systems
Article
A Blockchain-Based Framework to Make the Rice Crop Supply
Chain Transparent and Reliable in Agriculture
Muhammad Shoaib Farooq 1 , Shamyla Riaz 1 , Ibtesam Ur Rehman 1 , Muhammad Asad Khan 1
and Bilal Hassan 2, *
Citation: Farooq, M.S.; Riaz, S.;
Rehman, I.U.; Khan, M.A.; Hassan, B.
A Blockchain-Based Framework to
Make the Rice Crop Supply Chain
Transparent and Reliable in
Agriculture. Systems 2023, 11, 476.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
systems11090476
Academic Editor: Gandolfo Dominici
Received: 4 July 2023
Revised: 14 August 2023
Accepted: 26 August 2023
Published: 17 September 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Systems 2023, 11, 476. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems11090476
1 Department of Computer Science, School of System and Technology, University of Management and
Technology, Lahore 54000, Pakistan; shoaib.farooq@umt.edu.pk (M.S.F.); shamyla.riaz@umt.edu.pk (S.R.);
ibtesam85@gmail.com (I.U.R.); masadkhan25@gmail.com (M.A.K.)
2 Faculty of Engineering and Environment, Northumbria University UK London Campus, London E1 7HT, UK
* Correspondence: b.hassan@northumbria.ac.uk
Abstract: Rice is one of the major food crops across the globe, and its quality and safety highly
influence human health. It is the basis of many different products, including rice flour, rice bread,
noodles, rice vinegar, and others. Therefore, the rice supply chain has garnered increasing attention
due to the high demand for food safety. Furthermore, malpractices in the rice supply chain can
impact farmers by generating low revenues despite their great efforts in rice cultivation. In addition,
they would cause governments to suffer significant economic losses due to the high cost of importing
rice crops from other countries during the off-season. These issues derive from the lack of reliability,
trust, transparency, traceability, and security in the rice supply chain. In this research, we propose
a secure, trusted, reliable, and transparent framework based on a Blockchain for rice crop supply
chain’s traceability from farm to fork. A new crypto token, the Rice Coin (RC), is introduced to
keep a record of all transactions between the stakeholders of the rice supply chain. Moreover, the
proposed framework includes an economic model and a crypto wallet and introduces an Initial Coin
Offering (ICO) for the RC. Based on smart contracts, a transaction processing system was developed
for the transparency and traceability of rice crops, including the conversion of the RC to fiat currency.
Furthermore, the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) is proposed in this research to store encrypted data
of companies, retailers, and farmers, so to increase data security, transparency, and availability. In the
end, the experimental results showed a better performance of the proposed framework compared to
already available supply chain solutions in terms of transaction verification time, transaction average
gas cost, and new block latency.
Keywords: blockchain; supply chain; smart contract; rice crop; traceability and transparency;
food safety
1. Introduction
The monitoring of food products is one of the most critical aspects of the agriculture
industry, which is necessary to track and trace the agriculture supply chain [1,2]. The
demand for the traceability of the food supply chain has increased due to higher food
safety requirements as well as contamination risks [3]. Some existing systems claim that a
thorough collection of data through information management systems such as RFID and
barcodes enhances the traceability of the food supply chain and agricultural products [4,5].
However, these existing systems are unreliable, unstructured, and lack traceability, which
makes them highly susceptible to changes in data [6]. With many food products being
traded across borders, the traceability of agricultural products is necessary to comply
with all countries’ rules and regulations [7]. The traceability of agricultural products
involves collecting multiple types of information through several data sources in the
supply chain [8].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/systems
Systems 2023, 11, 476 2 of 17

Systems 2023, 11, 476 2 of 17

In the past few years, food safety issues such as toxic milk powder, rice mixed with
mercury, and mad cow disease have arisen [9,10]. The World Health Organization (WHO)
reported that food contaminated with viruses, chemicals, and hazardous bacteria can
In the past few years, food safety issues such as toxic milk powder, rice mixed with
cause dangerous diseases [11]. Figure 1 displays the most common products obtained by
mercury, and mad cow disease have arisen [9,10]. The World Health Organization (WHO)
processing rice. Rice is one of the most commonly consumed staple foods among cereal
reported that food contaminated with viruses, chemicals, and hazardous bacteria can
grains,
causebeing largely
dangerous consumed
diseases by approximately
[11]. Figure half of
1 displays the most the world’s
common population.
products After
obtained by
maize
processing rice. Rice is one of the most commonly consumed staple foods among cereal[12].
and sugarcane, rice is the third most important agricultural product globally
While a considerable
grains, being largelyamount
consumed of maize and sugarcane
by approximately halfcrops
of theare utilized
world’s for other purposes
population. After
beyond direct consumption, rice is highly important for its caloric content and
maize and sugarcane, rice is the third most important agricultural product globally [12].nutritional
value; it is
While estimated that
a considerable rice delivers
amount approximately
of maize and one-fifth
sugarcane crops of thefor
are utilized daily consumed
other purposes cal-
beyond
ories direct consumption, rice is highly important for its caloric content and nutritional
worldwide.
value; it is estimated that rice delivers approximately one-fifth of the daily consumed
calories worldwide.

Rice Noodles
Rice Bread

Rice Bran Oil

Rice Vinegar

Rice Milk

Rice Floor
Processed Foods
from Rice
Figure 1. Rice products.
Figure 1. Rice products.
As a result, the tracking and record-keeping of the rice crop supply chain have become
increasingly important.
As a result, Due to
the tracking therecord-keeping
and high demand forofrice thecrops, manysupply
rice crop investors storehave
chain rice be-
during the season at a low cost and sell it in the off-season at a high price
come increasingly important. Due to the high demand for rice crops, many investors store [13]. This
practice leads to significant economic losses and discourages governments and farmers
rice during the season at a low cost and sell it in the off-season at a high price [13]. This
from spending substantial amounts on importing and cultivating rice. The traditional rice
practice leads to significant economic losses and discourages governments and farmers
supply chain system suffers from poor reliability and traceability, which has led to trust
from spending
issues between substantial
supply chainamounts on importing
stakeholders. and cultivating
The governments rice.numerous
have made The traditional
efforts rice
supply chain system suffers from poor reliability and traceability, which has
to change traditional agriculture supply chain systems by defining rules and regulations, led to trust
issues
but between supply
this has been chaindue
difficult stakeholders.
to the poorThe governments
transparency and have made numerous
traceability efforts
of the current
to change traditional
supply chain systems,agriculture
as well assupply
to a lackchain systemsand
of reliability by trust
defining rules
among and regulations,
stakeholders, as
shown in Figure 2.
but this has been difficult due to the poor transparency and traceability of the current
supply chain systems, as well as to a lack of reliability and trust among stakeholders, as
shown in Figure 2.
Systems 2023, 11, 476
Systems 2023, 11, 476 3 of 17
3 of 17

Sugar
Export to other Rice at Cheap
Countries Price

Rice Mills
Middlemen (Stockers)
Increase in Rice Off Season Rice
Price (High Price)

Imported Farmer
Expensive seed
Rice & fertilizer
Distributer

Rice Shortage
Seed and Fertilizer Customer
Retailer Companies
Figure 2. Current rice supply chain system.
Figure 2. Current rice supply chain system.
To address these issues, a reliable and transparent rice supply chain management sys-
tem To addresstothese
is necessary issues,
regulate a reliable
prices. and can
This problem transparent
be solved by rice supply chain
implementing management
Blockchain
system is necessary
technology, which isto regulate
highly prices. and
transparent Thisprovides
problema can be and
robust solved by implementing
traceable management Block-
chain
system for rice crops using smart contracts and the elimination of intermediaries,traceable
technology, which is highly transparent and provides a robust and making man-
the entiresystem
agement systemfor decentralized.
rice crops usingBlockchain technologyand
smart contracts provides immutableof
the elimination and decen-
intermediaries,
tralized technicalities for rice crop data, making the data tamper-proof
making the entire system decentralized. Blockchain technology provides immutable and recording all and
transactions and other digital data related to farmers, retailers, seed
decentralized technicalities for rice crop data, making the data tamper-proof and record-companies, rice mills,
etc. These key features make Blockchain technology an ideal solution for rice crop traceabil-
ing all transactions and other digital data related to farmers, retailers, seed companies,
ity. Besides being a trusted and reliable solution, Blockchain has additional applications
rice mills, etc. These key features make Blockchain technology an ideal solution for rice
that can help enhance the double-checking of all transactions performed on the Blockchain.
crop traceability.
Smart contracts Besides
are key being a trusted
components of and reliable solution,
the Blockchain ecosystem Blockchain
that implementhas additional
the
applications
business rules and consensus protocols [14]. In the Blockchain-based agricultureperformed
that can help enhance the double-checking of all transactions system, on
the Blockchain.
consensus protocols help in transaction verification and decision making and allow adding
newSmart
blocks contracts
[15]. Hence, aresmart
key contracts
components and consensus protocols enhance
of the Blockchain ecosystem the trust
that level and
implement the
security measures between stakeholders and provide cost-effective
business rules and consensus protocols [14]. In the Blockchain-based agriculture system, solutions. Blockchain
has a distributed
consensus protocols nature;
help therefore, it prevents
in transaction rice crop
verification anddata from illegal
decision making access, data add-
and allow
alteration, or deletion and ensures that the rice supply is reliable and transparent [16]. Only
ing new blocks [15]. Hence, smart contracts and consensus protocols enhance the trust
authorized entities have access to the system and can alter or modify the data stored in the
level and security measures between stakeholders and provide cost-effective solutions.
Blockchain system. The security features and distributed nature of Blockchain make it an
Blockchain has a distributed
ideal technology for developing nature;
a rice therefore, it prevents
crop traceability system. rice crop data from illegal access,
data alteration, or deletion and ensures that the rice supply
Figure 3 shows a Blockchain ecosystem with the required features. is reliable
Theand
ricetransparent
crop trace- [16].
Only authorized
ability entities
system consists have access
of multiple to the system
components including and can alter or
participants, modify
privacy, the data
wallets, and stored
inexchanges.
the Blockchain system. The
The blockchain security
ecosystem hasfeatures andexchanges
wallets and distributed nature
in the of Blockchain
distributed ledger make
itto
anenable
ideal the flow of cryptocurrency
technology for developing anda manage
rice crop thetraceability
transactional data with timestamps,
system.
as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 shows a Blockchain ecosystem with the required features. The rice crop
traceability system consists of multiple components including participants, privacy, wal-
lets, and exchanges. The blockchain ecosystem has wallets and exchanges in the distrib-
uted ledger to enable the flow of cryptocurrency and manage the transactional data with
timestamps, as shown in Figure 3.
Systems 2023, 11, 476 4 of 17
Systems 2023, 11, 476 4 of 17

Miners Transactions
The miners validate all All transactions are traceable
transactions in order to make it due to crypto token that is a
temper proof to control the vital part of rice management
increasing price to make it transparent

Privacy & Identity Infrastructure

Privacy of each and every user Blockchain provides
is kept confidential including infrastructure layer to develop
companies application for rice traceability

Wallets
Through wallets all users such Blockchain Exchanges
as farmers, stakeholders, and Ecosystem Tokens are exchanged into fiat
companies can manage their currency and vice versa
balance easily

Distributed Ledger Distributed Storage

Due to distributed nature of
There is no centralized system
Blockchain multiple copies of
to control the stored data
data are saved electronically

DApps
DApps are developed to
provide user interface to all
blockchain users including
farmers, customers,
companies, and government

Figure3.3.Blockchain
Figure Blockchainecosystem.
ecosystem.
To manage communication among stakeholders and other participants, this technology
To manage communication among stakeholders and other participants, this technol-
has extended features to build DApps. In addition, some other characteristics of Blockchain
ogy has extendedledger
such as distributed features
andto buildmake
storage DApps. In addition,
this technology some
ideal other
for rice characteristics
crop traceabil- of
Blockchain
ity sucha as
and provide distributed
high ledger andThe
data transparency. storage
mainmake this technology
contributions ideal forare
of this research rice crop
traceability and
reported below. provide a high data transparency. The main contributions of this research
are reported below.
• This research provides a Blockchain-based secure, reliable, and transparent framework
• to This
makeresearch provideseffective
rice traceability a Blockchain-based secure,
and efficient. The reliable,
proposed and transparent
framework will resolveframe-
work to make
traceability issuesrice
andtraceability effective in
control malpractices andtheefficient. The proposed
existing supply framework will
chain system.
• Aresolve
framework to overcome
traceability theand
issues limitations
control of the current system
malpractices in the of rice crop
existing from farm
supply chain sys-
to fork by implementing Blockchain technologies is proposed.
tem.
•• Based on an Ethereum
A framework smart contract,
to overcome a Rice Coin
the limitations of the(RC) is proposed
current systemto ofcontrol
rice cropthefrom
rice farm
price. Furthermore, a discussion is presented on token
to fork by implementing Blockchain technologies is proposed. creation, initial coin offering
(ICO) and total supply, buying and selling rules for rice, and user authentication.
• Based on an Ethereum smart contract, a Rice Coin (RC) is proposed to control the rice
In this way, farmers and all other stakeholders can obtain good wages by controlling
price. Furthermore, a discussion is presented on token creation, initial coin offering
the prices.
• (ICO)
This andpresents
study total supply, buying
rice crop and selling
traceability rulesby
solutions forusing
rice,Blockchain
and user authentication.
technology In
thisimplementing
and way, farmerssystemand all other stakeholders can obtain good wages by controlling
architecture.
the prices.
The rest of the article is organized in the following way: related work is presented in
• This study presents rice crop traceability solutions by using Blockchain technology
Section 2. Section 3 described the proposed framework based on Blockchain technology and
andthe
presents implementing
implementations system
of thearchitecture.
proposed framework including the system’s setup and
The rest ofofthe
the deployment article
smart is organized
contracts. in the
The results of following way:experiment
the performed related work is presented in
are discussed
in Section2.4.Section
Section Finally,3the research the
described conclusions
proposedareframework
reported in Section
based on5. Blockchain technology
and presents the implementations of the proposed framework including the system’s
setup and the deployment of smart contracts. The results of the performed experiment are
discussed in Section 4. Finally, the research conclusions are reported in Section 5.

2. Related Work
The development of Blockchain technology has impacted the research work in the
area of food and agricultural products. The research work carried out on agricultural
Systems 2023, 11, 476 5 of 17

2. Related Work
The development of Blockchain technology has impacted the research work in the
area of food and agricultural products. The research work carried out on agricultural
products and the food industry by using Blockchain applications has regarded architectural
improvement, theoretical research, consensus mechanism, data application, and data
interaction in the agriculture field as well as the food supply chain. Through traceability,
decentralization, and temper proofing of Blockchain, food safety, food quality, and the food
supply chain are guaranteed.
Tian et al. [4] proposed a framework using Blockchain technology and radio frequency
identification to trace and achieve reliable information about the food supply chain. Al-
though this framework ensures the safety of food by storing and exchanging the food
product information, it is susceptible in terms of central administration and fragmentation
and is vulnerable to data modification. Blockchain is a transparent and shared platform
that is completely consistent with distributed networks. On the other hand, Blockchain is
an innovative network platform that can offer revolutionary approaches for the traceability
of agricultural products and food supply chains from farm to fork [17].
Leng et al. [18] proposed a framework using a double-chain architecture that includes
a storage mode, a dual-chain structure, and a consensus algorithm. Although the proposed
framework is secure and transparent, its implementation is highly costly and experimentally
not efficient, mainly for double-chain architecture [19]. Salah et al. [3] investigated the
practical implementations of smart contracts based on Ethereum with the integration of IPFS
to store data regarding supply chain actions. However, the testing or the implementation of
the proposed solution was not reported; therefore, it leads to an increase in computational
complexity, cost, vulnerability, and security attacks.
Ronaghi et al. [20] presented a maturity in the agriculture supply chain domain by
using a questionnaire-based method and demonstrated the importance of Blockchain
technology combined with other technologies including internet of things, smart contracts,
and transactions of record. However, the practical implementation of the proposed solution
is missing; therefore, trust, traceability, vulnerability, and security issues are highly expected
regarding this solution. In contrast, our proposed framework is secure, traceable, and able
to handle large amount of crop data from farm to fork.
Wang et al. [21] developed an information supervision model for the supply chain of
the rice crop and investigated the problems associated with a complex rice supply network.
Although a number of encryption algorithms were used to secure the data of enterprises,
the system is still susceptible in terms of vulnerability and central administration. Our
proposed model and framework provide a high level of security, tracking and tracing, as
well as an ideal central administration for all stakeholders.
Peng et al. [22] proposed a multilayer model for a refined supervision of the rice supply.
They implemented a hybrid encryption algorithm to analyze the performance and security
capabilities of their framework. This research provides new agricultural information and
directions about how to hold and store rice using technology. However, the traceability or
back traceability of rice supply chain are not possible, which makes the model less efficient
than other models. Our proposed model provides ideal traceability to all stakeholders
involved in the rice supply chain.
Ehsan et al. [23] presented a decentralized traceability model based on Blockchain
technology to ensure the transparency and integration of the system. Although this model
is based on a smart contract for a traditional supply chain, it is not secure enough to store
agricultural data and does not ensure traceability and reliability, as it is conceptual. In
our work, we performed experiments to ensure that each transaction will be secure and
traceable for all stakeholders.
Blockchain-enabled models and frameworks for agricultural supply chain and food
management may provide significant advantages by improving trust, reliability, security,
tracking and tracing, transparency, supplier reputation, and accountability [24].
Katsikouli et al. [25] discussed the challenges that are faced by food management systems
Systems 2023, 11, 476 6 of 17

Systems 2023, 11, 476 6 of 17

including food fraud, inefficient processes, and food safety, as well as the environmen-
tal influence
from of food
farm to fork. production.
Yanez et al. [26]Furthermore,
investigated the it was found
digital that the implementation
transformation of the supply of
Blockchain systems in the food supply chain offers huge benefits such as trust and traceabil-
chain industry and found that the agriculture industry promises a trustworthy, transpar-
ity from farm to fork. Yanez et al. [26] investigated the digital transformation of the supply
ent, and reliable ecosystem by implementing smart contracts. Although the investigated
chain industry and found that the agriculture industry promises a trustworthy, transparent,
approaches and frameworks are able to handle the high volume of data of the food supply
and reliable ecosystem by implementing smart contracts. Although the investigated ap-
chain, our proposed framework can do the same with high security, trust, and traceability.
proaches and frameworks are able to handle the high volume of data of the food supply
IBM food trust is an ideal solution for distributors, wholesalers, growers, retailers,
chain, our proposed framework can do the same with high security, trust, and traceability.
manufacturers, processors, and others involved in food supply chain. It enhances the sup-
IBM food trust is an ideal solution for distributors, wholesalers, growers, retailers,
ply chain transparency, immutability, and management that enables users to transact data
manufacturers, processors, and others involved in food supply chain. It enhances the
in a more efficient and trusted way [27]. However, IBM hyperledger is ideal only for pri-
supply chain transparency, immutability, and management that enables users to trans-
vate users (e.g., a specific organization), whereas our proposed solution is publicly avail-
act data in a more efficient and trusted way [27]. However, IBM hyperledger is ideal
able.
only for private users (e.g., a specific organization), whereas our proposed solution is
In summary,
publicly available.there is plenty of evidence available in the literature that indicates that
a reliable and secure
In summary, mechanism
there is plenty is
ofrequired
evidenceto track and
available in trace the foodthat
the literature supply chain that
indicates for
consumer satisfaction across the globe. In this research, we introduce a transparent
a reliable and secure mechanism is required to track and trace the food supply chain for and
reliable
consumer framework for the
satisfaction ricethe
across supply chain
globe. by implanting
In this research, wesmart contracts
introduce and Ethereum
a transparent and
Blockchain. Our proposed framework will eliminate the demand
reliable framework for the rice supply chain by implanting smart contracts and for central authorities,
Ethereum
reliability
Blockchain. controls, and intermediaries
Our proposed frameworkand willimprove
eliminate security and transparency.
the demand for central authorities,
reliability controls, and intermediaries and improve security and transparency.
3. Materials and Methods
3. Materials and Methods
In this study, a framework is proposed to develop a secure, reliable, efficient, and
transparent
In thistraceability system foristhe
study, a framework rice croptosupply
proposed chain
develop from farm
a secure, to fork,
reliable, as shown
efficient, and
in Figure 4. The
transparent proposed
traceability framework
system usescrop
for the rice state-of-the-art
supply chainblockchain
from farm totechnology to de-
fork, as shown in
sign a transparent
Figure system
4. The proposed for vendors
framework usesinstate-of-the-art
order to obtain quality rice
blockchain by tracing
technology the ricea
to design
transparent processes
production system forcompletely.
vendors in order to obtain quality
The blockchain ricetransparency
ensures by tracing the and
rice production
allows all
processes completely. The blockchain ensures transparency and allows
contributors from retailers to consumers to trace the supply chain of the rice. all contributors
from retailers to consumers to trace the supply chain of the rice.

Secured by Smart Contract Secured by Smart Contract

Produces End Product
Refine Grains and
Sell Seeds

Smart Contract
Rice Seed
Company
Harvest Rice Crop and Store

Rice Grain
Generator
ad Ship to Retailer
Receive Products

Farmer Payment Validations

Rice Grain
Customer
Distributor
Buy & Sell Products

Update each
Traceability
to Customers

Record

Blockchain Updated Governement Rice Grain Retailer

Figure 4. Proposed framework.
Figure 4. Proposed framework.
Systems 2023, 11, 476 7 of 17

Systems 2023, 11, 476 7 of 17

The payment method we propose is secured with the help of a smart contract. When
a farmer purchases seeds from a grain company for rice crop production, the payment
The
details andpayment method
the entire we propose
transaction is secured
data are stored inwith
thethe help of a smart
blockchain. contract.orWhen
All payments data
a farmer
stored in purchases
the blockchainseedssystem
from acannot
grain be
company
modified,for deleted,
rice croporproduction,
tempered. Thethe payment
products
detailson
move and the entire
demand from transaction data are
one participant stored inparticipant
to another the blockchain.
in the All payments
supply chain, or
anddata
all
stored in the blockchain system cannot be modified, deleted, or tempered.
transactions are secured, transparent, and verified by using smart contracts without any The products
move on demand
interruptions or a from
singleonepointparticipant
of failuretoand
another participant
centralized in theRetailers
authority. supply chain, andthe
can track all
transactions are secured, transparent, and verified by using smart contracts
origin of their seeds, the dates of crop yields, the production farms, the production details without any
interruptions
of or athe
the rice mills, single point of
purchase failure andofcentralized
information authority.
retailers, rice Retailers
distribution can track
network the
details,
origin of their seeds, the dates of crop yields, the production farms, the production
price details, and all other steps in the chain before buying rice from any distributor. The details
of the rice mills,
government the purchase
can also track the information of retailers,
rice supply chain rice distribution
transactions through this network
proposeddetails,
sys-
price details, and all other steps in the chain before buying rice from any
tem for audit purposes. as well as identify illegal patterns. Figure 4 presents how block-distributor. The
government can also track the rice supply chain transactions through this
chain technology can improve the existing rice crop production system in a more innova- proposed system
for audit
tive way. purposes. as well as identify illegal patterns. Figure 4 presents how blockchain
technology can improve the existing rice crop production system in a more innovative way.
3.1. Proposed Architecture
3.1. Proposed Architecture
This high-level system architecture was developed based on the proposed frame-
This high-level system architecture was developed based on the proposed frameworks
works shown in Figure 5. The stakeholders in the proposed framework are farmers, rice
shown in Figure 5. The stakeholders in the proposed framework are farmers, rice grain
grain generators,
generators, rice companies,
rice seed seed companies, retailers,
retailers, distributors,
distributors, and government
and government organiza-
organizations.
tions. A decentralized application (DApp) is the major component of the
A decentralized application (DApp) is the major component of the framework, which de- framework,
which depends
pends upon upon
digital digitalIPFS,
storage, storage, IPFS, blockchain
blockchain network, network, smart contracts,
smart contracts, and a weband a web
platform
platform for interactions.
for end-user end-user interactions. Allthe
All users in users
ricein thetraceability
crop rice crop traceability
system aresystem are with
connected con-
nected with DApp in order to access the blockchain network. All participants will
DApp in order to access the blockchain network. All participants will register to join the register
to join the
system by system by uploading
uploading their data their data
on the riceoncrop
the rice crop management
management system through
system through the web
the web
or Dapp. or Dapp.

Blockchain Network
Confirmation Smart Contract
Token

Rice Crop Management

Exchanging Data

Exchanging Data

System (RCMS)
Connected with DApp
through Blockchain

Connected with DApp

through Blockchain
Connected with
DApp through
Blockchain

• Initial Coin Offering

• Government
• Initial Coin Offering
• Retailer
• Farmers with Digital Exchange
• Farmers
Wallet • Multiple Digital Wallets
• Customer
• Farmers without digital • Third Party Payment
Wallet Gateway
• Digital Wallet Team • User Information
• Organization
Information
Digital storage

Stored on IPFS

Figure 5. Proposed system architecture.

Figure 5. Proposed system architecture.
Systems 2023, 11, 476 8 of 17

Systems 2023, 11, 476 8 of 17

After completing the registration process, a unique public address will be assigned
to every
Afteruser. In this way,
completing the every user over
registration the network
process, a unique is identified via this
public address unique
will public
be assigned
address. IPFS was implemented to provide a connection between
to every user. In this way, every user over the network is identified via this unique public digital storage and
DApp components for data transmission. Furthermore, the
address. IPFS was implemented to provide a connection between digital storage and DApp proposed system considers
different
components actorsforat different
data levels, such
transmission. as retailers,
Furthermore, thefarmers,
proposed and organizations.
system considersThese ac-
different
tors
actorsmay log into the
at different Ricesuch
levels, CropasManagement System
retailers, farmers, and(RCMS) via the mobile
organizations. These application
actors may
or
logthe web
into theby utilizing
Rice the blockchain
Crop Management network.
System There
(RCMS) are
via theseveral
mobile users who actor
application asthe
admin-
web
istrative and use RCMS to manage, control, and authorize processes
by utilizing the blockchain network. There are several users who act as administrative and according to their
authorities.
use RCMS toThe RCMScontrol,
manage, DApp and consists of an processes
authorize initial coinaccording
offering,to antheir
initial coin offering
authorities. The
exchange, and the integration of a third-party payment gateway
RCMS DApp consists of an initial coin offering, an initial coin offering exchange, such as digital currencies,
and the
local currencies,
integration and many payment
of a third-party other wallets in order
gateway suchtoasmanage multiple tokens
digital currencies, and coins.
local currencies,
The
and rice
manycrop management
other wallets inplatform
order touses the IPFS
manage technology
multiple tokenstoandstore and share
coins. usercrop
The rice rec-
ords as well asplatform
management statistical values
uses by using
the IPFS smart contracts.
technology to store and Theshare
IPFS technology
user recordstransfers
as well
information
as statistical among
values by theusing
distributed networks and
smart contracts. The digital storage, which
IPFS technology is evaluated
transfers informationand
controlled by the end-users through their public addresses.
among the distributed networks and digital storage, which is evaluated and controlled A retailer or buyer can buy
rice
by thecrops by creating
end-users throughan account on a mobile
their public DApp
addresses. A that has or
retailer anbuyer
integrated digital
can buy ricewallet.
crops
by creating
So, by usingan DApp,account on a mobile
a retailer can buyDApp that has
rice crops and an integrated
transfer digital wallet.
the payment So, by
to the farmer.
using DApp,
paying a retailertocan
a commission all buy
other rice crops and
associated transfer
entities suchtheaspayment
retailerstoand
therice
farmer. paying
companies.
a commission
Once a buyer to all otherrice,
purchases associated entities such
the blockchain as retailers
ledger records aand new riceentry
companies. Once a
with complete
buyer purchases
traceability. In thisrice,way,
the blockchain
authorities ledger recordsand
like retailers a new entry withreceive
distributors complete traceability.
a notification
In this way,
regarding theauthorities
cost at which like retailers
the rice cropand distributors receive a notification
was sold. Furthermore, regarding
not all farmers the
are able
cost at which the rice crop was sold. Furthermore, not all farmers
to use digital wallets; therefore, a digital wallet team is necessary that can help the farmersare able to use digital
wallets;
with a poortherefore,
knowledge a digital wallet team
regarding is necessary
accounts and digitalthatwallets.
can help the farmers with a poor
knowledge regarding accounts and digital wallets.
3.2. Economic Model
3.2. Economic Model
A digital token RC was introduced to design an economical model for a secure, trans-
parent,A digital token RC
and auditable ricewas
cropintroduced
management to design
system an for economical
all participantsmodelandfor a secure,
authorities.
transparent, and auditable rice crop management system for all participants and authorities.
The proposed model for the rice crop is shown in Figure 6. The basic purpose of the RC
The proposed model for the rice crop is shown in Figure 6. The basic purpose of the RC
token is the security of the system and its protection from illegal actions. The overall sup-
token is the security of the system and its protection from illegal actions. The overall supply
ply of rice coins was defined as 500 million, where each coin has a fixed price that is equiv-
of rice coins was defined as 500 million, where each coin has a fixed price that is equivalent
alent to USD 100.
to USD 100.
Out of the Platform Entire Blockchain is Public that Helps the Government Authorities to Track the
Transactions
In Initial Coin Offering Tokens are
Some Crptocurrencies

RC is programmed with the Help Token

of Smart Contract in the System Send RC to Farmers With
When User buy RC from ICO and
Conversion Will Applied Wallet

Farmer With Digital Wallet Wallet Retailer

Wallet
Fiat Currency

In Individual Case Tokens Ensure

Organization
Send RC to

a Successful Transaction and Act

as a Confirmation Message RC
Token

Digital Wallet
Team

In Organization Case Tokens Act

as the Combination of Messages
and for a Successful Transaction
RC
Fiat Currency

GRID
RC: Rice Coin ICO/Exchange
Customer
Farmer
Organization
Farmer Without
A Private Network within the Platform Wallet

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Economic
Economic model.
model.
Systems 2023, 11, 476 9 of 17

It is not mandatory to purchase a USD 100 coin; a user can buy a coin according to
his/her needs by fractionalizing the token, for example, 0.1 RC for USD 10. The RC could
be purchased by using local currencies and cryptocurrencies, such as EUR, USD, PKR, BTC,
BNB, ETH, etc. Due to the decentralized nature of the blockchain technology platform, RC
can be purchased without paying taxes and exchange fee. In this way, the retailers can
also receive equal benefits, as well as the same number of tokens for which they had paid.
Once a retailer purchases RC, an equivalent amount will be added to their wallets. The
retailers can purchase rice from the distributors by utilizing these tokens without paying
an exchange fee or any other tax. The RC was implemented on the Ethereum blockchain as
ERC-20, and its early distribution was made by using ICO. The details of RC, including
symbol, price, token type, and maximum supply, are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. RC parameters and sale values.

Parameter Values
Symbol Rice Coin (RC)
Token Type ERC20
Maximum Supply 500 million
Accepted Currencies PKR, EUR, Dollar, BNB, BTC, ETH, etc.
Price 1 RC = 100 USD

With our system, the rice crop can be purchased in two different ways. In the first
scenario, the farmers with a digital wallet can receive their payments directly in RC. After
that, an ICO exchange is implemented to convert the token into fiat currency. In another
scenarios, the payment is received from the farmers by contacting their associated digital
wallet team. The digital wallet team receives the RC payments and then pays cash amounts
to the farmers by converting the RC into fiat currency through ICO exchange. After the
farmers receive the payment, a scanned copy of the receipt or an image is transmitted
back to the blockchain as a proof of secure payment. The blockchain in the proposed
system is hybrid, and its data are private for many stakeholders including retailers, farmers,
distributors, and rice mills. Furthermore, it is available to governments in order for them to
authenticate, audit, and verify the transactions.

3.3. Distribution of the Token

Initially, 70% of the rice coins are distributed for ICO, and distributors, farmers, rice
mills, retailers, and many other stakeholders can buy coins. Furthermore, 20% of RC is
allocated for marketing, trading, key accusations, and liquidity. The remaining 10% of
coins are allocated for the development and innovation of the ecosystem. So, the overall
supply of rice coins is fixed, and no extra coin will be generated.

3.4. Conversion Fee

Some fee was defined to provide a long-term sustainability of the RC. A specific fee
is charged for each transaction, depending upon the currency exchange used, such as
KUcoin or Binance. The charged fees follow defined rules and vary depending on the
currency exchange and on the use of crypto or digital currency. Furthermore, for the
system maintenance, a fixed amount is deducted by the management authorities. The
self-sustainability of the RC is verified through the cash flow that is generated by the
management authorities.

3.5. Workflow of the Proposed Framework

Figure 7 shows the functionalities of the proposed framework. Application users
will connect with DApp through the rice coin management system. All users can manage
their wallets and profiles on DApp by using their public addresses. At the backend of the
platform, an ICO and currency exchange are always running. In order to buy rice coins,
the retailer pays via credit card or any bank. After the completion of a transaction, the
Systems 2023, 11, 476 10 of 17
Systems 2023, 11, 476 10 of 17

Systems 2023, 11, 476 10 of 17

retailer pays via credit card or any bank. After the completion of a transaction, the Un-
retailer pays via credit
spent Transactions card(UTXO)
Output or any bank.
will beAfter the completion
available of a transaction,
in the retailer’s wallet, whichthecould
Un-
spent Transactions
be transferred Output
to the (UTXO)
farmers, will be available
distributors, in the Farmers,
and rice mills. retailer’s distributors,
wallet, whichandcould
all
be transferred
Unspent to the
Transactions farmers,
Output distributors,
(UTXO) will and
be rice
availablemills.
in theFarmers,
retailer’sdistributors,
wallet, which
other participants can use exchange and ICO to convert rice coins into fiat currency. and all
could
other participants
be transferred canfarmers,
to the use exchange and ICOand
distributors, to convert riceFarmers,
rice mills. coins intodistributors,
fiat currency.and all
other participants can use exchange and ICO to convert rice coins into fiat currency.
Retailer
Rice Data and Token
Export
Data and Token
Retailer
Rice
Payments Data and Token
Export
Data and Token
Register Buy Rice Coin Buy Rice
Payments
Process Token Register Buy Rice Coin Buy Rice
Process Token
Payment Farmers with Wallet
Payment Crypto Farmers with Wallet
Request Regular Crypto
Processing Convert Rice Coin
Receive Payment Register
Request Regular
Payment Processing Convert
to Rice
fiat Coin
Receive Payment Register
Payment to fiat
Organization
Data and Token Crypto Token & Payment Organization
Crypto
Wallet TokenReceipt
& Payment Receive Convert into Fiat
Data and Token Register
Wallet Receipt Receive
Payments Convert into Fiat
Currency
Register
Payments Currency
Process Regular Process
Process Regular
Payment Process
Payment
Payment Payment DApps
DApps
Figure 7. Workflow of the proposed framework.
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Workflow of the
Workflow of the proposed
proposed framework.
framework.
For the conversion of rice coins into fiat currency, organizations use currency ex-
For and
For
changes the conversion
the conversion
pay farmersof ofwithout
rice coins
rice coins into fiat
into
wallets. fiat currency,
For currency,
the organizations
smart organizations
contract managementuse currency
use currency ex-
ex-
and user
changes
changes and pay
and pay
authentication, farmers
thefarmers without wallets.
without will
administration wallets. For
Forand
handle the smart
the generate contract
smart contract management
sheets management
as well as token and user
anddistri-
user
authentication, the
authentication, theadministration
administrationwill will handleand and generate sheets asas well
as as token dis-
bution policies. Smart contracts handlehandle and controlgenerate
ICO andsheets
exchange well token
connections. distri-
Fur-
tribution
bution policies.
policies. Smart
Smart contracts handle and control ICO and exchange connections.
thermore, the rates of contracts handle
the rice coins andrespect
with controltoICO and exchange
various currenciesconnections. Fur-
are determined
Furthermore,
thermore, the
thesmartrates of
rates contract.the rice coins with respect to various currencies
of the rice coins with respect to various currencies are determined are determined
based on the
based on the smart contract.
based on the smart contract.
3.6. Layered
3.6. Layered Structure
Structure of of the
the Proposed
Proposed Framework
Framework
3.6. Layered Structure
The structure
structure of of
of the the Proposed
theproposed Framework
proposedframework
frameworkconsists
consistsofofeight
eightlayers,
layers,asasshown
shownininFigure
Figure
The 8.
8. TheThe structure
transactions ofinthe proposed
each layer framework
are stored inconsists
the of eight
blockchain layers,
to as
notify
The transactions in each layer are stored in the blockchain to notify all members involved shown
all in
membersFigure
in-
8.
in The
volved transactions in each
in the blockchain
the blockchain network. layer
network.
The are
Thestored
workflow in the
workflow
of each of blockchain
each
layer is layer istodiscussed
discussed notify
in thisallsection.
inmembers in-
this section.
volved in the blockchain network. The workflow of each layer is discussed in this section.
INTERFACE LAYER APPLICATION LAYER BUSINESS LOGIC LAYER TRUST LAYER BLOCKCHAIN LAYER TRANSACTION LAYER INFRASTRUCTURE
INTERFACE LAYER APPLICATION LAYER BUSINESS LOGIC LAYER TRUST LAYER BLOCKCHAIN LAYER TRANSACTION LAYER INFRASTRUCTURE

Payment Fault
Tolerance
Fault Ledger
Payment Algorithm
Tolerance Ledger
Transaction Private Blockchain
Web Portal Algorithm
Transaction Private Blockchain
Web Portal Consensus Mining
Record P2P Network
Protocol
Consensus Mining
DApp Record Smart Contract P2P Network
Protocol Public Blockchain
DApp Identity Smart Contract
Proof of Public Blockchain
Identity
Workof
Proof
Currency (PoW) Transaction
Work Ethereum
User Facing App Currency (PoW) Block Validation Validation
Transaction Blockchain
Ethereum
User Facing App Block Validation Validation Blockchain
SECURITY AND ADMNISTRATION LAYER
SECURITY AND ADMNISTRATION LAYER
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Layered
Layered structure of the
structure of the proposed
proposed framework.
framework.
Figure 8. Layered structure of the proposed framework.
3.6.1. Interface Layer
3.6.1.This
Interface
layerLayer
acts as a user interface for interaction with web applications and DApp
This layerbuyers
and connects acts as
anda user interface
sellers forrice
with the interaction withsystem.
supply chain web applications andfarmers,
The retailers,
The DApp
farmers,
and connects buyers and sellers with the rice supply chain system. The retailers, farmers,
customers, rice mills, and other participants interact with the rice management system
through the interface layer. The basic purpose of this layer is to assist the users in initiating
the sale and purchase of rice crops.
Systems 2023, 11, 476 11 of 17

3.6.2. Application Layer

The application layer keeps online records, transaction metadata, identity verification,
and payment data. This layer connects the business logic layer and the interface layer with
each other in the form of smart contracts.

3.6.3. Business Logic Layer

This layer is responsible for dealing with all kinds of rules, regulations, terms, and
conditions in the implementation of smart contracts. The business logic layer follows all
regulations of communication, execution, and invocation; therefore, this layer is also an
active database of the smart contract.

3.6.4. Trust Layer

The trust layer performs a security analysis by using smart contracts, a consensus
protocol, and a formal verification like proof of work, proof of stake, and byzantine algo-
rithms. This layer implements the consensus protocol on all newly added blocks as well as
transactions and stores the executed data in the blockchain layer.

3.6.5. Blockchain Layer

The blockchain layer stores basic information on the ledger, distributed nodes, and
block status. It also stores distributed ledger information, information on rice mills, retailers,
stakeholders, and transaction records in relation to public and private addresses.

3.6.6. Transaction Layer

The transaction layer handles all kinds of rice coin transactions between retailers,
farmers, seed companies, rice mills, and stakeholders of RCMS.

3.6.7. Infrastructure Layer

The infrastructure layer contains a peer-to-peer (P2P) network for the verification
and distribution of the transaction data on Ethereum Blockchain. Once the transaction is
completed, it is broadcasted on all other nodes. This layer ensures that each transaction is
applying predefined rules and parameters for storage in Blockchain.

3.6.8. Security Layer

This layer performs a vital role in Blockchain networks by providing security solutions
against multiple threats, representing 51% of possible attacks. The security layer contains
multiple protocols, works parallel to the system, and checks the entire mechanism to
manage and maintain the system’s integrity.
Users and actors such as retailers, farmers, seed companies, and rice mills interact
through web portals and applications at the interface layer to execute the transactions.
Moreover, the application layer establishes the connection between smart contracts and
user transactions that implements business rules and forwards all transactions toward the
trust layer. The trust layer stores each transaction in Blockchain with the help of proof-of-
work as well as other consensus protocols. Furthermore, after the validation of blocks via
the transaction layer, the Blockchain layer is responsible for storing all transactions in the
public ledger relating to public and private keys. The infrastructure layer and security layer
maintain the integrity of the system by applying security measures as well as multiple
protocols. Figure 8 presents the layered structure of the proposed framework.

4. Experiment and Results

In this section, we present the real-time implementation of the proposed framework
and discuss the obtained results. The experiments were based on the following assumptions-
• In the system, no miner or group of miners had 51% hash power.
• Only registered users were allowed to sell and buy products.
Systems 2023, 11, 476 12 of 17

The testnet smart chain Blockchain was implemented, and interactions occurred
through Web 3.0 for the integration of our framework. The remix integrated development
environment (IDE) was used for the writing of the smart contracts. In addition, Postman
was used for all HTTP requests to interact with Blockchain. The AccessChain and Validate-
Block functions were used to measure the performance of Blockchain. For the evaluation of
other performances, a similar procedure was implemented. Moreover, by using Web 3.0, a
customized script of fifty thousand Python transactions were sent to the network. In order
to evaluate the developed framework, five different experiments were performed:
• Calculation of the response time to retrieve the longest chain data in nanoseconds for
the evaluation of the proposed framework.
• Evaluation of the latency of new blocks in the Blockchain and comparison of
other statistics.
• Analysis of blocks, transactions, latency of data addition, and comparisons for the
confirmation of the blocks.
• Evaluation of the proposed framework based on a per-transaction fee.
• Evaluation of the performance.
• The comparison of the performance with multiple solutions of Blockchain.
For retrieving Blockchain data, the data AccessChain was implemented on multiple
blocks, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2. New block latency.

Blocks Latency (Milliseconds)

1 406
18 379
38 367
57 389
76 271
93 171
111 49
132 707
143 104
167 680
197 91
199 85
219 275
245 321
253 305
271 678
289 897
307 567

The AccessChain function helped us retrieve specific data from various blocks and
calculate the retrieval time by using timestamp to access the data. Furthermore, the initial
block retrieving latency was 400 milliseconds, which was reduced to 91 milliseconds
and, after some time, increased to 950 milliseconds. Due to the decentralized nature of
Blockchain, the latency time created some delays in data access. The response time to
retrieve multiple blocks from the longest chain is shown in Figure 9.
Our proposed framework adds new blocks to the Blockchain by taking less time as
compared to other networks. Bitcoin network takes up to 10 min however, Ethereum takes
15 s to add a new block in Blockchain. Moreover, the proposed framework in this research
will work by adding a new block after every 3 s mechanism.
Systems 2023, 11, 476 chain, the latency time created some delays in data access. The response time to 13
retrieve
of 17
multiple blocks from the longest chain is shown in Figure 9.

after some time, increased to 950 milliseconds. Due to the decentralized nature of Block-
Systems 2023, 11, 476 13 of 17
chain, the latency time created some delays in data access. The response time to retrieve
multiple blocks from the longest chain is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Longest-chain-retrieving response time.

Our proposed framework adds new blocks to the Blockchain by taking less time as
compared to other networks. Bitcoin network takes up to 10 min however, Ethereum takes
15 s to add a new block in Blockchain. Moreover, the proposed framework in this research
Longest-chain-retrieving response time.
Figure 9. Longest-chain-retrieving
will work by adding a new block after every 3 s mechanism.
Figure10
Figure 10shows
showsthe thestatistics
statisticsof
ofnew
newblocks
blocksaddition.
addition.ThisThisinitial
initialaddition
additionof ofaablock
block
Our proposed framework adds new blocks to the Blockchain by taking less time as
showed
showed that that our proposed
our proposed system is more reliable and efficient than other systems and
compared to other networks.system
Bitcoinisnetwork
more reliable
takes upandto efficient than other
10 min however, systemstakes
Ethereum and
verifies
verifies the
theanewnew transactions easily. Because of the delay in blocks, the Ethereum and
15 s to add new transactions easily. Moreover,
block in Blockchain. Because ofthe theproposed
delay in framework
blocks, the in Ethereum and
this research
Bitcoinnetworks
Bitcoin networkshave have0.232
0.232million
millionand
and1.127
1.127million
milliontransactions
transactions per
per day.
day.Whereas,
Whereas,the the
will work by adding a new block after every 3 s mechanism.
proposed
proposed framework in this research can add average transactions up to 14.29 million to
Figureframework
10 shows the in this research
statistics of newcanblocks
add average
addition. transactions
This initialup to 14.29
addition of million
a block
Blockchain
to Blockchain per day. Figure
perproposed
day. Figure10 also shows
10 also showsthe statistics of
the statistics new blocks
of newthan and
blocks defines
andsystemsthe time
definesand
the
showed that our system is more reliable and efficient other
required
time to obtain
required to 12 network
obtain 12 networkconfirmations
confirmations thatthat
are are
important
importantin order
in orderto to
accept thethe
accept fi-
verifies the new transactions easily. Because of the delay in blocks, the Ethereum and
nancial payments.
financialnetworks
payments.
Bitcoin have 0.232 million and 1.127 million transactions per day. Whereas, the
proposed framework in this research can add average transactions up to 14.29 million to
Blockchain per day. Figure Statistics
10 also showsof theNew
statistics of new blocks and defines the time
Block
required to obtain 12 network confirmations that are important in order to accept the fi-
nancial payments. 16
14
12
Values

10
8
6Statistics of New Block
4
162
140 Proposed
12 Bitcoin Ethereum
System
Values

10
8
Transaction/Block(K)
6 2.6 0.07 0.53
4
Block time(Minutes)
2 10 0.24 0.03
0
Time for 12 Proposed
Bitcoin
7.2 Ethereum
0.183 0.0273
verifications(ks) System
Transaction/Block(K)
Transactions/day 2.6 0.07 0.53
0.232 1.127 14.29
Block(Million)
time(Minutes) 10 0.24 0.03
Time for 12
Figure10.
Figure 10.Statistics
Statisticsof
ofthe
theaddition
additionof
ofnew7.2blocks.
new blocks. 0.183 0.0273
verifications(ks)
Transactions/day
Additionally, the proposed framework
0.232 confirmed1.127
new transactions 614.29
times faster than
Ethereum and (Million)
200 times faster than Bitcoin. In our proposed framework, the average
transaction fee is USD 0.3, while in the Ethereum network, it is USD 100 during high traffic,
Figure 10. Statistics
as shown in Figureof11.
theThe
addition of new
average feeblocks.
was also compared with those of already available
Blockchain solutions. A comparison of our framework with existing Blockchain systems is
presented in Table 3.
 Min
Salah et al. [3] 0.071 0.251 0.182 1.14 $30
Katsikouli et al. [20] 0.267 0.08 0.19 1.138 $20.5
Yanez et al. [26] 11 2.8 7.3 0.215 $10.2
Nakamoto
Systems 2023, 11,et476
al. [28] 7 1.9 3.6 3.56 14 of 17 $10

Proposed System 0.035 0.58 0.037 16.01 $0.35

$ Gas Fee/Transaction
$25

$20 $20

$15

$11
$10

$5

$0 $0.30
Bitcoin Ethereum Proposed System

$ Fee/Transaction

Figure
Figure 11.11. Average
Average transaction
transaction fee. fee.

Table 3. Comparison of the proposed framework with existing Blockchains.

Throughput of the Transactions
Blockchain Our
Block Time/Per Min proposed framework for rice
Transaction Per 12 Verification can
Permanage unlimited
Day Transactions Feetransactions
Per Transaction on a reg
Block (k) Time (ks)
basis due to the involvement of a large number of farmers, stakeholders, and retailer
Salah et al. [3] 0.071 0.251 0.182 1.14 $30
Katsikouli et al. [20] it0.267
is highly critical
0.08to make it scalable
0.19 for high-volume
1.138 transactions.
$20.5Therefore, we
Yanez et al. [26] Apache
11 Jmeter software
2.8 to analyze
7.3 the transactions
0.215 on the test network
$10.2 over 30 days
Nakamoto et al. [28] 7 1.9 3.6 3.56 $10
Proposed System Blocks
0.035 Per Day (BPD)
0.58 of the proposed
0.037 framework were calculated with
16.01 $0.35 the following
mula, and the number of Blocks Per Minute (BPM) was derived by converting BP
seconds. of the Transactions
Throughput
Our proposed framework for rice can manage∑ unlimited
𝐵𝑃𝐷 𝑥 transactions on a regular
𝐵𝑃𝐷 = /24 and retailers.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
basis due to the involvement of a large number of farmers, 𝑜𝑓stakeholders,
𝐷𝑎𝑦𝑠
So, it is highly critical to make it scalable for high-volume transactions. Therefore, we
𝐵𝑃𝐷 on the test network over 30 days.
used Apache Jmeter software to analyze the transactions
The Blocks Per Day (BPD) of the proposed𝐵𝑃𝑀 =
framework
1440 were calculated with the following
formula, and the number of Blocks Per Minute (BPM) was derived by converting BPD
To obtain the transaction throughput in BPM, we calculated the average numb
to seconds.
transactions in each block and thenxmultiplied it by
! the total number of blocks in min
∑ x= 1
BPD ( x )
to obtain the Transaction = Minute=30
BPDPer (TPM). /24
Total Number o f Days
BPD
BPM =
1440
To obtain the transaction throughput in BPM, we calculated the average number of
transactions in each block and then multiplied it by the total number of blocks in minutes
to obtain the Transaction Per Minute (TPM).

TPM = Number o f Transaction in a Block × Total Number o f Blocks in 1 Minute

TPM
TPS =
60
Systems 2023, 11, 476 15 of 17

Figure 10 shows the block-per-minute data of our proposed framework for the rice
crop. By using the BPD equation, we calculated the number of transactions that occurred
in a day, and by implementing the Transaction Per Second (TPS) equation, we deter-
mined that 60 transactions were performed. Thus, the average transaction number in
our proposed framework was 60 TPS. However, the number of per-hour transactions was
800 k–1.9 million. It means that our framework can handle a high volume of transactions
in a day. In the case of rice crop sale and purchase, the designed framework can process a
very high number of transactions on an hourly basis.

5. Conclusions
The current system of the rice crop supply chain lacks qualities like security, reliability,
traceability, and transparency, which leads to high costs in the sale of crops and sometimes
results in a shortage of crop stocks. Therefore, the rice crop supply chain traceability
is highly important to ensure transparency to stakeholders and government authorities,
enabling them to track the product from farm to fork. In this research, a Blockchain-
based framework was proposed to make the rice supply chain transparent. The proposed
framework for the rice crop supply chain is completely traceable and price-controlled. The
framework was implemented on the Binance Smart Chain (BSC) network, is very fast, and
is based on very low transaction fees as compared to available Blockchain systems including
Ethereum and Bitcoin. Digital wallets and smart contracts were used to develop a system to
transfer money with high reliability and complete security in all transactions, using the Rice
Coin (RC). The RC ensures that farmers and stakeholders can obtain appropriate wages
and rice quantities for their efforts. The proposed framework regulates the export of rice
crops and controls illegal trade, saving the governments money when importing expensive
rice during the off-season. To enhance data availability, data security, and stakeholder
trust, an IPFS system was used to store encrypted information on farmers, retailers, and
companies. Furthermore, the experimental results of the proposed framework showed that
this system is far better than the traditional and existing systems in terms of transaction per
minute, block latency, verification time, and average gas fee for a transaction.
The potential future research directions on this topic include the customization of
smart contracts in order to reduce the transaction cost as well as to increase the system’s
performance. Furthermore, mobile traceability applications and smart wallets to manage
rice coins should also be the object of future research.

Author Contributions: M.S.F. and B.H. led this research work and statistically analyzed the whole
study. This manuscript presents a new Framework to Make Rice Crop Supply Chain Transparent and
Reliable in Agriculture. S.R. and I.U.R. performed a literature review on the currently used systems.
M.S.F., B.H. and S.R. contributed to the selection of frequently used open-source software in the
field of rice crop. The manuscript draft was proof-read and revised three times before submission
to this journal by M.S.F., M.A.K. and I.U.R., S.R., B.H. and M.A.K. contributed to the design of the
methodology and the proof reading of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express their gratitude for the continuous support of
the senior research fellows, for their expertise and assistance in all aspects of the study, as well as for
their help in writing the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Systems 2023, 11, 476 16 of 17

Abbreviations

IPFS InterPlanetary File System

RC Rice Coin
ICO Initial Coin Offering
WHO World Health Organization
DApp Decentralized Application
RCMS Rice Crop Management System
P2P Peer-to-Peer
IDE Integrated Development Environment
BPD Block Per Day
BPM Block Per Minute
TPM Transaction Per Minute
TPS Transaction Per Second
BSC Binance Smart Chain
UTXO Unspent Transactions Output

References
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