1910312024, 15:49
‘Game Studies - Towards a Model of Objectve-Based Reward Systems
the international journal of volume 21 issue 1
computer game research May 2021,
ISSN:1604.7982
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Cc
Agata Waszkiewicz
Agata Waszkiewicz is 3
(game scholar at Maria
Curie-Sklodowska
University in Lublin,
Poland. Their research
Interests include
experimental digital
‘games, queer
Fepreséntation in video
games, and the ways In
Which games alow for
exploration of one's
Identity. Agata is
currently working on a
book "Delicious Pixels
Food in Video Games”
(forthcoming 2022)
Contact information
agata.anna.waszkiewiez
at gmal.com
Mateusz
Kominiarceuk
Mateusz Kominiarc2uk,
MA's game scholar with
literary background and
particular interest in
composite ludic
artifacts, including game
odes and nested
‘games. Currently
Unaffiliated
Contact information
mateuse at
Kominiarezuk.com
Towards a Model of Objective-Based
Reward Systems
by Agata Waszkiewicz, Mateuse Kominiarczuk
Abstract
In this paper, two commonly contrasted categories of game objectives
are juxtaposed: achievements (otherwise known as trophies, medals
‘or badges) and quests (or missions). Recognizing that previous
research percelved them as separate and rather broadly understood
‘concepts, the paper follows Mikael Jakobsson (2011) in acknowledging
the similarities and overlaps between quests and achievements, wich
are redefined as umbrella terms describing a range of tasks sharing
‘an objective and a reward. These “objective-based reward systems,”
Understood additionally as frames for the play experiences, are
discussed in relation to their associated level of meaning (Fine, 2983)
‘and attainabilty (Juul, 2023). Finally, the results are presented in a
‘generalizes theoretical model for further study of various objective-
based reward systems, going beyond just quests and achievements
proper.
Keywords: Achievements, quests, objective-based reward systems,
freme analysis, goals, rewards
Introduction
‘Among the substantial body of work on game reward systems, the
majority seems to focus on two types: quests (Tosca, 2003; Aarse
2003, 2005; Walker et al, 2007, Rettberg, 2008; Howard, 2008;
Karslen 2008) and achievements (Montola et al, 2009; Wang anc
Sun, 2011, Huotari and Hamari, 2017). The common practice in both
scholarly work and in the popular nomenclature is to perceive them as
structurally different by emphasizing their functional and aesthetic
dissimilarities. However, these tend to vary between game systems
{and terminologies preferred by individual scholars, leading to the
blurring ofthe lines between the two concepts,
It can be argued that the confusion caused by the overlapping
‘meanings of both categories came from the fact that both terms were
‘established by Industry professionals, and that they then shift through
their use in game studies’ analyses. Recognizing the need for more
precise definitions in the academic research, we propose to categorize
‘various types of reward-based goals not in regard to their position vis~
‘vis the game's narrative, but according to their in-game structure
‘and meaning. In order to do so, we map the types of objectives often
denoted by the concepts of “quests” and “achievements” according to
‘wo main theoretical frameworks: Alan Fine's frame analysis (1983)
‘and Jesper Juul typology of attainabllty and goal types (2013)
Furthermore, we argue that this new way of conceptualizing the
“objective-based reward systems," as we refer to them here, might
‘draw research attention to the different ways in which players use
various rewarc systems in the process of meaning-making. Secondly,
the proposed madel can be considered a more precise tool of
«discussing ways in which the players use these systems as framing
devices for thelr experiences.
Quests and achievements: differences and similarities
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Due to the prevalence and popularity of videogame genres that rely
fon quests and the commen use of the term, it seems that “quests”
rarely need to be defined
between side and main quests, and transfer that knowledge between
players quickly learn to differentiate
titles when understanding what type of task is associated with a type
of reward. However, this generalization can lead te misconceptions,
about the homogeneity of the term, creating in turn a false
‘assumption that all quests are ontologically similar while, in fact, they
can differ rather substantially in their structure and the type of
rewards they offer. While the majority of videogame definitions
conceptualize them as goal systems (Stenres 2017, Zagal et al
2019), this leads to an idea that the term “quests” denotes @
homogenous group, a claim that seems problematic even if ane takes
into consideration the most basic distinction between main quests and
side quests.
‘The majority of exsting Iterature maintains a firm separation
betiveen “internal” quests and other objective-based reward systems,
such as broadly understood “achievernents" (as they are knowin of
Xbox Live, Steam, Origin and Google Play), "trophies" (PlayStation
Network), otherwise known as “medals” (Newgrounds), "badges"
(Steam, Kongregate), as well as “triumphs” or “challenges” (other
‘game titles or platforms). Regardless of the name, such systems are
commonly understood in terms of glory rewards bound to player
‘accounts (Wang and Sun, 2011) and thus “external” to the gameworld
without direct effect on character's in-game actions. The 2010s saw
the rise in papulari
‘hich in turn encouraged their implementation on various platforms
ity of games based on this type of reward systems,
land the appearance of games with gameplay strictly facused on
collecting achievements (e.g. My Name is Mayo (Green Lava Studios,
2016], a clicker game with 51 trophies on PlayStation). Different ways
in which they are introduced, however, challenge the notion of
achievement’ “external.”
For Mikael Jakobsson “an achievement actually consists of a task, a
task description and a reward, just lke a quest in World of Warcraft
(2011), white for others itis 2 goal the fulfilment of which “is stored
outside the scope of individual game sessions” (Bjork, 2010 (Harari
‘and Eranti, 2011)). Although the latter definition conceptualizes
achievements, unlike quests, as extrinsic systems, Juno Harari and
\eikko Eranti caution against perceiving them as optional or
secondary (Montola et al., 2009), as it diminishes the efforts of those
players whase primary play style focuses on collecting ther. Thus, by
saying that they "should be viewed as games oftheir own” (Hamari
‘and Eranti, 2011, p. 3) the researchers agree with Jakobsson who
notices the similarity between the achievements and the in-game
quests, comparing the achievements to “an invisible MMO that all
Xbox Live members participate in, whether they lke it or not” (2011)
That similarity between achievements and quests is an important,
albeit not obvious, realisation which allows Jakobsson ta move the
reference point from the singular title to the entire system, further
revealing the external-internal division to be superficial and
inaccurate.
‘The new model of objective-based reward systems
We consider frame analysis (Goffman, 1974) a useful tool of bridging
this gap in understanding, especially since it was not yet exhaustively
utilized in the context of rewards systems. Although it has proven a
popular theory among game scholars, as nated by Sebastian
Deterding (2013), games studies mostly know this madel through a
different, secondary source, that is Gary Alan Fine's Shared Fantasy
(1983) (cf Deterding, 2013, p. 13 and p. 25-26) -- perhaps due to Its
clarity and simplicity (especially relative to Gotfman's notoriously
complex writing). Far his ethnographic study of nascent role-playing
‘games and the subculture of people who played them, Fine propased
2 simplified model consisting of "three levels of meaning”:
1. the "primary framework of *real world” and "people";
2. The "game context” of “rules” enacted by the "players";
5, tne "gaming world” in which *characters” operate (p. 186).
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2191910312024, 15:49 ‘Game Studies - Towards a Model of Objectve-Based Reward Systems
Fine’s framework has been adopted for the conceptualization of net
Just tabletop fantasy role plays of Dungeons & Dragons’ type, but also
larps and videogames (cf. e.g. Mackay, 2001; Waskul and Lust, 2008;
Linderoth, 2012). In such works itis common to denote the level of
the "gaming world” as "diagetic.” However, following Kristine
Jergensen's (2013) criticism of the use of the latter term in game
studies, as well as her own reinterpretation of Fine's model, we
instead recognize this last “level of meaning” simply as “fictional.”
It could be argued that basing the argumentation on Fine's
interpretation of frame analysis one risks facing criticism, such as the
‘one already levied by Deteraing (2013, p. 32, |.a.) against prior
misreading and oversimplification of this theory. Even so, this specific
theory of "three levels of meaning” with its well-known rendering is
the best suited for the general, synthetic model presented in the
paper, allowing far the discussion of various objective-based reward
systems and their influence on the players. In doing so, in order not
to misrepresent Fine's "levels" as definite "frames", we reference
Deterding’s insight on the motivational relevance of frames proper (p.
(60-61), considering it as the mast important theme to the eriginal
work presented in the paper.
Ta better understand the nuances of what we refer to as objective-
based reward systems, we combine Fine's framework with Jesper
uul's study of game objectives, in which he recognizes three main
types of goals:
1, completable (one-time goals);
2! transient (repeatable);
3. based on Improvement (each success also raises the bar for
the next attempt) (2013, p. 85-86).
3uul notes that some aims are set by the players themselves and
elsewhere briefs on the Importance of the context in which they are
realized, devoting particular attention to the case of fiction, These
remarks may be further refined in combination with Jorgensen’s
revisions of Fine’s model in order to consider gals in terms of thelr
relation to the game (whether they are social, ludic or perhaps even
belong within the gameworld itself), how are they are attained
(whether they are supposed to be achieved once or repeatedly) and,
finaly, the rewards they carry (Wang and Sun, 2011),
In the end, individual game reward systems are considered
quests
land achievements among them -- as a basis for specific frames in the
GGoffmanian sense, either exo- or autotelic (Deterding, 2013, following
CCsikszentminalyi, 1990) in terms of their motivational relevance.
Typology of objective-based reward systems
In the following section, we discuss each of the nine types of
objectives created by intersecting Fine's three levels of meaning
(fretional, game, and social) with Juul's three types of goals
(completable, transient, and improvement-based). The nine categories
that are created as a result include three types of completable tasks
(completable-fictional, completable-game, completable-sacal), three
types of transient tasks (cransient-fictional,transient-game, transient-
social), and three types of improvement-based tasks (improvement-
fictional, improveent-game, and improverent-social)
It is crucial to acknowledge that these categories are not mutually
‘exclusive, Many objective-based reward systems include components
that could fall into more than one category. Others may coexist closely
land influence each other, which complicates the formal distinctions
between categories. Even s0, we believe that by mapping out various
in-game reward-ased tasks in such a way, we facilitate the further
discussion on the ludic structures of game systems. By creating more
precise definitions, we aim to show the complexity of in-game
structures used for player motivation; which allows for further
distinction between the ways individual types of tasks influence
various players. In the future, such research could be useful both for
development of games and gamified applications as well as further
research on player styles and motivations.
1, Completable tasks
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For Juul, completable goals “can be completed once and forall. Once
we begin playing, we become someone who has-not-completed-the-
‘game-yet. Once we complete the game, we will always be someone
Who has completed [the game]" (2013, p. 85). Due to this quality,
they are mast often encountered in single-player Games and
‘campaigns allowing the binary understanding of a goal/task as
finished or unfinished.
4.1, com
Many examples of completable-fictional goals are found among main
and side quests of RPG, massive multiplayer or action-adventure
‘genres, Thus, they can be often found in those games that both rely
heavily on narrative and have a quest-based gameplay, referred to by
Tomasz Majkowski as *novel-games” (2019). Their embedding in
narrative justifies the completable character of goals as, for example,
finishing one of the narrative main quests pushes the plat forward and
‘opens further narrative paths. Often, the reward for such a goal is
‘greater than in the case of the repeatable goals (cf. transient-fictional
{goals) and is either meaningful in the course of the narration (e.g.
iter required in the next quest lines) or is unattainable by other
‘An example of this can be found in the PlayStation 4 game Marvel's
‘Spider-Man (Insomniac Games, 2018) in the side quest which
introduces Black Cat ~~ a character who, after initaly being featured
{5 an NPC, was later clven her own DLC. In order to locate her
hideout, the player, as Spider-Man, needs to first locate al the
stakeout positions, which are marked on the map with the quest
specific marker, and then find her main base. Athough Black Cat is
not showin in the main campaign, as Spider-Man finds an already
abandoned hideout, he is rewarded for the effort with a unique black
suit, which is not only wearable during the game (i.e. has an aesthetic
value), but is required in order to obtain a trophy titled "A Suit for All
Seasons" given after completing the suit collection (a completable-
‘game goal)
1.2, Completable-came.
‘The completable-game goals, while sharing the condition of being
available to the player only once, are located at the structural level of
the came. That means that their reason does not stem from the
narrative, but are arbitrary goals set by developers, most often in the
form of achieverent-type goals. The fact that they are bound to a
player or avatar account on a platform means that they are also
necessarily completable ~~ obtaining an achievement is possible once
for each game on a specific player account.
Furthermore, thelr external placement can set them as parallel to the
‘goals from the completable-fictlonal category, like the aforementioned
Black Cat quest. By completing it, the player unlocks a corresponding
trophy named "Cat Prints.” Like all the PlayStation Network trophies, it
lacks in-game awards and can only be viewed outside the game
(making Ita “glory” reward), through a PlayStation menu. Especially
the latter is an indicator that it belongs to the game dimension --
although it accompanies an event embedded in the narrative, itis a
part of an external reward system. This means that Its aesthetic and
function are dictated by the system rules rather than the individual
rules of the specific game title.
This category is particularly interesting because of its meaning
making potential -- on the one hang, players are known to adjust
their play strategies to the personal meta-goals (e.9. playing
‘according to online walkthroughs in order to collect all achievements),
while on the other, by setting contradictory achievements, developers
‘an encourage multiple playthroughs or even dark or transgressive
play. The latter could be achieved by rewarding disruptive or morally
‘ambiguous behaviour. An example of this can be found in Assassin's
Creed: Syndicate (Ubisoft Quebec, 2015) where the players unlock an
‘achievement "WHAT IS WRONG WITH YOU" for deralling five vehicles
by shooting and killing their horses, an act thet players otherwise
might not do intentionally
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‘This type of achievement shows the lack of clear boundaries between
the categories and their mutual influences on each other. It seems
important to highlight that the achievernent’s narne itself calls out the
player's "bad" behaviour. Paradoxically so, considering that its the
presence of the achievernent that potentially encourages that
behaviour; especially in players who strive for full completion of
‘games and who use the achievement lsts as guidelines for play. The
meta game humour of the achieverent's name acts as an adcitional
incentive to camplete it, or ean come as an amusing surprise to an
unsuspecting player, anc thus serves as 2 specific reward. However, it
‘could also deter players wha tend to choose “good!” or “pacifist” (az
much as the game allows it) behaviours. With this particular
‘achievement, the game developers are judging the player for ther in-
‘game actions, as are all thelr friends who see the achievement.
Although this example may not constitute an active engagement with
real people, its undertaken in public and in a multi-layered, psycho-
social context. However, in the proposed terminology, itis still better
described through the "game" dimension due to its placernent in the
‘game's structure by the developers and the way it can potentially
influence the player's activity
4.3. completable-Sociat
All social objectives relate to the level of real world and real people,
thus they tend to require an activity reaching beyond the sinole-player
and ficvonal experience, Thus, they mostly can be foun in
multiplayer and online games, as well as some gamified applications,
This grou includes one-time tasks which require social interaction
such as inviting a friend to the game or engaging with them in the
way spectied by the game rules.
Duolingo (Luis von Ahn, 2011), a gamified app for learning languages,
includes a leaderboard and offers seven achievements, each with
three levels. These are placed inside the application rather than any
extrinsic profile, and they do not offer any additional rewards. The
three Uers of achievernent titled "Friencly" are as follows: “follow
three friends," “be followed by 3 frends" ang “invite a frend to
Duclingo.” Due to the differences and lack of linearity, each of them
cean be treated as a completable goal rather than one that is
improvement-based,
A similar goal, "Recruiting friends,” can be found in World of Warcraft
(Blizard Entertainment, 2004). It seems to be structured in a way
that resembles a quest rather than an achievement, since its
‘completion rewards the player with @ glory prize in the form of a title
‘that can appear in front of the avatar’s name, serving solely an
esthetic function, However, after a certain amount of time
befriending another person, the player gains additional in-game items,
including @ rare mount, which impacts the gameplay in 2 meaningful
way. Both these cases seem to imply a strong association between
completable-social goals anc glory rewards.
2, Transient
‘As opposed to the previous category, transient tasks allow players to
complete the specific goal mare than once, each time gaining a new
‘and sometimes different or randomized rewaré. For example, many
online multiplayer games require their players to repeatedly perform @
number of similar actions in order to gain a sufficient amount of
‘experience points needed to level up and, thus, progress in the game
~- practice commonly referred to as “grinding” (King et al, 2013).
In its most straightforward meaning, forthe transient goals to be
considered Fictional, they need to be given a meaning that embeds
them in the game's story. For example, both World of Warcraft and
Diablo franchises introduce the mechanic of daily world quests or
bounties” in the case of Diablo III (Blizzard Entertainment, 2012).
Every day 2 set of narrative quests is randomly generated -- the
player can trigger a new distribution by logging out of the game
(Diabio IID or simply has to wait for them to change (World of
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591910312024, 15:49 ‘Game Studies - Towards a Model of Objectve-Based Reward Systems
Warcraft). In WoW each world quest is introduced and concluded by
{an appearance of a character from the gameworld. In Diablo III they
are instead embedded through
Tyrac, interaction with whom is required to obtain a game reward for
the completion of a full et of bounties,
1e character of single quest-giver,
Translent-fctional tasks are not only repeatable nthe sense that they
‘can be played through dally, but since they belong to a limited
number of types, players tend to encounter identical situations and
rewards on different days or maps. Their completion is not obligatory
and the rewards can be used to gain advantage or progress in the
‘game, Including: items, resources, experience and reputation points,
‘Similar to the completable-game category, the transient-game goals
require players to choose a specific game strategy and putin time in
order to obtain a reward. Though they differ érastically in genre, both
Hearthstone (Blizzard Entertainment, 2014), an online card game, and
Heroes of the Storm (Blzzerd Entertainment, 2015), a multiplayer
‘online battle arena, each include daily quests. The way these dally
quests structure goals differs substantially from previously discussed
cexemples,
Whereas on the structural level they appear similar to the transient
fictional daly quests, they are not embedded in fiction and influence
solely the strategy of play by encouraging specific player choices, €.9
pertaining to the use of specifc card types. (*Mrgrarglir: Play 20
Murlocs”, "Spell Master: Cast 25 spells") or heroes ("Play 2 games as,
2 Starcraft Hero"), awarding players with virtual currency, experience
boosts (further encouraging repeated play), or cosmetic rewards
[Another type of repetitive tasks also involves Interaction with other
players. Rather than adding other players to the friend list ~ which,
logically, would positon it as a completable goal -- the player might
be requires to spectate a friend's game (e.g. Hearthstone ~- "We
{and Learn!: Watch a friend win in spectator mode”) or interact with
‘another human player instead of a computer opponent (e.g. Pokémon
{Go-- missions: “Trade a Pokémon” or "Battle Another Trainer”).
{An interesting comparison between the game and the social
catagories can be noticed among Hearthstone daily quests. Despite
sharing the same in-game position and structure, all “social” quests
provide diferent, more valuable rewards than the rest (e.g. higher
‘amount of gold or a full card pack as opposet to a single card)
3. Improvement
Juul described improvernent goals as being “about our personal and
Continuous quest for improvement” (2011, p. 3), which "can by
definition never be reacned" (p. 86). He emphasized the Incividual
involvement in setting these goals as well as the motivational
character of the in-game incentives to continue beating one's own,
score, for example in arcade games. As such, the majority of
improvement-based goals are either embeced in the ludic aspects of
play or involve the social participation.
3.1, Improvement-Fictional
The improvement-fctional goals provide an in-world reasoning for
improvement, offering the players story-based motivation for their
actions. Such close relationship between the story and the
improvement-based goals can be found for example in racing
Videogames with story campaigns, such as Star Wars Episode I: Racer
(Lucasarts, 1999), or -- to a lesser degree -- in certain nested games,
‘e.g. in the Rapids Race minigame found in The Legend of Zelda: Link's
‘Awakening (Grezzo/Nintendo, 2019)
3.2, Improvement-came
‘As a crucial part of many role-playing and multiplayer genres, the
levelling systems allow one to manitor their in-game progression,
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as1910312024, 15:49 ‘Game Studies - Towards a Model of Objectve-Based Reward Systems
offering the conceatualization of the passage of time. Embedded
securely in the game's structure, players do not have influence over
the thresholds between separate levels, but can, to a degree, control
the speed of the process by choosing specific tasks and structuring
the game experience in such a way as to maximize thelr point gain.
The Importance of levelling systems for player motivation was
recognized by Blizzard Entertainment, who In Diablo II! introduced an
‘additional, account-wide Paragon System offering a possibilty of
‘seemingly ifinite level progression for ever-increasing attributes after
‘exhausting the inital mit of character levels.
Diablo III and World of Warcraft both also include other endless (or at
least semi-endless) improvement-game type systems in the form of,
accordingly, Greater Rifts ané Mythict Dungeons ~~ both serving as
important end-game features, A similar function Is performed by the
“Battle Towers,” a fiure of the Game Freak’s Pokémon game series
ever since Pokémon Crystal for Game Boy Color (2000).
3.3. Improvement-Soe
‘The last category encompasses social scoring systems, usually
labelled as scoreboards or leaderboards, which are common in online
{and mobile games lke Farmville 2 (2014), Candy Crush Saga (King,
2012) or Frurt Ninja (Halfbrick, 2010). These are characterized by
Short levels and immeciate score-based feedback. This category's
motivational function involves enhancing and regulating the player's
‘engagement with game tasks, As such, they have become one of the
most popular gamification methods employed in other game-based
systems, particularly those tied to education or physical activity and
fitness,
Conclusions
‘The common use of
rms "achievements" and “quests” creates an
impression that both are homogenous, specifi concepts that
substantially