresponding of these
boundary simplexes
simplexes. are manner,
In this restricted
weby the sequence
realize the accurate ofand
point setsrepresentation
united that compose the
corresponding boundary simplexes. In this manner, we realize the accurate and
for different dimensional simplexes in CGA. Complex geometric objects in CGA can be expressed united representation
by
for different dimensional
integrating simplexessimplexes.
different dimensional in CGA. Complex geometric
To realize the expressionobjects in CGA
of complex 3D can be expressed
cadastral objects by
as an entity,
integrating the mathematical
different dimensional structure
simplexes. of aTomultivector
realize theinexpression
CGA is employed to realize
of complex the unified
3D cadastral objects
as anexpression
entity, theofmathematical
multidimensional simplexes,
structure of awhich is defined
multivector inas
CGAfollows:
is employed to realize the unified
expression of multidimensional simplexes, which is defined as follows:
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 9 of 16
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 9 of 16

Definition
Definition 4: If If 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑙
4: GeoParcel is anisarbitrary
an arbitrary
3D 3D cadastral
cadastral spatial
spatial unitunit in CGA
in CGA 𝐶𝑙,4,1
Cl4,1 the, the geometry
geometry and
and topology
topology of this
of this 3D 3D cadastral
cadastral objectobject
can becan be expressed
expressed byfollowing
by the the following algebraic
algebraic formula
formula in CGA
in CGA

MultiVector ăGeoParcel ą “tGeoPrim

MultiVector {GeoPrim
GeoParcel 
u
ă1 ą } GeoPrimă3ą}u`{GeoPrim
`{tGeoPrim tGeoPrimă4}ą u
1 3  4

where tGeoPrimx1y u, tGeoPrimx3y u, tGeoPrimx4y u are simplex sets that compose GeoParcel.
where {𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚 <1> },that
{𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚
GeoPrim <3>x}, {𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚 }and areGeoPrim
simplex setsare that used in𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑙.
compose
It should be noted 0y , GeoPrim<4>x2y x5y not cadastral spatial
It should be
representations. Asnoted
GeoPrimthat 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚
represents 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚it<2>
<0> , scalars, is and 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚
useless in <5> arespatial
cadastral not used in cadastral
representations.
x0y
representations. As 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚
The characteristics of GeoPrimx2y cannot accurately express a cadastral boundary because itspatial
spatial <0> represents scalars, it is useless in cadastral can be
representations.
represented The
by either ancharacteristics of 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚
arc or a segment. <2> cannot
In cadastral accurately
management, express a iscadastral
GeoPrim not usedboundary
to express
x5y
because it can be represented by either an arc or a segment. In cadastral management, 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚<5>
any cadastral unit directly. Instead, lower-dimensional elements are used to define the cadastral
is not used to express any cadastral unit directly. Instead, lower-dimensional elements are used to
boundary accurately.
define the cadastral boundary accurately.
According to the definition of the algebraic representation formula for a 3D cadastral spatial
According to the definition of the algebraic representation formula for a 3D cadastral spatial
unit, the 3D cadastral spatial unit is a multidimensional unified structure. All components of the
unit, the 3D cadastral spatial unit is a multidimensional unified structure. All components of the 3D
3D cadastral
cadastralspatial
spatialunit,
unit,such
suchasaspoints,
points,boundary
boundarylineslinesand
andboundary
boundaryfaces, faces,areareintegrated
integrated ininthe
the
multivector
multivector structure. The geometric information about the 3D cadastral object is represented byby
structure. The geometric information about the 3D cadastral object is represented
integrating
integratingall all
thethe
different
differentdimensional
dimensionalcomponents
componentsthat that compose
compose it. it. The
Thetopological
topologicalstructure
structureofof the
the
3D 3D
cadastral object is expressed by the dimensional construction structure contained
cadastral object is expressed by the dimensional construction structure contained in the in the multivector
structure. Thisstructure.
multivector manner Thisof multidimensional fusion expression
manner of multidimensional of geometric
fusion expression objects with
of geometric different
objects with
dimensions
different realizes
dimensionsthe integrated
realizes themultidimensional expression for
integrated multidimensional the geometry
expression for the and topology
geometry of a
and
3D topology
cadastralofspatial unit.
a 3D cadastral spatial unit.

A B C D E F G H
GeoPrim1
G C E
G
…
A A
C A

MultiVector Line  {GeoPrim1 }  GeoPrim3

C B G F

…
D A
C B
MultiVector Facet   {GeoPrim1 }  {GeoPrim3 }  GeoPrim 4
G F

H
E
C B

D A
MultiVectorGeoParcel   {GeoPrim1 }  {GeoPrim3 }  {GeoPrim4 }

Figure
Figure 6. Process
6. Process of of integratingthe
integrating therepresentation
representation of
of the
the geometry
geometry and
and topology
topologyofofaa3D
3Dcadastral
cadastral
spatial
spatial unit
unit in CGA.
in CGA.

TheThe construction
construction processofofa a3D
process 3Dcadastral
cadastraldata
data model
model that isis based
basedononCGA
CGAreflects
reflectsa adistinct
distinct
topological
topological hierarchy
hierarchy relationship
relationship amongamong different
different dimensional
dimensional geometry
geometry objects.
objects. A cuboid
A cuboid is
is selected
selected to represent a 3D cadastral spatial unit, which is illustrated in Figure 6. The construction
to represent a 3D cadastral spatial unit, which is illustrated in Figure 6. The construction process of
theprocess of the multidimensional
multidimensional unified for
unified expression expression
the 3D for the 3D object
cadastral cadastral object is described.
is described. The 3D
The 3D cadastral
cadastral object, which is represented by the multivector structure, is a complex
object, which is represented by the multivector structure, is a complex structure that is composedstructure that isof
points, boundary lines and boundary facets. All components that are contained in the multivector
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 10 of 16

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 10 of 16

are independent. Topological relations among different dimensional components are obtained in the
process of different
composed dimensional,
of points, boundary geometric and simplex
lines and boundary facets.constructions bythat
All components theare
outer product.
contained The 3D
in the
cadastral spatial are
multivector unitindependent.
is at the topTopological
of the hierarchical
relations structure.
among different dimensional components are
obtained in the process of different dimensional, geometric and simplex constructions by the outer
3.3. 3D Cadastral
product. The Data Organization
3D cadastral spatialBased
unit ison
at CGA inof
the top Athe
Database
hierarchical structure.
The 3D cadastral data structure based on CGA is organized in a cadastral database, as shown in
3.3. 3D Cadastral Data Organization Based on CGA in A Database
Figure 7. The data storage contains four types of data, including points, boundary lines, boundary
faces andThe 3D cadastral
spatial units. The dataconformal
structure basedpoint onsets
CGAthatis organized
composeinthe a cadastral
left 3Ddatabase,
cadastralasspatial
shown in unit in
Figure 7. The data storage contains four types of data, including points, boundary lines, boundary
Figure 7 can be obtained from Euclidean point sets by embedding in CGA. Because the conformal
faces and spatial units. The conformal point sets that compose the left 3D cadastral spatial unit in
space contains five basis vectors, the coordinates x, y and z of the original point become coefficients of
Figure 7 can be obtained from Euclidean point sets by embedding in CGA. Because the conformal
the basis
spacevector e1 , five
contains e2 , ebasis
3 , respectively.
vectors, theBecause
coordinatesnormally
x, y andthe
z ofcoefficient
the original e0 is become
ofpoint the constant 1, it is not
coefficients
storedofin
thethe point
basis table𝑒1and
vector , 𝑒2 , 𝑒the coefficient of e8 can
3 , respectively. Because
be computed
normally with the
the coefficient of Euclidean coordinates
𝑒0 is the constant 1, it x, y
and zis[41].
not Because
stored in different
the pointdimensional
table and thegeometric of 𝑒∞ can
coefficientobjects can be
be constructed
computed with from conformal
the Euclideanpoint
sets by the outerx,product,
coordinates y and z [41]. only the original
Because different coordinates
dimensionalare stored objects
geometric in the can
pointbe table. The boundary
constructed from
conformal point sets by the outer product, only the original coordinates
line and the boundary face tables store point IDs, which are employed in connection with the point are stored in the point table.
table.The boundary
Relative pointlineIDsandarethestored
boundary face the
in both tables store point
boundary lineIDs,
andwhich are employed
boundary in connection
face tables in a specified
with the point table. Relative point IDs are stored in both the boundary
order to define the range of corresponding objects. To ensure compatibility with the existing line and boundary face tables
method
in a specified order to define the range of corresponding objects. To ensure compatibility with the
in which lines form facets, the boundary line IDs that compose boundary faces are also stored in the
existing method in which lines form facets, the boundary line IDs that compose boundary faces are
corresponding boundary face table. Direction information about boundary lines and boundary faces
also stored in the corresponding boundary face table. Direction information about boundary lines
are stored in each table
and boundary facesin arethe forminofeach
stored a vector.
table inThe
the3D cadastral
form spatial
of a vector. Theunit is organized
3D cadastral by unit
spatial storing
is the
constituent boundary face IDs.
organized by storing the constituent boundary face IDs.

CGA::Point
PID E1 E2 E3 E_inf
1 0.00 0.00 2.00 2.00E+00
2 0.00 2.00 2.00 4.00E+00
… … … … …

CGA::Boundary line
AID PID_S PID_E DIRECTION …
1 1 10 v1 …
2 2 9 v2 …
… … … … …

CGA::Boundary face
FID AID_QUE PID_BOUND DIRECTION …
1 1,2,7,… 1,2,4,… v1 …
2 1,3,6,… 1,10,11,… v2 …
… … … … …

CGA::SpatialUnit
VID FID_QUE SpatialUnit …
1 1,2,3,… 18.13 …
… … … …

Figure
Figure 7. 3D
7. 3D cadastral
cadastral dataorganization
data organization in
in aadatabase
databasethat is is
that based on on
based CGACGA.

The characteristics of the 3D cadastral data organization and correlation method are similar to
The characteristics of the 3D cadastral data organization and correlation method are similar to
the characteristics of the multivector structure, which is not only a mathematical structure but also a
the characteristics of the multivector
data storage structure. Based on thestructure,
design of which is not only
point, boundary a mathematical
line, structure
boundary face and spatialbut
unitalso a
data data
storage structure.
storage Based
structures, on the points
conformal designandof lines
point,areboundary line,
stored in the boundary
boundary faceface and
table. spatial unit
Boundary
data faces,
storage structures,
which conformal
are employed points the
to construct and3Dlines are stored
cadastral inunit,
spatial the boundary face table.
can be represented by Boundary
outer
faces, which are employed to construct the 3D cadastral spatial unit, can be represented by outer
products with conformal point sets, as shown in definition 3, or represented by the boundary line
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 11 of 16

ID that belongs to the boundary face. Similar to the multivector structure that integrates different
dimensional objects, the boundary face table also contains all primitives that are employed to compose
the table. These characteristics are also listed in the spatial unit table, which stores boundary face
IDs to realize multidimensional object storage. In this manner of data organization, the complex 3D
cadastral spatial unit can be easily expressed and stored in the multivector structure. The topological
relations among different dimensional constructed objects can be clearly described in the hierarchical
data storage and the multivector structure, whereas the geometric information can be represented
within the multivector by the outer product. The geometry and topology of 3D cadastral objects can be
expressed in a multidimensional unified form that is integrated in the multivector structure.

4. Case Studies
Cadastral data for an urban residential community in Xuzhou, Jiangsu province, are selected
as the experimental data in our case study. The experimental data includes 17,618 points, 28,487
boundary lines, 9,462 boundary faces and 1,484 buildings. These building models are imported into
the software system CAUSTA [32]. The data model is implemented as a plug of the system CAUSTA.
To ensure compatibility with GA-based operations, the experimental data are reorganized in CaVector
data formats for the storage structure. The storage structure is subsequently assembled according
to the multivector structure. With these transformations and organizations, we can manage the 3D
cadastral spatial units in CAUSTA. The demonstrations are performed in the hardware environment
of a Lenovo E420 notebook with a 2.4-GHz Intel Core i5-2430M CPU and 4 GB of RAM. The software
environment is a Windows 7 operating system with Visual Studio 2008.
Conventional 3D cadastral data models, which are based on a simplified spatial model (SSM) [18]
and an object-oriented 3D GIS model (OO3D) [46], have been selected to make a comparison with
the performance of a CGA-based cadastral data model. The results for memory requirements and
response time in 3D visualization for the SSM, OO3D and CGA-based data models are listed in Table 2.
The comparison results indicate that the CGA-based data model performs more efficiently than the
SSM data model concerning response time and memory occupancy. Although data storage in the
CGA-based data model occupies less memory than the OO3D data model, it has a slightly longer
response time than the OO3D data model.

Table 2. The memory requirements and response time in 3D visualization based on OpenGL.

CGA-Based Model OO3D Model SSS Model

time(sec) 3.76 3.71 4.19
memory(kb) 905 968 1491

The geometric and algebraic representation of 3D spatial units in the CGA-based 3D cadastral
data model are displayed in Figure 8. The representation and organization of the spatial units differ
from the representation in Euclidean space. In the CGA representation, the dimensional structures of
objects are represented according to the hierarchical Grassmann structure. Figure 8 shows the algebraic
equations for each spatial unit, which are constructed by the outer product. Different dimensional
geometry objects, such as the lines and planes shown in Figure 8, can be uniformly expressed with the
outer product in CGA. In Euclidean space, representations of geometry objects are primarily based on
coordinates, which causes problems such as complicated expression structure, non-uniform expression
form in different dimensions, and unclear geometry meaning [47]. Geometric objects are expressed
in CGA, and the outer product differs from the traditional methods, which are based on Euclidean
geometry. Geometric objects that are represented by the outer product not only support uniform
expression among different dimensions but also propose a simpler construction structure and clearer
geometric meanings for the geometric object expression of different dimensions. These advantages can
be applied to represent complex 3D geometric objects, as shown in Figure 9.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 12 of 16
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 12 of 16
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 12 of 16

Figure 8.
Figure
Figure Uniform
8.8. Uniformrepresentation
Uniform representationform
representation form for
form for different
for different dimensional
differentdimensional objects
objectsinin
dimensionalobjects CGA.
inCGA.
CGA.

Figure Multidimensional
9. 9.
Figure Multidimensionalunified
unifiedexpression
expression for a cadastral
cadastralobject
objectwithin
withinthe
themultivector
multivector structure.
structure.
Figure 9. Multidimensional unified expression for a cadastral object within the multivector structure.
With
With thetheunified
unifiedexpression
expression form
form for for geometric objects of
geometric objects of different
differentdimensions,
dimensions,geometric
geometric
information
With theand
information and topological
topological
unified relations
formof
relations
expression complex
offor
complex cadastral
cadastral
geometric objects
objects
objects canbeberepresented
can
of different represented
dimensions, within
within thethe
geometric
multivector structure in CGA. of the 3D cadastral objects was selected
information and topological relations of complex cadastral objects can be represented withinhow
multivector structure in CGA. One of the 3D cadastral objects was to
selected demonstrate
to demonstratehow tothe
to represent
represent complex
complex cadastral
cadastral objects
objects with
with the
themultivector
multivectorstructure,
structure,as
multivector structure in CGA. One of the 3D cadastral objects was selected to demonstrate how illustrated
as in
illustrated Figure
in Figure9. to
9.
Compared
Comparedcomplex with the separate
with the separate expression of different dimensional geometric objects in Euclidean
represent cadastralexpression of different
objects with dimensional
the multivector geometric
structure, asobjects in Euclidean
illustrated space,
in Figure 9.
all space, all dimensional
dimensional elements elements
that that the
comprise comprise
3D the 3Dobjects
cadastral cadastral
are objects are multidimensional
multidimensional and and in
integrated
Compared with the separate expression of different dimensional geometric objects in Euclidean
theintegrated
space,multivectorin the
all dimensional
multivector
structure.
elements
structure.
Geometric Geometric
thatinformation
comprise the
information
about
3D cadastral
about cadastral
cadastral objects
objectsisare
objectsby
expressed is an
expressed
multidimensional algebraic
and
by an algebraic formula with hybrid dimensional components, and topological relations among
integrated in the multivector structure. Geometric information about cadastral objects is expressed
by an algebraic formula with hybrid dimensional components, and topological relations among
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 13 of 16

formula with hybrid dimensional components, and topological relations among different dimensional
components can be represented in the distinct dimensional hierarchy. The geometric information and
topological relationships of a cadastral object can be expressed in the multidimensional multivector
structure in a unified manner, which distinguishes our method from existing approaches based on
Euclidean geometry. The multidimensional unified method for the geometry and topology provide a
flexible and convincing method for topological relations analysis and geo-object updating [30,34].
Compared with existing 3D cadastral data models that are based on Euclidean geometry, the
data model that is based on CGA realizes a geometrically and topologically multidimensional unified
expression for 3D cadastral objects. A 3D cadastral data model that is based on CGA provides a
compact and geometrically distinct method for representing cadastral objects in a cadastral database.
Multidimensional construction elements are integrated in a multivector structure to express 3D
cadastral objects, which enables the spatial unit to be handled as an entity in topological and spatial
analysis [31,32,34]. With the advantage of the outer product in the representation of dimensional
objects, cadastral objects can be directly and simply expressed. All dimensional components of 3D
cadastral objects can be expressed within a multivector structure. In addition, a multivector structure
can be employed to express cadastral objects and provides a hierarchical data storage form, which is
helpful in organizing 3D cadastral data in a database.

5. Discussion
In this paper, we introduce the theory of CGA to 3D cadastral data modeling to solve problems
with spatial representations that are encountered in the extension from a 2D cadastre to a 3D cadastre.
With the advantages of CGA in geometric representation, expression forms for both 2D and 3D spatial
units have been united in an algebraic manner. The geometric information and topological relations of
spatial units have also been integrated into the algebraic expressions. In CGA, different dimensional
objects are uniformly represented using outer products, which enables a direct and intuitive extension
of spatial representations from 2D structures to 3D structures. The multivector structure is subsequently
employed to algebraically integrate the multidimensional geometric components for complex 3D
spatial units as entities. The geometries and topological relations of spatial units are represented in
a unified manner in the form of algebraic expressions. With the development of a CGA-based 3D
cadastral data model, the representations of spatial units in the 3D cadastral database not only have
distinct geometric meanings but also combine the representations of the geometries and the topological
relations. The CGA-based 3D cadastral data model also unifies the representation of multidimensional
objects in the same representation form. Therefore, direct, compact and unified representations of
objects are feasible.
In this paper, we primarily focus on a unified expression form between 2D spatial units and
3D spatial units and the integration of geometry and topology for spatial units. However, cadastral
registration and transaction data may update daily, which indicates that the time component of
cadastral data should be considered in 3D cadastre development. A method for the construction of a
spatio-temporal cadastral data model will be a future research topic. The integrated updating of both
the geometries and the topological relations remains complex. Although the computation ability of
CGA is very powerful, we did not discuss the spatial analysis and updating of 3D cadastral objects
using GA operators or algorithms. For example, the division and combination of the spatial units
in the 3D cadastre can be achieved with the intersection product in CGA [31] because the geometric
construction in CGA is coordinate-free, i.e., the geometries can be adaptively modified according to
the relative construction structures that are related to the dimensional structures and the topological
relations. The complete utilization of these advantages in CGA to develop an integrated data updating
method that updates both the geometries and topological relations in the integrated framework is also
an important objective of future studies. The topological relations computations are potentially more
complete than the classical 9IM model for 3D triangles using the CGA model [35]. Because the 3D
cadastral model is the foundation of the data representation, the construction of the analysis using
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 20 14 of 16

the CGA operators is simple and direct. This topic is another potential direction for CGA-based 3D
cadastre development.

6. Conclusion
In this paper, we introduced a CGA-based 3D cadastral data model to solve problems such
as the division in the spatial representation forms from a 2D cadastre to a 3D cadastre. In this
data model, geometric constructions are produced by the outer product according to a Grassmann
structure. Different dimensional objects are represented with the multivector data structure using
a unified form. In this manner, the topological relations between different dimensional objects can
be implicitly inherited in the object representation. The data model was tested with real-world data.
The characteristics of the data model are also discussed. The test suggests that our data model can unify
not only the representation of different dimensional objects but also the representation of geometric
structures and topological relations. The maintenance and updating of the data in this data model
become much more compact and simple. Because our data model is completely compatible and can
support GA operators and analysis, multidimensional-unified 3D cadastral data analysis is feasible.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Surveying and Mapping Industry research Special Funds
for Public Welfare Projects (Grant No. 201512011). The authors also wish to thank the editors and reviewers for
their interesting and constructive comments.
Author Contributions: All six authors have contributed to the work presented in this paper. Ji-yi Zhang,
Peng-cheng Yin and Gang Li constructed the overall framework for 3D cadastral data model based on CGA.
Ji-yi Zhang, Hehe Gu and Hua Zhao contributed in the discussion section. Ji-yi Zhang, Peng-cheng Yin and
Jian-chun Fu worked on the designing of case study and experimental data processing. All authors worked
collaboratively on writing this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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