ACCORDING TO NEW SYLI LABUS OF TWO YEARS B.ED. OF MUMBAI UNIVERSITY SHER) LO QW ACUI Pa aE WY osACCORDING TO NEW SYLLABUS OF TWO YEARS B. ED. OF MUMBAI UNIVERSITY GENDER, SCHOOL AND SOCIETY FIRST YEAR — FIRST SEMISTER SHIVANSH PUBLICATION, PANVELIndex No. Unit Page No. Module 1 | Gender and Socialization Unit 1 | Gender: Concept and Perspectives a) Concept of sex, gender and transgender ol b) Gender related concepts: patriarchy, feminism, i equity and equality, sexuality c) Emergence of gender specific roles: sociological . and psychological perspectives Unit2 | Social construction of gender identity a) Influence of family, caste, religion, culture, region, the media and popular culture (films, 33 advertisements, songs) on gender identity. b) Gender bias: health and nutrition, education, yo employment ©) Gender stereotyping. 45 Unit3 | Gender Issues and Provisions a) Gender related issues in society: - Dowry 48 System, work place discrimination b) Sexual abuse, cyber bullying 56 c) National Policy for Empowerment of women 61 Module 2 | Gender: Education and Empowerment Unit4 | Gender Challenges and Education a) Gender Challenges: The role of Schools, Peers,| 74 Teachers, curriculum and textbooks. b) Construct of gender in national curriculum 84 framework c) Contemporary woman role models in India 85 Unit | Gender Jurisprudences in Indian context a) Pre-Natal Diagnostic Technique Act, 1994 94 b) Domestic Violence Act 2005 97 C) Protection of children’s from Sexual Offences oi (POSCO) Act 2012Unit 6 | Strategies for Gender Empowerment a) The role of NGOs and women's action groups in 5 eas " 105 striving towards gender equity b) The United Nations Entity Equality and the 15 Empowerment of women for Gender-UN Women ¢) Millennium Development: Goal: Promoting 1 gender equality and empowerment References 113 ‘Question Paper 114 Notice — ‘This book is the property of Shivansh Publicati . If any found using or selling Xerox copy of this book, will be liable to legal punishment. Judgment of the Panvel (Raigad) court will be final.Gender: Concept and Perspectives SSS Module 1. Gender and Socialization Unit 1. Gender: Concept and Perspectives a) Concept of sex, gender and transgender b) Gender related concepts: patriarchy, feminism, equity and equality, sexuality. ©) Emergence of gender specific roles: sociological and psychological perspectives. a) Concept of sex, gender and transgender In every society men and women will perform different roles and responsibilities which support the family, community or country. Different societies have their own traditions, customs and values, which influence people‘s beliefs and attitudes. Sometimes these beliefs and attitudes lead to discrimination and stereotyping based on whether a person is a man or a woman. This results in gender bias and inequality, where one gender does not enjoy the same rights as the other. Concept of sex:- (Characteristics) In a very broad way, “sex” refers to the biological and physiological differences between male and female sex. ‘The term sex is a physical differentiation between the biological male and the biological female. Thus, when an infant is born, the infant comes to be labeled “boy” or “git!” depending on their sex. The genital differences between male and female is the basis of such characterization. There is a biological difference between the sexes and most people are born (expect for a few ambiguous cases) as one sex or another. However, it has been argued that having been bom into one sex or another, individuals are then socialized according to specific gender expectations and roles. © Biological males learn to take on masculine roles. They are socialized to think and act in masculine ways. Biological females learn to take on feminine roles. They are socialized to think and behave in feminine ways. ¢ At birth, besides the basic biological differences in the genitals and reproductive organs, there is not much difference between the male child and the female child. Society makes the differences between boy and girl through gender constructions. Gender, School and Society Page 1© The term sex is also socially constructed. The biological differences between the sexes does to some extent explain certain psychological and socially constructed differences. This view is writers like Judith Butler. Judith Butler argues that 5 a secondary construct criticized by some femini: sex is natural and comes first. Gender is perceived a: which is imposed over the top of this natural distinction. The distinction between “male” and “female” is a social distinction made by the society, that is, it is a social construction. It is a particular way of perceiving and dividing the differences between “male”, “female”. The scientific, biological meaning and definition of sex is an important source of explanation to point out the basic differences in sex. In other words, even if we accept that there are basic differences between the “sexes” there is no logical or rational reason for use. This is the basis for dividing human beings into two groups or sexes. Much research in sociology assumes that each person has one sex, one sexuality and one gender. Sometimes sex and gender are used interchangeably. Sometimes sex means sexuality, it may refer to biology or physiology. A woman is assumed to be feminine female, a man a masculine male. Research variables polarize sex as males and females; sexuality is polarized as homosexual and heterosexuals; gender is homosexual as and women these reflect conventionalize bodies that do not take into account transvestites, transsexuals, bisexuals and so on. Concept of gender:- (Characteristics) © Gender refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and women that are created in our families, our societies and our cultures. « The concept of gender also includes the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviours of both women and men (femininity and masculinity). In simple terms, gender explain the differences between men and women in social terms as men, and as what a man can do; as “woman”, and as what a woman can or cannot do. Therefore, gender is a analytical category that is socially constructed to differentiate the biological difference between men and women. © The term gender is also used to describe the differences in behaviour between men and women which are described as “masculine” and “feminine”. ——— Gender, Schoo! and Society Page 2Gender: Concept and Perspect © Feminist writings focus on this aspect and claim that these differences are not biological but are social constructions of patriarchal society. * Gender roles and expectations are leamed. They can change over time and they vary within and between cultures. Some theorists suggest that the biological differences between men and Women also result in their mental and physical differences. They argue that biologically, men are physically and mentally superior to women. Other theorists suggest that the biological difference between men and women are exaggerated. The differences are socially constructed by the patriarchal system of society by which men are described as superior to women. Therefore women become subordinate to men in the society. The western culture also believes that any effort to change the traditional roles of men and women in the society can cause damage to the social fabric of the society. Gender differences are set in hierarchal opposition such that men are superior and women are subordinate. Women’s position is that of the “other” and women are the continual outsiders. Civilization was masculine to its very depth. Itis difficult to accept a rigid distinction between sex and gender as either wholly biological or singularly cultural. There is a constant shifts between conceptualizations of human beings as controlled by either predominantly biological or social forces. The debates on sex and gender will continue as same will argue in favour of biological differences while other feminist writers will favour the differences as socially constructed, supported by social institutions like religion, caste, family marriage and so on. The substantial shift in women''s lives and expectations since the 1960s clearly explains that the category of feminine has been rather elastic. Women“s roles and performances have changed drastically over the past few decades which has added new dimensions to the debates by feminists and other on sex / gender distinctions. Some examples of gender characteristics (WHO) 1, In the United States (and most other countries), women eam significantly less money than men for similar work 2. In Viet Nam, many more men than women smoke, as female smoking has not traditionally been considered appropriate 3. In Saudi Arabia men are allowed to drive cars while women are not 4, In most of the world, women do more housework than men Gender, School and Society Page 3Concept of stereotypes:- In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about Specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality. However, this is only a fundamental psychological definition of a stereotype. Within psychology and Spanning across other disciplines, there are different conceptualizations and theories of Stereotyping that provide their own expanded definition. Some of these definitions share commonalities, though each one may also harbor unique aspects that may contradict the others. Definitio: 1) A stereotype is “...a fixed, over generalized belief about a particular group or class of people.” - Cardwell, 1996. 2) Gender stereotypes are simplistic generalizations about the gender attributes, differences, and roles of individuals and/or groups. A gender stereotype is a generalized view or preconception about attributes or characteristics that are or ought to be possessed by, or the roles that are or should be performed by women and men. A gender stereotype is harmful when it limits women’s and men’s capacity to develop their personal abilities, Pursue their professional careers and make choices about their lives and life plans. Harmful stereotypes can be both hostile/negative (e.g., women are irrational) or seemingly benign (¢.g., women are nurturing). It is for example based on the Stereotype that women are more nurturing that child rearing responsibilities often fall exclusively on them. A man might say women aren't meant for combat, while a woman might say men do nothing but watch sports. Such expressions represent gender stereotypes, which are over-generalizations about the characteristics of an entire group based on gender. While women were barred from serving in military combat in Western nations until the latter half of the 20th century, in recent times they have served in combat roles as capably as men. And while many men may watch sports, not all men would necessarily do so. : Gender stereotypes can have negative connotations, like those above, but they can also have positive connotations, even though they're -often over- generalized. For instance, the notion that women are better caregivers than men is a positive connotation, but it is a generalization and not necessarily true in all cases. This is similarly so for the notion that men are better providers than women, which while positive, can be disproved by looking at cases where men have abandoned their families and defaulted on child support. Gender, School and Society Page 4ee EE Masculine & feminine characteristics The sex / gender differences raise the issues of male — female; masculine and feminine, male associated with masculinity and female with femininity. With cach constructions the biological differences between men and women get translated into social terms and descriptions. Feminist writers argue that biological differences get heightened through social descriptions of masculinity and femininity. Masculine characteristic 1) Pink and blue are gendered colours, blue colour regarded as ‘Masculine’. 2) To be ‘strong’ and ‘tough’ is masculine. 3) Masculinity is not valued unless performed by biological male. Hence the male body is imbued in our culture with certain traits that characterize maleness or masculinity. Hence the human norm of male supremacy. 4) The construction of men and masculinity will accrue exclusively to the bodies of males. 5) Sexual assertiveness and sexual desire is sometimes considered masculine 6) In our culture, the ideal male is perhaps seen as competent, stable, tough, confident, strong, accomplished, non-conforming, aggressive and is the leader. Feminine characteristics:- 1) Pink colour regarded as ‘Feminine’. 2) Being ‘weak’ and ‘soft’ are associated with feminine character. 3) Femininity is performed by the biological female. The female body is in our culture is imbued with certain traits that characterize female or femininity. 4) The construction of women and femininity will accrue exclusively to the bodies of females. 5) While the defining characteristics of femininity are not universally identical, some patterns exist: gentleness, empathy, sensitivity, caring, sweetness, compassion, tolerance, nurturance, deference, and succorance are traits that have traditionally been cited as feminine. 6) Femininity is sometimes linked with sexual objectification and sexual appeal. Sexual passiveness, or sexual receptivity, is sometimes considered feminine. 7) In our culture ideal female is perhaps seen as warm, emotional, kind, polite, sensitive, friendly, fashionable, gentle, soft and is the follower. _——[—— — Gender, School and Society Page 5Gend and Pe concepts which signify the social Masculinity and femininity are and characteristics which describe outcomes of being male or female the traits men and women give men advantage over women. How stereotypes impact on gender Let’s examine what acting like a man and being ladylike means in our society and what might be some gender stereotypes In the Indian culture: “It’s a boy!”, says the nurse and from then on, subtle stereotyping begins. Conscious and unconscious motives of having the family race continue through him bring joy. Guns and cars are bought for him, preferably blue and never pink! While growing up, if he cries he will be told ‘don’t cry like a girl!” He perhaps learns to suppress his emotions as he thinks it is ‘girlish’ to express them. It’s likely that he’d be encouraged to act strong, to act brave, to be tough etc. Developing the ‘right male interests’ like sports, taking care of the outside work, managing money, leaming to ride/drive, fixing the bulb etc. will most likely be encouraged in him. He would perhaps be discouraged from cooking and serving. He is likely to have fewer restrictions while going out. While choosing a career, he would be encouraged to be ambitious. He is likely to be discouraged from choosing careers like teaching, counselling etc. as they are seen to be ‘softer’ career options meant for girls. The question of balancing home & family could may not arise for him as it is assumed that his gender defines his primary role as bread winner. On the other hand, if the nurse says ‘It’s a girl!’, the equations tend to change from that minute. Her room is perhaps decorated with the supposed feminine colour pink and dolls are bought for her. In many communities in India, she could be considered inferior to a boy child. While growing up, she will be allowed to cry and express herself emotionally. ‘Good manners’ like talking & laughing gently and not loudly, being delicate, being submissive to elders, not ‘fighting like boys’, being sacrificial, caring etc. is most likely to be taught to her. Developing the ‘right interests’ like cooking, dancing, singing, tiding up the house, serving etc. will most likely be encouraged in her. She may not be encouraged to go out as often as her brother and is likely to have many more restrictions. While choosing a career, she is likely to be discouraged from choosing careers such as civil services or defense services as she will not be able to ‘balance’ family & home later on. It is most often assumed that her gender would define her role & function at home as primarily home maker and mother. Gender, School and Society Page 6Gender: Concept and Perspectiv Impacts:- 1) Research shows that these stercotypes create dangerous consequences that limit a person’s full potential and wellbeing. 2) Men and women, because of these stereotypes, are forced to ignore their personality traits, temperament and unique characteristics that make them who they are. Instead there is always a tendency to conform to the cultural notions of ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’. 3) Stereotypes are not always inherently negative, but because they are assumptions that disregard a person's individual and inherent abilities, opportunities and environment, they tend to be prejudicial. 4) Negative stereotypes hinder peoples’ ability to fulfill their potential by limiting choices and opportunities. 5) Men suffer too because conforming to masculine roles of competitive and ambitious self-seeking can put pressure on them and deprive them of joys that can come from parenting and having intimate respectful relationships. In Short What is Sex ? « A biological, physiological category. © Scientifically verifiable. A set of characteristics by which we are assigned to one of two sexes at birth. © Static Sex markers include © Chromosomes: XX XY. © Genitals « hormones © physical size, frame body hair, breast size, Adam's apple, voice What is Gender ? © "The way you identify" «the two social roles our society typically associates with physiological Sex. Stereotyped characteristics ascribed to sex, the ideas we express with the terms “masculine” and “feminine.” Examples? the meaning of "sex" within a particular cultural/historical context aS Gender, School and Society Page 7Gender: Concept and Perspectives © Extends far beyond physiological sex to inanimate objects © Dynamic Gender markers include: © clothes * colors ® hairstyle * activity (watching baby, loading trucks) earrings/jewelry © body language © occupation * Behaviors: walk, hug, cry, sit, talk What is the difference between sex and gender? | Sex Gender 1. Sex is natural 1. Gender is socio-cultural construct 2. Sex is biological and it refers to) 2. It refers to the masculine and visible differences in genitalia feminine qualities, behaviour, and related differences in roles and responsibilities that procreative functions society upholds 3. Sex is constant, it remains the |3. Gender is variable; it changes same everywhere, from time to time, culture to 4. Sex cannot be changed without | culture, even family to family. complex medical intervention. 4. Gender can be changed/ re- |__ oriented. Concept of Transgender * Transgender people are people who have a gender identity, or gender expression, that differs from their assigned sex. * Transgender people are sometimes called transsexual if they desire medical assistance to transition from one sex to another. © Transgender is also an umbrella term: in addition to including people whose gender identity is the opposite of their assigned sex (trans men and trans women), it may include people who are not exclusively masculine or feminine (people who are genderqueer, e.g. bigender, pangender, genderfluid, or agender). © Other definitions of transgender also include people who belong to a third gender, or conceptualize transgender people as a third gender. —_—_——$ Gender, School and Society Page 8rspectives nder: Concept and ¢ Infrequently, the term transgender is defined very broadly to include cross-dressers, regardless of their gender identity. © Transgender is a term used to deseribe people whose gender identity «the doctor marked on their birth certificate. Gender aman or a woman differs from the s identity is a person's internal, personal sense of being (or someone outside of that gender binary). For transgender people, the heir own internal gender identity do sex they were assigned at birth and th not match. © Many transgender people are prescribed hormones by thei change their bodies. Some undergo surgeries as well. But not all transgender people can or will take those steps, and it's important to know that being transgender is not dependent upon medical procedures. Transgender is an adjective and should never be used as a noun. For example, rather than saying "Max is a transgender,” say "Max is @ transgender person.” And transgender never needs an "-ed" at the end. ir doctors to Being transgender is independent of sexual orientation: transgender people may identify as heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, asexual, etc... oF may consider conventional sexual orientation labels inadequate or inapplicable. The term transgender can also be distinguished from intersex, a term that describes people bom with physical sex characteristics "that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies”. ‘The degree to which individuals feel genuine, authentic, and comfortable within their external appearance and accept their genuine identity has been called transgender congruence. Many transgender people experience gender dysphoria, and some seck medical treatments such as hormone replacement therapy, sex reassignment surgery, or psychotherapy. Not all transgender people desire these treatments, and some cannot undergo them for financial or medical reasons. India's Supreme Court has recognized transgender people as a third gender, in a landmark ruling. © "It is the right of every human being to choose their gender granting rights to those who identify themselves as neither male nor female. it said in * It ordered the government to provide transgender people with quotas in jobs and education in line with other minorities, as well as key amenities. ——— Gender, School and Society Page 9Concept and Perspectives Gender * According to one estimate, India has about two million transgender people. ¢ In India, a common term used to describe transgender people, transsexuals, cross-dressers, cunuchs and transvestites is hijra. The problems faced by the transgender people in India include: ‘These people are shunned by family and society alike, ¢ They have restricted access to education, health services and public spac * Till recently, they were excluded from effectively participating in social and cultural life, * Politics and decision-making processes have been out of their reach, * Transgender people have difficulty in exercising their basic civil rights. © Reports of harassment, violence, denial of services, and unfair treatment against transgender persons have come to light. Sexual activity between two persons of the same sex is criminalised, and is punishable by incarceration. Transgender people in Indian politics The All India Hijra Kalyan Sabha fought for over a decade to get voting rights, which they finally got in 1994, In 1996 Kali stood for elections in Patna under the then Judicial Reform Party and gave the Janata Dal and the BJP a bit of a fight. Muni ran for the elections as well from South Bombay that year. They both lost, more than 13 years Hijras are participating in the politics in India. After the defeat of Kali and Munni, three years later we saw Kamla Jaan tun and win the position of the mayor of Katni in MP. Then there was Shabnam Mausi, who was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 2002 as well. In the huge political machinery, Heera won a seat at the city council of Jabalpur, Meera won a similar position in Sehora, and so did Gulshan in Bina. In December 2000, Asha Devi became the mayor of Gorakhpur, and Kallu Kinnar was elected to the city council in Varanasi, I am sure there are many more low level, inconspicuous bureaucratic Positions that were held by the hijras but did not whip up any excitement for the media — not to mention the cases where they were probably threatened, bullied and killed to Prevent them from running for seats. This brings us to the current elections, which has Mangesh Bharat Khandye running for the Thane Lok Sabha seat, Gender, School and Society ei Page 10Shabnam Mausi is the first transgender Indian or hijra tobe elected to public office. She was an elected member of the Madhya Pradesh State Legislative Assembly from 1998 to 2003.In 2000 Shabnam Mausi became India's first eunuch MP.(Hijras were granted voting rights in 1994 in India.) In 2003, Hijras in Madhya Pradesh have announced establishing their own political party called "Jeeti Jitayi Politics" (HIP), which literally means ‘politics that has already been won’. The party has also released an eight-page election manifesto which it claims outlines why it is different from mainstream political parties.Hira bai became first TG MLA of India from Jabalpur vidhanshaba seat. Kalki Subramaniam, a transgender rights activist, writer and an actor,In the 2011 assembly elections, Kalki tried in vain to get a DMK ticket. Again on March 2014 Kalki announced in Puducherry that she would contest in this lection from Villupuram constituency in neighbouring Tamil Nadu. She is likely to be among the very few contestants fighting in the national elections from the transgender community that faces discrimination and ridicule. On 4 January 2015, independent candidate Madhu Bai Kinnar was hn becoming India's first openly elected as the mayor of Raigath, Chhattisgart transgender mayor. Manabi Bandopadhyay b on 9 June 2015, when she assumed the role of Principal of Women's College in Nadia district, ‘West Bengal. On 5 November 2015, K. Prithika Yashini became the first transgender police officer in the state of Tamil Nadu. At the time, the Tamil Nadu police had three. transgender constables, but Yashini became the first transgender to hold the rank of officer in the state. came India's first transgender college principal, the Krishnagar Conditions of transgender at in Educational sphere in India Gender issue in TNPSC and UPSC der activist Gopi Shankar from Srishti Transgender Swapna and gen Madurai staged the protest in Madurai collectorate on 7 October 2013 mate genders to appear for demanding reservation and_ to permit alte examinations conducted by TNPSC, UPSC, SSC and Bank. Exams.Swapna, incidentally, had successfully moved the Madras High Court in 2013 seeking yman’ candidate. Swapna permission to write the TNPSC Group II exam as a “wor is the first trans person to clear TNPSC Group IV exams. Gender, School and Society Page 11cept and Perspectives Third Gender Literature and Studies "Vaadamalli" by novelist Su.Samuthiram is the first Tamil novel about Aravaani community in Tamil Nadu published in the year 1994. Later Transgender activist A. Revathi is the first Hijra to write about Transgender issues and Gender politics in Tamil, her works have been translated in more than 8 languages and acting as a primary resources on Gender Studies in Asia. Her book is part of research project for more than 100 universities. She is the author of Unarvum Uruvamum (Feelings of the Entire Body); is the first of its kind in English from a member of the hijra community. She also acted and directed several stage plays on Gender and Sexuality issues in Tamil and Kannada."The Truth about Me: A Hijra Life Story" by Transgender A. Revathi is part of the syllabus for Final Year students of The American College in Madurai.The American College is the first college in India to introduce Third Gender literature and studies with research oriented seminar and the Tamil terms for Genderqueer people was coined in this college by gender activist Gopi Shankar. Later Naan Saravanan Alla” (2007) and Vidya's “I am Vidya” (2008) became first transwoman autobiography. Legal provisions for the transgender in India * In India one group of transgender people are called Hijras. They were legally granted voting rights as a third sex in 1994. + Due to alleged legal ambiguity of the procedure, Indian transgender individuals do not have access to safe medical facilities for SRS. On 15 April 2014, Supreme Court of India declared transgender people as a socially and economically backward class entitled to reservations in Education and Job, and also directed union and state governments to frame welfare schemes for them. * On 24 April 2015, the Rajya Sabha passed the Rights of Transgender Persons Bill, 2014 guaranteeing rights and entitlements, reservations in education and jobs (2% reservation in government jobs), legal aid, pensions, unemployment allowances and skill development for transgender people. It also contains provisions to prohibit discrimination in employment, prevent abuse, violence and exploitation of transgender people. The Bill also provides for the establishment of welfare boards at the Centre and State level, and for Transgender Rights Courts. Social Justice and Empowerment Minister Thaawar Chand Gehlot stated on 11 June 2015 that the Government would introduce a comprehensive Gender, School and Society Page 12Gender: Concept and Perspectives Bill for transgender rights in the Monsoon session of Parliament. The Bill will be based on the study on transgender issues conducted by a committee appointed on 27 January 2014. According to Gehlot, the Government intends to provide transgender people with all rights and entitlements currently enjoyed by Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes b) Gender related concepts: patriarchy, feminism, equity and equality, sexuality. Patriarchy:- A patriarchy, from the ancient Greek patriarches, was a society where power was held by and passed down through the elder males. When modern historians and sociologists describe a "patriarchal society," they mean that men hold the positions of power: head of the family unit, leaders of social groups, boss in the workplace and heads of government. © Patriarchal describes a general structure in which men have power over women. Society (n.) is the entirety of relations of a community. A patriarchal society consists of a male-dominated power structure throughout organized society and in individual relationships. "Patriarchy" (derived from patriarch in Greek) is a term for societies in which male is the favored gender, and in which men hold power, dominion and privilege. That position is reinforced by societal and cultural norms, religious teachings, media portrayals of gender roles (specifically female inferiority), © Incasual conversation, whether in English or any other language the term implies “male domination”, “male prejudice (against women)”, or more simply “male power”. © The term means “the absolute rule of the father or the eldest male member over his family”. Patriarchy is thus the rule of the father over all women in the family and also over younger socially and economically subordinate males. Literally, patriarchy means rule by the male head of a social unit (like family, tribe). The patriarch is typically a societal elder who has legitimate power over others in the social unit. © However, since the early twentieth century, feminist writers have used the term patriarchy as a concept to refer to the social system of masculine domination over women. Gender, School and Society Page 13Gender: Concept and Perspectives Patriarchy has been a fundamentally important concept in gender studies, Feminist writers have developed a number of theories that aim to understand the bases of women's subordination to men. The term patriarchy is not only a descriptive term that explains how different socictics construct male authority and power, but also become an analytical category. This changes of the use of the term patriarchy from a descriptive to an analytical category took place in the 1970s, in a specific global historical context of feminist political and intellectual culture. Since this time, patriarchy has been used critically to explain the main components of authority and power in any social system. Patriarchy automatically privileges men over women such that women have little or no claims to material, sexual and intellectual resources of the society. That is, ina patriarchal society women have to struggle to be educated, to have property or to make choices regarding marriage and other aspects of life. For men, these Tesources are a matter of right and can make choices that affect their lives. Let us take some examples to clarify the way in which patriarchy is evident in our daily life. When a man raises his voice in the course of an argument and ins his point of view, without letting others especially women get to utter a single word, his actions are likely to be described as “aggressively patriarchal”, If a women complains of sexual harassment at her work place, and all the men in her office deny that this could ever happen. The reasoning of men can be described as being “typically patriarchal”, In public speeches that disclaim the subordination of women, this decimal is described by the term , patriarchy". In a very general way “patriarchy” is a catch" word that describes the different ways in which society discriminates against women. These examples explain the many different and subtle ways through which patriarchy is expressed in the society. In the evolution of society, matriarchy was usually considered and earlier and more primitive stage of society, and patriarchy on later and more advanced stage of society. In contemporary discourses on gender, patriarchy is a central concept that feminist writers have been grappling with to explain differential Positions of men and women in the society. These writings view patriarchy as the subordination of women. The patriarchal system provides self - definitions and norms for women. These social norms restrict the social roles of women as mothers and wives. The patriarchal system also amply rewards all those women who learn to passively their defined roles. Both wifchood and motherhood become glorified in the patriarchal system. These roles are granted social $ on Gender, School and Society Page 14Gender: Concept and Perspectives sanctions and at the same time are also eulogized in local folk lore, in literature, and religion so that women do actively engage themselves in playing their social roles and thus themselves contributes and perpetuate the patriarchal social order. Patriarchy has been viewed as more than just the subordination of women. It has been pointed out that not all men are powerful in a patriarchal system, For example younger men in the family have less authority and power than older men. They have to defer to older men till their turn to exercise power comes. The lower class and underprivileged men, and in the Indian context the »dalit men" have lesser or no authority as compared to the upper class, more privileged and upper caste men. Such men who are oppressed and exploited by powerful men are denied access to resources of the society as well as their own masculine identity. Inspite of this, that certain classes and category of men are the targets of patriarchal authority, the fact remains that all men can claim resources and power more easily than women in their families or communities. In the lower caste lower class families male children get to eat better food and are more likely to be sent to school and receive health care than the female children, Another example is that of the hirjas (enuchs) in India. They actively renounce and refuse their masculinity. They are often the object or ridicule and derision. Moreover, many of them are from lower castes and lower classes. The above discussion clearly brings out the way in'which patriarchy differentiates between men and women. And through such differential treatment women are denied access to resources of the society and to positions of power and authority both in the family and in the community, Impact of Patriarchy on Society:~ Patriarchy perpetuates a social structure wherein men dominate, oppress and exploit women (in varying degrees). A patriarchal society assumes the superiority and submits to the leadership of men. In sucha society, though a level of independence is gained by middle class working women, they are still considered subordinate to their husband/father. Whatever advances in social position are achieved by women stand nullified by the entrenched patriarchal mentality. The reins of power in the household still remain with the male head of the family, despite the fact that the women shoulder as many, if not more, responsibilities ————— Gender, School and Society Page 15spectives Concept and P ee Impact on Wome a Nancial Independance:- Despite having a job and contributing to the houschold income, women do not have the same level of financial independence as the male members of the houschol. Many women, particularly in the rural areas are required to hand over their entire pay to the male member of the house, usually their father or their husband. No participation in decision making process: Women are rarely asked for their opinions while making important houschold decisions, outside of homemaking. Most significant decision involving expenditures of large sums of money are taken solely by the men. This includes purchase of property, vehicles ete, Expectations of dual responsibii : Even after having jobs that require them to work the same number of hours as their male counterparts, women are given little leeway when it comes to responsibilities towards the family. They are expected to juggle the dual responsibilities of work as well as homemaking. Depressed status in family: Women are not accorded the same of respect and dignity that their male counterparts are. In many cases, they are subjected to mental harassment and sometimes physical violence at the hands of their in- laws. | Sexual harassment at workplace: In the famous Vishakha vs State of Rajasthan, the Supreme court laid down procedural guidelines to be used in cases of sexual harassment of women at workplaces. The ground reality however, continues to be disturbing. A large number of workplaces do not conform to the guidelines laid down in the judgement, and their enforcement is flawed, time consuming and distressing for the victims. Feminism:- e There are two words one is feminism and other is feminist. Feminism refers to approach theory while feminist is a person to believes in and act according to feminist theory or theories. © Common sense meaning of feminist is “man hating”. Careerist, middle class, academic westernized etc. Media also portrait similar image. However this heat true. e According to feminist thinkers, feminist is a person who believes in Equality and justice for women. ¢ Feminist may be activists, social scientist, academic, poet, social worker who express their feminism in different way. Gender, School and Society Page 16‘oncept and Perspectives ¢ Feminism is an ideology, philosophy an attitude of mind, a way of looking at anything, It is not one unitary concept but instead of decrease and multi faced grouping of ideas and action. ¢ Feminism is mainly concern with women's inferior position in a society and with discrimination encountered by women because of their sex. Hence all feminists call for change in social, cultural, religious, political and economic fields. They work to reduce in equality and eventually to overcome it © “A simple meaning of the term feminism is “looking at world from women’s point of view” It implies women's point of view“s is relevant and effective for women, their perception and participation in social life. Definition:- “Feminism is an awareness of women’s oppression and exploitation in society at the place of work and with the family and the conscious action to change this situation. © “Feminism is an awareness of patrician control, Exploitation and oppression of material and ideological levels of women’s labour fertility and sexuality in the family, at the place of work, and in society in general and conscious action by women and men to transfer the present situation. Firstly feminism is at attitude of mind which needs to be developed or cultivated among men and women is society. Hence first aim is to spread awareness make people sensitive about women’s issues, their oppressions to sensitize people, it is necessary to observe social facts collect data, analyze it and communicate it to general public. Secondly both the definition call for action. It is not enough to know or to be aware of ‘social reality. People activists, should work to change the social condition. Hence some kind of action plan and participation in the action plan is required. The conscious efforts to change the present situation. Thirdly both the definitions talk about women’s oppression and exploitation take place within a family, at place of work, in political field ete. The second definition further states that this oppression takes place because of patriarchal control. Hence awareness ‘of women takes place at both level material and at ideological level. This oppression may be done by men or by women. For both there definition it is clear that all over the world. Women experience discriminal unequal treatment in terms of food, nutrition, health care, education, employment, main-stream decision-making activities. Further is not Gender, School and Society Page 17Gender: Concept and Perspectives enough to recognize those condition or to be aware of than; this to be accompanied by action. The action can take place anywhere. E.g. a women may decide to educate her daughter or let her pursue, a career as a mother may stand by her daughter. Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, ‘and social Movements that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment. Feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights, including the right to vote, to hold public office, to work, to cam fair wages or equal pay, to own Property, to receive education, to enter contracts, to have equal rights within marriage, and to have maternity leave. Feminists have also worked to promote bodily autonomy and integrity, and to Protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence. Feminist campaigns are generally considered to be a main force behind major historical societal changes for women's rights, particularly in the West, where they are near-universally credited with achieving women's suffrage, gender neutrality in English, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own Property. Although feminist advocacy is, and has been, mainly focused on women's rights, some feminists, including bell hooks, argue for the inclusion of men's liberation within its aims because men are also harmed by traditional gender roles. Feminist theory, which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues concerning gender. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints and aims. Some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of ethnically specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism and intersectional feminism. History of feminism:- According to Chaudhuri, unlike the Western feminist movement, India's movement was initiated by men, and later joined by women. But feminism as an initiative by women started independently a little later in Maharashtra by See Gender, School and Society Page 18Gender: Concept and Perspectives pioneering advocates of women's rights and education, Savitribai Phule, who started the first school for girls in India, Tarabai Shinde who wrote India's first feminist text, and Pandita Ramabai who criticized patriatchy and caste-system in Hinduism, married outside her caste and converted to Christianity. The efforts of Bengali reformers included abolishing sati, which was a widow's death by burning on her husband's funeral pyre, abolishing the custom of child marriage, abolishing the disfiguring of widows, introducing the marriage of upper caste Hindu widows, promoting women's education, obtaining legal rights, for women to own property, and requiring the law to acknowledge women's status by granting them basic rights in matters such as adoption. The 19th century was the period that saw a majority of women's issues come under the spotlight and reforms began to be made. Much of the early reforms for Indian women were conducted by men. However, by the late 19th century they were joined in their efforts by their wives, sisters, daughters, protegees and other individuals directly affected by campaigns such as those carried out for women's education. By the late 20th century, women gained greater autonomy through the formation of independent women's own organisations. By the late thirties and forties a new narrative began to be constructed regarding "women's activism". This was newly researched and expanded with the vision to create ‘logical’ and organic links between feminism and Marxism, as well as with anti-communalism and anti-casteism, etc. The Constitution of India did guarantee ‘equality between the sexes,’ which created a relative lull in women's movements until the 1970s. During the formative years of women's rights movements, the difference between the sexes was more or less taken for granted in that their roles, functions, aims and desires were different. As a result, they were not only to be reared differently but treated differently also. Over the course of time, this difference itself became a major reason for initiating women's movements. Early 19th century reformers argued that the difference between men and women was no reason for the subjection of women in society. However, later reformers were of the opinion that indeed it was this particular difference that subjugated women to their roles in society, for example, as mothers. Therefore, there was a need for the proper care of women's rights. With the formation of women's organisations and their own participation in campaigns, their roles as mothers was again stressed but in a different light: this time the argument was for women's rights to speech, education and emancipation. However, the image of women with the mother as a symbol underwent changes over time — from an —_—. Gender, School and Society Page 19Gender: Concept and Perspect emphasis on family to the creation of an archetypal mother figure, evoking deep, often atavistic images Equity and equality:- In the gender literature, we often come across two concepts: ‘gender equality’ and ‘gender equity’, They are sometimes used interchangeably, but they do not quite refer to the same thing. Gender Equity: Gender Equity is the process of allocating resources, programs, and decision making fairly to both males and females without any discrimination on the basis of sex...and addressing any imbalances in the benefits available to males and females. Definition:- WHO defines gender equity as “fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits and responsibilities between women and men” This requires ensuring that everyone has access to a full range of Opportunities to achieve the social, psychological and physical benefits that come from participating and leading in sport and physical activity, It does not necessarily mean making the same programs and facilities available to both males and females. Gender equity requires that girls and women be provided with a full range of activity and program choices that meet their needs, interests and experiences. Therefore, some activities may be the same as those o ffered to boys and men, some may be altered, and some may be altogether different. Promoting Gender Equity in Schools:- For Promoting gender equity — * use culturally responsive pedagogy, * use Multicultural education, © use Hidden curriculum, * awareness of constitutional rights What can I do to promote gender equity and challenge stereotypes? While delivering the content related to different disciplines at this stage, you may adopt the following methods with a focus on gender concerns: * Explain different concepts with clarity and give examples from the children’s lived realities? © Use teaching aids as readily as possible Gender, School and Society Page 20Gender: Concept and Perspectives © Use thoughts of eminent thinkers on gender sensitivity. © Make your teaching dialogical © Use project methods * Encourage team work © Use quiz, debates and other techniques for better participation and understanding © Give opportunities to children for voicing their opinions © Discuss their doubts and difficulties e Address social issues through theatre, folk songs and drama. * Challenge traditional male and female stereotypes when giving examples to students, e.g. ‘a female soldier’ or ‘a male nurse’, © When you do see/hear examples of gender stereotypes use them as an opportunity for ‘teachable moments’ and ask students to discuss what they mean and why they use them. © Aim to use gender neutral language (e.g. it, their, they). © Avoid statements that generalize, ‘girls tend to...' or 'boys are more...” © Don’t limit what you ask your students to do, e.g. ask female students to carry sports equipment © Consider the way you interact with students and avoid being, for example, ‘blokey’ with boys or ‘gentle’ with girls. Instead, interact in the way you’d expect them to in the real world. © Actively encourage students to engage in activities that might sit outside their gender’s comfort-zones (e.g. sports, dance, drama etc.) e Take note of how often you draw on cither males or females to answer different types of questions and make an effort to rectify any inequity Encourage mixed gender group work and seating arrangements © Use examples of gender inequity to inform your lesson, e.g. looking at statistics on the gender pay gap for a maths lesson, or looking at examples of inequity throughout history and how things may or may not have changed © Actively discuss and analyse sexist advertising images and the media’s representation of men and women. Without highlighting that theyre not ‘acting likes blokes/girls’, actively encourage students when they do challenge gender roles Gender, School and Society Page 21Gender: Concept and Perspectives a Gender equality Gender equality means that the different behavior, aspirations and needs of women and men are considered, valued and favored equally. (UNESCO) Gender equality, also known as sex equality, gender egalitarianism, sexual equality, or equality of the genders, is the view that everyone should receive equal treatment and not be discriminated against based on their gender. Gender equality is the process of allocating resources, programs and decision making so that males and females have the same (therefore females and males would each receive 50% of the resources, facilities, and each have access to the same programs, e.g. if there was a male program, there would also bea female program). While the goal of treating everyone the same may seem noble, the principle of equal treatment tends to ignore the fact that people differ in their capacities, interests, resources and experiences. Equality focuses on creating the same starting line for everyone. Equity has the goal of providing everyone with the full range of opportunities and benefits — the same finish line. Gender Equality in Education with relation to Indian context:- Promote Gender Equality in Education by © by revising teaching materials, © by teacher training curricula and © by classroom decorations, * © by ensuring equal funding for girls’ and boys’ sports; * by addressing the ways in which boys often receive much more classroom attention than girls. by ensuring that schools do not reinforce gender norms and hierarchies Difference Between Gender equity and equality:- 1) Gender equality refers to ensuring everyone gets the same resources regardless of gender, whereas gender equity aims to understand the needs of each gender and provide them with what they need to succeed in a given activity or sector. 2) The terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but there are significant distinctions between them. 3) In contrast to gender equality, gender equity refers to the process of allocating resources based on the particular requirements of a gender. For Page 22 Gender, School and Society ageGender: Concept and Perspectives example, instead of making sure males and females cach receives 50 percent of the facilities of a sports center, gender equity means that cach gender receives the right proportion and types of facilities according to their interests, capacities and experiences, 4) While gender equality focuses on providing the same starting circumstances for everyone, the goal of gender equity is to provide both genders with the same end results. 5) The term gender equity is often used as juxtaposition for social justice. In most cases, the concept of gender equality is used in correlation with the empowerment of women, whereas gender equity refers to the process of treating both men and women with the same amount of fairness when it comes to the equality of chances based on individual needs. 6) Gender equality requires equal enjoyment by women and men of socially-valued goods, opportunities, resources and rewards." « In other words, gender equality refers to equal access to social goods, services and resources and equal opportunities in all spheres of life for both men and women. ¢ When there is gender inequality, it is women that are more likely to be disadvantaged and marginalised; but we should not ignore the negative impact that gender inequality can have on men as well. For example, societal norms regarding the appropriate behaviour for men tend to put them under pressure as regards the need to provide materially for their family, and also deny them opportunities of being more nurturing towards their children and wife. Therefore gender equality is the concern of all and changes must be brought about for both men and women. However, this is not to say that men and women are equally affected by gender inequality. It remains true that women have the greater share of disadvantages. However, gender equality, as defined above, does not often result in equal outcomes for men and women. Being given the same chances in life is not sufficient to bring about true equality. * Women and men have different needs and experiences and accommodation should be made for these differences. For example, giving boys and girls equal access to all the courses offered in a school may not result in girls taking advantage of this opportunity if some courses are predominantly filled with male students and have only male teachers. Tere Page 23, Gender, School and SoGender: Concept and Perspec ee ____, © There is still the unfortunate tendency to consider male norms as a measure for women's position, Providing women and men with the same ‘opportunities is the first step; but for true gender equality to be achieved there is a need for gender equity, 7) "Gender equity is the process of being fair to women and men." (UNFPA) © Women and men should not only be given equal access to resources and equal opportunities, but they should also be given the means of benefiting from this equality. This is where the concept of ‘gender equity’ comes into play. © Gender equity implies faimess in the way women and men are treated. The different life experiences and needs of men and women are taken into consideration and compensation is made for women's historical and social disadvantages. * The lower status of women in society often constitutes a handicap and provisions should be made to redress this inequality before they can take advantage of the opportunities provided. Gender equity thus serves to level the playing field and empower women. Therefore, we can say that equity is essential to achieve true equality. Sexuality:- ¢ "Human sexuality" refers to people's sexual interest in and attraction to others, as well as their capacity to have erotic experiences and responses. ¢ People's sexual orientation is their emotional and sexual attraction to particular sexes or genders, which often shapes their sexuality. * Sexuality may be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways, including thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles, and relationships. These may manifest themselves in biological, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual aspects. © The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely concem the human reproductive functions, including the human sexual-response cycle and the basic biological drive that exists in all species. © Emotional aspects of sexuality include bonds between individuals that are expressed through profound feelings or physical manifestations of love, trust, and care, Social aspects deal with the effects of human society on Page 24 Gender, School and Society——_— (and Pers one's xuality, while spirituality concerns an individual's spiritual connection with others through sexuality. © Sexuality also impacts and is impacted by cultural, political, legal, Philosophical, moral, ethical, and religious aspects of life. People's sexual interest in and attraction to others; their capacity to have erotic experiences and responses Sexuality is about sexual attraction, sexual practices and identity. Just a xuality, People sex and gender don’t always align, neither does gender and si from heterosexual, to gay or uality is a term used when can identify along a wide spectrum of sexualities lesbian, to bisexual, to queer, and so on. A\ individuals do not feel sexual attraction. Some asexual people might still form romantic relationships without sexual contact. Regardless of sexual experience, sexual desire and behaviours can change over time, and sexual identities may or may not shift as a result, Gender and sexuality are not just personal identiti identities. They arise from our relationships to other people, and they depend upon social interaction and social recognition. As such, they influence how we understand ourselves in relation to others. ‘The first evidence of attitudes towards sex comes from the ancient texts of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, the first of which are perhaps the oldest surviving literature in the world. These most ancient texts, the Vedas, reveal they are social moral perspectives on sexuality, marriage and fertility prayers. It seems that polygamy was allowed during ancient times. In practice, this seems to have only been practiced by rulers, with common people maintaining a monogamous marriage. It is common in many cultures for a ruling class to practice both polyandry and polygamy as a way of preserving dynastic succession. Nudity in art was considered acceptable in southern India, as shown by the paintings at Ajanta and the sculptures of the time. Sexual orientation Sexual orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. These attractions are generally subsumed under heterosexuality, homosexuality, and_bisexuality, while asexuality (the lack of sexual attraction to others) is sometimes identified as the fourth category. are! ender, School and Soc Page 25These categories are aspects of the more nuanced nature of sexual identity and terminology. For example, people may use other labels, such as Pansexual or polysexual, or none at all. According to the American Psychological Association, sexual orientation "also refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions", Androphilia and gynephilia are terms used in behavioral science to describe sexual orientation as an alternative to a gender binary conceptualization. Androphilia describes sexual attraction to masculinity; gynephilia describes the sexual attraction to femininity. The term sexual preference largely overlaps with sexual orientation, but is generally distinguished in’ psychological research. A person who identifies as bisexual, for example, may sexually prefer one sex over the other. Sexual preference may also suggest a degree of voluntary choice, whereas the scientific consensus is that sexual orientation is not a choice. Scientists do not know the exact causes of sexual orientation, but they believe that it is caused by a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and cnvironmental influences. They favor biologically-based theories, which point to genetic factors, the early uterine environment, both, or the inclusion of genetic and social factors. There is no substantive evidence which suggests Parenting or early childhood experiences play a role when it comes to sexual orientation. Research over several decades has demonstrated that sexual orientation ranges along a continuum, from exclusiv Sex to exclusive attraction to the same sex. Sexual orientation is reported primarily within biology and psychology (including sexology), but it is also a subject area in anthropology, history including social constructionism), and law, and there are other explanations that relate to sexual orientation and culture, ‘€ attraction to the opposite ©) Emergence of gender specific roles: sociological and psychological perspectives:- Gender role is a set of societal norms dictating the types of behaviors Which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their actual or Perceived sex or sexuality. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of femininity and masculinity, although there are exceptions and variations. The specifics regarding these gendered expectations may vary substantially among cultures, while other characteristics may be common throughout a range of cultures. There is ongoing debate as to what Gender, School and Society Sa ceaannRaEaE aS TcI Page 26nder: Concept and Perspectives extent gender roles and their tions are biologically determined, and to what extent they are socially constructed. In India, gender roles are determined largely by sex, religion, oppressive tradition and cultur The male-dominated culture calls for subordination of Women. In most societies there is a clear categorization of what it means to be male or female. This categorization proc and the agents of socialization that transmit knowledge about gender roles influence how individuals define themselves and other in terms of gender and sex roles Sociological Perspectives of Gender * Conflict Theory by Marx * Feminist Sociological Theory Conflict Theory by Marx Conflict theory originated in the work of Karl Marx, who focused on the causes and consequences of class conflict between the bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production and the capitalists) and the proletariat (the working class and the poor). Focusing on the economic, social, and political implications of the rise of capitalism in Europe, Marx theorized that this system, premised on the existence of a powerful minority class (the bourgeoisie) and an oppressed majority class (the proletariat), created class conflict because the interests of the two were at odds, and resources were unjustly distributed among them. Within this system an unequal social order was maintained through ideological coercion which created consensus--and acceptance of the values, expectations, and conditions as determined by the bourgeoisie. Marx theorized that the work of producing consensus was done in the "superstructure" of society, which is composed of social institutions, political structures, and culture, and what it produced consensus for was the "base," the economic relations of production. Marx reasoned that as the socio-economic conditions worsened for the proletariat, they would develop a class consciousness that revealed their exploitation at the hands of the wealthy capitalist class of bourgeoisie, and then they would revolt, demanding changes to smooth the conflict. According to Marx, if the changes made to appease conflict maintained a capitalist system, then the cycle of conflict would repeat. However, if the changes made created a new system, like socialism, then peace and stability would be achieved. ——— Gender, School and Society Page 27Gender: Concept and Perspe: Perspectives of Conflict Theory by Marx applied to Gender * Conflict theorists view women as disadvantaged because of power inequalities between women and men that are built into the social structure * Women in subordinate position till men contribute more in society in economy . © Patriarchy in India Men are paid more wages ,more prestige more authority in capitalist economy Bonvillian 2006 —interrelationship of patriarchy and capitalist economy Women as supporters and not breadwinners so ready to do at less wage or any kind of job even if no challenge. * Men duty bound as they have to take care of family Early feminist gender as individual attribute ,contemporary feminist (Ridgeway & Smith —Lovin 1999)-gender comes from social practice created in patterns of social interaction * Gender equality through women at positions of power & political system, Feminist perspectives to Gender Feminist theory emerged out of the women’s movement and aims to understand the position of women in society for the sole purpose of improving their position in society Four major frameworks:- Liberal feminism:- © Liberal feminists emphasizes individual rights and equal opportunity as the basis for social justice and reform. ¢ Liberal feminism is an individualistic form of feminist theory, which focuses on women’s ability to maintain their equality through their own actions and choices. Liberal feminists argue that society holds the false belief that women are, by nature, less intellectually and physically capable than men; thus it tends to discriminate against women in the academy, the forum, and the marketplace. ¢ Liberal feminists believe that "female subordination is rooted in a set of customary and legal constraints that blocks women’s entrance to and success in the so-called public world". They strive for sexual equality via political and legal reform. Gender, School and Society Page 28nder: Concept and Perspectives =—_— ll es Socialist feminism: © Socialist femit sm is a branch of feminism that focuses upon both the public and private spheres of a woman's life and argues that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression. * Socialist feminists argue that the origin of women’s oppression lies with the system of capitalism, Because women are a cheap supply of labor, they are exploited by capitalism, which makes them less powerfull both as women and as workers, Radical femi © Radical feminists see patriarchy as the main cause of women’s oppression and argue that women’s oppression lies in men’s control over women’s bodies. ¢ Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical reordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts. ¢ Radical feminists seek to abolish patriarchy by challenging existing social norms and institutions, rather than through a purely political process. This includes challenging the notion of traditional gender roles, opposing the sexual objectification of women, and raising public awareness about such issues as rape and violence against women. Multiracial feminism:- e The phase “multiracial feminism” is defined as feminism based on the examination of dominance through understanding social constructs of race, ethnicity, tradition, and culture. Moreover, each person experiences gender, class, sexuality, and race unique to their environment. ¢ multiracial feminists examine the interactive influence of gender, race, and class, showing how together they shape the experiences of all women and men. Psychological perspectives of gender © Biosocial Theory of Gender Role Development:- © Gender Schema Theory:- Biosocial Theory of Gender Role Development:- The biosocial approach includes biological factors but places more emphasis on social factors. —_——— Gender, School and Society Page 29cept and Perspectives the interpretation of biological sex within a specific social and cultural context influences the treatment given to the child, which leads to the development of gender role behaviour and and it is th gender identity Gender role preferences determined by a series of critical events: # gender cannot be explained by biology alone. # gender as determined by both biological and social factors working in conjunction with each other. © differential treatment of babi a child's gender identity and from this and sexual orientation, depending on their sex is what determines its gender role identity emergi Gangestad et al. (2006) note that there are two facts to consider in relation to gender: © there are significant universals in gender behaviour there are significant cultural variations in gender differences . labelled as male or female, they are perceived differently. Sex rearing is more important than biology Gender Schema Theory Gender schema theory refers to the theory that children learn about what it means to be male and female from the culture in which they live. According to this theory, children adjust their behavior to fit in with the gender norms and expectations of their culture. Gender schema theory suggests that cultural influences largely influence how children develop their ideas about what it means to be a man or woman. ‘The theory was first introduced during the early 1980s by psychologist Sandra Bem. © Gender schema theory states that children develop gender schema based on their experiences and the gender attributes of their culture, An individual's self-schema is merged with the culturally determined schema for their gender (Bern, 1983) ....the phenomenon of sex typing, derives, in part, from gender-schematic processing. Specifically, the theory proposes that sex-typing results, in part, from the assimilation of the self-concept itself to the gender schema, As children learn the contents of their society's gender schema, they learn which Gender, School and Society Page 30Gender: Concept and Perspectives SS attributes are to be linked with their own sex and, hence with themselves (Bern, 1983), ¢ Bem suggested that children form their gender identities from the associations they develop from their culture. Society's beliefs about what constitutes "male traits" and "female traits" influence this development of a gender schema. * These gender schemas then have an impact not only on how people process Social information, but also on their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. People engage in behaviors that are consistent with their schema for gender appropriate behavior. Societies beliefs about the traits of females and males GENDER SCHEMA, ¢ According to Bem, individuals observe the people and culture around them, learning the various associations with masculinity and femininity. * This includes not just the physical differences between men and women, but also the societal roles that men and women take, the characteristics of each gender, and how society treats each gender. Cultural influences that can have an effect on gender schemas include peers, schools, parenting, and the media. © The schemas these children formed early on create a.sort of gender lens that influences how they think people should behave and even what they believe is possible for themselves. Gender, School and S Page 31Gender: Concept and Perspectives * Bem believed that these gender schema were limiting for men, women, and society as a whole. Raising children free from these gender schema and gender stereotypes would lead to greater freedom and fewer restrictions. Gender schemas are generalized ideas about what is appropriate behavior for males and females. People are categorized as either male or female and given specific gender attributes (gender stereotypes). Gender schemas thus organize knowledge and information processing. ' Gender identity Se Fate gendar Opressed per ooo | ‘EG | | Bolagical | oe L Bem also suggested that individuals could fall into one of four different gender categories. © Sex-typed individuals identify with their gender and process information through the lens of that gender schema. © Cross-typed individuals, she suggested, process information through the lens of the opposite gender. © Androgynous individuals exhibit both masculine and feminine thinking. ¢ Undifferentiated individuals do not show a consistent use of sex-typed processing. Criticisms of Bem's theory suggest that she portrayed individuals simply as passive bystanders in the development of gender schemas rather and ignores the complex forces that contribute to the construction of gender. Gender, School and Society Page 32Social construction of gender identity —_ Unit 2. Social construction of gender identity a) Influence of family, caste, religion, culture, region, the media and popular culture (films, advertisements, songs) on gender identity. b) Gender bias: health and nutrition, education, employment c) Gender Stereotyping a) Influence of family, caste, religion, culture, region, the media and popular culture (films, advertisements, songs) on gender identity:~ Gender norms (the socially acceptable ways of acting out gender) are learned from birth through childhood socialisation. We learn what is expected of our gender from what our parents teach us, as well as what we pick up at school, through religious or cultural teachings, in the media, and various other social institutions. Gender identity: Gender identity is one's personal experience of one's own gender. Gender identity can correlate with assigned biological sex at birth, or can differ from it completely, All societies have a set of gender categories that can serve as the basis of the formation of a person's social identity in relation to other members of society. In most societies, there is a basic division between gender attributes assigned to males and females, a gender binary to which most people adhere and which enforces conformance to ideals of masculinity and femininity in all aspects of sex and gender: biological sex, gender identity, and gender expression. In all societies, some individuals do not identify with some (or all) of the aspects of gender that are assigned to their biological sex; some of those individuals are transgender or genderqueer. Some societies have third gender categories. Core gender identity is usually formed by age three. After age three, it is extremely difficult to change, and attempts to reassign it can result in gender dysphoria. Both biological and social factors have been suggested to influence its formation. Definition “Gender identity is defined as a personal conception of oneself as male or female (or rarely, both or neither)”. This concept is intimately related to the concept of gender role, which is defined as the outward manifestations of personality that reflect the gender identity. Gender identity, in nearly all instances, is self-identified, as a result of a combination of inherent and extrinsic or environmental factors; gender role, OO Gender, School and Society Page 33Social construction of gender identi on the other hand, is manifested within society by observable factors such as behavior and appearance, For example, if'a person considers himself a male and is most comfortable referring to his personal gender in masculine terms, then his gender identity is male. However, his gender role is male only if he demonstrates typically male characteristics in behavior, dress, and/or mannerisms, Thus, gender role is often an outward expression of gender identity, but not necessarily so. In most individuals, gender identity and gender role are Congruous. Assessing the acquis ion of this congruity, or recognizing incongruity (resulting in gender-variant behavior), is important in the developing child. It is important also to note that cultural differences abound in the expression of one’s gender role, and, in certain societies, such nuances in accepted gender norms can also play some part in the definition of gender identity, Gender Identity Development While gender identity is very fluid among young children, it is usually believed to form between ages 3 and 6. However, many transgender, Benderqueer, or genderfluid individuals are not able to embrace their true gender identity until much later in life, largely due to both societal Pressure to conform to the gender binary and the societal stigma associated with transgender identities. Studies Suggest that children develop gender identity in three distinct stages: * As toddlers and preschoolers, children learn about defi and socialized aspects of gender. * Around age 5-7, gender identity becomes ri consolidation. * After this "peak of rigidity," roles relax somewhat. ined characteristics igid in a process known as fluidity retums and socially defined gender Factors that Influence Gender Identity Although the formation of gender identity is not completely understood, lude ideas regarding gender roles figures, mass media, and other influential people S life. Children are shaped and molded by the people surrounding conveyed by family, authority in a child’ Gender, School and Soc! Page 34— Social construction of gender identity them, who they try to imitate and follow, According to social-learning theory, children develop their gender identity through observing and imitating the gender-linked behaviors of others; they are then rewarded for imitating the behaviors of people of the same gender and punished for imitating the behaviors of another gender. For example, male children will often be rewarded for imitating their father's love of baseball, but punished or redirected in some way if they imitate their older sister's love of dolls. Another factor that has a significant role in the process of gender identity is language; while learning a language, children learn to separate masculine and feminine characteristics and unconsciously adjust their own behavior to these predetermined roles. Competition for economic and social power can also influence one's gender identity, as gender is highly stratified (with men having more societal and economic power and privilege than women and other genders) in our culture. Gender identity can be affected by, and is different from one society to another depending on the way the members of society evaluate the role of females and males. Our gender identity can be influenced from the ethnicity of the group, their historical and cultural background, family values and religion. Family: The family is considered as the institution that has the greatest impact on gender socialisation. © It is in the family that a child first learns what it is to be ‘male! or ‘female’. There are a number of ways in which parents and other farhily members guide their children and teach them to conform to the norms that prevail in society with regard to the appropriate behaviours, attitudes and roles of members of each sex. © The parents usually hold a number of gender stereotypes, which are ideas about how a girl and a boy should ideally act and think, Therefore, they tend to treat children of different sex differently. For example, mothers will tend to hold a baby girl delicately while she may bounce her baby boy on her knees. Boys and girls are handled and spoken to and dressed differently. Oakley (1974) refers to this difference in treatment as ‘manipulation’. © Children are also given different toys to play with. Boys are usually given guns, trucks, footballs, bricks and a variety of other active and mechanical toys with which they can play inside or outside the home. Girls are more usually given dolls, tea sets, miniature cooking appliances, sewing machines —————————— Gender, School and Society Page 35,Social construction of gender identity and other toys that are usually linked to the home. Thus, the choice of toys for the children seem to an image of what is expected of them in their future life as men and women. * Parents also tend to apply different rules to their children. Boys, for example, are more likely to be granted permission to play on the street or to come late at home than girls. They are usually given more liberty. * The type of tasks and activities that they are expected to perform are also different. Girls are often expected to help their mothers in doing the housework, while boys often help their fathers. All these differences in the treatment they receive, prepare the children for assuming their gender roles later in life. Gender roles are the "attitudes and activities that a society links to each sex" (Macionis, 2000, p. 225). Children, as from about the age of three, already refer to themselves in terms of gender, and very early in life, they are already aware of the way they are expected to behave. We have considered the importance of the family in socialising its members into their gender identity and gender roles. We should bear in mind however that the other agents of socialisation are also important. The school, for example, is also a gendered institution that reinforces what the children have learnt about their gender roles in various manners: through the behaviour of teachers towards boys and girls, through the illustrations in textbooks and the curriculum. Impact of caste on gender identity SC/ST girls’ schooling, gendered labour and socialisation:- Special educational benefits have undoubtedly facilitated the educational Progress of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, particularly in the last two decades. However, they continue to lag behind educationally and there is great unevenness between different state and regions. Poor SC/ST parents are unable to send their children to ‘free’ schools because of costs other than the tuition fee and of forgone income from the children’s work. However, educationally the most vulnerable are girls. Dalit girls’ educational aspirations are decisively shaped by labour requirements of the domestic and public economies: In the caste/gendered segmentation of the labour market women are disproportionately found in agricultural/rural labour, traditional domestic, low skilled, low status, or caste related (sweeping — scavenging) services in rural sectors. In urban sectors, poor women are located in lowly unskilled, low status feminised service sectors in urban informal economy. Educational careers of Gender, School and Soci Page 36